Question: where does the heat in chillies come from

Answer: Capsaicin

This is a document about West African cuisine
  Spices play a relatively less prominent role in West African cooking compared to say, North African cuisine. Cooks use spices and herbs like ginger, coriander, and thyme sparingly but knowingly. Chilli peppers however are loved in West Africa, in fresh, dried and powdered form, particularly in the more hot and humid lands of the region. Introduced to Africa sometime after Christopher Columbus sailed to America by European sailors, it is said that the sweating induced by the spicy heat of chilli helps to cool the skin. More than in other regions of Africa, West Africans utilize Scotch bonnet chilli peppers with a liberal hand

This is a document about Chili pepper
  "Red Chillies" redirects here. For the film, see Red Chillies (film). "Hot pepper" redirects here. For other uses, see Hot pepper (disambiguation). For the dish often called simply "Chili", see Chili con carne.  The chili pepper (also chile, chile pepper, chilli pepper, or chilli ), from Nahuatl chīlli, is the berry-fruit of plants from the genus Capsicum which are members of the nightshade family, Solanaceae. Chili peppers are widely used in many cuisines as a spice to add pungent 'heat' to dishes. Capsaicin and related compounds known as capsaicinoids are the substances giving chili peppers their intensity when ingested or applied topically. Although this definition would technically include bell peppers, in common language

This is a document about Capsicum annuum
  The species is a source of popular sweet peppers and hot chiles with numerous varieties cultivated all around the world, and is the source of popular spices such as cayenne, chile, and paprika powders. Common naming in English falls generally in line with the flavor and size of the variant. Larger, sweeter variants are called "capsicums" in Australia and New Zealand, "peppers" in the United Kingdom, and "bell peppers" in the United States. The smaller, hotter varieties are called chiles, chilies, chillies, chile, or chili peppers, or in parts of the US, "peppers". Capsinoid chemicals provide the distinctive tastes in C. annuum variants. In particular, capsaicin creates a burning sensation ("hotness"), which in extreme cases can last for several hours after ingestion. A measurement called the Scoville scale has been created to describe the hotness of peppers and other foods.

This is a document about Chili pepper
  The substances that give chili peppers their pungency (spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called capsaicinoids. The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and on growing conditions. Water-stressed peppers usually produce stronger pods. When a habanero plant is stressed, by absorbing low water for example, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit. When peppers are consumed by mammals such as humans, capsaicin binds with pain receptors in the mouth and throat, potentially evoking pain via spinal relays to the brainstem and thalamus where heat and discomfort are perceived. The intensity of the "heat" of chili peppers is commonly reported in Scoville heat units (SHU). Historically, it was a measure of the dilution of an amount of chili

This is a document about Chamba Chukh
  This hot chilli recipe is made from locally grown chillies in the Chamba area, mixed with extract from a local citrus fruit and cooked with Indian spices. It is usually prepared in mustard oil which is commonly used in Indian cooking. The red chilli version of the preparation is usually made from sun-dried chilli peppers and has a smokey flavour. Chukh is usually had as a condiment to go with meals or snacks but also used in cooking. It is consumed as a hot sauce, pickle, and as a food additive.

This is a document about Chili sauce and paste
  Chili (Hindi: mirch), fresh, semi-dried or dried, is a crucial ingredient throughout South Asia, with multiple strains having arrived through Portuguese trade from the sixteenth century. Many varieties are now popular in different parts of the sub-continent such as Naga Chilli from Nagaland, Chamba Chukh from Himachal Pradesh, Guntur Chilli from Andhra Pradesh, Jwala Chilli from Gujarat among others. Hot sauces proper, however, were not common until recent decades, as varieties such as bhut jolokia and naga morich attained global fame. Chilli Chutney is an Indian chilli pepper condiment with spices and herbs.

This is a document about Trinidad Moruga scorpion
  The Trinidad Moruga scorpion (Capsicum chinense) is a chili pepper native to the village of Moruga, Trinidad and Tobago. It is one of the spiciest chilies in the world. In 2012, New Mexico State University's Chile Pepper Institute identified the Trinidad Moruga scorpion as the hottest chili at that time, with heat of 1.2 million Scoville heat units (SHUs). In 2017 according to Guinness World Records, the hottest pepper was the Carolina Reaper, with 1.6 million SHU.

This is a document about Taste
  Singaporean, Southwest Chinese (including Sichuan cuisine), Vietnamese, and Thai cuisines. This particular sensation, called chemesthesis, is not a taste in the technical sense, because the sensation does not arise from taste buds, and a different set of nerve fibers carry it to the brain. Foods like chili peppers activate nerve fibers directly; the sensation interpreted as "hot" results from the stimulation of somatosensory (pain/temperature) fibers on the tongue. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes but no taste sensors (such as the nasal cavity, under the fingernails, surface of the eye or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to hotness agents.

This is a document about Capsicum
   The generic name may come from Latin capsa, meaning 'box', presumably alluding to the pods; or from the Greek word κάπτω kapto, 'to gulp'. The name "pepper" comes from the similarity of piquance (spiciness or "heat") of the flavor to that of black pepper, Piper nigrum, although there is no botanical relationship with it or with Sichuan pepper. The original term, chilli (now chile in Mexico) came from the Nahuatl word chīlli, denoting a larger Capsicum variety cultivated at least since 3000 BC, as evidenced by remains found in pottery from Puebla and Oaxaca. Different varieties were cultivated in South America, where they are known as ajíes (singular ají), from

This is a document about Carolina Reaper
   The sensory heat or pungency detected when eating a Carolina Reaper derives from the density of capsaicinoids, particularly capsaicin, which relates directly to the intensity of chili pepper heat and Scoville scale. Bred in a Rock Hill, South Carolina, greenhouse by "Smokin" Ed Currie, proprietor of the PuckerButt Pepper Company in Fort Mill, the Carolina Reaper was certified as the world's hottest chili pepper by Guinness World Records on August 11, 2017. The official Guinness World Record heat level was 1,641,183 Scoville Heat Units (SHU) in 2017, according to tests conducted by Winthrop University in South Carolina. The figure is an average for the tested batch; the hottest individual pepper was measured at 2.2 million SHU. The

This is a document about Habanero
  The habanero chili comes from the Amazon, from which it was spread, reaching Mexico. Today, the largest producer of the habanero pepper is the Yucatán Peninsula, in Mexico. Habaneros are an integral part of Yucatecan food, accompanying most dishes, either in natural form or purée or salsa. Other modern producers include Belize, Panama, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador, and parts of the United States, including Texas, Idaho, and California. The habanero chili was disseminated by Spanish colonists to other areas of the world, to the point that 18th-century taxonomists mistook China for its place of origin and called it Capsicum chinense

This is a document about Black pepper
   Pepper gets its spicy heat mostly from piperine derived from both the outer fruit and the seed. Black pepper contains between 4.6 and 9.7% piperine by mass, and white pepper slightly more than that. Refined piperine, by weight, is about one percent as hot as the capsaicin found in chili peppers. The outer fruit layer, left on black pepper, also contains aroma-contributing terpenes, including germacrene (11%), limonene (10%), pinene (10%), alpha-phellandrene (9%), and beta-caryophyllene (7%), which give citrusy, woody, and floral notes. These scents are mostly missing in white pepper, as the fermentation and other processing removes the fruit layer (which also contains some of the spicy piperine). Other flavours

This is a document about Taste
  Substances such as ethanol and capsaicin cause a burning sensation by inducing a trigeminal nerve reaction together with normal taste reception. The sensation of heat is caused by the food's activating nerves that express TRPV1 and TRPA1 receptors. Some such plant-derived compounds that provide this sensation are capsaicin from chili peppers, piperine from black pepper, gingerol from ginger root and allyl isothiocyanate from horseradish. The piquant ("hot" or "spicy") sensation provided by such foods and spices plays an important role in a diverse range of cuisines across the world—especially in equatorial and sub-tropical climates, such as Ethiopian, Peruvian, Hungarian, Indian, Korean, Indonesian, Lao, Malaysian, Mexican, New

This is a document about Hot sauce
  - These sauces include green and red jalapeño chilis, and chipotle (ripened and smoked). Green jalapeño and chipotle are usually the mildest sauces available. Red jalapeño sauce is generally hotter. ; Naga Bhut Jolokia - The pepper is also known as Bhut Jolokia, ghost pepper, ghost chili pepper, red naga chilli, and ghost chilli. In 2007, Guinness World Records certified that the Ghost Pepper (Bhut Jolokia) was the world's hottest chili pepper, 400 times hotter than Tabasco sauce; however, in 2011 it has since been superseded by the Trinidad Moruga Scorpion. ; Piri piri - The Peri Peri pepper has been naturalized into South Africa and is also known as

This is a document about Fatalii
  Originally from the Americas, like all chilli species, the specific variety known as Fatalii was 'discovered' and is thought to have developed in Central Africa. Since commerce between the Americas and Africa has spanned some four centuries or more, this is uncontroversial.

