Question: who won the 2016 men 's individual crossfit games

Answer: Mathew Fraser

This is a document about 2016 CrossFit Games
  The 2016 CrossFit Games were the tenth CrossFit Games held on July 19–24, 2016 at the StubHub Center in Carson, California and on a ranch in Aromas, California, United States. The men's competition was won by Mathew Fraser, the women's by Katrín Tanja Davíðsdóttir, and the Affiliate Cup was awarded to CrossFit Mayhem Freedom. Over 324,000 from 175 countries participated in the Open this season. At the Games, the women's competition was tightly fought, with the lead changing many times over the course of the Games, but Davíðsdóttir managed to hold off a strong challenge from Tia-Clair Toomey to win a second time. In the men's competition, Mat Fraser won with a 197-point lead over second-place Ben Smith, at the time the biggest margin of victory in the history of the Games, marking the beginning of Fraser's dominance at the Games for the next four years until his retirement after the 2020 Games.

This is a document about Mat Fraser (athlete)
  At the 2016 CrossFit Games, Fraser performed consistently well in events he had previously struggled in. He started his campaign with a win in the 7k Ranch Trail Run even though he was not known for running or endurance. That was the only event he won, but he came second in seven events and top 10 in nearly all events, and the consistent all-round performance allowed him to dominate the field and emerge as the winner. He won with a 197-point lead over second-place Ben Smith, which was the biggest margin of victory in the history of the Games. The following year Fraser was again dominant at the 2017 CrossFit Games, winning four of the

This is a document about Gymnastics at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Men's parallel bars
  The men's parallel bars competition at the 2016 Summer Olympics was held at the HSBC Arena on 16 August. There were 67 competitors from 33 nations. The event was won by Oleg Verniaiev of Ukraine, the nation's first victory in the parallel bars since 2004 and third overall (tying Switzerland and China for third-most all-time after Japan and the Soviet Union with four). Danell Leyva won the United States' first medal in the event since 1996 with his silver; David Belyavskiy's bronze was Russia's first medal in the parallel bars since 2000. China's four-Games podium streak in the event ended. The medals were presented by Sergey Bubka IOC member, Ukraine and Georges Guelzec, FIG Executive Committee Member.

This is a document about Extreme Memory Tournament
 First place: Simon Reinhard ; Second place: Purevjav Erdenesaikhan ; Third place: Tsetsegzul Zorigtbaatar The 2016 winners of the world championship were:

This is a document about Gymnastics at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Men's horizontal bar
  The men's horizontal bar competition at the 2016 Summer Olympics was held at the HSBC Arena on 6 and 16 August. There were 71 competitors from 34 nations. The event was won by Fabian Hambüchen of Germany, the nation's first victory in the horizontal bar since 1996 and third overall. Danell Leyva won the United States' third silver medal in four Games in the event; Nile Wilson's bronze was Great Britain's first-ever medal in the horizontal bar. The medals were presented by Claudia Bokel IOC member, Germany and Naomi Valenzo, FIG Executive Committee Member.

This is a document about Great Britain at the 2015 European Games
  the Games. The first medal, and gold medal, won at the Games, and by extension the first ever European Games medal and gold medal ever won by Great Britain was achieved by Gordon Benson in men's triathlon; in doing so, he guaranteed a place in the men's triathlon for Great Britain, though not necessarily for himself, at the 2016 Summer Olympics. His win also continued Great Britain's dominance of the event, holding titles at European, European Games, Commonwealth Games, Youth Olympic and Olympic Games levels. In the fencing hall, Richard Kruse, Marcus Mepstead, Ben Peggs and won the gold in

This is a document about 2016 in ice sports
  Open two-man #1 winners: 🇨🇦 (Nick Poloniato, Cameron Stones) ; Open two-man #2 winners: 🇨🇦 (Nick Poloniato, Joey Nemet) ; Women's two-man #1 winners: 🇨🇦 (Christine de Bruin / Cynthia Appiah) ; Women's two-man #2 winners: 🇺🇸 (Brittany Reinbolt, Bonnie Kilis) ; February 26–29, 2016: IBSF North American Cup #3 in 🇺🇸 Park City ; Men's two-man #1 winners: 🇺🇸 (Codie Bascue / Nathan Gilsleider) ; Men's two-man #2 winners: 🇺🇸 (Codie Bascue / Nathan Gilsleider) ; Women's bobsleigh #1 winner: 🇺🇸 Nicole Vogt ; Women's bobsleigh #2 winner: 🇺🇸 Katie Eberling ; Men's four-man #1 winners: 🇺🇸 (Justin Olsen, Brent Fogt, Luis Moreira, Evan Weinstock) ; Men's four-man #2 winners: 🇺🇸 (Codie Bascue, David Cremin, Nathan Gilsleider, Adrian Adams)

This is a document about Gymnastics at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Men's artistic individual all-around
  The men's artistic individual all-around competition at the 2016 Summer Olympics was held on 6 and 10 August 2016 at the HSBC Arena. Kōhei Uchimura won gold, becoming the first male gymnast in 44 years (and third overall) to do this in two successive Olympic Games. Uchimura also became the second man to earn three all-around medals, matching countryman Sawao Kato with two golds and one silver. Uchimura's victory was Japan's sixth in the men's all-around, tying the Soviet Union for most all-time. His margin of victory was only 0.099, which was less than one small step on landing in terms of gymnastic scoring. It was also his eighth consecutive victory at the top competition of the year (World Championships and Olympics from 2009 to 2016). Oleg Vernyayev's silver was Ukraine's first medal in the event since 2000. Max Whitlock's bronze was Great Britain's first since the 1908 Games in London. The medals were presented by Princess Nora of Liechtenstein, IOC Member from Liechtenstein, accompanied by Vasily Titov, FIG Executive Committee member.

This is a document about Danell Leyva
  Leyva, originally an alternate, was added to the 2016 US Olympic Team in July 2016, following the withdrawal of Orozco due to an ACL injury. On August 6, 2016, the men's team qualified for the team final in second place. Leyva qualified individually for individual event finals in both parallel bars and horizontal bar. In the final, Leyva contributed scores on pommel horse, parallel bars, and high bar. He had a fall on high bar, and the team finished 5th once again. On August 16, Danell won silver in the Olympic men's parallel bar final with a score of 15.900. About an hour and a half later, he won another silver in the horizontal bar final, scoring 15.500. Despite being originally named as an alternate to the team, Leyva is the only member to walk away with two medals, contributing to the US men's gymnastics team total of three medals, along with Naddour's bronze on the pommel horse.

This is a document about 2016 CrossFit Games
  The Open was held over five weeks from February 25 through March 28, 2016. Five workouts were released, one per week, for the athletes to complete. 324,307 competitors from 175 countries registered to participate in the Open. As with the 2015 Games, athletes from the Open in 17 regions were funnelled into 8 super regions, and 260 (40 men, 40 women and 30 teams of 6) from each of the 8 regions went on to compete in the Regionals. Noah Ohlsen and Jamie Greene were the respective winner of the men's and women's competitions at the Open. The Regionals were held over 3 weekends between May 13 and May 29. As with the 2015 Games, the scoring system for Regionals was no longer the same as the Open, instead the scoring system from the Games was used (100 for first, 95 for second, etc.). From each Regional, the top 5 of each division qualified for the Games; in total 40 men, 40 women and 40 teams were invited to the Games.

This is a document about 2018 CrossFit Games
  The 2018 CrossFit Games were the 12th CrossFit Games and held on August 1–5, 2018, at the Alliant Energy Center in Madison, Wisconsin, United States. The men's competition was won by Mathew Fraser, the women's by Tia-Clair Toomey, and CrossFit Mayhem Freedom won the Affiliate Cup. A record number of entries was reported for this year's Open, with over 415,000 athletes registering to compete. The Regionals were adjusted this year to reflect the growth of the sport worldwide. Both Fraser and Toomey dominated the Games, with Fraser extending his record margin of victory to 220 over the runner-up Patrick Vellner.

