Question: who made communication by wireless telegraphy for the first time

Answer: Carl August

This is a document about Radio receiver
  like a musical tone or buzz, and the Morse code "dots" and "dashes" sounded like beeps. The first person to use radio waves for communication was Guglielmo Marconi. Marconi invented little himself, but he was first to believe that radio could be a practical communication medium, and singlehandedly developed the first wireless telegraphy systems, transmitters and receivers, beginning in 1894–5, mainly by improving technology invented by others. Oliver Lodge and Alexander Popov were also experimenting with similar radio wave receiving apparatus at the same time in 1894–5, but they are not known to have transmitted Morse code during this period, just strings of random pulses. Therefore, Marconi is usually given credit for building the first radio receivers.

This is a document about History of telecommunication
  Over several years starting in 1894, the Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi worked on adapting the newly discovered phenomenon of radio waves to telecommunication, building the first wireless telegraphy system using them. In December 1901, he established wireless communication between St. John's, Newfoundland and Poldhu, Cornwall (England), earning him a Nobel Prize in Physics (which he shared with Karl Braun) in 1909. In 1900, Reginald Fessenden was able to wirelessly transmit a human voice. Millimetre wave communication was first investigated by Bengali physicist Jagadish Chandra Bose during 1894–1896, when he reached an extremely high frequency of up to 60GHz in his experiments. He also introduced the use of semiconductor junctions to detect radio waves, when he patented the radio

This is a document about Compagnie générale de la télégraphie sans fil
  From the mid-19th century the world was connected with an increasingly dense network of telegraph wires and submarine cables. In 1887 Heinrich Hertz of Germany conclusively proved the existence of electromagnetic waves. Alexander Stepanovich Popov of Russia developed antennas to transmit and receive radio waves. Scientists such as Édouard Branly and Nikola Tesla also contributed to development of the concepts. In 1895 Guglielmo Marconi, a student at the University of Bologna, invented wireless telegraphy. In 1897 he founded the Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company in England. Its subsidiary the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of America was formed in the US in

This is a document about History of electronic engineering
  Some of the devices which would enable wireless telegraphy were invented before 1900. These include the spark-gap transmitter and the coherer with early demonstrations and published findings by David Edward Hughes (1880) and Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1887 to 1890) and further additions to the field by Édouard Branly, Nikola Tesla, Oliver Lodge, Jagadish Chandra Bose, and Ferdinand Braun. In 1896, Guglielmo Marconi went on to develop the first practical and widely used radio wave based communication system. Millimetre wave communication was first investigated by Jagadish Chandra Bose during 1894–1896, when he reached an extremely high frequency of up to 60GHz in his experiments. He also introduced the use of semiconductor junctions to detect radio waves, when he patented the

This is a document about Telecommunications
  Starting in 1894, Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi began developing a wireless communication using the then newly discovered phenomenon of radio waves, showing by 1901 that they could be transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean. This was the start of wireless telegraphy by radio. On 17 December 1902, a transmission from the Marconi station in Glace Bay, Nova Scotia, Canada, became the world's first radio message to cross the Atlantic from North America and in 1904 a commercial service was established to transmit nightly news summaries to subscribing ships, which could incorporate them into their on-board newspapers. Millimetre wave communication was first investigated by Bengali physicist Jagadish Chandra Bose during 1894–1896, when he reached an extremely high frequency of

This is a document about History of radio
  The idea of wireless communication predates the discovery of "radio" with experiments in "wireless telegraphy" via inductive and capacitive induction and transmission through the ground, water, and even train tracks from the 1830s on. James Clerk Maxwell showed in theoretical and mathematical form in 1864 that electromagnetic waves could propagate through free space. It is likely that the first intentional transmission of a signal by means of electromagnetic waves was performed in an experiment by David Edward Hughes around 1880, although this was considered to be induction at the time. In 1888 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz was able to conclusively prove transmitted airborne electromagnetic waves in an experiment confirming Maxwell's theory

This is a document about Wireless telegraphy
   Wireless telegraphy or radiotelegraphy is transmission of telegraph signals by radio waves. Before about 1910, the term wireless telegraphy was also used for other experimental technologies for transmitting telegraph signals without wires. In radiotelegraphy, information is transmitted by pulses of radio waves of two different lengths called "dots" and "dashes", which spell out text messages, usually in Morse code. In a manual system, the sending operator taps on a switch called a telegraph key which turns the transmitter on and off, producing the pulses of radio waves. At the receiver the pulses are audible in the receiver's speaker as beeps, which are translated back to text by an operator who knows Morse code. Radiotelegraphy was the first means of radio communication. The first practical radio transmitters and receivers invented in 1894–1895 by Guglielmo Marconi used radiotelegraphy. It continued to

This is a document about Spark-gap transmitter
  to England, where William Preece of the British General Post Office funded his experiments. Marconi patented his radio system 2 June 1896, often considered the first wireless patent. In May 1897 he transmitted 14 km (8.7 miles), on 27 March 1899 he transmitted across the English Channel, 46 km (28 miles), in fall 1899 he extended the range to 136 km (85 miles), and by January 1901 he had reached 315 km (196 miles). These demonstrations of wireless Morse code communication at increasingly long distances convinced the world that radio, or "wireless telegraphy" as it was called, was not just a scientific curiosity but a commercially

This is a document about Guglielmo Marconi
  From youth, Marconi was interested in science and electricity. In the early 1890s, he began working on the idea of "wireless telegraphy"—i.e., the transmission of telegraph messages without connecting wires as used by the electric telegraph. This was not a new idea; numerous investigators and inventors had been exploring wireless telegraph technologies and even building systems using electric conduction, electromagnetic induction and optical (light) signalling for over 50 years, but none had proven technically and commercially successful. A relatively new development came from Heinrich Hertz, who, in 1888, demonstrated that one could produce and detect electromagnetic radiation, based on the work of James Clerk Maxwell. At the time, this radiation was commonly called "Hertzian" waves, and is now generally referred to as radio waves. There was a great

This is a document about Lavernock
  of wire!" Following overland tests at Salisbury Plain during March 1897, on 13 May 1897, the Italian born and recently British based inventor, best known for his development of a radiotelegraph system, Guglielmo Marconi, assisted by George Kemp (who was a Cardiff based Post Office engineer) transmitted and received the first wireless signals over open sea between Lavernock Point and Flat Holm island. The very first message transmitted in morse code was "ARE YOU READY". This was immediately followed by "CAN YOU HEAR ME" to which the reply was "YES LOUD AND CLEAR". The morse recording slip for the first message is on display in the National Museum of Wales. Following the initial opening

This is a document about Treatise
  only self-consistent description of the reflection, refraction, and dispersion of light consistent with experimental results. Optics thus found a new foundation in electromagnetism. Hertz's experimental work in electromagnetism stimulated interest in the possibility of wireless communication, which did not require long and expensive cables and was faster than even the telegraph. Guglielmo Marconi adapted Hertz's equipment for this purpose in the 1890s. He achieved the first international wireless transmission between England and France in 1900 and by the following year, he succeeded in sending messages in Morse code across the Atlantic. Seeing its value, the shipping industry adopted this technology at once. Radio

This is a document about Outline of radio
 Michael Faraday (predictions) ; James Clerk Maxwell (theoretical work) ; Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (experimental demonstrations) ; Oliver Lodge (techniques for transmitting and receiving radio waves) ; Guglielmo Marconi (adapted radio waves for use in signalling) ; Reginald Fessenden (developed amplitude modulation (AM) radio and first voice transmission) ; Edwin Howard Armstrong (developed frequency modulation (FM) )

This is a document about Invention of radio
  apparently see the value in developing a communication system based on electromagnetic waves. In the mid 1890s, building on techniques physicists were using to study electromagnetic waves, Guglielmo Marconi developed the first apparatus for long distance radio communication. On 23 December 1900, the Canadian inventor Reginald A. Fessenden became the first person to send audio (wireless telephony) by means of electromagnetic waves, successfully transmitting over a distance of about a mile (1.6 kilometers), and six years later on Christmas Eve 1906 he became the first person to make a public wireless broadcast. By 1910, these various wireless systems had come to be called "radio".

This is a document about Timeline of radio
  first signal from North America back to Great Britain. ; 1904: The U.S. Patent Office reverses its decision, awarding Marconi a patent for the invention of radio. ; 1906: In Australia, Ernest Fisk (later Sir Ernest) of AWA – Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia) conducts an isolated experiment in which music was broadcast. Although development of the first radio wave communication system is attributed to Guglielmo Marconi, his was just the practical application of 80 years of scientific advancement in the field including the predictions of Michael Faraday, the theoretical work of James Clerk Maxwell, and the experimental demonstrations of Heinrich Rudolf Hertz.