This is a document about Hot sauce
  Rock Hill, South Carolina, the Carolina Reaper averages over 1.6 million SHU and was awarded the Guinness World Record in August 2017. ; Capsaicin extract - The hottest sauces are made from capsaicin extract. These range from extremely hot pepper sauce blends to pure capsaicin extracts.  These sauces are extremely hot and should be considered with caution by those not used to fiery foods.  Many are too hot to consume more than a drop or two in a pot of food.  These novelty sauces are typically only sold by specialty retailers and are usually more expensive. ; Other ingredients - heat is also affected by other ingredients. Mustard oil

This is a document about Scoville scale
  Capsicum chili peppers are commonly used to add pungency in cuisines worldwide. The range of pepper heat reflected by a Scoville score is from 100 or less (sweet peppers) to over 3 million (Pepper X) (table below; Scoville scales for individual chili peppers are in the respective linked article). The chilis with the highest rating on the Scoville scale exceed one million Scoville units, and include specimens of naga jolokia or bhut jolokia and its cultivars, the "Dorset naga" and the "bhut jolokia", neither of which has official cultivar status. The Scoville scale may be extrapolated to express the pungency of substances that are even hotter than pure capsaicin. One such substance is resiniferatoxin, an alkaloid present in the sap of some species of euphorbia plants (spurges). Since it is 1000 times as hot as capsaicin, it would have a Scoville scale rating of 16 billion.

This is a document about Capsicum
  The name given to the Capsicum fruits varies between English-speaking countries. In Australia, New Zealand and India, heatless varieties are called "capsicums", while hot ones are called "chilli"/"chillies" (double L). Pepperoncini are also known as "sweet capsicum". The term "bell peppers" is never used, although C. annuum and other varieties which have a bell shape and are fairly hot, are often called "bell chillies". In Canada, Ireland, South Africa and the United Kingdom, the heatless varieties are commonly known simply as "peppers" (or more specifically "green peppers", "red peppers", etc.), while the hot ones are "chilli"/"chillies" (double L) or "chilli peppers". In

This is a document about Bird's eye chili
  All chilis found around the world today have their origins in Mexico, Central America, and South America. They were spread by Spanish and Portuguese colonists, missionaries, and traders, together with many other now common crops such as maize, tomatoes and pineapples through the Columbian Exchange. The chili varieties found in Southeast Asia today were brought there in the 16th or 17th century.

This is a document about Chili sauce and paste
  chili peppers to achieve its spiciness. Available worldwide is nam chim kai, also known as "chili sauce for chicken" or "Thai sweet chili sauce". Phrik nam pla is fish sauce (nam pla) with chopped raw chilies, lime juice and sometimes garlic. Sriracha sauce is a Thai chili sauce, originally from the town of Si Racha, Thailand. Sriracha sauce is a type of hot sauce or chili sauce made from a paste of chili peppers, distilled vinegar, garlic, sugar, and salt. It is named after the coastal city of Si Racha, in the Chonburi Province of Eastern Thailand, where it was

The heat in chillies comes from capsaicin and related chemicals called capsaicinoids, which are present in the seeds and pith of the chilli pepper. These compounds bind to pain receptors in the mouth and throat, causing a burning sensation.


Question: when did the us currency stop being backed by gold

Answer: 1971

This is a document about Exorbitant privilege
  gold at the official exchange rate. He sent the French Navy across the Atlantic to pick up the French reserve of gold and was followed by several countries. As it resulted in considerably reducing U.S. gold stock and U.S. economic influence, it led U.S. President Richard Nixon to end the convertibility of the dollar to gold on August 15, 1971 (the "Nixon Shock"). This was meant to be a temporary measure but the dollar became permanently a floating fiat money and in October 1976, the U.S. government officially changed the definition of the dollar; references to gold were removed from statutes.

This is a document about Silver standard
  for silver, but this practice was halted on June 24, 1968. Finally, on August 15, 1971, President Richard Nixon announced that the United States would no longer redeem currency for gold or any other precious metal, forming the final step in abandoning the gold and silver standards. This announcement was part of the economic measures now known as the "Nixon Shock". Due to the monetary policy of the U.S. Federal Reserve, calls for a return to the gold standard have returned. Some states have chosen to use a loophole in the Federal Reserve Act that gives individual states the right

This is a document about Fixed exchange rate system
  currency strong enough to meet the rising demands for international currency transactions, and so the United States agreed both to link the dollar to gold at the rate of $35 per ounce of gold and to convert dollars into gold at that price. Due to concerns about America's rapidly deteriorating payments situation and massive flight of liquid capital from the U.S., President Richard Nixon suspended the convertibility of the dollar into gold on 15 August 1971. In December 1971, the Smithsonian Agreement paved the way for the increase in the value of the dollar price of gold from US$35.50 to US$38 an ounce. Speculation against the dollar in March 1973 led to the birth of the independent float, thus effectively terminating the Bretton Woods system.

This is a document about Gold
  currencies to gold have been abandoned by world governments, led in 1971 by the United States' refusal to redeem its dollars in gold. Fiat currency now fills most monetary roles. Switzerland was the last country to tie its currency to gold; it backed 40% of its value until the Swiss joined the International Monetary Fund in 1999. Central banks continue to keep a portion of their liquid reserves as gold in some form, and metals exchanges such as the London Bullion Market Association still clear transactions denominated in gold, including future delivery contracts. Today, gold mining output is declining. With the sharp growth of economies in the 20th century, and increasing foreign

This is a document about Gold as an investment
   Gold has been used throughout history as money and has been a relative standard for currency equivalents specific to economic regions or countries, until recent times. Many European countries implemented gold standards in the latter part of the 19th century until these were temporarily suspended in the financial crises involving World War I. After World War II, the Bretton Woods system pegged the United States dollar to gold at a rate of US$35 per troy ounce. The system existed until the 1971 Nixon Shock, when the US unilaterally suspended the direct convertibility of the United States dollar to gold and made the transition to a fiat currency system. The last major currency to be divorced from gold was the Swiss Franc in 2000. Since 1919 the most common benchmark for the price of gold has been the London gold fixing, a twice-daily telephone meeting of representatives from five bullion-trading firms of the London bullion market. Furthermore, gold is traded continuously throughout the world based on the intra-day spot price, derived from over-the-counter gold-trading markets around the world (code "XAU"). The following table sets out the gold price versus various assets and key statistics at five-year intervals.

This is a document about United States dollar
  value of the dollar began to decline. Facing an emerging currency crisis and the imminent danger that the United States would no longer be able to redeem dollars for gold, gold convertibility was finally terminated in 1971 by President Nixon, resulting in the "Nixon shock". The value of the U.S. dollar was therefore no longer anchored to gold, and it fell upon the Federal Reserve to maintain the value of the U.S. currency. The Federal Reserve, however, continued to increase the money supply, resulting in stagflation and a rapidly declining value of the U.S. dollar in the 1970s. This was largely due to the prevailing economic view at the time that inflation and

This is a document about Tobin tax
  Tobin suggested his currency transaction tax in 1972 in his Janeway Lectures at Princeton, shortly after the Bretton Woods system of monetary management ended in 1971. Prior to 1971, one of the chief features of the Bretton Woods system was an obligation for each country to adopt a monetary policy that maintained the exchange rate of its currency within a fixed value—plus or minus one percent—in terms of gold. Then, on August 15, 1971, United States President Richard Nixon announced that the United States dollar would no longer be convertible to gold, effectively ending the system. This action created the situation whereby the U.S. dollar became the sole backing of currencies and a reserve currency for the

This is a document about Gold standard
  dollar thereby had a fixed value in terms of gold. Starting in the 1959–1969 administration of President Charles de Gaulle and continuing until 1970, France reduced its dollar reserves, exchanging them for gold at the official exchange rate, reducing U.S. economic influence. This, along with the fiscal strain of federal expenditures for the Vietnam War and persistent balance of payments deficits, led U.S. President Richard Nixon to end international convertibility of the U.S. dollar to gold on August 15, 1971 (the "Nixon Shock"). This was meant to be a temporary measure, with the gold price of the dollar and the official rate of exchanges remaining constant. Revaluing currencies was the main purpose of this plan. No official revaluation

This is a document about History of banking
  wake of the Wall Street Crash of 1929, 9,000 banks close, wiping out one third of the money supply in the United States. ; 1933 – Executive Order 6102 signed by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt forbade ownership of gold coin, gold bullion, and gold certificates by US citizens beyond a certain amount, effectively ending the convertibility of US dollars into gold. ; 1971 – The Nixon Shock was a series of economic measures taken by U.S. President Richard Nixon which canceled the direct convertibility of the United States dollar to gold by foreign nations. This essentially ended the existing Bretton Woods

This is a document about Charles de Gaulle
  He sent the French Navy across the Atlantic to pick up the French reserve of gold, which had been moved there during World War II, and was followed by several countries. As it resulted in considerably reducing US gold stock and US economic influence, it led US President Richard Nixon to unilaterally end the convertibility of the dollar to gold on 15 August 1971 (the "Nixon Shock"). This was meant to be a temporary measure but the dollar became permanently a floating fiat money and in October 1976, the US government officially changed the definition of the dollar; references to gold were removed from statutes.