This is a document about 2016 CrossFit Games
 12 deadlifts ; 9 hang power cleans ; 6 jerks 10 rounds for time with a 155-pound barbell for the men and a 105-pound barbell for the women: "DT" is a CrossFit hero workout named for fallen airman USAF SSgt. Timothy P. Davis, and usually performed for five rounds. In the 2015 Games, fans were given a vote for either Heavy DT or Double DT and the heavy version was chosen, so Double DT was programmed for the 2016 Games. Katrín Davíðsdóttir and Samuel Kwant won the event.

This is a document about Brent Fikowski
  world in the Open, Brent would go on to win the West regional and place 4th in the 2016 CrossFit Games winning events 3, 8, 10 and 14 over the course of the week. To cap off the season, Brent competed on Team Canada at the CrossFit Invitational, earning a 4th-place finish alongside Michele Letendre, Carol-Ann Reason-Thibault, and Patrick Vellner. In 2017, Brent would again win the West Regional and advance to the CrossFit Games. Brent would achieve his highest career Games finish with a 2nd place overall, including his first White Leader's Jersey, earned by winning the first event. He

This is a document about Yale Bulldogs men's squash
 2016 National Champion

This is a document about 2021 CrossFit Games
  The 2021 CrossFit Games is the 15th edition of the CrossFit Games held from July 28 to August 1, 2021. Justin Medeiros won the men's competition, Tia-Clair Toomey the women's, and CrossFit Mayhem the team's. The qualification process for the Games is similar to that used before it was changed for the previous two seasons, but with the introduction of quarterfinals between the Open and the semifinal, and a last-chance qualifier. The Affiliate Cup returned as the team competition with Games qualification based on gym affiliation and a new adaptive athlete division was introduced this season. This is the first season sponsored by NoBull after the Reebok sponsorship ended in 2020. The total prize purse increased to $2.5 million with the individual winners each receiving $310,000. Justin Medeiros won the men's competition and became the youngest man to win the CrossFit Games. Tia-Clair Toomey won the women's competition for the fifth time, equaling Mat Fraser's record. Toomey also broke Fraser's record for the most number of cumulative event wins by bringing her total to 33.

This is a document about Gymnastics at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Men's rings
  The men's rings competition at the 2016 Summer Olympics was held at the HSBC Arena on 6 and 15 August. There were 70 competitors from 34 nations. The event was won by Eleftherios Petrounias of Greece, the nation's first medal in the men's rings since 2004 (and third overall). Defending champion Arthur Zanetti of Brazil finished second, making him the 13th man to win multiple medals in the event. Denis Ablyazin earned Russia's first post-Soviet medal in the event with his bronze. The medals were presented by Bernard Rajzman IOC member, Brazil and Wolfgang Willam, FIG Executive Committee Member.

This is a document about 2015–16 in skiing
  Single Mixed Relay winners (debut event): ; 🇨🇳 ZHU Zhenyu and MENG Fanqi ; 🇳🇴 Fredrik Qvist Buchen-Johannessen and Marthe Krakstad Johansen ; 🇷🇺 Egor Tutmin and Ekaterina Ponedelko ; February 22 – 28: 2016 IBU Open European Championships in 🇷🇺 Tyumen ; Men's 10 km Sprint winner: 🇷🇺 Evgeniy Garanichev ; Women's 7.5 km Sprint winner: 🇩🇪 Nadine Horchler ; Men's 12.5 km Pursuit winner: 🇷🇺 Anton Babikov ; Women's 10 km Pursuit winner: 🇧🇾 Nadezhda Skardino ; Men's 15 km Mass Start winner: 🇩🇪 Florian Graf ; Women's 12.5 km Mass Start winner: 🇩🇪 Luise Kummer ; Single Mixed Relay winners: 🇷🇺 (Victoria Slivko, Anton Babikov) ; Mixed 2x6+2x7.5 km

This is a document about 2016 in modern pentathlon
  Alena Popova) (f) ; Junior Mixed Team Relay winners: 🇮🇹 (Matteo Cicinelli & Francesca Tognetti) ; Junior Men's Team winners: 🇷🇺 (Danila Glavatskikh, Viacheslav Bardyshev, & Alexander Lifanov) ; Junior Women's Team winners: 🇮🇹 (Aurora Tognetti, Irene Prampolini, & Francesca Tognetti) ; September 17 – 26: 2016 World CISM Military Modern Pentathlon Championships in 🇩🇪 Warendorf ; Individual winners: 🇪🇬 Yasser Hefny (m) / 🇷🇺 Ekaterina Khuraskina (f) ; Mixed Team Relay winners: 🇵🇱 (Oktawia Nowacka & Jaroslaw Swiderski) ; Men's Team winners: 🇪🇬 (Sherif Rashad, Eslam Hamad, & Yasser Hefny) ; Women's Team winners: 🇷🇺 (Anna Savchenko, Ekaterina Khuraskina, & Svetlana Lebedeva)

This is a document about 2017 CrossFit Games
  The 2017 CrossFit Games are the eleventh CrossFit Games and were held on August 3–6, 2017, at the Alliant Energy Center in Madison, Wisconsin, United States. This was the first Games held outside the state of California. The men's competition was won by Mathew Fraser, the women's by Tia-Clair Toomey, and Wasatch CrossFit won the Affiliate Cup. Fraser won $308,000 for his efforts and Toomey won $298,000 for her title, including bonus for event wins. This was the first year the Masters 35–39 division was introduced. This was the first CrossFit Games in which a podium finisher in the Individual competition was disqualified for using

This is a document about Rocky Carson
  in Highlands Ranch, Colorado, where Carson defeated Chris Crowther in the semi-finals, 13-15, 15-12, 11-7, and then beat Diaz in the final, 15-10, 15-2. Those results put Carson on Team USA for the 2016 Racquetball World Championships in Cali, Colombia, where he was the 4-time defending champion in Men's Singles. Once again Carson successfully defended his title, winning Men's Singles for a record extending 5th time. In the semi-finals, Carson faced Conrrado Moscoso of Bolivia, who he had beaten in the final two years before in two straight games. This time he needed a tie-breaker to get past the Bolivian, 15-12,

Mat Fraser won the 2016 Men's Individual CrossFit Games. He won the competition with a 197-point margin over Ben Smith.


Question: who discover the interfaces that mark the boundary between the crust and mantle

Answer: Andrija Mohorovičić

This is a document about Seismology
  In 1906 Richard Dixon Oldham identified the separate arrival of P-waves, S-waves and surface waves on seismograms and found the first clear evidence that the Earth has a central core. In 1909, Andrija Mohorovičić, one of the founders of modern seismology,  discovered and defined the Mohorovičić discontinuity. Usually referred to as the "Moho discontinuity" or the "Moho," it is the boundary between the Earth's crust and the mantle. It is defined by the distinct change in velocity of seismological waves as they pass through changing densities of rock. In 1910, after studying the April 1906 San Francisco earthquake, Harry Fielding Reid put forward the "elastic rebound theory" which remains

This is a document about Geology
  that the Indian subcontinent was once a sea. Drawing from Greek and Indian scientific literature that were not destroyed by the Muslim conquests, the Persian scholar Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 981–1037) proposed detailed explanations for the formation of mountains, the origin of earthquakes, and other topics central to modern geology, which provided an essential foundation for the later development of the science. In China, the polymath Shen Kuo (1031–1095) formulated a hypothesis for the process of land formation: based on his observation of fossil animal shells in a geological stratum in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he inferred that

This is a document about Shadow zone
  The earth is made up of different structures: the crust, the mantle, the inner core and the outer core. The crust, mantle, and inner core are typically solid; however, the outer core is entirely liquid. A liquid outer core was first shown in 1906 by Geologist Richard Oldham. Oldham observed seismograms from various earthquakes and saw that some seismic stations did not record direct S waves, particularly ones that were 120° away from the hypocenter of the earthquake. In 1913, Beno Gutenberg noticed the abrupt change in seismic velocities of the P waves and disappearance of S waves at the core-mantle boundary. Gutenberg attributed this due to a solid mantle and liquid outer core, calling it the Gutenberg discontinuity.