This is a document about Electrical telegraphy in the United Kingdom
  In the nineteenth century, the United Kingdom had the world's first commercial telegraph company. British telegraphy dominated international telecommunications well into the twentieth. Telegraphy is the sending of textual messages by human operators using symbolic codes. Electrical telegraphy used conducting wires to send messages, often incorporating a telegram service to deliver the telegraphed communication from the telegraph office. This is distinct from optical telegraphy that preceded it and the radiotelegraphy that followed. Though Francis Ronalds first demonstrated a working telegraph over a substantial distance in 1816, he was unable to put it into practical use. Starting in 1836, William Fothergill Cooke, with the scientific assistance

This is a document about History of radio
  line of sight. In 1892 the physicist William Crookes wrote on the possibilities of wireless telegraphy based on Hertzian waves. Others, such as Sir Oliver Lodge, Jagadish Chandra Bose, and Alexander Popov were involved in the development of components and theory involved with the transmission and reception of airborne electromagnetic waves for their own theoretical work. Over several years starting in 1894 the Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi built the first engineering complete, commercially successful wireless telegraphy system based on airborne Hertzian waves (radio transmission). Marconi demonstrated the application of radio in military and marine communications and started a company for the development and propagation of radio communication services and equipment.

This is a document about Invention of radio
  and Charles Sumner Tainter in 1880. The photophone allowed for the transmission of sound on a beam of light, and on June 3, 1880 Bell and Tainter transmitted the world's first wireless telephone message on their newly invented form of light telecommunication. In the early 1890s Nikola Tesla began his research into high frequency electricity. Tesla was aware of Hertz's experiments with electromagnetic waves from 1889 on but, (like many scientists of that time) thought, even if radio waves existed, they would probably only travel in straight lines making them useless for long range transmission. Instead of using radio waves, Tesla's efforts were focused towards

This is a document about Wireless
   In 1894, Guglielmo Marconi began developing a wireless telegraph system using radio waves, which had been known about since proof of their existence in 1888 by Heinrich Hertz, but discounted as a communication format since they seemed, at the time, to be a short range phenomenon. Marconi soon developed a system that was transmitting signals way beyond distances anyone could have predicted (due in part to the signals bouncing off the then unknown ionosphere). Marconi and Karl Ferdinand Braun were awarded the 1909 Nobel Prize for Physics for their contribution to this form of wireless telegraphy. Millimetre wave communication was first investigated by Jagadish Chandra Bose during 1894–1896, when he reached an extremely high frequency of up to 60GHz in his experiments. He also introduced the use of semiconductor junctions to detect radio waves, when he patented the radio crystal detector in 1901.

This is a document about History of telecommunication
   Experiments on communication with electricity, initially unsuccessful, started in about 1726. Scientists including Laplace, Ampère, and Gauss were involved. An early experiment in electrical telegraphy was an 'electrochemical' telegraph created by the German physician, anatomist and inventor Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring in 1809, based on an earlier, less robust design of 1804 by Spanish polymath and scientist Francisco Salva Campillo. Both their designs employed multiple wires (up to 35) in order to visually represent almost all Latin letters and numerals. Thus, messages could be conveyed electrically up to a few kilometers (in von Sömmerring's design), with each of the telegraph receiver's wires immersed in a separate glass tube of

This is a document about Telecommunications
  often divided into communication channels, which afford the advantages of multiplexing multiple concurrent communication sessions. Telecommunication is often used in its plural form. Other examples of pre-modern long-distance communication included audio messages, such as coded drumbeats, lung-blown horns, and loud whistles. 20th- and 21st-century technologies for long-distance communication usually involve electrical and electromagnetic technologies, such as telegraph, telephone, television and teleprinter, networks, radio, microwave transmission, optical fiber, and communications satellites. A revolution in wireless communication began in the first decade of the 20th century with the pioneering developments in radio communications by Guglielmo Marconi, who won the Nobel Prize in

Guglielmo Marconi is credited with making the first wireless telegraphy communication between Cornwall, England and St. John's, Newfoundland in 1901. However, it's important to note that other inventors like Heinrich Hertz, Nikola Tesla, and Alexander Stepanovich Popov had also contributed significantly to the development of wireless telegraphy before Marconi.


Question: a pioneer in the field of eye witness research

Answer: Hugo Münsterberg

This is a document about Eye Witness (TV series)
  Eye Witness is a 30-minute American television anthology series. A total of thirteen episodes were broadcast live from New York City on the NBC television network in 1953. Robert Montgomery was the executive producer. Lee Bowman and Richard Carlson served as hosts. The show's stories dealt with characters involved in strange twists of fate and the supernatural. Each week, the guest host or hostess starred the following week on Montgomery's other NBC series, Robert Montgomery Presents. Among its guest stars were Eva Marie Saint, John Newland, Nita Talbot, Melville Cooper, James Gregory, Fay Bainter and Emlyn Williams.

This is a document about William Stern (psychologist)
  Stern was a pioneer in the field that would become forensic psychology. Like Hugo Münsterberg, Stern explored the psychology of eyewitness testimony with particular attention to its accuracy. A student of memory research pioneer, Hermann Ebbinghaus, Stern had participants look at photographs and later asked them to recall details. He collaborated with criminologist, Franz v. Liszt, and in 1901 conducted a study in which law students witnessed a staged classroom argument in which one protagonist drew a revolver at which point the professor stopped the mock fight. Students were then asked to give written and oral reports of the event. Stern and Franz found that, in such demonstrations, the subsequent recall was poor when tension was high, leading them to conclude that emotional states could affect eyewitness testimony. Other studies investigated the impact of questioning techniques, differences between children and adult

This is a document about Eyewitness (1999 film)
  Eyewitness is a 1999 American short documentary film directed by Bert Van Bork. It was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Documentary Short. The explored the lives of three artists forced to work in secret while living in Nazi death camps: Jan Komski, Dinah Gottliebova and Felix Nussbaum, and who witnessed and painted the horrors of the Holocaust.

This is a document about John C. Yuille
  Yuille is best known for his work with eyewitness research from the 1980s and beyond. Along with partner Judith Daylen, Yuille's research focuses on studying eyewitnesses as they exist in the real world, not just as they appear to work in simulated situations in labs. Yuille emphasizes that this type of work is especially important because while there are plenty of hypothetical, lab-constructed studies of eyewitness memory, "...The variances and covariances among variables that infiltrate actual eyewitness cases are controlled or 'randomized out' in experimental research in ways that can make generalization from experiments to actual cases a risky endeavour under certain circumstances." Yuille has also done other notable studies on law enforcement training, the use of expert witnesses in court to determine credibility of eyewitness accounts, and assessment of children's testimony in court.

This is a document about Eyewitness testimony
  Psychologists have probed the reliability of eyewitness testimony since the beginning of the 20th century. One prominent pioneer was Hugo Münsterberg, whose controversial book On the Witness Stand (1908) demonstrated the fallibility of eyewitness accounts, but met with fierce criticism, particularly in legal circles. His ideas did, however, gain popularity with the public. Decades later, DNA testing would clear individuals convicted on the basis of errant eyewitness testimony. Studies by Scheck, Neufel, and Dwyer showed that many DNA-based exonerations involved eyewitness evidence. In the 1970s and '80s, Bob Buckhout showed inter alia that eyewitness conditions can, within ethical and other constraints, be simulated on university campuses, and that large

This is a document about George Ashmore Fitch
 Zhang, Kaiyuan, ed. Eyewitnesses to Massacre, An East Gate Book, 2001. (includes documentation of American missionaries; M.S. Bates, George Ashmore Fitch, E.H. Foster, J.G. Magee, J.H. MaCallum, W.P. Mills, L.S.C. Smyth, A.N. Steward, Minnie Vautrin and R.O. Wilson.) (Google Book version) ; biographical sketches: one from The National Cyclopedia of American Biography; one by George A. Fitch entitled "Grand Old Man of the Pacific-and of YMCA"; a March 1949 issue of Science of Mind.

This is a document about Witness (organization)
  Witness was founded in 1992 by Peter Gabriel, along with the help of Human Rights First (then known as the Lawyers Committee for Human Rights) and its founding executive director Michael Posner. Musician and activist Peter Gabriel was influenced by his experience using a Sony Handycam, one of the first small camcorders marketed to consumers, to record the stories he heard while traveling with Amnesty International’s 1988 Human Rights Now! Tour. He decided to found Witness after the 1991 police brutality incident involving Rodney King Jr., in which a bystander's video of King's beating by the Los Angeles police was critical both in raising awareness and in generating widespread public

This is a document about Sex differences in eyewitness memory
  to information about unconventional details in the picture. No significant gender differences were found in accuracy of recall or in resistance to misleading information. ; A third study showed students in an introductory psychology class a videotape of a simulated robbery under one of four experimental conditions (which varied by the gender of the teller and the perpetrator's dress and appearance). Afterwards, students completed the Personality Adjective Inventory and responded to a questionnaire regarding details of the crime. Results showed that the accuracy was not significantly influenced by the victim's or the subject's gender. Early theorists believed that men were better eyewitnesses than women. This belief began with William Stern, who claimed that men were better at remembering details and less susceptible to misleading information than women. However, subsequent studies challenged Stern's findings. Several contemporary findings show that overall; there are no significant gender differences in eyewitness memory.