This is a document about Bretton Woods system
  foreign accounts. The collapse of the gold pool and the refusal of the pool members to trade gold with private entities—on 18 March 1968 the Congress of the United States repealed the 25% requirement of gold backing of the dollar —as well as the U.S. pledge to suspend gold sales to governments that trade in the private markets, led to the expansion of the private markets for international gold trade, in which the price of gold rose much higher than the official dollar price. U.S. gold reserves remained depleted due to the actions of some nations, notably France, which continued to build up their own gold reserves.

This is a document about Deflation
  Throughout the history of the United States, inflation has approached zero and dipped below for short periods of time. This was quite common in the 19th century, and in the 20th century until the permanent abandonment of the gold standard for the Bretton Woods system in 1948. In the past 60 years, the United States has only experienced deflation two times; in 2009 with the Great Recession and in 2015, when the CPI barely broke below 0% at -0.1%. Some economists believe the United States may have experienced deflation as part of the financial crisis of 2007–10; compare the theory of

This is a document about History of money
  In 1971, United States President Richard Nixon announced that the US dollar would not be directly convertible to Gold anymore. This measure effectively destroyed the Bretton Woods system by removing one of its key component, in what came to be known as the Nixon shock. Since then, the US dollar, and thus all national currencies, are Free-floating currencies. Additionally, international, national and local money is now dominated by virtual credit rather than real bullion.

This is a document about International monetary system
  run a persistent trade deficit, which undermined confidence in the dollar. This, together with the emergence of a parallel market for gold in which the price soared above the official US mandated price, led to speculators running down the US gold reserves. Even when convertibility was restricted to nations only, some, notably France, continued building up hoards of gold at the expense of the US. Eventually these pressures caused President Nixon to end all convertibility into gold on 15 August 1971. This event marked the effective end of the Bretton Woods system; attempts were made to find other mechanisms to preserve the fixed exchange rates over the next few years, but they were not successful, resulting in a system of floating exchange rates.

This is a document about Smithsonian Agreement
  The Bretton Woods Conference of 1944 established an international fixed exchange rate system based on the gold standard, in which currencies were pegged to the United States dollar, itself convertible into gold at $35/ounce. A negative balance of payments, growing public debt incurred by the Vietnam War and Great Society programs, and monetary inflation by the Federal Reserve caused the dollar to become increasingly overvalued in the 1960s. The drain on US gold reserves culminated with the London Gold Pool collapse in March 1968. On August 15, 1971, US President Richard Nixon unilaterally suspended the convertibility of US dollars into gold. The United States had deliberately offered this convertibility in 1944; it was put

This is a document about August 1971
 U.S. President Richard Nixon announced that the United States would no longer convert dollars to gold at a fixed value, effectively ending the Bretton Woods system. Nixon addressed the nation on television and said, "I have directed Secretary Connally to suspend temporarily the convertibility of the dollar into gold or other reserve assets, except in amounts and conditions determined to be in the interest of monetary stability and in the best interests of the United States.".   Within 10 days, the value of the U.S. dollar had declined by more than 11 percent against the Japanese yen, the worth for $1 falling from ¥360 to ¥320, and seven percent against the West German Deutsche Mark, from DM 3.66 to DM 3.40. ;

This is a document about Currency intervention
  In the Cold War-era United States, under the Bretton Woods system of fixed exchange rates, intervention was used to help maintain the exchange rate within prescribed margins and was considered to be essential to a central bank's toolkit. The dissolution of the Bretton Woods system between 1968 and 1973 was largely due to President Richard Nixon's “temporary” suspension of the dollar's convertibility to gold in 1971, after the dollar struggled throughout the late 1960s in light of large increases in the price of gold. An attempt to revive the fixed exchange rates failed, and by March 1973 the major currencies

This is a document about History of the United States dollar
  standard was restored when the New York Stock Exchange re-opened in December 1914. For as long as the United States remained neutral in the war, it remained the only country to maintain its gold standard, doing so without restriction on import or export of gold from 1915 to 1917. When the United States became a belligerent in the war, President Wilson banned gold export, thereby suspending the gold standard for foreign exchange. After the war, European countries slowly returned to their gold standards, though in somewhat altered form. During the Great Depression, every major currency abandoned the gold standard. Among the

This is a document about Gold Clause Cases
  Congress responded to the ambiguous Perry ruling with an additional resolution (Pub. Res. 74–63) that provided sovereign immunity of the federal government against claims for damage resulting from the devaluation of currency or other federal obligations. The future of gold as a basis for money remained unsettled for nearly the entire Roosevelt presidency. In 1944 the Allies of World War II developed the Bretton Woods system under which each participating nation would maintain a stable international gold price. This system continued until 1971 when President Richard Nixon, in what came to be known as the "Nixon Shock," announced that the United States would no longer convert dollars to gold at a fixed value even for foreign exchange purposes, thus abandoning the gold standard. As part of the subsequent reforms to Bretton Woods institutions, President Gerald Ford signed an act that terminated legal prohibitions on private

This is a document about Fiat money
  to one troy ounce of gold. Other currencies were calibrated with the U.S. dollar at fixed rates. The U.S. promised to redeem dollars with gold transferred to other national banks. Trade imbalances were corrected by gold reserve exchanges or by loans from the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The Bretton Woods system was ended by what became known as the Nixon shock. This was a series of economic changes by United States President Richard Nixon in 1971, including unilaterally canceling the direct convertibility of the United States dollar to gold. Since then, a system of national fiat monies has been used globally, with variable exchange rates between the major currencies.

The US currency stopped being backed by gold on August 15, 1971, when President Richard Nixon announced the end of the gold standard and the suspension of the convertibility of the US dollar into gold.


Question: who plays dr bailey on grey 's anatomy

Answer: Chandra Danette Wilson

This is a document about Miranda Bailey
  Miranda Bailey, M.D., F.A.C.S. is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey's Anatomy. The character was created by series creator and producer Shonda Rhimes, and has been portrayed by actress Chandra Wilson since the show's inception in 2005. Wilson has reprised her role in the spin-off series Private Practice and Station 19. Having appeared in 387 episodes total (372 on Grey's Anatomy, 2 on Private Practice, and 13 on Station 19), as of October 2021, Bailey is the most appearing character in the Grey's Anatomy franchise. Introduced as a resident in general surgery at Seattle Grace Hospital, Bailey works her way up to the attending physician level, and is eventually named Chief of Surgery. Her relationship with the five surgical interns she is in charge of - Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl), George O'Malley (T.R. Knight) and Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) - is a focal point at the beginning of the series.

This is a document about Chandra Wilson
  Chandra Danette Wilson (born August 27, 1969) is an American actress and director. She is best known for her role as Dr. Miranda Bailey in the ABC television drama Grey's Anatomy since 2005, for which she has been nominated for the Emmy for Best Supporting Actress four times. She also played the character of Bailey on Private Practice and Station 19. She made her New York stage debut in 1991 and began to land guest spots on a variety of prime-time television shows. She made her first film appearance in the 1993 film Philadelphia.

This is a document about Sledgehammer (Grey's Anatomy)
  someone. Why can’t I just be the lead of the show the way Annalise and Olivia can? Why can’t I be on that poster by myself?” It was revealed that Joey Lauren Adams will guest-star on the upcoming season of Grey's Anatomy, ABC announced Friday. As revealed in the season 11 finale, Bailey (Chandra Wilson) will be competing to be the new Chief against a candidate that Catherine Avery (Debbie Allen) chooses as reported by Entertainment Weekly can reveal that the Chasing Amy and Switched at Birth star will play Bailey's competition. Eric Lange, Maz Jobrani and Jenny Cooper co-star for the patient story involving two young girls who try to commit suicide.

This is a document about Izzie Stevens
  challenge." Levine also noted, however: "There are times when Izzie becomes completely irrational during crisis situations, which may bother some." Fox News included Izzie in its list of "The Best TV Doctors For Surgeon General". The character was listed in Wetpaints "10 Hottest Female Doctors on TV" and in BuzzFeeds "16 Hottest Doctors On Television".  During the show's third season, the New York Post Robert Rorke deemed Izzie to be "the heart-and-soul" of Grey's Anatomy. He deemed her the show's heroine, and wrote that: "Izzie is a welcome, calming presence, despite the devastation she experienced when she failed to save her patient and fiancé Denny Duquette. [...] Besides the formidable Dr. Bailey played by Chandra Wilson, Izzie seems

This is a document about Great Expectations (Grey's Anatomy)
  "Great Expectations" is the thirteenth episode of the third season of the American television medical drama Grey's Anatomy, and the show's 49th episode overall. It was written by Eric Buchman and directed by Michael Grossman. The episode aired on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States on January 25, 2007. In the episode, Dr. Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey), Dr. Preston Burke (Isaiah Washington), Dr. Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh), and Dr. Mark Sloan (Eric Dane) struggle to be considered for the position of chief of surgery after Dr. Richard Webber (James Pickens Jr.) announces his plans for retirement. Further storylines include Dr. George O'Malley (T.R. Knight) mourning his father, Dr. Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) trying to get financial support for a

This is a document about Miranda Bailey
  Bailey. She won a 2007 Screen Actors Guild Award for her performance in the show's third season. She has been nominated each year from 2006 to 2009 at the Emmy Awards for "Supporting Actress in a Drama Series", losing in 2007 to co-star Katherine Heigl in the role of Izzie Stevens for the performance in the episode "Oh, the Guilt". She has also been praised for her performance in Grey's Anatomy at the Screen Actors Guild Awards, receiving three nominations along with the other cast members for "Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series" each year from 2006 to 2008, with the 2007 Awards marking a victory.