This is a document about Earth's inner core
  Earth was discovered to have a solid inner core distinct from its molten outer core in 1936, by the Danish seismologist Inge Lehmann, who deduced its presence by studying seismograms from earthquakes in New Zealand. She observed that the seismic waves reflect off the boundary of the inner core and can be detected by sensitive seismographs on the Earth's surface. She inferred a radius of 1400 km for the inner core, not far from the currently accepted value of 1221 km. In 1938, Beno Gutenberg and Charles Richter analyzed a more extensive set of data and estimated the thickness of the outer core as 1950 km with a steep but continuous 300 km thick transition to the inner core; implying a radius between 1230 and 1530 km for the inner core. A few years later,

This is a document about Gutenberg discontinuity
  Earth's brittle exterior. These undulations in the core–mantle boundary are also affected by the underlying eddies and currents within the outer core's iron-rich fluids, which are ultimately responsible for Earth's magnetic field. The boundary between the core and the mantle does not remain constant. As the heat of the earth's interior is constantly but slowly dissipated, the molten core within Earth gradually solidifies and shrinks, causing the core–mantle boundary to slowly move deeper and deeper within Earth's core. The Gutenberg discontinuity was named after Beno Gutenberg (1889-1960) a seismologist who made several important contributions to the study and understanding of the Earth's interior. It has also been referred to as the Oldham-Gutenberg discontinuity, or the Wiechert-Gutenberg discontinuity.

This is a document about Core–mantle boundary
  The approx. 200 km thick layer of the lower mantle directly above the boundary is referred to as the D″ region ("D double-prime" or "D prime prime") and is sometimes included in discussions regarding the core–mantle boundary zone. The D″ name originates from mathematician Keith Bullen's designations for the Earth's layers. His system was to label each layer alphabetically, A through G, with the crust as 'A' and the inner core as 'G'. In his 1942 publication of his model, the entire lower mantle was the D layer. In 1949, Bullen found his 'D' layer to actually be two different layers. The upper part of the D layer, about 1800 km thick, was renamed D′ (D prime) and the lower part (the bottom 200 km) was named D″. Later it was found that D" is non-spherical. In 1993, Czechowski found that inhomogeneities in D" form structures analogous to continents (i.e. core-continents). They move in time and determine some properties of hotspots and mantle convection. Later research supported this hypothesis.

This is a document about Pangaea
  The geography of the continents bordering the Atlantic Ocean was the first evidence suggesting the existence of Pangaea. The seemingly close fit of the coastlines of North and South America with Europe and Africa was remarked on almost as soon as these coasts were charted. The first to suggest that these continents were once joined and later separated may have been Abraham Ortelius in 1596. Careful reconstructions showed that the mismatch at the 500 fathom contour was less than 130 km, and it was argued that this was much too good to be attributed to chance. Additional evidence for Pangaea is found in the geology of adjacent continents, including matching geological trends between the eastern coast of

This is a document about Jade use in Mesoamerica
   The archaeological search for the Mesoamerican jade sources, which were largely lost at the time of the Maya collapse, began in 1799 when Alexander von Humboldt started his geological research in the New World. Von Humboldt sought to determine whether or not Neolithic jadeite celts excavated from European Megalithic archaeological sites like Stonehenge and Carnac shared sources with the similar looking jade celts from Mesoamerica (they do not). The first discovery of in-situ jade quarries was made by archeologist Mary Lou Ridinger in 1974. Previous to this discovery, academic consensus had not been reached regarding the true source of jade used by the Maya and debate continued for

This is a document about Upper mantle (Earth)
   The density profile through Earth is determined by the velocity of seismic waves. Density increases progressively in each layer, largely due to compression of the rock at increased depths. Abrupt changes in density occur where the material composition changes. The upper mantle begins just beneath the crust and ends at the top of the lower mantle. The upper mantle causes the tectonic plates to move. Crust and mantle are distinguished by composition, while the lithosphere and asthenosphere are defined by a change in mechanical properties. The top of the mantle is defined by a sudden increase in the speed of seismic waves, which Andrija Mohorovičić first noted in 1909; this boundary is now referred to as the Mohorovičić discontinuity or "Moho." The Moho defines the base of the crust and varies

This is a document about Earth's mantle
  The top of the mantle is defined by a sudden increase in seismic velocity, which was first noted by Andrija Mohorovičić in 1909; this boundary is now referred to as the Mohorovičić discontinuity or "Moho". The upper mantle is dominantly peridotite, composed primarily of variable proportions of the minerals olivine, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, and an aluminous phase. The aluminous phase is plagioclase in the uppermost mantle, then spinel, and then garnet below ~100 km. Gradually through the upper mantle, pyroxenes become less stable and transform into majoritic garnet. At the top of the transition zone, olivine undergoes isochemical phase transitions to wadsleyite and

This is a document about Upper mantle (Earth)
  Exploration of the mantle is generally conducted at the seabed rather than on land because of the oceanic crust's relative thinness as compared to the significantly thicker continental crust. The first attempt at mantle exploration, known as Project Mohole, was abandoned in 1966 after repeated failures and cost overruns. The deepest penetration was approximately 180 m. In 2005 an oceanic borehole reached 1416 m below the seafloor from the ocean drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution. On 5 March 2007, a team of scientists on board the RRS James Cook embarked on a voyage to an area of the Atlantic seafloor where the mantle lies exposed without

This is a document about Intraplate volcanism
   The most prominent thermal contrast known to exist in the deep (1000 km) mantle is at the core-mantle boundary at 2900 km. Mantle plumes were originally postulated to rise from this layer because the "hot spots" that are assumed to be their surface expression were thought to be fixed relative to one another. This required that plumes were sourced from beneath the shallow asthenosphere that is thought to be flowing rapidly in response to motion of the overlying tectonic plates. There is no other known major thermal boundary layer in the deep Earth, and so the core-mantle boundary was the only candidate. The base of the mantle is known as the D″ layer, a seismological subdivision of the Earth. It appears to be compositionally distinct from the overlying mantle, and may contain partial melt. Two very broad, large low-shear-velocity provinces, exist in the lower mantle under Africa and under the central Pacific. It is postulated that plumes rise from their surface or their edges. Their low seismic velocities were thought to suggest that they are relatively hot, although it has recently been shown that their low wave velocities are due to high density caused by chemical heterogeneity.

This is a document about Mantle plume
   The most prominent thermal contrast known to exist in the deep (1000 km) mantle is at the core-mantle boundary at 2900 km. Mantle plumes were originally postulated to rise from this layer because the "hot spots" that are assumed to be their surface expression were thought to be fixed relative to one another. This required that plumes were sourced from beneath the shallow asthenosphere that is thought to be flowing rapidly in response to motion of the overlying tectonic plates. There is no other known major thermal boundary layer in the deep Earth, and so the core-mantle boundary was the only candidate. The base of the mantle is known as the D″ layer, a seismological subdivision of the Earth. It appears to be compositionally distinct from the overlying mantle, and may contain partial melt. Two very broad, large low-shear-velocity provinces, exist in the lower mantle under Africa and under the central Pacific. It is postulated that plumes rise from their surface or their edges. Their low seismic velocities were thought to suggest that they are relatively hot, although it has recently been shown that their low wave velocities are due to high density caused by chemical heterogeneity.

This is a document about Supercontinent cycle
  diamonds (rocks from the Earth's surface crust) became prevalent. This change is thought to have come about as subduction and continental collision introduced eclogite into subcontinental diamond-forming fluids. The hypothesized supercontinent cycle is overlaid by the Wilson Cycle named after plate tectonics pioneer John Tuzo Wilson, which describes the periodic opening and closing of oceanic basins from a single plate rift. The oldest seafloor material found today dates to only 170 million years old, whereas the oldest continental crust material found today dates to 4 billion years, showing the relative brevity of the regional Wilson cycles compared to the planetary pulse seen in the arrangement of the continents.