This is a document about Optography
  With the theory that the eye retained an image at the moment of death rampant in the Victorian imagination, police investigators in the late 1800s began considering optography as an investigative technique in murder cases. One of the earliest known attempts at forensic optography occurred in 1877, when Berlin police photographed the eyes of murder victim Frau von Sabatzky, on the chance that the image would assist in solving the crime. In 1888, London police officer Walter Dew—later known for catching the murderer Dr Crippen—recalled optography being attempted on Mary Jane Kelly in what he called a "forlorn hope" of catching her suspected killer, Jack the

This is a document about Nanjing Massacre
  Eyewitness accounts include testimonies of expatriates engaged in humanitarian work (mostly physicians, professors, missionary and businessmen), journalists (both Western and Japanese), as well as the field diaries of military personnel. American missionary John Magee stayed behind to provide a 16 mm film documentary and first-hand photographs of the Nanjing Massacre. Rabe and American missionary Lewis S. C. Smythe, secretary of the International Committee and a professor of sociology at the University of Nanking, recorded the actions of the Japanese troops and filed complaints with the Japanese embassy.

This is a document about George M. Stratton
  George Malcolm Stratton (September 26, 1865 – October 8, 1957) was an American psychologist who pioneered the study of perception in vision by wearing special glasses which inverted images up and down and left and right. He studied under one of the founders of modern psychology, Wilhelm Wundt, and started one of the first experimental psychology labs in America, at the University of California, Berkeley. Stratton's studies on binocular vision inspired many later studies on the subject. He was one of the initial members of the philosophy department at Berkeley, and the first chair of its psychology department. He also worked on sociology, focusing on international relations and

This is a document about Steve Penrod
  Most of Penrod's work has dealt with eyewitness studies. In one of his most commonly cited articles (according to Harzing), "Eyewitness Identification Procedures: Recommendations for Lineups and Photospreads," he discusses the topic of eyewitness identification and recommends different techniques to help lower the chances of false identification. Examples of these include double-blind lineups, informing witnesses that the suspect may not even be present in the lineup, and choosing distractors carefully based on the witness's verbal description. Another Penrod study, "Meta-analysis of facial identification studies" focuses on discovering what variables influence facial identification performance and what aspects of this topic should be further studied. Some variables that were found to affect performance were context reinstatement, target distinctiveness, elaboration at encoding, exposure time, cross-racial identification, and retention interval. Penrod also did a study, "Choosing, confidence, and accuracy: A meta-analysis of the confidence-accuracy relation in eyewitness identification studies," which deals with confidence of eyewitnesses. This study sought to discover the strength of correlation between confidence and accuracy for eyewitness identifying a suspect. It found that those who identified the correct suspect tended to have higher confidence levels than those who were incorrect.

This is a document about David M. Maurice
  transplantation. Together with a long list of fellows he developed highly original methods for impression cytology of the conjunctiva, penetration of drugs into the eye, and measurements of toxic side effects to the eye. He even entered such domains as eye movements, myopia, and retinal detachment." He was a founding member of the journal Experimental Eye Research (first issue published in 1961) and a member of its editorial board until 2001. In 1998 he published a theory of REM-sleep oxygen supply to the cornea. Upon his death he was survived by his wife, his ex-wife, three daughters, and five grandchildren.

This is a document about Optography
  confessed to the murders. The American Mercury magazine called Doehne's testimony "scientific confirmation" of the theory of optography, although in 2011, the German Legal Tribune Online called the use of optographic evidence in the Angerstein case "absurde Kriminalistik" ("absurd forensics"). The most recent serious research into the use of optography in criminology occurred in 1975, when police in Heidelberg asked Evangelos Alexandridis at the University of Heidelberg to re-evaluate Kühne's experiments and findings with modern scientific techniques, knowledge and equipment. Like Kühne, Alexandridis successfully produced a number of distinct high-contrast images from the eyes of rabbits, but conclusively negatively assessed the technique as a forensic tool.

This is a document about Alexander Carl Otto Westphal
 Journal of Neuro-Ophthalmology - Fulltext: Volume 25(1) March 2005 p 44-49 Otto Lowenstein, Pioneer Pupillographer at www.jneuro-ophthalmology.com

This is a document about Television news in the United States
  In the late 1960s, Westinghouse Broadcasting, a division of Westinghouse Electric Corporation, devised a new format of local news called "Eyewitness News". Reporters were hired to go out of the newsroom, become "eyewitnesses" of news stories, and record them on film. Later, these reporters were also asked to join the anchors in the studio to talk about the stories. Al Primo created the format, which was first used on KYW-TV in Philadelphia. In 1968, Primo brought the format to WABC-TV in New York. The "Eyewitness News" format helped to introduce different anchor combinations to local newscasts. The format quickly became popular and was imitated by stations across the country. Today, most television news operations in the United States utilize some variation of the "Eyewitness News" format.

This is a document about Judith Daylen
  to assault victims. To better understand the experience of assault victims and to assist them during times of crisis, Dr. Daylen also volunteered at a rape crisis center. She has even contributed to a book: "Trauma, Trials, and Transformation, Guiding sexual assault victims through the legal system and beyond". In addition to her work with sexual assault victims, Dr. Daylen has contributed to assessing the reliability of eyewitness testimony. Along with John C. Yuille in 1986, Dr. Daylen published a psychological experiment which concluded that eyewitness testimony is often reliable and has merit. Dr. Daylen is also an ordained lay practitioner of Zen Buddhism.

This is a document about Seif el-Din el-Zoubi
 Autobiography: ”Eyewitness” (شاهد عيان, 1987)

This is a document about Eye tracking
  hole for the pupil. The lens was connected to an aluminum pointer that moved in response to the movement of the eye. Huey studied and quantified regressions (only a small proportion of saccades are regressions), and he showed that some words in a sentence are not fixated. The first non-intrusive eye-trackers were built by Guy Thomas Buswell in Chicago, using beams of light that were reflected on the eye, then recording on film. Buswell made systematic studies into reading and picture viewing. In the 1950s, Alfred L. Yarbus performed eye tracking research, and his 1967 book is often quoted. He showed that the task given to a subject has

This is a document about Fight for Sight (U.S.)
  Numerous leaders in eye and vision research and academia received a Fight for Sight grant early in their careers, including Harold Scheie, MD (1950), who founded the Scheie Eye Institute at the University of Pennsylvania, Arthur Jampolsky, MD (1952), whose efforts led to the creation of the Smith-Kettlewell Eye Research Institute, A. Edward Maumenee, MD (1958) director of the Wilmer Eye Institute, founder of the Eye Bank Association of America and potent force behind the creation of the NEI at the National Institutes of Health, Carl Kupfer, MD (1961), Director of the NEI for 30 years, László Bitó, PhD (1965), who developed the glaucoma drug Xalatan, Robert Machemer, MD (1966) the "father" of modern retinal surgery, Irene H. Maumenee, MD (1973) internationally renowned pediatric ophthalmologist and expert in hereditary eye diseases, David Abramson, MD (1979), renowned for his expertise in treating childhood eye tumors, Paul Sieving, MD, PhD (1980), current Director of the NEI and Jayakrishna Ambati, MD (2002), winner of the ARVO Cogan Award, given for significant scientific accomplishments to a scientist under 40 years old.

Hermann Ebbinghaus is a pioneer in the field of eye witness research, particularly in the area of eyewitness testimony and memory. He conducted experiments on eyewitness testimony with Franz Liszt in the late 19th century.


Question: unable to attend the constitutional convention because he was serving as american minister to france

Answer: Thomas Jefferson

This is a document about Constitutional Convention (United States)
  sign.'' Several prominent Founders are notable for not participating in the Constitutional Convention. Thomas Jefferson was abroad, serving as the minister to France. John Adams was in Britain, serving as minister to that country, but he wrote home to encourage the delegates. Patrick Henry refused to participate because he "smelt a rat in Philadelphia, tending toward the monarchy." Also absent were John Hancock and Samuel Adams. Many of the states' older and more experienced leaders may have simply been too busy with the local affairs of their states to attend the convention, which had originally been planned to strengthen the existing Articles of Confederation, not to write a constitution for a completely new national government.