This is a document about Eion Bailey
  Anthology, Look Homeward, Angel, and Dinner at Eight at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts, Desire and I at the Access Theatre Santa Barbara, and Icarus' Mother at the SBCC Studio Theatre. In 2007, Bailey was awarded a Daytime Emmy for his performance in Life of the Party. Bailey had recurring guest-starring roles on the TV series Dawson's Creek and ER. In 2010, Bailey had a recurring role in USA Network’s Covert Affairs as Ben Mercer, Annie's ex-boyfriend, who was being targeted by the CIA, before returning to the Agency near the end of Season 1. In 2012, Bailey started recurring on Once Upon a Time as August Booth. On May 1, 2013, Bailey guest-starred in "Traumatic Wound" on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit as Frank Patterson, an Iraq war veteran with PTSD who becomes a key witness in an investigation of a sexual assault in a nightclub.

This is a document about Station 19
 Chandra Wilson as Dr. Miranda Bailey (recurring seasons 1, 3, 5; guest seasons 2, 4): Chief of Surgery at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital and Ben Warren's wife. ; Ellen Pompeo as Dr. Meredith Grey (guest seasons 1, 3): Chief of General Surgery at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. ; Jake Borelli as Dr. Levi Schmitt (guest seasons 1–4): A resident at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. ; Giacomo Gianniotti as Dr. Andrew DeLuca (guest seasons 2, 4): A surgical resident, and later attending at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, and the brother of Carina DeLuca. ; Kelly McCreary as Dr. Maggie Pierce (guest seasons 2–3): Co-Chief of Cardiothoracic Surgery at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. ; Jesse Williams as Dr. Jackson Avery

This is a document about Miranda Bailey
  Shonda Rhimes wrote the character of Bailey to be a petite blonde-haired white woman with curls as "it would be unexpected to have this sweet-looking person open her mouth and say tough things." However, Wilson's audition went so well that she was offered the part, and the character was rewritten. Sandra Oh was originally going to audition for the part of Dr. Bailey. Of her role, Wilson said: "I thought it was endearing; endearing as the word 'Nazi' can be." Wilson explained how she plays Bailey: It's a teacher's mentality. The pilot described me as the Nazi, so I had to think about that and try to relate. It's about my demeanor, how I carry myself, demanding respect from my students. Once I have that, I just teach.

This is a document about I Like You So Much Better When You're Naked (Grey's Anatomy)
  The episode begins with general surgeon Dr. Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) performing a special surgery, and to her dismay, the chief of surgery Dr. Richard Webber (James Pickens Jr.) is absent from the operating room. At Dr. Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo)'s house, Dr. Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh) is engaging in sexual activity with Dr. Alex Karev (Justin Chambers), while his wife, Dr. Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl) is estranged. In the next room, Meredith begins arguing with her husband, Dr. Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey), over whether or not he should report the chief of surgery, Dr. Richard Webber's (James Pickens Jr.) alcoholism to Larry Jennings (Mitch Pileggi), the hospital's president. Dr. Izzie Stevens (Katherine

This is a document about Grey's Anatomy
  read for the role of Cristina instead. Many actors read for the role of Dr. Derek Shepherd. Rob Lowe was offered the role, but turned it down as he had already agreed to star in another medical drama Dr. Vegas. When Patrick Dempsey read for the part, "he was just perfect," according to Rhimes. The only character developed with a racial description in mind was Dr. Miranda Bailey, who is portrayed by Chandra Wilson. Her character was first described as a tiny blonde with curly hair, but when Wilson began speaking, Rhimes reported: "[Wilson] is exactly who Miranda is." James Pickens Jr. was selected

This is a document about Donnaleigh Bailey
  pretend'. So I just rang for an ambulance. In 2010, Bailey announced her decision to leave Doctors. On the decision to leave, she said: "It was so sad, and filming the last episode was awful. I sobbed from the first scene of the day to the very end!" Bailey has also appeared in episodes of Crossroads, Holby City, Dangerfield, and Casualty. In 2015, she began making occasional appearances in the ITV soap opera Coronation Street, her most notable role being Jess Heywood. Bailey's stage credits include the role of Leah in Beautiful Thing, Nikki in Redundant and Colleen in Martha Loves Michael. She is also an Open Door tutor, supporting disadvantaged students with preparation for drama school.

This is a document about Grey's Anatomy (season 18)
  Kim Raver, Camilla Luddington, and Kevin McKidd each signed a three-year contract in July 2020 keeping them attached to the series through a potential nineteenth season to portray Dr. Teddy Altman, Dr. Jo Wilson, and Dr. Owen Hunt, respectively. The series remaining three original actors Ellen Pompeo, Chandra Wilson, and James Pickens, Jr., who portray Dr. Meredith Grey, Dr. Miranda Bailey, and Dr. Richard Webber, respectively, were all confirmed to be returning for the season. Pompeo signed a one-year contract for her return receiving over US$575,000 per episode and also making her the highest paid actress on broadcast television. Her contract also allows her

This is a document about Tainted Obligation
  Dr. Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) leaves his trailer for work, as he approaches a bear growling outside. He wants to move back to Dr. Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo)'s house, but Dr. Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl) insists that they must go forward in life. Dr. Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh) brings her father, Thatcher Grey (Jeff Perry), who is vomiting blood, into the emergency room, and Dr. Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) treats him. Dr. Mark Sloan (Eric Dane) admits an elderly patient, Irving Waller (Ralph Waite), with skin growths, who later reveals that he wants a penile implant, to which he receives. It is revealed that Thatcher needs a liver transplantation, and Stevens is assigned

This is a document about Miranda Bailey
  by Maggie that she is both pregnant with her second child and perimenopausal. In the fall finale of Season 16, Bailey suffers a miscarriage. Bailey also fosters a teenage boy, Joey Phillips. In Season 17, as Grey-Sloan treats patients for COVID-19, Bailey feels guilty as she has just moved her parents into a local nursing home. Her guilt magnifies after her mother is hospitalized with the virus. Bailey sings to her mother as she succumbs to the disease, and decides to go back to work shortly after, resisting attempts by Richard and Jackson to convince her to take personal time.

This is a document about Grey's Anatomy (season 5)
 Ellen Pompeo as Dr. Meredith Grey ; Sandra Oh as Dr. Cristina Yang ; Katherine Heigl as Dr. Izzie Stevens ; Justin Chambers as Dr. Alex Karev ; T. R. Knight as Dr. George O'Malley ; Chandra Wilson as Dr. Miranda Bailey ; James Pickens Jr. as Dr. Richard Webber ; Sara Ramirez as Dr. Callie Torres ; Eric Dane as Dr. Mark Sloan ; Chyler Leigh as Dr. Lexie Grey ; Brooke Smith as Dr. Erica Hahn ; Patrick Dempsey as Dr. Derek Shepherd ; Kevin McKidd as Dr. Owen Hunt

This is a document about Bailey May
 Bailey (2016)

This is a document about Miranda Bailey
  her fun, flirty side" presented with a bit of humor after the deterioration of her relationship with Tucker. Margaret Lyons of New York Magazine was happy with the evolution of Bailey and Torres' friendship in the first half of the ninth season, calling it "the one bright spot": "They joke, they tease each other, they offer sage love advice to one another, now that they're both on their second marriages." Entertainment Weekly included Bailey in its list of the "30 Great TV Doctors and Nurses". AOL TV named her one of the 100 Most Memorable Female TV Characters. Chandra Wilson has received multiple nominations for her portrayal of Dr.

This is a document about Grey's Anatomy (season 1)
  Justin Chambers, an arrogant intern who initially annoys his colleagues, and George O'Malley portrayed by T. R. Knight, an insecure intern with a lack of confidence, who develops a crush on Meredith. The interns are mentored by their resident Miranda Bailey portrayed by Chandra Wilson, a disciplined woman who is nicknamed "The Nazi". The surgical program is led by the Chief of Surgery Dr. Richard Webber portrayed by James Pickens Jr.. In his employ are Preston Burke and Derek Shepherd from New York portrayed by Isaiah Washington and Patrick Dempsey respectively. Guest stars include Meredith's mother Ellis, portrayed by Kate Burton, nurse Olivia Harper portrayed by Sarah Utterback, who serves as a love-interest for Alex and George, and Derek's estranged wife Addison Montgomery played by Kate Walsh.

This is a document about Charlene Amoia
  Fraser on House, Bailey on Glee and Diana Cotto on Switched at Birth. In 2008, she portrayed Miss Wells in the teen drama television series 90210. She played Jill in the drama film Fat (2013), which premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival. She has guest starred on the show NCIS: New Orleans as Carly Dawson in the episode "Breaking Brig" and Kelly Press on Major Crimes. She played Janet Conrad, a pushy NATO Photographer who was seeking a career changing "Front Line Photo" in the film Sniper: Special Ops (2016). In 2017 she appeared on American Horror Story in the episode "Great Again". In season 14 of Grey's Anatomy she appeared as Dr. Kate Lachman.