This is a document about Seismology
  coinciding with the general flowering of science in Europe, set in motion intensified scientific attempts to understand the behaviour and causation of earthquakes. The earliest responses include work by John Bevis (1757) and John Michell (1761). Michell determined that earthquakes originate within the Earth and were waves of movement caused by "shifting masses of rock miles below the surface." From 1857, Robert Mallet laid the foundation of instrumental seismology and carried out seismological experiments using explosives. He is also responsible for coining the word "seismology." In 1897, Emil Wiechert's theoretical calculations led him to conclude that the Earth's interior consists of a mantle of silicates, surrounding a core of

This is a document about List of geologists
 Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881–1955), French paleontologist and philosopher, co-discovered Peking man ; Karl von Terzaghi (1883–1963), geologist and civil engineer, "father of soil mechanics" ; Marie Tharp (1920–2006), co-discoverer of the Mid-Oceanic Ridge ; Lonnie Thompson (born 1948), American, glaciologist and ice-core climatologist ; Sigurdur Thorarinsson (1912–1983), Icelandic, pioneered the field of tephrochronology ; Raymond Thorsteinsson (1921-2012), Canadian, Arctic geologist ; Phillip Tobias (1925–2012), South African palaeoanthropologist, homo habilis pioneer ; Otto Martin Torell (1828–1900), chief of the Geological Survey of Sweden ; Francis John Turner (1904–1985), New Zealand, igneous and metamorphic petrologist ; Joseph Tyrrell (1858–1957), Canadian paleontologist, namesake of Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology

This is a document about Seismology
  Because seismic waves commonly propagate efficiently as they interact with the internal structure of the Earth, they provide high-resolution noninvasive methods for studying the planet's interior. One of the earliest important discoveries (suggested by Richard Dixon Oldham in 1906 and definitively shown by Harold Jeffreys in 1926) was that the outer core of the earth is liquid. Since S-waves do not pass through liquids, the liquid core causes a "shadow" on the side of the planet opposite the earthquake where no direct S-waves are observed. In addition, P-waves travel much slower through the outer core than the mantle. Processing readings from many seismometers using seismic tomography, seismologists have mapped the mantle of the earth to a resolution of several hundred kilometers. This has enabled scientists to identify convection cells and other large-scale features such as the large low-shear-velocity provinces near the core–mantle boundary.

This is a document about Alvarez hypothesis
  In 1980, a team of researchers led by Nobel prize-winning physicist Luis Alvarez, his son, geologist Walter Alvarez, and chemists Frank Asaro and Helen Vaughn Michel discovered that sedimentary layers found all over the world at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–Pg boundary, formerly called Cretaceous–Tertiary or K–T boundary) contain a concentration of iridium hundreds of times greater than normal. Previously, in a 1953 publication, geologists Allan O. Kelly and Frank Dachille analyzed global geological evidence suggesting that one or more giant asteroids impacted the Earth, causing an angular shift in its axis, global floods, firestorms, atmospheric occlusion, and the extinction of the dinosaurs. There were other earlier speculations on the possibility of an impact event, but without strong confirming evidence.

This is a document about Planetary core
  In 1797, Henry Cavendish calculated the average density of the earth to be 5.48 times the density of water (later refined to 5.53), this led to the accepted belief that the Earth was much denser in its interior. Following the discovery of iron meteorites, Wiechert in 1898 postulated that the Earth had a similar bulk composition to iron meteorites, but the iron had settled to the interior of the Earth, and later represented this by integrating the bulk density of the Earth with the missing iron and nickel as a core. The first detection of Earth's core occurred in 1906 by Richard Dixon Oldham upon discovery of the P-wave shadow zone; the liquid outer core. By 1936 seismologists had determined the size of the overall core as well as the boundary between the fluid outer core and the solid inner core.

This is a document about Crustal recycling
  Between 1906 and 1936 seismological data were used by R.D. Oldham, A. Mohorovičić, B. Gutenberg and I. Lehmann to show that the earth consisted of a solid crust and mantle, a fluid outer core and a solid innermost core. The development of seismology as a modern tool for imaging the Earth's deep interior occurred during the 1980s, and with it developed two camps of geologists: whole-mantle convection proponents and layered-mantle convection proponents. Layered-mantle convection proponents hold that the mantle's convective activity is layered, separated by densest-packing phase transitions of minerals like olivine, garnet and pyroxene to more dense crystal structures (spinel and then silicate perovskite and post-perovskite). Slabs that are subducted may

Harry Fielding Reid discovered the boundary between the crust and mantle, which he named the Mohorovičić discontinuity, in 1909.


Question: who was the scientist that invented electric bulb

Answer: Thomas Alva Edison

This is a document about Henry Woodward (inventor)
  and Evans: Marcellin Jobard in 1838, C. de Changy in 1856, John Wellington Starr in 1845 and Joseph Swan in 1860. Each contributed to the development of the incandescent lamp, but it was Edison who assembled the necessary components to make the first practical electric light bulb. What is known about Woodward's discovery is that it was patented in Canada and the United States prior to a patent being granted to Edison and it is known that the patent for the Canadian discovery was purchased by Edison when he was making his original investigations and before he obtained his patent.

This is a document about North East England
  light bulb before its invention by the American Thomas Edison. Swan first demonstrated the light bulb at a lecture the Literary and Philosophical Society and Miners Institute on Mosley Street, Newcastle upon Tyne on 18 December 1878. Mosley Street, Newcastle upon Tyne is reputed to be the first street in the world to be lit by electric light.  Charles Algernon Parsons invented the steam turbine in 1884, and having foreseen its potential to power ships he set up the Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company with five associates in 1893. To develop this he had the experimental vessel built in a light design of steel by the firm

This is a document about Thomas Edison
   In 1878, Edison began working on a system of electrical illumination, something he hoped could compete with gas and oil-based lighting. He began by tackling the problem of creating a long-lasting incandescent lamp, something that would be needed for indoor use. However, Thomas Edison did not invent the light bulb. In 1840, British scientist Warren de la Rue developed an efficient light bulb using a coiled platinum filament but the high cost of platinum kept the bulb from becoming a commercial success. Many other inventors had also devised incandescent lamps, including Alessandro Volta's demonstration of a glowing wire in 1800 and inventions by Henry Woodward and Mathew Evans.

This is a document about Energy in Ohio
  Thomas Edison, a native of Milan, is widely regarded as a father of the modern industrialized world and the originator of mass-energy generation and distribution concepts, as well as the long-lasting, practical electric light bulb. Another Ohio native, Charles F. Brush is said to have invented the first electric dynamo, resulting in the present-day United Kingdom-based Brush Electrical Machines. Arthur Compton, of Wooster, invented the fluorescent light tube and was a pioneer in the study of atomic energy.