This is a document about John Laurens
  Upon his release, Laurens was unwillingly appointed by Congress in December 1780 as a special minister to France. Preferring to return to the South, he had originally refused the post and proposed Alexander Hamilton as the better candidate. Laurens was ultimately persuaded by both Hamilton and Congress to accept the post. He wrote again to advise Washington that "unfortunately for America, Col. Hamilton was not sufficiently known to Congress to unite their suffrages in his favor and I was assured there remained no other alternative to my acceptance than the total failure of the business. Thus circumstanced I was reduced to submit—and renounce my plan of participating in the southern campaign." In March 1781, Laurens and Thomas Paine arrived in France to assist Benjamin Franklin, who had been serving as the American minister in Paris since 1777. Together, they met with King Louis

This is a document about Articles of Confederation
  The 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended hostilities with Great Britain, languished in Congress for several months because too few delegates were present at any one time to constitute a quorum so that it could be ratified. Afterward, the problem only got worse as Congress had no power to enforce attendance. Rarely did more than half of the roughly sixty delegates attend a session of Congress at the time, causing difficulties in raising a quorum. The resulting paralysis embarrassed and frustrated many American nationalists, including George Washington. Many of the most prominent national leaders, such as Washington, John Adams, John Hancock, and Benjamin Franklin, retired from public life, served as foreign delegates, or held

This is a document about Diplomacy of John Adams
  Congress increased Franklin's powers by naming him minister plenipotentiary to France while Lee was sent to serve in Spain. Adams received no instructions on where to go or what to do next. Disgusted by the apparent slight, he departed France on March 8, 1779. In the fall of 1779, Adams was appointed sole minister charged with negotiating peace and a postwar commercial treaty with Britain. After the conclusion of the Massachusetts constitutional convention, at which he drafted the state constitution, he departed for Europe in November aboard the French frigate Sensible and was accompanied by John Quincy and 9-year-old son Charles. In France, constant disagreement between Lee and Franklin eventually resulted in

This is a document about James McClurg
  To prevent the Francophobic Arthur Lee (diplomat) from becoming The Continental Congress's first Secretary of Foreign Affairs in 1781, James Madison, still wanting to vote for a Virginian, nominated McClurg as a third candidate, along with the previously-nominated Lee and Robert R. Livingston (chancellor). The French minister, Anne-César, Chevalier de la Luzerne, thereafter convinced New Jersey's John Witherspoon, who was paradoxically a pro-Lee Francophile, that diplomatic troubles would likely ensue should Lee be elected, and Witherspoon abstained, tilting New Jersey's vote and the election to Livingston. Livingston won seven states, compared to three for Lee and two for McClurg. When Patrick Henry refused to attend the Philadelphia Convention, Virginia's legislature selected Dr. McClurg as a delegate along with George Washington, George Mason, James Madison,

This is a document about Thomas Paine
  the monarch should instead be exiled to the United States: firstly, because of the way royalist France had come to the aid of the American Revolution; and secondly, because of a moral objection to capital punishment in general and to revenge killings in particular. However, Paine's speech in defense of Louis XVI was interrupted by Jean-Paul Marat, who claimed that as a Quaker, Paine's religious beliefs ran counter to inflicting capital punishment and thus he should be ineligible to vote. Marat interrupted a second time, stating that the translator was deceiving the convention by distorting the meanings of Paine's words, prompting Paine to provide a copy of the speech

This is a document about Elbridge Gerry
  one of three men who attended the Constitutional Convention in 1787 who refused to sign the United States Constitution because it did not include a Bill of Rights at the time it was signed. After its ratification he was elected to the inaugural United States Congress, where he was actively involved in the drafting and passage of the Bill of Rights as an advocate of individual and state liberties. Gerry was at first opposed to the idea of political parties and cultivated enduring friendships on both sides of the political divide between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans. He was a member of a diplomatic delegation to France that was treated poorly in the XYZ Affair,

This is a document about George Washington's political evolution
  states did not send delegates. He was concerned about the strength of opposition to a convention that might erode state autonomy, and that, because amendments to the Articles of Confederation could only originate in Congress, the convention was not legal. Washington was also concerned his attendance would be perceived as inconsistent with the declaration he had made in 1783 to retire from public life. When Washington formally declined the nomination on December 21, James Madison requested he keep his options open, and Washington's name remained on the list of delegates "contrary to my desire and...request." As nationalists appealed to him to attend, Washington

This is a document about Founding Fathers of the United States
  In the winter and spring of 1786–1787, twelve of the thirteen states chose a total of 74 delegates to attend the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. Nineteen delegates chose not to accept election or attend the debates. Among them was Henry, who in response to questions about his refusal to attend was quick to reply, "I smelled a rat." He believed that the frame of government the convention organizers were intent on building would trample upon the rights of citizens. Also, Rhode Island's lack of representation at the convention was the result of suspicions of the convention delegates' motivations. As the colony was founded by Roger Williams as a sanctuary for Baptists, Rhode Island's absence at the convention in part explains the absence of Baptist affiliation among those who did attend. Of the 55 who did attend at some point, no more than 38 delegates showed up at one time.

This is a document about Diplomacy of John Adams
   John Adams (1735-1826) was an American Founding Father who served as one of the most important diplomats on behalf of the new United States during the American Revolution. He served as minister to the Kingdom of France and the Dutch Republic and then was sent to help negotiate the Treaty of Paris to end the American Revolutionary War. Adams served as the first minister to Great Britain and then returned home. Relations with France dominated diplomacy during his presidency (1797-1801). American anger at French insults in the XYZ Affair of 1797-98 escalated into an undeclared naval war, called the Quasi-War. One wing of his Federalist Party that was led by his rival, Alexander Hamilton, demanded an all-out war. He rejected it and secured peace with France in 1800.

This is a document about History of U.S. foreign policy, 1776–1801
  Adams's term was marked by disputes concerning the country's role, if any, in the expanding conflict in Europe, where Britain and France were at war. In the 1796 elections, the French supported Jefferson for president, and they became even more belligerent at his loss. Nevertheless, when Adams took office, pro-French sentiment in the United States remained strong due to France's assistance during the Revolutionary War. Adams hoped to maintain friendly relations with France, and he sent a delegation to Paris, consisting of John Marshall, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and Elbridge Gerry, to ask for compensation for the French attacks on American shipping. When the envoys arrived in October 1797, they were kept waiting for several days, and then finally granted only a 15-minute meeting with French Foreign Minister Talleyrand. After this, the diplomats were met by three of Talleyrand's agents. Each refused to conduct diplomatic negotiations unless the United States

This is a document about List of ambassadors of the United States to France
  Since Versailles had been stripped of its furnishings during the French Revolution, Napoleon I returned the French court to its pre-1682 home at the Tuilleries. U.S. ministers to all future French monarchs would be accredited to the Tuilleries. After the Congress of Vienna standardized the system of diplomatic ranks, the United States continued to send a Minister, who was officially credentialed as an Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary.

This is a document about Thomas Paine
   Paine was arrested in France on December 28, 1793. Joel Barlow was unsuccessful in securing Paine's release by circulating a petition among American residents in Paris. Sixteen American citizens were allowed to plead for Paine's release to the Convention, yet President Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier of the Committee of General Security refused to acknowledge Paine's American citizenship, stating he was an Englishman and a citizen of a country at war with France. Paine himself protested and claimed that he was a citizen of the U.S., which was an ally of Revolutionary France, rather than of Great Britain, which was by that time at war with France. However, Gouverneur Morris, the American minister to France,

This is a document about John Adams
  After negotiating the loan with the Dutch, Adams was re-appointed as the American commissioner to negotiate the war-ending treaty, the Treaty of Paris. Vergennes and France's minister to the United States, Anne-César de La Luzerne, disapproved of Adams, so Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay, and Henry Laurens were appointed to collaborate with Adams, although Jefferson did not initially go to Europe and Laurens was posted to the Dutch Republic following his imprisonment in the Tower of London. In the final negotiations, securing fishing rights off Newfoundland and Cape Breton Island proved both very important and very difficult. In response to very strict restrictions proposed by the British, Adams insisted that not only should American fishermen be allowed to travel as close to shore as desired, but that they should be allowed to cure their fish on the shores of Newfoundland. This, and other statements, prompted Vergennes to secretly

This is a document about History of the United States (1789–1849)
  France. Napoleon, who had just come to power, received them cordially, and the danger of conflict subsided with the negotiation of the Convention of 1800, which formally released the United States from its 1778 wartime alliance with France. However, reflecting American weakness, France refused to pay $20 million for American ships seized by the French navy. In his final hours in office, Adams appointed John Marshall as chief justice. Serving until his death in 1835, Marshall dramatically expanded the powers of the Supreme Court and provided a Federalist interpretation of the Constitution that made for a strong national government.

This is a document about List of ambassadors of the United States to France
  Diplomatic relations were broken in 1796 due to French anger at U.S. neutrality in the War of the First Coalition. After the Directory refused to accept Charles Cotesworth Pinckney's credentials, a commission was appointed to negotiate with the French Republic. The members of the commission — Pinckney, John Marshall, and Elbridge Gerry — were all accredited with the rank of Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. French officials demanded a bribe before they would commence negotiations, scuttling the mission in the XYZ Affair. Hostilities culminated in the outbreak of the Quasi-War between the U.S. and France. Diplomatic relations were restored with the Convention of 1800. James Monroe was accredited Minister Plenipotentiary to the French Republic in 1803 to negotiate the Louisiana Purchase. However, Robert Livingston remained chief of mission.