Chandra Wilson plays Dr. Bailey on Grey's Anatomy.


Question: when did the harry potter books come out

Answer: 26 June 1997

This is a document about Harry Potter
  Harry Potter is a series of seven fantasy novels written by British author J. K. Rowling. The novels chronicle the lives of a young wizard, Harry Potter, and his friends Hermione Granger and Ron Weasley, all of whom are students at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. The main story arc concerns Harry's struggle against Lord Voldemort, a dark wizard who intends to become immortal, overthrow the wizard governing body known as the Ministry of Magic and subjugate all wizards and Muggles (non-magical people). Since the release of the first novel, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, on 26 June 1997, the books have found immense popularity, positive reviews, and commercial success worldwide. They have attracted a wide adult audience as

This is a document about Fictional universe of Harry Potter
  The entire Harry Potter series is set from 1991 to 1998 aside from the opening chapter of the first book, which takes place on 1 November 1981, and the epilogue of the seventh book, which takes place on 1 September 2017. At various points throughout the Harry Potter timeline, flashbacks and flash-forwards depict the 1920s, the 1930s, the 1940s, the 1970s, the 1980s, the 2010s, and the 2020s. The depiction of the Wizarding World is centred on magic, which not only imbues objects such as wands, but is portrayed as an inborn ability. It is also centred on the separation of the

This is a document about Harry Potter
  Rowling), using her grandmother's name as her second name because she has no middle name. Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone was published by Bloomsbury, the publisher of all Harry Potter books in the United Kingdom, on 26 June 1997. It was released in the United States on 1 September 1998 by Scholastic – the American publisher of the books – as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone, after Rowling had received US$105,000 for the American rights – a record amount for a children's book by an unknown author. Fearing that American readers would not associate the word "philosopher" with magic (although the Philosopher's Stone

This is a document about Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows
  Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, the first book in the series, was published by Bloomsbury on 30 June 1997. The second book, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was published on 2 July 1998. Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was then published a year later on 8 July 1999. Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was published on 8 July 2000. Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix was published on 21 June 2003. Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince was published on 16 July 2005, and sold 9 million copies in the first 24 hours of its worldwide release.

This is a document about Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire
  Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire is the fourth book in the Harry Potter series. The first, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, was published by Bloomsbury on 26 June 1997. The second, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, was published on 2 July 1998. The third, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, followed on 8 July 1999. Goblet of Fire is almost twice the size of the first three books (the paperback edition was 636 pages). Rowling stated that she "knew from the beginning it would be the biggest of the first four." She said there needed to be a "proper run-up" for the

This is a document about J. K. Rowling
  The fourth book, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, was released simultaneously in the UK and the US on 8 July 2000 and broke sales records in both countries, with 372,775 copies of the book sold in its first day in the UK, almost equalling the number Prisoner of Azkaban sold during its first year. In the US, the book sold three million copies in its first 48 hours, smashing all records. Rowling said that she had had a crisis while writing the novel and had to rewrite one chapter many times to fix a problem with the plot. Rowling was named Author of the Year in the

This is a document about Book censorship in the United States
  The seven-book Harry Potter series by J.K. Rowling has been highly popular since the first novel came out in 1997, leading to the release of eight movies based on the series and an amusement park inspired by the characters. Harry Potter has brought similar amount of controversy as it has obsession: the series was the most frequently challenged book in 2001 and 2002, before falling to second-most challenged book in 2003. The ALA cites the reasons for censorship as "anti-family, occult/Satanism, religious viewpoint, violence", but the American Civil Liberties Union of Texas's "Free People Read Freely" report also cited concerns over sexual content. In one case in Lawrenceville, Georgia in 2007, a parent

This is a document about J. K. Rowling
  2006, Half-Blood Prince received the Book of the Year prize at the British Book Awards. The title of the seventh and final Harry Potter book was announced on 21 December 2006 as Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. In February 2007, it was reported that Rowling wrote on a bust in her hotel room at the Balmoral Hotel in Edinburgh that she had finished the seventh book in that room on 11 January 2007. Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows was released on 21 July 2007 (0:01 BST) and broke its predecessor's record as the fastest-selling book of all time. It sold 11 million copies in the first day

This is a document about Children's literature
  Carnegie Medal (his first major award) for The Amazing Maurice and His Educated Rodents. Cressida Cowell's How to Train Your Dragon series were published between 2003 and 2015. J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter fantasy sequence of seven novels chronicles the adventures of the adolescent wizard Harry Potter. The series began with Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone in 1997 and ended with the seventh and final book Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in 2007; becoming the best selling book-series in history. The series has been translated into 67 languages, so placing Rowling among the most translated authors in history.

This is a document about Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets
  Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was published in the UK on 2 July 1998 and in the US on 2 June 1999. It immediately took first place in UK bestseller lists, displacing popular authors such as John Grisham, Tom Clancy, and Terry Pratchett and making Rowling the first author to win the British Book Awards Children's Book of the Year for two years in succession. In June 1999, it went straight to the top of three US bestseller lists, including in The New York Times. First edition printings had several errors, which were fixed in subsequent reprints. Initially, Dumbledore said Voldemort was the last remaining ancestor of Salazar Slytherin instead of his descendant. Gilderoy Lockhart's book on werewolves is entitled Weekends with Werewolves at one point and Wanderings with Werewolves later in the book.

This is a document about Harry Potter (film series)
  The rights for the first four novels in the series were sold to Warner Bros. for £1,000,000 by J.K. Rowling. After the release of the fourth book in July 2000, the first film, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, was released on 16 November 2001. In its opening weekend, the film grossed $90 million in the United States alone, which set a record opening worldwide. The succeeding three motion picture adaptations followed suit in financial success, while garnering positive reviews from fans and critics. The fifth film, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, was released by Warner Bros. on 11 July 2007 in English-speaking countries, except for the UK and Ireland, which released the movie on 12 July. The sixth, Harry Potter

This is a document about Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince
  Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince is the sixth book in the Harry Potter series. The first book in the series, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, was first published by Bloomsbury in 1997, with an initial print-run of 500 copies in hardback, 300 of which were distributed to libraries. By the end of 1997, the UK edition won a National Book Award and a gold medal in the 9- to 11-year-olds category of the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize. The second book, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, was originally published in the UK on 2 July 1998 and in the US on 2 June 1999. Harry Potter and the Prisoner of

This is a document about Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince
  Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince is a fantasy novel written by British author J.K. Rowling and the sixth and penultimate novel in the Harry Potter series. Set during Harry Potter's sixth year at Hogwarts, the novel explores the past of the boy wizard's nemesis, Lord Voldemort, and Harry's preparations for the final battle against Voldemort alongside his headmaster and mentor Albus Dumbledore. The book was published in the United Kingdom by Bloomsbury and in the United States by Scholastic on 16 July 2005, as well as in several other countries. It sold nine million copies in the first 24 hours after its release, a record that was eventually broken by its sequel, Harry

This is a document about Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone
  The book was first published in the United Kingdom on 26 June 1997 by Bloomsbury. It was published in the United States the following year by Scholastic Corporation under the title Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone. It won most of the British book awards that were judged by children and other awards in the US. The book reached the top of the New York Times list of best-selling fiction in August 1999 and stayed near the top of that list for much of 1999 and 2000. It has been translated into at least 73 other languages, and has been made into a feature-length film of the

This is a document about Young adult fiction
  death, and murder which had previously been deemed taboo, saw significant critical and commercial success. A flip-side of this trend was a strong revived interest in the romance novel, including young adult romance. With an increase in number of teenagers the genre "matured, blossomed, and came into its own, with the better written, more serious, and more varied young adult books (than those) published during the last two decades". The first novel in J.K. Rowling's seven-book Harry Potter series, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, was published in 1997. The series was praised for its complexity and maturity, and attracted a wide adult audience. While not technically YA, its

This is a document about Harry Potter and the Cursed Child
  its world premiere in mid-2016 at London's Palace Theatre. The announcement marked the eighteenth anniversary of the publication of the first Harry Potter novel, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, published on 26 June 1997. On announcing plans for the project, Rowling stated that the play would not be a prequel. In response to queries regarding the choice of a play rather than a new novel, Rowling stated that she "is confident that when audiences see the play they will agree that it is the only proper medium for the story". Rowling also assured audiences that the play would contain an

This is a document about J. K. Rowling
 1) Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (26 June 1997) ; 2) Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (2 July 1998) ; 3) Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (8 July 1999) ; 4) Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (8 July 2000) ; 5) Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (21 June 2003) ; 6) Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince (16 July 2005) ; 7) Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows (21 July 2007)

This is a document about Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban
  Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was released in hardcover in the UK on 8 July 1999 and in the US on 8 September. The British paperback edition was released on 1 April 2000, while the US paperback was released 1 October 2001. Bloomsbury additionally released an adult edition with a different cover design to the original, in paperback on 10 July 2004 and in hardcover on October 2004. A hardcover special edition, featuring a green border and signature, was released on 8 July 1999. In May 2004, Bloomsbury released a Celebratory Edition, with a blue and purple border. On 1 November 2010, they released the 10th anniversary Signature edition illustrated by

This is a document about Harry Potter
  an ancient tradition in alchemy), Scholastic insisted that the book be given the title Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone for the American market. The second book, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, was originally published in the UK on 2 July 1998 and in the US on 2 June 1999. Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was published a year later in the UK on 8 July 1999 and in the US on 8 September 1999. Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was published on 8 July 2000 at the same time by Bloomsbury and Scholastic. Harry Potter and the Order

This is a document about Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone
  The second book, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, was originally published in the UK on 2 July 1998 and later, in the US on 2 June 1999. Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was then published a year later in the UK on 8 July 1999 and in the US on 8 September 1999. Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was published on 8 July 2000 at the same time by Bloomsbury and Scholastic. Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the longest book in the series at 766 pages in the UK version and 870 pages in the US version. It was published worldwide in English on 21 June 2003. Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince was published on 16 July 2005 and sold 11 million copies in the first 24 hours of its worldwide release. The seventh and final novel, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, was published on 21 July 2007. The book sold 11 million copies within 24 hours of its release: 2.7 million copies in the UK and 8.3 million in the US.