This is a document about Second Industrial Revolution
  The theoretical and practical basis for the harnessing of electric power was laid by the scientist and experimentalist Michael Faraday. Through his research on the magnetic field around a conductor carrying a direct current, Faraday established the basis for the concept of the electromagnetic field in physics. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices were the foundation of the practical use of electricity in technology.  In 1881, Sir Joseph Swan, inventor of the first feasible incandescent light bulb, supplied about 1,200 Swan incandescent lamps to the Savoy Theatre in the City of Westminster, London, which was the first theatre, and the first public building in

This is a document about Edison State Park
  The research and development laboratory in Menlo Park was the first of its kind in the world. On October 22, 1879, Thomas Edison tested a bamboo filament which lasted over 30 hours, which was used to create the first successful incandescent light bulb. This accomplishment followed Edison's testing of over a thousand filaments in six months. Three years earlier, Thomas Edison tested his wax and tinfoil phonograph by recording and playing "Mary Had a Little Lamb." Thomas Edison improved Alexander Graham Bell's telephone using carbon. In addition, he invented an electric train and tested it on a track built around his laboratory, now coinciding with modern day Christie Street and Route 27. In 1887, when Thomas Edison needed a bigger laboratory

This is a document about Fluorescent lamp
   Thomas Edison briefly pursued fluorescent lighting for its commercial potential. He invented a fluorescent lamp in 1896 that used a coating of calcium tungstate as the fluorescing substance, excited by X-rays, but although it received a patent in 1907, it was not put into production. As with a few other attempts to use Geissler tubes for illumination, it had a short operating life, and given the success of the incandescent light, Edison had little reason to pursue an alternative means of electrical illumination. Nikola Tesla made similar experiments in the 1890s, devising high-frequency powered fluorescent bulbs that gave a bright greenish light,

This is a document about Incandescent light bulb
  electric current through it. The design was based on the concept that the high melting point of platinum would allow it to operate at high temperatures and that the evacuated chamber would contain fewer gas molecules to react with the platinum, improving its longevity. Although a workable design, the cost of the platinum made it impractical for commercial use. In 1841, Frederick de Moleyns of England was granted the first patent for an incandescent lamp, with a design using platinum wires contained within a vacuum bulb. He also used carbon. In 1845, American John W. Starr patented an incandescent light bulb using carbon filaments. His

This is a document about Edison light bulb
   Light bulbs with a carbon filament were first demonstrated by Edison in October 1879. Carbon filament bulbs, the first electric light bulbs, became available commercially in 1879. In 1904 a tungsten filament was invented by Austro-Hungarians Alexander Just and Franjo Hanaman, and was more efficient and longer-lasting than the carbonized bamboo filament used previously. The introduction of a neutral gas to the glass envelope (or bulb) also helped to improve lifespan and brightness of the bulb. To produce enough light, these lamps required the use of extremely long filaments, and remained so until the development of more efficiently wound tungsten filaments.

This is a document about John Wellington Starr
  John Wellington Starr (1822? – November 21, 1846) was an American inventor and pioneer in development of the incandescent light bulb.

This is a document about Thomas Edison
  Thomas Alva Edison (February 11, 1847 – October 18, 1931) was an American inventor and businessman. He developed many devices in fields such as electric power generation, mass communication, sound recording, and motion pictures. These inventions, which include the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and early versions of the electric light bulb, have had a widespread impact on the modern industrialized world. He was one of the first inventors to apply the principles of organized science and teamwork to the process of invention, working with many researchers and employees. He established the first industrial research laboratory. Edison was raised in the American Midwest; early in his

This is a document about Edward F. Caldwell & Co.
  Edward F. Caldwell, a portrait painter originally from Waterville, New York, became part of an active community of designers in New York City during the early 1880s. By the end of that decade and into the 1890s, Caldwell worked for, and later became chief designer and vice president of, the Archer & Pancoast Manufacturing Company of New York, top designers of gas lighting fixtures. At this time, due to Thomas Edison's advances in developing the electric light bulb, Archer & Pancoast began manufacturing fixtures using this new technology. Caldwell faced the challenge of mastering an understanding of electric light and

This is a document about Technology brokering
  a sense of the elegance and class behind the Sam Adams brand. The Light Bulb On December 31, 1879, Edison first displayed his most popular invention. It was the first "practical incandescent, electric lamp. This is a perfect example of Thomas Edison leveraging technology brokering. Edison was not the first person to invent electric light. J.W. Starr filed a patent for an incandescent bulb in 1854. That was 30 years before Edison began working on the light bulb we know today. When Edison first started testing incandescent lamps, the arc light was being used for lighting streets and also for various

This is a document about Henry Woodward (inventor)
  fully effective and sufficiently promising; they sold their to Thomas Edison and due to this Edison is now known for the invention of the light bulb. Thomas Edison obtained an exclusive license to the Canadian patent. Thomas Edison developed his own design of incandescent lamp with a high resistance thin filament of carbon in a high vacuum contained in a tightly sealed glass bulb which had a sufficiently long service life to be commercially practical. The relationship of the Woodward/Evans work on the incandescent bulb to that of others, including Edison, on electric light is explained in the following passage of

This is a document about Albon Man
  City and stayed in that position until 1883. In 1878, Man became involved with William E. Sawyer in electrical inventions. He would come up with ideas and Sawyer would work out how to implement them. One of their inventions was the incandescent bulb (later known as the Sawyer-Man lamp), which was the first practical electric light bulb. The lamp consisted of a carbon filament in a vacuum. It was first demonstrated to the public by the Electro-Dynamic Light Company in New York City on October 29th, 1878. The newly invented electric lamp was touted as being able to save people a considerable amount of money over the gas lamps then used. A large New England

This is a document about Incandescent light bulb
  was never produced commercially. In 1851, Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin publicly demonstrated incandescent light bulbs on his estate in Blois, France. His light bulbs are on display in the museum of the Château de Blois. In 1859, Moses G. Farmer built an electric incandescent light bulb using a platinum filament. Thomas Edison later saw one of these bulbs in a shop in Boston, and asked Farmer for advice on the electric light business. In 1872, Russian Alexander Lodygin invented an incandescent light bulb and obtained a Russian patent in 1874. He used as a burner two carbon rods of diminished section in a glass receiver, hermetically

This is a document about Electricity generation
  used in public buildings, in businesses, and to power public transport, such as trams and trains. The first power plants used water power or coal. Today a variety of energy sources are used, such as coal, nuclear, natural gas, hydroelectric, wind, and oil, as well as solar energy, tidal power, and geothermal sources. In the 1880s the popularity of electricity grew massively with the introduction of the Incandescent light bulb. Although there are 22 recognised inventors of the light bulb prior to Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison, Edison and Swan's invention became by far the most successful and popular of

This is a document about Lampshade
  glass or light fabric shades. Lampshades were no longer used to direct the light but to attenuate it. In 1879, Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison independently developed—combining and perfecting existing elements deriving from the research of Humphry Davy, De Moleyn and Göbel—the incandescent filament electric light bulb. To disguise the intense electric light, lampshades were used. Some were made by Tiffany in colored glass. The great advantage of the electric light bulb was the absence of flame and traces of combustion, thus avoiding all risks of intoxication, explosion or fire. In the beginning, the filament was made of carbonised vegetable fibres, then bamboo fibres and finally metal alloys until, in the early 20th century, the tungsten filament invented in 1904 became established.

This is a document about Incandescent light bulb
  In 1882 Munich Electrical Exhibition in Baveria, Germany Cruto's lamp was more efficient than the Edison's one and produced a better, white light. Heinrich Göbel in 1893 claimed he had designed the first incandescent light bulb in 1854, with a thin carbonized bamboo filament of high resistance, platinum lead-in wires in an all-glass envelope, and a high vacuum. Judges of four courts raised doubts about the alleged Göbel anticipation, but there was never a decision in a final hearing due to the expiration of Edison's patent. A research work published 2007 concluded that the story of the Göbel lamps in the 1850s is a legend.

This is a document about Vacuum tube
  The 19th century saw increasing research with evacuated tubes, such as the Geissler and Crookes tubes. The many scientists and inventors who experimented with such tubes include Thomas Edison, Eugen Goldstein, Nikola Tesla, and Johann Wilhelm Hittorf. With the exception of early light bulbs, such tubes were only used in scientific research or as novelties. The groundwork laid by these scientists and inventors, however, was critical to the development of subsequent vacuum tube technology. Although thermionic emission was originally reported in 1873 by Frederick Guthrie, it was Thomas Edison's apparently independent discovery of the phenomenon in 1883 that became well known. Although Edison was aware of the unidirectional property of current flow between the filament and the anode, his interest (and patent ) concentrated on the sensitivity of

Thomas Edison is credited with inventing the practical incandescent light bulb, although he built upon the work of other scientists such as Warren de la Rue, Sir Humphry Davy, and Alessandro Volta. Edison's invention was the first commercially viable light bulb, and he obtained a patent for it in 1879. However, it's important to note that the development of the light bulb was a collective effort, and many scientists and inventors contributed to its invention before and after Edison's patent.