This is a document about William Short (American ambassador)
  later, then-President Jefferson nominated Short via recess appointment to become Minister to Russia in 1808; however, after Short had arrived in Europe, the Senate decided not to have a diplomat sent to Russia at all, and Short never proceeded to the post. Short became angry at James Madison, who had succeeded Jefferson to the presidency, for not renewing his appointment and for sending John Quincy Adams instead in 1809. Short also found out that Rosalie not only would not leave France to marry him, but had actually married an older, wealthy relative instead. Short left Europe for good, returning to America and spending the last years of his life managing his successful business dealings,

This is a document about Thomas Mifflin
  Prior to American independence, Thomas Mifflin was a member of the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly (1772–1776). He served two terms in the Continental Congress (1774–1775 and 1782–1784), including seven months (November 1783 to June 1784) as that body's presiding officer. Mifflin's most important duty as president was to accept on behalf of Congress the resignation of General George Washington on December 23, 1783. After the war, the importance of Congress declined so precipitously that Mifflin found it difficult to convince the states to send enough delegates to Congress to ratify the Treaty of Paris, which finally took place on January 14, 1784 at the Maryland State House in Annapolis. He also appointed Thomas Jefferson as a minister to France on May 7, 1784, and he appointed his former aide, Colonel Josiah Harmar, to be the commander of the First American Regiment. Mifflin later served as a

This is a document about France–United States relations
  without Congressional approval. Congress, however, acquiesced, and a year later passed a neutrality act forbidding U.S. citizens from participating in the war and prohibiting the use of U.S. soil as a base of operations by either side in the conflict. Thus, the French revolutionary government viewed Washington's policy as supportive of its enemies. The first challenge to U.S. neutrality came from France, when its first diplomatic representative, the brash Edmond-Charles Genêt, toured the United States to organize U.S. expeditions against Spain and Britain. Washington demanded Genêt's recall, but by then the French Revolution had taken yet another turn and the new French ministers arrived to arrest Genêt. Washington refused to extradite

This is a document about Elénor-François-Elie, Comte de Moustier
  he was appointed Minister Plenipotentiary to the United States. As minister he authored reports analyzing the U.S. Constitution and the prospects for its ratification. In 1790, he was recalled to a diplomatic post in Berlin and in September 1791, King Louis XVI offered him the post of Foreign Minister, which he declined. Although denying accusations of organizing a coalition of counter-revolutionaries in Prussia, it later emerged that the Count had been the instigator of this anti-Republican coalition. The King of France, then appointed him as French Ambassador to Constantinople. The Revolutionary forces upon seizing power, called for the Comte (as he

John Adams was unable to attend the Constitutional Convention because he was serving as the American minister to France at the time.


Question: what city are the sand dunes in colorado

Answer: Alamosa

This is a document about Mosca, Colorado
 Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve ; Colorado Gators Reptile Park ; UFO Watchtower

This is a document about Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve
  Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve is located in Saguache and Alamosa Counties, Colorado at approximately 37.75° north latitude and 105.5° west longitude. The national park is located in the San Luis Valley while the national preserve is located to the east in an adjacent section of the Sangre de Cristo Range of the Rocky Mountains. Elevations range from 7515 ft in the valley west of the dunes, to 13604 ft at the summit of Tijeras Peak in the northern part of the preserve. The dunes cover an area of about 30 sqmi while the surrounding relatively flat sand sheet

This is a document about Sand Creek (Denver, Colorado)
  Sand Creek is a 14.6 mi tributary that flows into the South Platte River near Commerce City, Colorado. From its source in unincorporated Arapahoe County, it flows through Aurora and Denver before joining the South Platte in Adams County.

This is a document about Colorado
  Springs. Its isolated peak is visible from nearly the Kansas border on clear days, and also far to the north and the south. The northwestern corner of Colorado is a sparsely populated region, and it contains part of the noted Dinosaur National Monument, which not only is a paleontological area, but is also a scenic area of rocky hills, canyons, arid desert, and streambeds. Here, the Green River briefly crosses over into Colorado. Desert lands in Colorado are located in and around areas such as the Pueblo, Canon City, Florence, Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve, San Luis Valley, Cortez, Canyon of the Ancients National Monument, Hovenweep National Monument, Ute Mountain, Delta, Grand

This is a document about Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve
  trail. The first known writings about Great Sand Dunes appear in Zebulon Pike's journals of 1807. As Lewis and Clark's expedition was returning east, U.S. Army Lt. Pike was commissioned to explore as far west as the Arkansas and Red Rivers. By the end of November 1806, Pike and his men had reached the site of today's Pueblo, Colorado. Still pushing southwest, and confused about the location of the Arkansas River, Pike crossed the Sangre de Cristos just above the Great Sand Dunes. "After marching some miles, we discovered ... at the foot of the White Mountains [today's Sangre de Cristos] which we were then descending, sandy hills ... When we encamped, I ascended one of the largest hills of sand, and with my

This is a document about Colorado State Highway 150
  State Highway 150 (SH 150) is a 16.114 mi long state highway in southern Colorado. SH 150's southern terminus is at U.S. Route 160 (US 160) west of Blanca, and the northern terminus is at Great Sand Dunes National Park.

This is a document about Indian Grove (Mosca, Colorado)
  Indian Grove is an archaeological site consisting of a grove of 72 mature Ponderosa Pine trees located within Great Sand Dunes National Park & Preserve in Saguache County, Colorado, near Mosca, Colorado. The grove is of interest because sections of the bark of the trees were peeled off in the early 19th century, probably by Utes. Indian Grove Back-Country Campsite, located within the grove, is one of six back-country campsites on the Sand Ramp Trail, a hiking trail that skirts the dune field on the east and north giving access to the northern portion of the National Park and Preserve along Sand Creek. The camp site hss a solar-composting toilet.

This is a document about List of city nicknames in Colorado
 Cañon City – Climate Capital of Colorado ; Carbondale – Ultimate Rocky Mountain Hideout ; Cedaredge – Southern Gateway to the Grand Mesa ; Central City – Richest square mile on Earth (historical) ; Colorado Springs ; City of Millionaires (historical) ; Little London ; Newport in the Rockies (historical) ; The Springs ; Creede – There is no night in Creede (historical) ; Crested Butte ; Colorado's Last Great Ski Town ; Wildflower Capital of Colorado

This is a document about Front Range urban corridor
  In the State of Colorado, the Front Range Urban Corridor includes: • Town of Alma • City of Arvada • Town of Ault • City of Aurora • Town of Bennett • Town of Berthoud • City of Black Hawk • Town of Boone • City of Boulder • Town of Bow Mar • City of Brighton • Town of Brookside • City and County of Broomfield • Town of Calhan • City of Cañon City • City of Castle Pines North • Town of Castle Rock • City of Centennial • Central City • City of Cherry Hills Village • Town of Coal Creek •

This is a document about List of protected areas of Colorado
 Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park near Montrose ; Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve near Mosca ; Mesa Verde National Park and UNESCO World Heritage Site near Cortez ; Rocky Mountain National Park near Estes Park and Grand Lake The four National Parks within Colorado are:

This is a document about List of city nicknames in Colorado
 Berthoud – Garden Spot of Colorado ; Black Hawk – City of Mills (historical) ; Boulder – The People's Republic of Boulder ; Breckenridge – The Kingdom of Breckenridge

This is a document about Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve
  Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve is an American national park that conserves an area of large sand dunes up to 750 ft tall on the eastern edge of the San Luis Valley, and an adjacent national preserve in the Sangre de Cristo Range, in south-central Colorado, United States. The park was originally designated Great Sand Dunes National Monument on March 17, 1932, by President Herbert Hoover. The original boundaries protected an area of 35,528 acres. A boundary change and redesignation as a national park and preserve was authorized on November 22, 2000, and then established on September 24, 2004. The park encompasses 107,342 acres while the preserve protects an

This is a document about Black Hawk, Colorado
  The historic City of Black Hawk is a home rule municipality located in Gilpin County, Colorado, United States. The city population was 127 at the 2020 United States Census, making Black Hawk the least populous city (rather than town) in Colorado. The tiny city is a historic mining settlement founded in 1859 during the Pike's Peak Gold Rush. Black Hawk is now a part of the Denver-Aurora-Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area and the Front Range Urban Corridor. Black Hawk is located adjacent to Central City, another historic mining settlement in Gregory Gulch. The two cities form the federally designated Central City/Black Hawk National Historic District. The area flourished during the mining boom of the late 19th century following the construction of mills and a railroad link to Golden. The town declined during the 20th century, but has been revived in recent years after the 1991 establishment of casino gambling following a statewide initiative in 1990. In early 2010, the Black Hawk city council passed a law banning the riding of bicycles in the town, drawing a reaction from bicycle advocacy groups and international press. The ban was overturned by the Colorado Supreme Court in 2013.

This is a document about Colorado Springs, Colorado
  The City of Colorado Springs is a home-rule municipality that is the county seat and the most populous city of El Paso County, Colorado, United States. The city population was 478,961 at the 2020 United States Census, a 15.02% increase since the 2010 United States Census. Colorado Springs is the second-most populous city and the most extensive city in the state of Colorado, and the 40th-most populous city in the United States. It is the principal city of the Colorado Springs, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area and the second-most prominent city of the Front Range Urban Corridor. It is located in east-central Colorado, on Fountain Creek, 70 mi south of Denver. At 6035 ft the city stands over 1 mi above sea level, though some areas are significantly higher and lower. Colorado Springs is near the base

This is a document about List of city nicknames in Colorado
 Alamosa – Gateway to the Great Sand Dunes ; Arvada – Celery Capital of the World (historical) ; Aspen – America's Canary City ; Ault – A Unique Little Town ; Aurora – Gateway to the Rockies

This is a document about Inland dune
 Baja California Many inland eolian dunes are present in North America, including vegetated (stabilized) eolian dunes of the U.S. Atlantic Coastal Plain, dunes of Laurentian Great Lakes region, dunes of the Central and Southern Great Plains, the Nebraska Sand Hills, White Sands (New Mexico), Great Sand Dunes (Colorado), dunes of the southern Colorado Plateau, and dune fields of the Southwest Deserts. The sands of the inland dunes of El Vizcaíno Desert, Baja California, Mexico, come from nearby alluvial sources. Originally the sands are thought to have derived from granitoids, schists as well as sedimentary and volcanic rocks. While composition suggest that dune sands come from a craton setting geochemistry indicates an active continental margin setting for the origin of the sand.