The first Harry Potter book, "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone," was published on 26 June 1997 in the United Kingdom and on 1 September 1998 in the United States. The following books in the series were published as follows: "Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets" (1998), "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban" (1999), "Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire" (2000), "Harry Potter and


Question: who came up with the design idea for the penny

Answer: Lyndall Bass

This is a document about Draped Bust dollar
  Though the designer of the coin is unknown, artist Gilbert Stuart is widely acknowledged to have been its creator; Mint Director James Ross Snowden began researching the early history of the United States Mint and its coinage in the 1850s, during which time he interviewed descendants of Stuart who claimed that their ancestor was the designer. It has been suggested that Philadelphia socialite Ann Willing Bingham posed as the model for the coin. Several sketches were approved by Mint engraver Robert Scot and de Saussure and sent to President George Washington and Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson to gain their approval. After approval was received, the designs were sent to artist John

This is a document about History of the British penny (1901–1970)
  issued their own coins. In 1895 the design on the reverse was modified by the Engraver of the Royal Mint George William de Saulles and, after Queen Victoria's death in 1901, de Saulles was called upon to create a design for the obverse which would feature Edward VII. This feature appeared on the version of the penny which went into circulation in 1902, and it remained in circulation until the year of Edward's death, 1910. An obverse version of the penny designed by Sir Bertram Mackennal and depicting George V went into circulation in 1911, and it remained in circulation with some modifications until

This is a document about Fugio cent
   On April 21, 1787, the Congress of the Confederation of the United States authorized a design for an official copper penny, later referred to as the Fugio cent because of its image of the Sun and its light shining down on a sundial with the caption, "Fugio" (Latin: I flee/fly, referring to time flying by). This coin was designed by Benjamin Franklin; as a reminder to its holders, he put at its bottom the message, "Mind your business". This design was based on the 1776 "Continental dollar" coin, which was produced in pattern pieces but was never circulated. Some historians believe that the word

This is a document about Anna Willess Williams
   In 1876, George T. Morgan began creating a series of new coin designs at the behest of Director of the Mint, Dr. Henry R. Linderman. Morgan opted to use the profile of an American girl to depict the Goddess of Liberty instead of simply creating an imaginary figure for the obverse of his new design. After he rejected several possible candidates, Morgan's friend, artist Thomas Eakins, recommended Anna Williams of Philadelphia. Eakins knew Williams through her father, Henry Williams, and she had posed for several of Eakins's paintings. Williams reluctantly sat for five modelling sessions with Morgan in November 1876 after being convinced to do

This is a document about Dime (United States coin)
  The Barber dime is named for its designer, Charles E. Barber, who was Chief Engraver of the U.S. Mint from 1879 to 1917. The design was shared with the quarter and half-dollar of the same period. Extensive internal politics surrounded the awarding of the design job, which had initially been opened to the public. A four-member committee (which included Barber), appointed by then-Mint Director James Kimball, accorded only two of more than 300 submissions an honorable mention. Kimball's successor, Edward O. Leech, decided to dispense with the committees and public design competitions and simply instructed Barber to develop a new design. It has been speculated that this is what Barber had wanted all along. The Barber dime, as with all previous dimes, featured an image of Liberty on the obverse. She is

This is a document about Ferdinandea Island
  In 2000, an unofficial minting of a penny was produced in Sicily, featuring the former island on one side and, unusually, a bust of Elizabeth II on the other. (Italy, including Sicily, was using the lira by this time and the coin did not circulate.) David Mannucci, the designer of the coin, had the idea to make it after he "found out the existence of the ghost island" from a newspaper article. Besides the copper piece, varieties exist in silver, copper "with protective enamel", and in silver "with protective enamel". While this Italian-made coin fittingly bears the Italian name for the former island, the conflicted piece also features a bust of "Elizabeth II D.G.R." and bears a British denomination.

This is a document about Milled coinage
  Until 1550, coinage techniques used in European mints had not progressed from the hammered coinage of Ancient Greece. This was problematic because an increase in the supply of bullion from central Europe and America was overworking mints. That led to low quality coins which were easily forged or clipped, i.e. precious metal was shaved from the edges of the coins. In accordance with Gresham's law, the clipped and forged coins drove good coins out of circulation, depreciating the currency. Leonardo da Vinci's notebooks showed there was a better way and Donato Bramante, the architect who made the initial plans for St. Peter's Basilica, developed a screw press to make the lead bullae attached to

This is a document about Two pounds (British coin)
  design is that it depicts nineteen interlocking gears. Because there is an odd number of them, the mechanism could not actually turn. The coin has the edge inscription STANDING ON THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS, a quote taken from a letter by Isaac Newton to Robert Hooke, in which he describes how his work was built on the knowledge of those that had gone before him. "If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants." Newton was Warden and later Master of the Royal Mint. In February 2015, the Royal Mint announced a new design featuring Britannia by Antony Dufort replacing the

This is a document about Huguenot-Walloon half dollar
  Stoudt supplied the concept for the coins, as well as sketches. Rather than seeking a private designer to produce plaster models, the Huguenot-Walloon commission approached the Mint's chief engraver, George T. Morgan, who turned 78 in 1923. Morgan, best remembered for his 1878 design for the Morgan dollar, had been chief engraver since 1917, following forty years as an assistant, mostly under Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber. Both Barber and Morgan felt that coins should be designed by the Mint's engravers, and were sometimes hostile when private sculptors were engaged to do the work. Morgan's models were transmitted on October 26, 1923, to the Commission of Fine Arts, charged with rendering

This is a document about Penny (British pre-decimal coin)
  William Wyon. The king's head faces right, inscribed GULIELMUS IIII DEI GRATIA date, while the reverse is identical to the George IV penny. Just three portraits of Queen Victoria were used on the penny in the whole of her reign: the Young Head (used from 1838 to 1859, with rare copper issues from 1860 - the 60 is struck over 59), designed by William Wyon (who died in 1851), whose eldest son Leonard Charles Wyon (1826–91) designed the bronze coinage of 1860 with the second ("bun") head (1860–1894 with scarce issues of the farthing in 1895), and finally the Old Head (or "veiled head") designed by Thomas Brock which was used on the penny from 1895 to 1901.

This is a document about Frank Gasparro
  removed at the request of staff at the Mint. Despite the complaints of his superiors, the design retained his initials to the right of the monument as well as the image of Lincoln seated in the monument, making it the first American coin to have the same likeness on both sides of the coin. Gasparro would often tell cashiers that he was a sculptor, and when asked where to find his work, he would reply, "It's in your pocket." By the time of his death, Gasparro's design had appeared on the more than 100 billion pennies produced by the Mint.

This is a document about Penny (Irish decimal coin)
  until 1979. The coin's official designation was "new penny" and this was changed in 1985 to "penny". In 1990 the decision was taken to produce the coin on a copper-plated steel base as the bronze had become too expensive. The steel base coins are magnetic. The coin was designed by the Irish artist Gabriel Hayes and the design is adapted from the Book of Kells held in Trinity College, Dublin. The coin was worth 1⁄100 of an Irish pound and was withdrawn with the arrival of the euro in Ireland (introduced in 1999 jointly, and from 2002 on its own).

This is a document about Barber coinage
  For much of the second half of the 19th century, most U.S. silver coins bore a design of a seated Liberty. This design had been created by Christian Gobrecht, an engraver at the United States Mint in Philadelphia, after a sketch by artist Thomas Sully, and introduced to U.S. coins in the late 1830s. The design reflected an English influence, and as artistic tastes changed over time, was increasingly disliked in the United States. In 1876, The Galaxy magazine said of the then current silver coins: "Why is it we have the ugliest money of all civilized nations? The design is poor,

This is a document about Frank Gasparro
  Gasparro designed his coins by finding subjects, such as objects, animals, and people from various newspaper clippings, photographs, magazines, and books. Most of his sketches are based on one of two designs--Lady Liberty or eagles and each sketch was different from the last. He used a Xerox printer to print photos of his choosing, used tracing paper to trace the shape, and transferred his designs over to sketch paper. From there, he continued to make more sketches based on his subjects, and with each of them, added certain features, such as crowns, helmets, arrows, etc to the subject. Then a final sketch of the design would be created to serve as a reference to the mold.