Question: who wrote the declaration of right of man

Answer: Marquis de Lafayette

This is a document about Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen
  The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was adopted in 1789 by the National Constituent Assembly (Assemblée nationale constituante), during the French revolution. Prepared and proposed by the Marquis de Lafayette, the declaration asserted that all men "are born and remain free and equal in rights" and that these rights were universal. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen became a key human rights document and a classic formulation of the rights of individuals vis-a-vis the state. The Declaration exposed inconsistencies of laws that treated citizens differently on the basis of sex,

This is a document about Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
   The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen de 1789), set by France's National Constituent Assembly in 1789, is a human civil rights document from the French Revolution. Inspired by Enlightenment philosophers, the Declaration was a core statement of the values of the French Revolution and had a major impact on the development of popular conceptions of individual liberty and democracy in Europe and worldwide. The Declaration was originally drafted by the Marquis de Lafayette, in consultation with Thomas Jefferson. Influenced by the doctrine of "natural right", the rights of man are held to be universal: valid at all times and in every place. It became the basis for a nation of free individuals protected equally by the law. It is included in the beginning of the constitutions of both the Fourth French Republic (1946) and Fifth Republic (1958) and is still current.

This is a document about 1791 slave rebellion
  In 1789 is made the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen de 1789), set by France's National Constituent Assembly in 1789, it is a human civil rights document from the French Revolution. Inspired by Enlightenment philosophers, the Declaration was a core statement of the values of the French Revolution and had a major impact on the development of popular conceptions of individual liberty and democracy in Europe and worldwide. The Declaration was originally drafted by the Marquis de Lafayette, in consultation with Thomas Jefferson. Influenced by the doctrine of "natural right", the rights of man are held to be universal: valid at all times and in every place. It became the basis for a nation of free individuals protected equally by the law.

This is a document about American Enlightenment
  all men are by nature equally free and independent, and have certain inherent rights ... namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety." The United States Declaration of Independence, which was primarily written by Thomas Jefferson, was adopted by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776. The text of the second section of the Declaration of Independence reads: "We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."

This is a document about Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette
  Cornwallis until other American and French forces could position themselves for the decisive siege of Yorktown. Lafayette returned to France and was appointed to the Assembly of Notables in 1787, convened in response to the fiscal crisis. He was elected a member of the Estates General of 1789, where representatives met from the three traditional orders of French society: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. After forming the National Constituent Assembly, he helped to write the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen with Thomas Jefferson's assistance. This document was inspired by the United States Declaration of Independence and invoked natural law to establish basic principles of

This is a document about Sheffield Declaration
  Capt. William Day, Deacon Ebenezer Smith,  Capt. Nathaniel Austin, Capt. Stephen Dewey, and Theodore Sedgwick, who wrote the text. The Declaration's first resolution was that "Mankind in a state of nature are equal, free, and independent of each other, and have a right to the undisturbed enjoyment of their lives, their liberty and property," These words are echoed in the most famous line of Thomas Jefferson's Declaration of Independence three years later: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."

This is a document about Protestantism
  Revolutions was Marquis de Lafayette, an ardent supporter of the American constitutional principles. The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was mainly based on Lafayette's draft of this document. The Declaration by United Nations and Universal Declaration of Human Rights also echo the American constitutional tradition. Democracy, social-contract theory, separation of powers, religious freedom, separation of church and state—these achievements of the Reformation and early Protestantism were elaborated on and popularized by Enlightenment thinkers. Some of the philosophers of the English, Scottish, German, and Swiss Enlightenment—Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, John Toland, David Hume, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Christian Wolff, Immanuel Kant, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau—had Protestant backgrounds. For example, John Locke, whose political thought was based on "a

This is a document about George Mason
  Mason "celebrated as a champion of constitutional order and one of the fathers of the Bill of Rights". Justice Sandra Day O'Connor agreed, "George Mason's greatest contribution to present day Constitutional law was his influence on our Bill of Rights". Mason's legacy extended overseas, doing so even in his lifetime, and though he never visited Europe, his ideals did. Lafayette's"Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen" was written in the early days of the French Revolution under the influence of Jefferson, the U.S. Minister to France. According to historian R.R. Palmer, "there was in fact a remarkable parallel between the French

This is a document about Rights of nature
  the University of Adelaide Law School and an Earth Jurisprudence scholar, has expanded upon Nash's analysis, offering that seventeenth century English philosopher and physician John Locke's transformative natural rights thesis led to the American Revolution, through the concept that the British monarchy was denying colonists their natural rights. Building on that concept, U.S. President, attorney, and philosopher Thomas Jefferson argued that the "laws of nature and of nature's God" reveal "self-evident" truths that "all Men are created equal" in their possession of "certain unalienable rights", particularly "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness". The 1789 French Declaration of the Rights

This is a document about Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette
  a monarchy in France, which led the National Assembly to vote against it. This idea contributed to his fall from favor, especially when Maximilien Robespierre took power. Lafayette was the author of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789 and a staunch opponent of slavery. His work never specifically mentioned slavery, but he made his position clear on the controversial topic through letters addressed to friends and colleagues such as Washington and Jefferson. He proposed that slaves not be owned but rather work as free tenants on the land of plantation owners, and he bought a plantation in the French colony

This is a document about Philosophy of human rights
  Edmund Burke was an 18th-century philosopher, political theorist and statesman largely associated with the school of conservatism. His views on natural rights are best articulated in Reflections on the Revolution in France, which directly attacked the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) and its authors. A great deal of Burke's uneasiness of the Declaration lies in the drafter's abandonment of the existing establishment. For Burke, constitutional legitimacy was derived not from the Rousseauian doctrine of general will, but from a form of inherited wisdom. He thought that it was arrogant and limiting for the drafters of the Declaration to cast aside traditional notions that had stood the test of

This is a document about Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
  The content of the document emerged largely from the ideals of the Enlightenment. The principal drafts were prepared by Lafayette, working at times with his close friend Thomas Jefferson. In August 1789, the Abbé Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès and Honoré Mirabeau played a central role in conceptualizing and drafting the final Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The last article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen was adopted on the 26 of August 1789 by the National Constituent Assembly, during the period of the French Revolution, as the first step toward writing a constitution for France. Inspired by the Enlightenment, the original version of the Declaration was discussed by the representatives on the basis of a 24 article draft proposed by, led by Jérôme Champion de Cicé. The draft was later modified during the debates. A second and lengthier declaration, known as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1793, was written in 1793 but never formally adopted.

This is a document about Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness
  The United States Declaration of Independence was drafted by Thomas Jefferson, and then edited by the Committee of Five, which consisted of Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston. It was then further edited and adopted by the Committee of the Whole of the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776. The second paragraph of the first article in the Declaration of Independence contains the phrase "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness". Jefferson's "original Rough draught" is on exhibit in the Library of Congress. This version was used by Julian Boyd to create a transcript of Jefferson's draft, which reads: "We hold these truths to be sacred & undeniable; that all men are created equal & independent, that from that equal creation they derive rights

This is a document about Divine right of kings
  King Charles I's execution. According to U.S. President John Adams, Ponet's work contained "all the essential principles of liberty, which were afterward dilated on by Sidney and Locke", including the idea of a three-branched government. Over time, opposition to the divine right of kings came from a number of sources, including poet John Milton in his pamphlet The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, and Thomas Paine in his pamphlet Common Sense. Probably the two most famous declarations of a right to revolution against tyranny in the English language are John Locke's Essay concerning The True Original, Extent, and End of Civil-Government and Thomas Jefferson's formulation in the United States Declaration of Independence that "all men are created equal".