This is a document about Outline of Colorado
  XII Olympic Winter Games on November 7, 1972 ; Mesa Verde National Park designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site on September 8, 1978 ; Denver International Airport opens February 28, 1995 ; Group of Eight meets in Denver on June 20–22, 1997 ; Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park designated on October 21, 1999 ; Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve designated on September 13, 2004 ; Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site designated on April 27, 2007 ; Democratic National Convention in Denver nominates Barack Obama for President of the United States, August 27, 2008 Timeline of Colorado history

This is a document about Cañon City, Colorado
  The City of Cañon City is the home rule municipality that is the county seat and the most populous municipality of Fremont County, Colorado, United States. The city population was 17,141 at the 2020 United States Census. Cañon City is the principal city of the Cañon City, CO Micropolitan Statistical Area and is a part of the Front Range Urban Corridor. Cañon City straddles the easterly flowing Arkansas River and is a popular tourist destination for sightseeing, whitewater rafting, and rock climbing. The city is known for its many public parks, fossil discoveries, Skyline Drive, The Royal Gorge railroad, the Royal Gorge, and extensive natural hiking paths. In 1994, the United States Board on Geographic Names approved adding the tilde to the official name of Cañon City, a change from Canon City as the official name in its decisions of 1906 and 1975. It is one of the few U.S. cities to have the Spanish Ñ in its name, others being La Cañada Flintridge, California; Española, New Mexico; Peñasco, New Mexico; and Cañones, New Mexico.

This is a document about San Luis Valley
  Great Sand Dunes on U.S. Highway 160 the Fort Garland Museum is recommended and further south on State Highway 159 at San Luis, Colorado, the oldest town in Colorado, the bronze sculptures by Huberto Maestas, depicting the Stations of the Cross. From San Luis, the National Geographic road trip suggests traveling west on State Highway 142 through Manassa, Colorado, then south on U.S. Highway 285 past Conejos, Colorado then west on State Highway 17 over Cumbres Pass to Chama, New Mexico paralleling the route of the narrow gauge Cumbres & Toltec Scenic Railroad. Rock climbing and camping are available at Penitente Canyon and other locations.

This is a document about Colorado, Mitchells Plain
  Colorado is a neighbourhood located within the Mitchells Plain urban area of the City of Cape Town in the Western Cape province of South Africa. It is located in the north western part of the Mitchells Plain area.

The Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve is located in Colorado, specifically in Saguache and Alamosa Counties.


Question: who did richard pryor play in lady sings the blues

Answer: Piano Man

This is a document about Lady Sings the Blues (film)
  Lady Sings the Blues is a 1972 American biographical drama film directed by Sidney J. Furie about jazz singer Billie Holiday, loosely based on her 1956 autobiography which, in turn, took its title from Holiday's songs. It was produced by Motown Productions for Paramount Pictures. Diana Ross portrayed Holiday, alongside a cast including Billy Dee Williams, Richard Pryor, James T. Callahan, and Scatman Crothers. The film was nominated for five Academy Awards in 1973, including Diana Ross for Best Actress in a Leading Role.

This is a document about Pat Davis
  fan mail and was known for wearing 1940s fashions and always having a flower or butterfly clip in her hair. She's said she was inspired to wear 40s fashion from The Pointer Sisters and to wear flowers and butterflies after seeing Diana Ross wear flowers in her hair when playing Billie Holiday in the movie Lady Sings the Blues. After the Jackson 5 first appeared on Soul Train, Davis gave lessons on neck twists and locking steps to Michael Jackson at his home to help him improve his Robot. Davis frequently used props, including once sucking on a baby's bottle during the Soul Train line. Davis was sometimes known as "The Butterfly", "Madam Butterfly" or "China

This is a document about 1972 in film
 Lady Caroline Lamb, directed by Robert Bolt, starring Sarah Miles, Richard Chamberlain, Laurence Olivier – (U.K.) ; Lady Liberty (La Mortadella), starring Sophia Loren and William Devane – (Italy) ; Lady Sings the Blues, biopic of Billie Holiday, directed by Sidney J. Furie, starring Diana Ross, Billy Dee Williams, Richard Pryor ; The Last House on the Left, directed by Wes Craven, starring Sandra Cassel, Lucy Grantham, David A. Hess ; Last Tango in Paris (Ultimo tango a Parigi), directed by Bernardo Bertolucci, starring Marlon Brando and Maria Schneider – (France/Italy) ; The Legend of Nigger Charley, starring Fred Williamson ; The Life and Times of

This is a document about Berry Gordy
  In 1972, Gordy relocated to Los Angeles, where he produced the commercially successful biographical drama film on Billie Holiday, Lady Sings the Blues, starring Diana Ross (who was nominated for an Academy Award), Richard Pryor, and Billy Dee Williams (cast in a role originally for Levi Stubbs of the Four Tops). Initially the studio, over Gordy's objections, rejected Williams after several screen tests. However, Gordy, known for his tenacity, eventually prevailed, and the film established Williams as a major movie star. Berry Gordy soon after produced and directed Mahogany, (Tony Richardson was the original director, but Gordy fired Richardson and took over direction himself after a dispute over minor casting) also starring Ross and Williams. In 1985, he produced the cult martial arts film The Last Dragon, which starred martial artist Taimak and one of

This is a document about De Passe Entertainment
  was Lady Sings the Blues (1972), a Billie Holiday biographical film starring Diana Ross as Holliday and Billy Dee Williams as her husband Louis McKay. After Lady Sings the Blues became a success, garnering box office success and five Academy Award nominations, Ross and Williams were paired for a second feature, Mahogany (1975). Both films were coupled with successful music releases: Lady Sings the Blues was accompanied with a platinum-selling soundtrack album by Ross, while Mahogany featured Ross' number-one pop hit "Theme from Mahogany (Do You Know Where You're Going To)" Other Motown films included Scott Joplin (1977), another musician biopic starring Billy Dee Williams, and Thank

This is a document about Hit!
  Many of the people, both cast and crew, involved in this film had previously worked on Lady Sings the Blues (1972). The F/V Victory, which Richard Pryor is seen piloting, was supposed to be blown up, with money being offered to owner Donald Gillich (who actually steered the boat from the pilot house below) for a replacement. Gillich however shot the producers down, saying he didn't want his family's boat destroyed. The role of Nick Allen was originally written for Steve McQueen.

This is a document about Billy Dee Williams
  a seven-year contract with Motown's Berry Gordy. He became one of America's most well-known black film actors of the 1970s, after starring in a string of critically acclaimed and popular movies, many of them in the "blaxploitation" genre. In 1972, he starred as Billie Holiday's husband Louis McKay in Motown Productions' Academy Award-nominated Holiday biopic Lady Sings the Blues. Through his portrayal he became "a full-fledged sex symbol, touted as the 'black Clark Gable.'" Diana Ross starred in Lady Sings the Blues opposite Williams; Motown paired the two of them again three years later in the successful follow-up project Mahogany.

This is a document about Lady Sings the Blues (film)
  the great performances of 1972" and observing that the film "has most of the clichés we expect—but do we really mind clichés in a movie like this? I don't think so." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune also awarded three out of four stars, writing, "The fact that 'Lady Sings the Blues' is a failure as a biography of legendary jazz singer Billie Holiday doesn't mean it can't be an entertaining movie. And it is just that—entertaining — because of an old fashioned grand dame performance by Diana Ross, late of the pop-rock scene, in the title role." Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times wrote that Ross gave "one of the truly fine screen performances,

This is a document about Madeline Eastman
  Madeline Louise Eastman (born June 27, 1954) is an American jazz singer. At 18, while watching the movie Lady Sings the Blues Eastman became enchanted with Diana Ross's portrayal of vocalist Billie Holiday. Not yet realizing how serious and dedicated she would need to be, Eastman considered becoming a jazz singer. She has listened to Miles Davis, particularly his 1960s quintet with Wayne Shorter, Herbie Hancock, Ron Carter, and Tony Williams. Among vocalists, her prime inspiration is Carmen McRae, in addition to Ella Fitzgerald and Sarah Vaughan. She began performing publicly in 1974 at Shenanigan's in Palo Alto. Eastman has

This is a document about Jay Weston
  star two black actors (Sidney Poitier and Abbey Lincoln). In 1968, Weston returned to New York to produce the Broadway play Does a Tiger Wear a Necktie?, which launched the career of a then-unknown Al Pacino. The actor went on to win a Tony Award for his performance, even though the play ran for only 39 performances. Probably his most well-known and acclaimed film, Lady Sings the Blues, came in 1972. Starring Diana Ross in her acting debut, the film was a biographical film about jazz singer Billie Holiday and went on to be nominated for five Academy Awards. Weston had originally offered the role to Abbey Lincoln, but she declined. Weston sued Creative Artists Agency (CAA) in 1979 about the rights to a film, and years later, it was revealed that Weston was "totally ostracized" by the agency.