This is a document about History of the British penny (1901–1970)
  IMP. When the Royal Mint's Advisory Committee were considering the question of new designs for King Edward's coinage, they did not favour a new look for the penny. Rather, they sought the return of the lighthouse and ship, seen in the distance on either side of Britannia on pre-1895 pennies, but with the sailing ship seen on Victorian pennies replaced with a modern warship. Officials felt this too aggressive at a delicate international time, and the ship was not restored, but the lighthouse was placed on Edward's patterns, and would be kept on the penny until its abolition after 1970.

This is a document about Hawaii Sesquicentennial half dollar
  had been owned by Queen Emma, showing the explorer facing right. Within two days, Fraser had produced sketches. On November 2, Charles Moore, chairman of the Commission of Fine Arts, wrote to Assistant Director of the Mint Mary M. O'Reilly that Juliette Fraser's sketches were excellent and would translate well into a coin. The Commission of Fine Arts met and, at the suggestion of sculptor-member Lorado Taft, decided to ask Buffalo nickel designer James Earle Fraser (no relation) who would be most suitable to turn the sketches into plaster models, from which the Mint could make coinage dies and hubs. James Fraser suggested Peace dollar designer Anthony de Francisci, but sculptor Chester Beach was engaged instead.

This is a document about Washington quarter
  the committee's medal and then the coin. The obverse of both medal and coin were to be based on the well-known sculpture of Washington (1786) by French sculptor Jean-Antoine Houdon; the artist was not restricted as to the reverse design. By law, coinage designs were approved by the Secretary of the Treasury, at that time Andrew W. Mellon, a noted art collector and connoisseur; it was anticipated he would interpose no objection to the plan.  After reviewing the entries, both the Bicentennial Committee and the Commission of Fine Arts (CFA) agreed on designs by Laura Gardin Fraser. The wife of James Earle Fraser, designer of the Buffalo nickel, Laura Fraser was a notable coin

This is a document about Etchingham
   Henry Corbould FSA, the designer of the first postage stamp, the Penny Black, died at Hurst Green, having been taken ill there while travelling back to London from the coast, and was buried in Etchingham parish church. There is a memorial tablet on the wall of the church, which for many years was believed to be the only known likeness of Corbould. In 1990, as part of the 150th anniversary of the postage stamp, the village produced two First Day Covers to mark the Corbould connection, and held the Etchingham Stamp Festival to raise funds for church repairs. The festival was held over the

This is a document about Seated Liberty dollar
  In mid-1835, newly appointed Mint Director Robert M. Patterson engaged artists Titian Peale and Thomas Sully to create new designs for American coinage. In an August 1, 1835, letter, Patterson proposed that Sully create an obverse design consisting of Liberty seated on a boulder, holding a "liberty pole" in her right hand topped by a pileus, the headgear given by the Romans to an emancipated slave. He also asked Sully to create a reverse design consisting of an "eagle flying, and rising in flight, amidst the constellation irregularly dispersed of twenty-four stars". Patterson requested that the bird appear natural; he criticized

This is a document about Penny Black printing plates
  The printing plates for the Penny Black, two pence blue and the VR official were all constructed by Perkins Bacon, the printers of the first postage stamps issued in Great Britain. The construction of these plates was long and complicated, which was intentional so as to make the forgery of the finished article almost impossible. The first stage involved the engraving of a background for the design. This was produced with a rose engine which laid down a circular pattern of symmetrical design onto a piece of soft steel. This was then partly cleared to leave a square shape and an area in the centre was further cleared in the shape of Queen Victoria's head ready for engraving. At this stage the die was passed to the engravers who, working from

The design idea for the penny was proposed by Anna Willess Williams, an American artist, in 1876. She was suggested by her friend Thomas Eakins to pose for the design of the obverse of the Fugio cent, which was the precursor to the penny.


Question: what was one of the weapon technologies that emerged during the crusades

Answer: counterweight trebuchets

This is a document about Military history of Germany
  With the use of sieges as the primary means of middle age warfare, there were changes in military technology that facilitated fighting this differing kind of warfare. That being said, advances in technology did not mean that old technology became immediately obsolete. One such advance was the trebuchet, but other smaller advancements were made as well. There were advancements such as new helmets called Spangenhelme as well as some Carolingian developments in weapon production. With the subsequent development in armor, there came advancements in handheld weaponry to deal with these developments. For example, swords became thinner and pointed on the tip in order to penetrate between gaps in plate armor. Crossbows as well became more commonly used in the defense of castles during siege warfare. In order to attack castles, the Springald was created to launch spears in succession, but was mainly used outside of Germany. Stirrups were developed which was integral in the use of shock combat during the Middle Ages. The creation of greaves was important in protecting the shins.

This is a document about History of science and technology in China
  The significant change that distinguished Medieval warfare to early Modern warfare was the use of gunpowder weaponry in battle. from Dunhuang portrays the first artistic depiction of a fire lance, a prototype of the gun. The Wujing Zongyao military manuscript of 1044 listed the first known written formulas for gunpowder, meant for light-weight bombs lobbed from catapults or thrown down from defenders behind city walls. By the 13th century, the iron-cased bomb shell, hand cannon, land mine, and rocket were developed. As evidenced by the Huolongjing of Jiao Yu and Liu Bowen, by the 14th century the Chinese had developed the heavy cannon, hollow and gunpowder-packed exploding cannonballs, the two-stage rocket with a booster rocket, the naval mine and wheellock mechanism to ignite trains of fuses.

This is a document about Byzantine army
  The Byzantines originally used weapons developed from their Late Roman origins; the Romano-Germanic migration era longsword (spatha), lance (contus), javelins (spiculum, verutum, and lancea), the lead-weighted dart (plumbata), sling and staff-sling (fundum and fustibalus), and the Qum Darya-type ("Hunnic") recurve composite bow (arcus). However, as military technology changed, the Byzantines changed along with it, adopting new innovations in bow construction from the incoming Avars, Magyars, and Seljuk Turks, and adapting their infantry tactics and equipment to the changing reality of warfare as time progressed. There were many sword (spathion) types; straight, curved, one- and two-handed, which are depicted in illustrations.

This is a document about Medieval technology
  Greek fire (7th century) An incendiary weapon which could even burn on water is also attributed to the Byzantines, where they installed it on their ships. It played a crucial role in the Byzantine Empire's victory over the Umayyad Caliphate during the 717-718 Siege of Constantinople. Grenade (8th century) Rudimentary incendiary grenades appeared in the Byzantine Empire, as the Byzantine soldiers learned that Greek fire, a Byzantine invention of the previous century, could not only be thrown by flamethrowers at the enemy, but also in stone and ceramic jars. Longbow with massed, disciplined archery (13th century) Having a high rate of fire and penetration power, the longbow contributed to the eventual demise of the medieval knight class. Used particularly by the English to great effect against the French cavalry during the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453). Steel crossbow (late 14th century) European innovation came with several different cocking aids to enhance draw power, making the weapons also the first hand-held mechanical crossbows.

This is a document about Naval warfare
  dominant naval power in the Mediterranean Sea from the 7th to 13th centuries, during what is known as the Islamic Golden Age. One of the most significant inventions in medieval naval warfare was the torpedo, invented in Syria by the Arab inventor Hasan al-Rammah in 1275. His torpedo ran on water with a rocket system filled with explosive gunpowder materials and had three firing points. It was an effective weapon against ships. In the 8th century the Vikings appeared, although their usual style was to appear quickly, plunder, and disappear, preferably attacking undefended locations. The Vikings raided places along the coastline of England and France, with the greatest

This is a document about Military history
 Artillery ; Cataphract ; Condottieri ; Fyrd ; Rashidun ; Mobile guard ; Mamluk ; Janissary ; Knight (see also: Chivalry) ; Crossbow ; Pikeman ; Samurai ; Sipahi ; Trebuchet Some of the military unit types and technologies which were used in the medieval period are: Bows and arrows were often used by combatants. Egyptians shot arrows from chariots effectively. The crossbow was developed around 500 BC in China, and was used a lot in the Middle Ages. The English/Welsh longbow from the 12th century also became important in the Middle Ages. It helped to give the English a large early advantage in the Hundred Years' War, even though the English were eventually defeated. The Battle of Crécy and the Battle of Agincourt are excellent examples of how to destroy an enemy using a longbow. It dominated battlefields for over a century.

This is a document about Song dynasty
   Advancements in weapons technology enhanced by gunpowder, including the evolution of the early flamethrower, explosive grenade, firearm, cannon, and land mine, enabled the Song Chinese to ward off their militant enemies until the Song's ultimate collapse in the late 13th century. The Wujing Zongyao manuscript of 1044 was the first book in history to provide formulas for gunpowder and their specified use in different types of bombs. While engaged in a war with the Mongols, in 1259 the official Li Zengbo wrote in his Kezhai Zagao, Xugaohou that the city of Qingzhou was manufacturing one to two thousand strong iron-cased bombshells a month, dispatching to Xiangyang and Yingzhou about ten to twenty thousand such bombs at a time. In turn, the invading Mongols employed northern Chinese soldiers and used these same types of gunpowder weapons against the Song. By the 14th century the firearm and cannon could also be found in Europe, India, and the Middle East, during the early age of gunpowder warfare.