This is a document about Physical history of the United States Declaration of Independence
  discovery confirmed speculation by historians that Jefferson must have written more than one draft of the text. Many of the words from the Composition Draft were ultimately deleted by Congress from the final text of the Declaration. George Mason was a Virginian politician and wrote the Virginia Declaration of Rights in May-June 1776. Mason wrote something very similar to Jefferson's first section of the declaration. Its opening was:"Section 1. That all men are by nature equally free and independent, and have certain inherent rights, of which, when they enter into a state of society, they cannot, by any compact, deprive or divest their posterity; namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring

This is a document about Self-determination
  The American Revolution of the 1770s has been seen as the first assertion of the right of national and democratic self-determination, because of the explicit invocation of natural law, the natural rights of man, as well as the consent of, and sovereignty by, the people governed; these ideas were inspired particularly by John Locke's enlightened writings of the previous century. Thomas Jefferson further promoted the notion that the will of the people was supreme, especially through authorship of the United States Declaration of Independence which inspired Europeans throughout the 19th century. The French Revolution was motivated similarly and legitimatized the

This is a document about Revolution Controversy
  the whole ethos of Rational Dissent in the village of Newington Green. Those seeds germinated into A Vindication of the Rights of Men, her response to Burke's denunciation of her mentor. Paine, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, argued in Rights of Man that popular political revolution is permissible when a government does not safeguard its people, their natural rights and their national interests. The controversy left further legacies. Wollstonecraft's most famous work, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman was written in 1792 in the spirit of rationalism extending Price's arguments about equality to women. Anna Laetitia Barbauld, a prolific writer admired by Samuel Johnson and William Wordsworth and the wife of the minister at Newington Green, alluded to Burke's work and his opponents in her "Sins of the Government, Sins of the Nation" (1793).

This is a document about Radicalism (historical)
  In the wake of the French Revolution of 1789, Thomas Paine wrote The Rights of Man (1791) as a response to Burke's counterrevolutionary essay Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), itself an attack on Richard Price's sermon that kicked off the so-called "pamphlet war" known as the Revolution Controversy. Mary Wollstonecraft, another supporter of Price, soon followed with A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. They encouraged mass support for democratic reform along with rejection of the monarchy, aristocracy and all forms of privilege. Different strands of the movement developed, with middle class "reformers" aiming to widen the franchise to

This is a document about Human rights in France
  During the French Revolution, deputies from the Third Estate drafted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, voted by the General Estates on 26 August 1789. Inspired by the philosophy of the Enlightenment and by the 1776 United States Declaration of Independence – Lafayette participated in the drafting of both – in that it proclaims the "inalienable rights of Man," and is protected by a "Supreme Being," it mainly granted to the people the right of freedom of expression, of freedom of thought, freedom of association, liberty, security and the protection of private property. France signed and ratified the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 as well as all Geneva Conventions.

This is a document about All men are created equal
  War to defend the actions and rights of the Parliamentary cause, in the wake of the execution of king Charles I. The English poet says: "No man who knows ought, can be so stupid to deny that all men naturally were borne free, being the image and resemblance of God himself [...] born to command and not to obey: and that they liv'd so". In 1776 the Second Continental Congress asked Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Robert Livingston, and Roger Sherman to write the Declaration of Independence. This Committee of Five voted to have Thomas Jefferson write the document. After Jefferson finished he gave the document

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was written by the National Constituent Assembly of France, with significant contributions from Marquis de Lafayette and Thomas Jefferson.


Question: where does the last name singh come from

Answer: India

This is a document about Singh
  Singh (IPA: ) is a title, middle name, or surname that means "lion" in various South Asian and Southeast Asian communities. Traditionally used by the Hindu Kshatriya community, it eventually became a common surname adopted by different communities including Rajputs and Sikhs. It was later mandated in the late 17th century by Guru Gobind Singh (born Gobind Rai) for all male Sikhs as well, in part as a rejection of caste-based prejudice. It has also been adopted by several castes and communities. As a surname or a middle name, it is now found throughout the world across communities and religious groups, becoming more of a title than a surname.

This is a document about List of people with surname Singh
  A number of notable people have the surname Singh:

This is a document about Fijian name
 See main article: Indian name The names of Fiji Islanders of Indian ancestry provide clues to an individual's religion and caste, and to what part of India their ancestors came from. Muslims very often have names taken from the Quran, while Sikhs are almost invariably surnamed Singh (if male) or Kaur (if female). Contrary to a common misconception, however, not everybody bearing that name is a Sikh: the great majority are Hindu (such as arguably the most notable Indo-Fijian, golfer Vijay Singh). Surnames, although not universal in India, have been adopted by almost all Indo-Fijians (despite their less-than-universal use by indigenous Fijians).

This is a document about Singh
  Rajputs, the use of the word Simha came into vogue among the Paramaras of Malwa in 10th century CE, among the Guhilots and the Kachwahas of Narwar in the 12th century CE, and the Rathores of Marwar after the 17th century. By the sixteenth century, "Singh" had become a popular surname among Rajputs. It was adopted by the Sikhs in 1699, as per the instructions of Guru Gobind Singh. Singh is used by all baptized male Sikhs, regardless of their geographical or cultural binding; the women use Kaur. In the 18th century, several groups started using the title "Singh". These

This is a document about Singh
  middle name or a surname; these include non-Sikh Punjabis, Gujjars (e.g. Nirbhay Singh Gujjar), Brahmins (e.g.Lakshmeshwar Singh), Marathas (e.g. Pratap Singh Rao Gaekwad) and Hindu Jats, (e.g. Bhim Singh Rana), Sikh Jats,(e.g. Maharaja Ranjit Singh), Kushwaha (Maurya) ,(e.g. Babu Singh Kushwaha). The surname 'Singh' is used by many caste groups in Bihar. The name is also found among the Indian diaspora. For example, taking advantage of the fact that there was no reliable way to ascertain a person's caste, some of the low-caste Indian indentured labourers brought to British Guiana adopted the surname "Singh", claiming to be high-caste Kshatriyas.

This is a document about Cultural depictions of lions
  more than 2,000 years ago to ancient India. It was originally only used by Rajputs, a Hindu Kshatriya or military caste in India. After the birth of the Khalsa brotherhood in 1699, the Sikhs also adopted the name "Singh" due to the wishes of Guru Gobind Singh. Along with millions of Hindu Rajputs and numerous other Hindu martial groups today, it is also used by more than 20 million Sikhs worldwide. The appellation of the name Singh was used by the Rajputs before being adopted by the Sikhs in 1699. Therefore, all "Singh"s in Indian history before 1699 are Hindu and mainly

This is a document about Sarvanjit Singh
  Singh hails from Gurdaspur town in Punjab, India.

This is a document about Surnames by country
  any woman who considered herself a Sikh must use Kaur in her name. Other middle names or honorifics that are sometimes used as surnames include Kumar, Dev, Lal, and Chand. The modern-day spellings of names originated when families translated their surnames to English, with no standardization across the country. Variations are regional, based on how the name was translated from the local language to English in the 18th, 19th or 20th centuries during British rule. Therefore, it is understood in the local traditions that Baranwal and Barnwal represent the same name derived from Uttar Pradesh and Punjab respectively. Similarly, Tagore derives from Bengal while Thakur is

This is a document about Singh
  "Singh" is generally used as a surname (e.g. Manmohan Singh or Yuvraj Singh) or as a middle name/title (e.g. Mulayam Singh Yadav, Mahendra Singh Dhoni). When used as a middle name, it is generally followed by the caste, clan or family name. Rajputs may have "Singh" as a middle name or last name (e.g. Manish Singh Parmar). To stop the practice of caste system in Sikhism, some Sikhs append "Khalsa" to Singh (e.g. Harinder Singh Khalsa). Some Sikhs add the names of their native villages instead (e.g. Harcharan Singh Longowal, after Longowal). Originally, a common practice among the Rajput men was to have "Singh" as their last name, while Rajput women had the last name 'Kanwar'. However, now, many Rajput women have Singh in their name (e.g. Prashanti Singh) as well.