This is a document about Dreamgirls
  1967 while in Las Vegas. ; After Diana Ross left the Supremes in 1970 to pursue other projects such as film work, in 1972 she starred in her first motion picture, the Motown-produced Lady Sings the Blues. The character of Deena Jones leaves the Dreams in 1972 to pursue a career as an actress. From the show's opening, Michael Bennett, Henry Krieger, Tom Eyen, and the Dreamgirls producers publicly denied basing the musical's plot on the story of the Supremes. It is widely believed these public denials were made in order to avoid lawsuits from the Supremes, Berry Gordy, and Motown as the similarities in the

This is a document about Levi Stubbs
  Stubbs provided the voice of the carnivorous plant Audrey II in the 1986 movie version of the musical Little Shop of Horrors, where he sang the Oscar-nominated, "Mean Green Mother from Outer Space." He also was the voice of Mother Brain in the animated TV series Captain N: The Game Master (1989). Stubbs also guest-starred in a number of TV shows as himself. Berry Gordy offered him the role of Louis McKay in the 1972 film Lady Sings the Blues, which would have starred him opposite Diana Ross as Billie Holiday. Stubbs turned the role down, however, once again not wishing to overshadow the other members of the Four Tops.

This is a document about Wynton Kelly
  would set up patterns – never interfering with the arrangement, but he was able to get into the cracks and he would always be adding something, giving it impetus, more energy." In 1956, Kelly recorded with vocalist Billie Holiday, including for the original version of her song "Lady Sings the Blues", as well as for the Blue Note debuts of saxophonists Johnny Griffin and Sonny Rollins. After leaving Gillespie again, Kelly formed his own trio. Kelly was much in demand as a sideman for recordings and appeared on albums by most of the major jazz leaders in the late 1950s

This is a document about Richard Pryor
  In the 1970s Pryor wrote for television shows such as Sanford and Son, The Flip Wilson Show, and a 1973 Lily Tomlin special, for which he shared an Emmy Award. During this period, Pryor tried to break into mainstream television. He also appeared in several popular films, including Lady Sings the Blues (1972), The Mack (1973), Uptown Saturday Night (1974), Silver Streak (1976), Car Wash (1976), Bingo Long Traveling All-Stars & Motor Kings (1976), Which Way Is Up? (1977), Greased Lightning (1977), Blue Collar (1978), and The Muppet Movie (1979).  Pryor signed with the comedy-oriented independent record label Laff Records in 1970, and in 1971 recorded his second album, Craps (After

This is a document about Lady Sings the Blues (song)
  "Lady Sings the Blues" is a song written by jazz singer Billie Holiday and jazz pianist Herbie Nichols. It is the title song to her 1956 album, released on Clef/Verve Records (MGC 721/Verve MV 2047). The song was also chosen to be the title of the 1956 autobiography by Holiday and author William Dufty, and the 1972 movie starring Diana Ross as Holiday.

This is a document about Lady Sings the Blues (Billie Holiday album)
  Taken from sessions taped during 1954–56, Lady Sings the Blues features Holiday backed by tenor saxophonist Paul Quinichette, trumpeter Charlie Shavers, pianist Wynton Kelly, and guitarist Kenny Burrell. Though Holiday's voice had arguably deteriorated by the 1950s, the album is well regarded – in a 1956 review, Down Beat awarded the album 5 out of 5 stars, and had this to say about the co-current book: "Lady Sings The Blues is Billie Holiday's autobiography [...] she tries to get the reader on her side of the mirror, so don't expect a three-dimensional view of the subject. The book was written with William Dufty, assistant to the editor of the New York Post [...] Seldom in the book does she talk about her singing[.]" On November 10, 1956, Holiday appeared in concert at Carnegie Hall in front of a sold-out crowd. The show was planned to commemorate the edition of her autobiography, some paragraphs being read during the performance.

This is a document about Lady Sings the Blues (soundtrack)
  Lady Sings the Blues is the soundtrack to the Billie Holiday biopic of the same name, which starred Diana Ross in her 1972 screen debut. It became Ross' fourth #1 album (eventually selling over 2 million US copies), though the only one as a solo artist. It was certified gold in the UK for sales of over 100,000 copies. It was the fourth best-selling R&B album and fifth best-selling Pop album of 1973 in the US. Music writers said Ross emulated Billie Holiday's voice while retaining her own individual sound. This soundtrack album was the only Motown album to have a special designed label to match the album cover on the vinyl release, rather than Motown's usual "Map of Detroit" design. This label design would also turn up on the single releases from the soundtrack.

This is a document about Lady Sings the Blues (book)
  Lady Sings the Blues (1956) is an autobiography by jazz singer Billie Holiday, which was co-authored by William Dufty. The book formed the basis of the 1972 film Lady Sings the Blues starring Diana Ross.

This is a document about Lady Blue (TV series)
  Lady Blue is an American detective and action-adventure television series. Produced by David Gerber, it originally aired for one season on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) network from September 15, 1985, to January 25, 1986. It was picked up by ABC after its pilot aired as a television film on April 15, 1985. The show revolves around Chicago detective Katy Mahoney (Jamie Rose) and her violent methods of handling cases. The supporting cast includes Danny Aiello, Ron Dean, Diane Dorsey, Bruce A. Young, Nan Woods, and Ricardo Gutierrez. Johnny Depp also guest-starred on the series in one of his earliest roles. With cinematography by Jack Priestley, the episodes were filmed on location in Chicago. Television critics noted Lady Blue emphasis on violence, calling Mahoney "Dirty Harriet" (after Clint Eastwood's character Dirty Harry). Rose said she joined

This is a document about Paul Winfield
  as the central character. He also starred as Martin Luther King Jr. in the 1978 miniseries King. In 1973, Winfield was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for the 1972 film Sounder, and his co-star in that film, Cicely Tyson, was nominated for Best Actress. Prior to their nominations and Diana Ross's for Lady Sings the Blues the same year, only three other black Americans – Dorothy Dandridge, Sidney Poitier and James Earl Jones – had ever been nominated for a leading role. He also appeared, in a different role, in the 2003 Disney-produced television remake of Sounder, which was directed by Kevin Hooks, his co-star from the original. Winfield played the

Richard Pryor played the role of Louis Armstrong in "Lady Sings the Blues."


Question: when was the 13th amendment ratified by the states

Answer: December 6 , 1865

This is a document about Reconstruction Amendments
  The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for a crime. It was passed by the U.S. Senate on April 8, 1864, and, after one unsuccessful vote and extensive legislative maneuvering by the Lincoln administration, the House followed suit on January 31, 1865. The measure was swiftly ratified by all but three Union states (the exceptions were Delaware, New Jersey, and Kentucky), and by a sufficient number of border and "reconstructed" Southern states, to be ratified by December 6, 1865. On December 18, 1865, Secretary of State William H. Seward proclaimed it to have been incorporated

This is a document about Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
  accepted their affirmative votes and brushed aside their interpretive declarations without comment, challenge or acknowledgment. The Thirteenth Amendment was subsequently ratified by the other states, as follows: 1. Oregon: December 8, 1865 2. California: December 19, 1865 3. Florida: December 28, 1865 (reaffirmed June 9, 1868) 4. Iowa: January 15, 1866 5. New Jersey: January 23, 1866 (after rejection March 16, 1865) 6. Texas: February 18, 1870 7. Delaware: February 12, 1901 (after rejection February 8, 1865) 8. Kentucky: March 18, 1976 (after rejection February 24, 1865) 9. Mississippi: March 16, 1995; certified February 7, 2013 (after rejection December 5, 1865)

This is a document about Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
  The Thirteenth Amendment (Amendment XIII) to the United States Constitution abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime. The amendment was passed by Congress on January 31, 1865, and ratified by the required 27 of the then 36 states on December 6, 1865, and proclaimed on December 18. It was the first of the three Reconstruction Amendments adopted following the American Civil War. President Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, effective on January 1, 1863, declared that the enslaved in Confederate-controlled areas were free. When they escaped to Union lines or federal forces—including now-former slaves—advanced south, emancipation occurred without any compensation to the former

This is a document about 39th United States Congress
 December 18, 1865: Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution declared ratified ; June 13, 1866: Approved an amendment to the Constitution addressing citizenship rights and equal protection of the laws, and submitted it to the state legislatures for ratification ; Amendment was later ratified on July 9, 1868, becoming the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

This is a document about End of slavery in the United States of America
  The Thirteenth Amendment (Amendment XIII) to the United States Constitution abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime. The amendment was passed by Congress on January 31, 1865, and ratified by the required 27 of the then 36 states on December 6, 1865, and proclaimed on December 18. It was the first of the three Reconstruction Amendments adopted following the American Civil War. President Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, effective on January 1, 1863, declared that the enslaved in Confederate-controlled areas were free. When they escaped to Union lines or federal forces—including now-former slaves—advanced south, emancipation occurred without any compensation to the former owners. Texas was the last Confederate territory reached by the Union army. On June 19, 1865—Juneteenth—U.S. Army general Gordon Granger arrived in Galveston, Texas, to proclaim the war had ended and so had slavery (in the Confederate states). In the slave-owning areas controlled by Union forces on January 1, 1863, state action was used to abolish slavery. The exceptions were Kentucky and Delaware, where slavery was finally ended by the Thirteenth Amendment in December 1865.