This is a document about History of weapons
  widely used in Western Europe, being employed both by the rich and the poor. The armies during this period were usually equipped with double edged swords, halberd, arquebus, crossbows and improvised axes. The Spanish tercio used pike, javelins, bucklers, arquebus and muskets. Swords were the secondary weapons for close range assaults. Leonardo da Vinci journeyed to Mantua, he resided there for a while and then went from there to Venice. The danger from Turkish fleet was looming on the city, which inspired him to come up with another invention, something like a submarine and a snorkel and diving suit for underwater saboteurs. But the Venetians thought it was not required. So he went back to Florence, and in the year 1502, Valentino chose Leonardo da Vinci as his engineer general. Leonardo sketched new devices for war, something like pointed artillery projectile, bearing very close resemblance to an aerial bomb.

This is a document about Trebuchet
  The counterweight trebuchet has been described as the "most powerful weapon of the Middle Ages". The earliest known description and illustration of a counterweight trebuchet comes from a commentary on the conquests of Saladin by Mardi ibn Ali al-Tarsusi in 1187. However cases for the existence of both European and Muslim counterweight trebuchets prior to 1187 have been made. In 1090, Khalaf ibn Mula'ib threw out a man from the citadel in Salamiya with a machine and in the early 12th century, Muslim siege engines were able to breach crusader fortifications. David Nicolle argues that these events could have only been possible with

This is a document about Sword
  also known as Damascus steel was a unique and highly prized steel developed on the Indian subcontinent as early as the 5th century BC. Its properties were unique due to the special smelting and reworking of the steel creating networks of iron carbides described as a globular cementite in a matrix of pearlite. The use of Damascus steel in swords became extremely popular in the 16th and 17th centuries. It was only from the 11th century that Norman swords began to develop the crossguard (quillons). During the Crusades of the 12th to 13th century, this cruciform type of arming sword remained essentially stable, with variations mainly concerning the shape of the pommel. These swords were designed as cutting weapons, although effective points were becoming common to counter improvements in armour, especially the

This is a document about Siege of Damietta (1218–1219)
  The first objective of the Crusaders was to take the defensive river tower that protected the fortress of Damietta and anchored one end of a chain across the harbor. However, the approaches to the tower were limited by the large iron chain to the east, and the shallow depth of the river to the west. Assaults upon the tower began on June 24, but they repeatedly failed. As a result, the Crusaders created a new type of naval siege weaponry, sometimes attributed to the chronicler Oliver of Paderborn; two ships were bound together, and four masts and sailyards were built, with a siege tower and ladder constructed on top. The structure was then covered with a layer of animal skins to protect from enemy attacks. On August 24, the engine was brought to the tower; the next day, the men in the tower surrendered. The use of this remarkable siege engine aided the Crusaders in taking the tower, and opening the way for the fleet to attack the fortress.

This is a document about Siege engine
   Medieval designs include a large number of catapults such as the mangonel, onager, the ballista, the traction trebuchet (first designed in China in the 3rd century BC and brought over to Europe in the 4th century AD), and the counterweight trebuchet (first described by Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi in the 12th century, though of unknown origin). These machines used mechanical energy to fling large projectiles to batter down stone walls. Also used were the battering ram and the siege tower, a wooden tower on wheels that allowed attackers to climb up and over castle walls, while protected somewhat from enemy arrows. A typical military confrontation in medieval times was for one side to lay siege to an opponent's castle. When properly defended, they had

This is a document about Torsion mangonel myth
  the 7th century when "its employment became obscured in the terminology as the traction trebuchet came into use." In 1995, W.T.S. Tarver considered the traction powered machines to have provided a viable alternative to the "onager soon after the collapse of the Roman Empire and long before the introduction of the counterweight trebuchet in the 12th century." In 1997, Randall Rogers deemed it relatively certain that two-armed stone throwing machines (ballistas) were not used during medieval times, and although it is difficult to prove that one-armed ones (onagers) were not, he could not find any evidence that they were. In 1999, John France concluded that it was traction trebuchets that were used during the First Crusade.

This is a document about Gunpowder artillery in the Middle Ages
  Artillery in the Middle Ages primarily consisted of the introduction of the cannon, large tubular firearms designed to fire a heavy projectile over a long distance. Guns, bombs, rockets and cannons were first invented in China during the Han Chinese Song Dynasty and then later spread to Europe and the Middle East during the period. Although gunpowder was known in Europe during the High Middle Ages due to the usage of guns and explosives by the Mongols and the Chinese firearms experts employed by the Mongols as mercenaries during the Mongol conquests of Europe, it was not until the Late Middle Ages that European versions of cannons

This is a document about Military tactics
  Beginning with the use of melee and missile weapons such as clubs and spears, the kinetic or firepower function of tactics has developed along with technological advances so that the emphasis has shifted over time from the close-range melee and missile weapons to longer-range projectile weapons. Kinetic effects were generally delivered by the sword, spear, javelin and bow until the introduction of artillery by the Romans. Until the mid 19th century, the value of infantry-delivered missile firepower was not high, meaning that the result of a given battle was rarely decided by infantry firepower alone, often relying on artillery to deliver significant kinetic effects. The development of disciplined volley fire, delivered at close range, began to improve the hitting power of infantry, and compensated in part for the

This is a document about Early thermal weapons
   Various throwing machines were in use throughout the classical and medieval periods. Generally referred to as "artillery", these engines could hurl, fire or shoot missiles and most could be used or adapted for throwing thermal weapons, by attacking and defending forces. Barrels, fire pots and other breakable containers of pitch, Greek fire, and other incendiary mixtures could be thrown; other machines fired arrows and bolts, which could be ignited, or adapted to carry flammable mixtures. From the 12th century, Muslims in Syria were using clay and glass grenades for fire weapons, thrown by machines. Most of the terms used for throwing machines were vague, and could refer to different engines, all of which went through changes and developments over the period. Among the most common were

This is a document about Historiography of gunpowder and gun transmission
  There is an independent invention theory supporting an Islamic origin of the gun, citing the Mamluk deployment of hand cannons in 1260 and a passage by Ibn Khaldun on the Marinid Siege of Sijilmassa in 1274: "[ The Sultan] installed siege engines … and gunpowder engines …, which project small balls of iron. These balls are ejected from a chamber … placed in front of a kindling fire of gunpowder; this happens by a strange property which attributes all actions to the power of the Creator." The passage, dated to 1382, and its interpretation has been rejected as anachronistic by most historians, who urge caution regarding claims of

This is a document about Medieval warfare
  In the Medieval period besieging armies used a wide variety of siege engines including: scaling ladders; battering rams; siege towers and various types of catapults such as the mangonel, onager, ballista, and trebuchet. Siege techniques also included mining in which tunnels were dug under a section of the wall and then rapidly collapsed to destabilize the wall's foundation. Another technique was to bore into the enemy walls, however, this was not nearly as effective as other methods due to the thickness of castle walls.  Advances in the prosecution of sieges encouraged the development of a variety of defensive counter-measures. In particular, Medieval fortifications became progressively stronger – for example, the advent of the concentric castle from the period of the Crusades – and more

This is a document about Pitched battle
  Pitched battles during the Middle Ages decreased in overall size and frequency due to inability for states to field armies as large as those during the Classical period. The potential decisiveness and possibility of the death of the leader also decreased the number of pitched battles fought. Battlefield strategy also began to favour control through sieges and garrisons in fortifications such as castles. However, the few examples of pitched battles during the period demonstrate developments in arms and armour and their effect upon tactics and deployment. Technological improvements in metalworking permitted the increased introduction of plate armour which provided superior protection in combat. Wealthy soldiers, often called knights, would combine heavy plate armour and a mount. These would be deployed in devastatingly effective charges or dismounted to fight on foot dominating battlefields throughout the Middle Ages. Consequently, infantry tactics during pitched battles would evolve towards the late Middle Ages to emphasise the use of polearms such as pikes and halberds. Furthermore, pitched battles during this period saw the widespread introduction of the crossbow, as evidenced at the battle of Hastings, provided a powerful alternative to bows and were effective against most forms of armour.

This is a document about Early thermal weapons
  and villages were frequently ignited as part of a scorched earth strategy. Some siege techniques—such as mining and boring—relied on combustibles and fire to complete the collapse of walls and structures. Towards the latter part of the period, gunpowder was invented, which increased the sophistication of the weapons, starting with fire lances, which led to the eventual development of the cannon and other firearms. Development of the early weapons has continued ever since, with modern war weapons such as napalm, flame throwers, and other explosives having direct roots in the original early thermal weapons. Fire-raising and other destructive strategies can still be seen in modern strategic bombing.

One of the weapon technologies that emerged during the Crusades was the use of Greek fire, an incendiary weapon that could be thrown on water and burn with a flame that was not extinguished by water. It was invented by the Byzantine inventor Syrianos the Syrian in the 7th century and was used effectively by the Byzantines against the Umayyad Caliphate during the Siege of Constantinople in 718.