This is a document about Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
  December, North Carolina and Georgia gave the amendment the final votes needed for it to become part of the Constitution. The first 27 states to ratify the Amendment were:  Having been ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the states (27 of the 36 states, including those that had been in rebellion), Secretary of State Seward, on December 18, 1865, certified that the Thirteenth Amendment had become valid, to all intents and purposes, as a part of the Constitution. Included on the enrolled list of ratifying states were the three ex-Confederate states that had given their assent, but with strings attached.

This is a document about Slavery in the United States
  the emancipation. The commemoration of that event, Juneteenth National Independence Day, has been declared a national holiday in 2021. The Thirteenth Amendment, abolishing slavery except as punishment for a crime, had been passed by the Senate in April 1864, and by the House of Representatives in January 1865. The amendment did not take effect until it was ratified by three-fourths of the states, which occurred on December 6, 1865, when Georgia ratified it. On that date, the last 40,000–45,000 enslaved Americans in the remaining two slave states of Kentucky and Delaware, as well as the 200 or so perpetual apprentices in New Jersey left from the very gradual emancipation process begun in 1804, were freed.

This is a document about Reconstruction Amendments
   The, or the , are the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth amendments to the United States Constitution, adopted between 1865 and 1870. The amendments were a part of the implementation of the Reconstruction of the American South which occurred after the war. The Thirteenth Amendment (proposed in 1864 and ratified in 1865) abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except for those duly convicted of a crime. The Fourteenth Amendment (proposed in 1866 and ratified in 1868) addresses citizenship rights and equal protection of the laws for all persons. The Fifteenth Amendment (proposed in 1869 and ratified in 1870) prohibits discrimination in voting

This is a document about John B. Henderson
  As a United States Senator representing a slave state, Henderson co-authored and co-sponsored the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution permanently prohibiting slavery in the United States. Henderson's original proposal, made January 11, 1864, was submitted to the Senate Judiciary Committee, and on February 10, 1864, it presented the Senate with a proposal combining the drafts of congressmen James Mitchell Ashley (Republican, Ohio), James Falconer Wilson, (Republican, Iowa), Charles Sumner (Republican, Massachusetts), and Henderson. On January 31, 1865, the 13th Amendment was approved by the U.S. Congress, and on February 1, 1865, it was signed by President Abraham Lincoln. On April 14, 1865, Lincoln was assassinated before the amendment was ratified by the State of Georgia on December 6, 1865. While in the Senate, Henderson was chairman of the Committee to

This is a document about Timeline of African-American history
  Georgia for Black-only settlement. ; January 31 – The United States Congress passes the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, abolishing slavery and submits it to the states for ratification. ; March 3 – Congress passes the bill that forms the Freedman's Bureau; mandates distribution of "not more than forty acres" of confiscated land to all loyal freedmen and refugees. ; May 29 – Andrew Johnson amnesty proclamation initiates return of land to pre-war owners. ; December 18 – The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits slavery except as punishment for crime; emancipation in Delaware and Kentucky. ; Shaw Institute is founded

This is a document about Outline of United States history
 The State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations becomes the 13th state to ratify the US Constitution on May 29, 1790 ; The Vermont Republic is admitted to the Union as the State of Vermont (the 14th state) on March 4, 1791 ; Whiskey Rebellion, 1791–1794 ; The United States Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments to the US Constitution, takes effect on December 15, 1791 ; The United States sells the Erie Triangle to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, March 3, 1792 ; The District of Kentucky of the Commonwealth of Virginia is admitted to the Union as the Commonwealth of Kentucky (the 15th state) on June 1, 1792 ; The Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution takes effect, February 7, 1795 ; The Territory South of the River Ohio is admitted to the Union as the State of Tennessee (the 16th state) on June 1, 1796 ; John Adams becomes the 2nd President of the United States on March 4, 1797 ; The Territory of Mississippi is organized, April 7, 1798 ; Quasi-War, 1798–1800

This is a document about Article Seven of the United States Constitution
  The Constitution was ratified by the 13 states between December 7, 1787, and May 29, 1790, as follows:

This is a document about Emancipation Proclamation
  course for how the nation would be reshaped after that historic conflict." The Emancipation Proclamation was never challenged in court. To ensure the abolition of slavery in all of the U.S., Lincoln also insisted that Reconstruction plans for Southern states require abolition in new state laws (which occurred during the war in Tennessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana); Lincoln encouraged border states to adopt abolition (which occurred during the war in Maryland, Missouri, and West Virginia) and pushed for passage of the Thirteenth Amendment. Congress passed the 13th Amendment by the necessary two-thirds vote on January 31, 1865, and it was ratified by the states on December 6, 1865. The amendment made chattel slavery and involuntary servitude illegal.

This is a document about March 1976
  Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, more than 110 years after the amendment, abolishing slavery, had become effective in all states. The resolution (which also gives Kentucky's ratification to the 14th and 15th Amendments), sponsored by state representative Mae Street Kidd, one of three African-American members of the state legislature, passed 77 to 0 in the state house and by voice vote in the state senate, before being signed by Governor Julian Carroll.  Mrs. Kidd had filed the resolution during debate over whether to rescind the state's ratification of the proposed Equal Rights Amendment, after discovering that Kentucky had never approved the three constitutional amendments.   With the ratification by Kentucky, Mississippi was

This is a document about Presidency of Abraham Lincoln
  in Congressional legislative processes, Lincoln gave the ratification struggle his full attention. Rather than waiting for the 39th Congress to convene in March, Lincoln pressed the lame duck session of the 38th Congress to ratify the Thirteenth Amendment as soon as possible. After an extensive lobbying campaign by Lincoln and Seward, the House narrowly cleared the two-thirds threshold in a 119-56 vote. The Thirteenth Amendment was sent to the states for ratification, and Secretary of State Seward proclaimed its adoption on December 18, 1865. With the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment, some abolitionist leaders viewed their work as complete, though Frederick Douglass believed that "slavery is not abolished until the black man has the ballot."

This is a document about 38th United States Congress
 January 31, 1865: Approved an amendment to the United States Constitution abolishing slavery in the United States and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime, and submitted it to the state legislatures for ratification ; Amendment was later ratified on December 6, 1865, becoming the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

This is a document about Jim Crow laws
  In January 1865, an amendment to the Constitution to abolish slavery in the United States was proposed by Congress, and on December 18, 1865, it was ratified as the Thirteenth Amendment formally abolishing slavery. During the Reconstruction period of 1865–1877, federal laws provided civil rights protections in the U.S. South for freedmen, African Americans who had formerly been slaves, and the minority of black people who had been free before the war. In the 1870s, Democrats gradually regained power in the Southern legislatures, after having used insurgent paramilitary groups, such as the White League and the Red Shirts, to disrupt Republican organizing,

This is a document about Constitution of the United States
  The Thirteenth Amendment (1865) abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime, and authorized Congress to enforce abolition. Though millions of slaves had been declared free by the 1863 Emancipation Proclamation, their post Civil War status was unclear, as was the status of other millions. Congress intended the Thirteenth Amendment to be a proclamation of freedom for all slaves throughout the nation and to take the question of emancipation away from politics. This amendment rendered inoperative or moot several of the original parts of the constitution. The Fourteenth Amendment (1868) granted United States citizenship to former slaves and to all

This is a document about Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
  1865 ; 18) Wisconsin: February 24, 1865 ; 19) Vermont: March 9, 1865 ; 20) Tennessee: April 7, 1865 ; 21) Arkansas: April 14, 1865 ; 22) Connecticut: May 4, 1865 ; 23) New Hampshire: July 1, 1865 ; 24) South Carolina: November 13, 1865 ; 25) Alabama: December 2, 1865 ; 26) North Carolina: December 4, 1865 ; 27) Georgia: December 6, 1865 [[File:13th amendment ratification.svg|thumb|400px|right| ]] On February 1, 1865, when the proposed amendment was submitted to the states for ratification, there were 36 states in the U.S., including those that had been in rebellion; at least 27 states had

This is a document about History of Tennessee
  After the war, Tennessee adopted the Thirteenth amendment forbidding slave-holding or involuntary servitude on February 22, 1865; ratified the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution on July 18, 1866; and was the first state readmitted to the Union on July 24, 1866. Because it had ratified the Fourteenth Amendment, Tennessee was the only state that seceded from the Union that did not have a military governor during Reconstruction. "Proscription" was the policy of disqualifying as many ex-Confederates as possible. In 1865 Tennessee disfranchised upwards of 80,000 ex-Confederates. There were only two or three African Americans in the Tennessee legislature during Reconstruction, though others served as

The Thirteenth Amendment was ratified by the required number of states on December 6, 1865. However, it was not officially proclaimed until December 18, 1865. The states that ratified it before December 6, 1865, were Oregon, California, Florida, New Jersey, and Ohio. The remaining states ratified it at later dates, with the last one being Texas in 1901.