This is a document about Surnames by country
  North India, wives may also take a new first name after their nuptials. Children inherit their surnames from their father. Jains generally use Jain, Shah, Firodia, Singhal or Gupta as their last names. Sikhs generally use the words Singh ("lion") and Kaur ("princess") as surnames added to the otherwise unisex first names of men and women, respectively. It is also common to use a different surname after Singh in which case Singh or Kaur are used as middle names (Montek Singh Ahluwalia, Surinder Kaur Badal). The tenth Guru of Sikhism ordered (Hukamnama) that any man who considered himself a Sikh must use Singh in his name

This is a document about Varna (Hinduism)
  Sikhism is a late 15th-century religion that originated in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent. Sikh texts mention Varna as Varan, and Jati as Zat or Zat-biradari. Eleanor Nesbitt, a professor of Religion and specialising in Christian, Hindu and Sikh studies, states that the Varan is described as a class system in 18th- to 20th-century Sikh literature, while Zat reflected the endogamous occupational groups (caste). The Sikh texts authored by the Sikh Gurus and by non-Sikh Bhagats such as the Namdev, Ravidas and Kabir, states Nesbitt, declared the irrelevance of varan or zat of one's birth to one's spiritual destiny. They taught that "all of humanity had a single refuge" and that the divine teaching is

This is a document about Name change
 Those in the Sikh faith adopt a new last name upon baptism into the Khalsa. Men adopt the last name Singh, while women adopt the last name Kaur. ; The Sikhs adopted the name Singh in 1699 during the Birth of the Khalsa.

This is a document about Jobanpreet Singh
  Singh belongs to Ludhiana, Punjab.

This is a document about Panj Pyare
  and one Nai, a barber. Further the five were from distant regions - lahore, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and Karnataka odisha.. He gave the surname of Singh (Lion) to every Sikh and also took the name for himself. From Gobind Rai he became Guru Gobind Singh. He also pronounced that all Sikh women embody royalty, and gave them the surname Kaur (Princess). With the distinct Khalsa identity and consciousness of purity Guru Gobind Singh gave all Sikhs the opportunity to live lives of courage, sacrifice, and equality. The birth of the Khalsa is celebrated by Sikhs every Baisakhi Day on April 13. Baisakhi 1999 marks the 300th anniversary of Guru Gobind Singh's gift of Panth Khalsa to all Sikhs everywhere.

This is a document about Middle name
  have given up their caste identity, whose name just includes the person's first name followed by their father's name. Sometimes, the place of birth of an individual is included as their middle name. Among the Sikhs of India, many have adopted the middle name Singh or Kaur which mean lion and princess respectively. This is followed by their Punjabi caste surname. Nowadays, many Sikhs have done away with their caste surname and have just kept Singh or Kaur as their surname. Among Indian Muslims, similar naming conventions to Hindus and Sikhs are followed, but the names are usually in Arabic, Persian or Urdu.

This is a document about Jagmeet Singh
  Singh was born on January 2, 1979, in Scarborough, Ontario, to Harmeet Kaur and Jagtaran Singh. His mother is from Ghudani Khurd, Punjab, while his father is from Thikriwala, Punjab. His great-grandfather was Sewa Singh Thikriwala, a political activist who campaigned for the cause of Indian independence. Another of Jagmeet's great-grandfathers is Hira Singh, who served in World War I and World War II in the Sikh Regiment of the British Indian Army. After a year as a toddler living with his grandparents in India, Singh spent his early childhood in St. John's and Grand Falls-Windsor, both in Newfoundland and Labrador, before relocating with his family to Windsor, Ontario. Singh has publicly discussed suffering sexual abuse

This is a document about Digvijay Singh (Bihar politician)
  Singh was a native of Gidhaur, in Jamui district (Bihar), the only son of Kumar Surendra Singh and Sona Devi. He was also related to the erstwhile royal estate of Gidhaur. He was born in a Rajput family of Zamindari class. He studied at Patna University before doing his M.A. and M.Phil. from the Jawaharlal Nehru University in New Delhi. He also studied at Tokyo University for some time. Later, he turned down an offer to teach in Tokyo university and took up a career in politics in India. Singh was called "Dada" by the people who knew him, an affectionate word meaning 'elder brother'. His home nickname was 'Kanhaiya Ji'.

This is a document about Gurjinder Singh (footballer, born 1997)
  Born in Greece, Singh is of Indian descent.

This is a document about Indian Singaporeans
  middle name Reddy/Naidu and family name as surname. Some Tamil Christian families have retained Indian names (as given names or 'family' names), generally alongside or in place of Western or Christian names, e.g. Vivian Balakrishnan. Some West and East Indian groups, such as the Gujaratis, Marathis and Bengalis, use family surnames, although the Gujaratis may choose whether to merge their father's name with the surname. Sikh men invariably adopt 'Singh' as their surname, while Sikh women adopt 'Kaur', as is their traditional practice. However, some Sikhs have also re-introduced supplementary family or clan names, thus instead of simply 'Charanjit Singh', an individual might adopt the name 'Charanjit Singh Siddhu' for himself or his son.

This is a document about Kaur
  The tenth guru of Sikhs, Guru Gobind Singh, introduced Kaur and Singh when he administered Amrit to both male and female Sikhs; all female Sikhs were asked to use the name Kaur after their forename, and male Sikhs were to use the name Singh. The adoption of Kaur and Singh as religious surnames was also intended to reduce caste-based prejudice. Because familial last names often signal a person's caste status (or for women who adopted their spouse's surname, the caste of their spouse), substituting Kaur and Singh allowed Sikhs to implement the Sikh religion's rejection of the caste system. Singh is also used by some non-Sikh women, because 'Singh' can be a surname in several other cultural communities. It is the most common surname used by Sikhs. Sikhs are not required to change their surnames after receiving Amrit, but many choose to do so.

The last name "Singh" is of South Asian origin and translates to "lion" in various languages. It has been used as a title and later as a surname by different communities, including Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims, across the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. The name became more widespread among Sikhs in the 17th century and was adopted by all baptized Sikhs in 1699. It is also used by some Indian diaspora communities.


Question: why do longer dna molecules move more slowly than shorter ones during electrophoresis

Answer: resistance

This is a document about Gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids
  depending on the preparation methods) may move ahead of the supercoiled DNA. The rate at which the various forms move however can change using different electrophoresis conditions, for example linear DNA may run faster or slower than supercoiled DNA depending on conditions, and the mobility of larger circular DNA may be more strongly affected than linear DNA by the pore size of the gel. Unless supercoiled DNA markers are used, the size of a circular DNA like plasmid therefore may be more accurately gauged after it has been linearized by restriction digest. DNA damage due to increased cross-linking will also reduce electrophoretic DNA migration in a dose-dependent way.

This is a document about Gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids
  The negative charge of its phosphate backbone moves the DNA towards the positively charged anode during electrophoresis. However, the migration of DNA molecules in solution, in the absence of a gel matrix, is independent of molecular weight during electrophoresis, i.e. there is no separation by size without a gel matrix. Hydrodynamic interaction between different parts of the DNA are cut off by streaming counterions moving in the opposite direction, so no mechanism exists to generate a dependence of velocity on length on a scale larger than screening length of about 10 nm. This makes it different from other processes such as sedimentation or diffusion where long-ranged hydrodynamic interaction are important. The gel matrix is

This is a document about Agarose gel electrophoresis
   A number of factors can affect the migration of nucleic acids: the dimension of the gel pores (gel concentration), size of DNA being electrophoresed, the voltage used, the ionic strength of the buffer, and the concentration of intercalating dye such as ethidium bromide if used during electrophoresis. Smaller molecules travel faster than larger molecules in gel, and double-stranded DNA moves at a rate that is inversely proportional to the logarithm of the number of base pairs. This relationship however breaks down with very large DNA fragments, and separation of very large DNA fragments requires the use of pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), which applies alternating current from different directions and

This is a document about Gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids
  long chains that cannot reach its steady state velocity from the short ones that travel most of the time in steady velocity. Other models, however, also exist. Real-time fluorescence microscopy of stained molecules showed more subtle dynamics during electrophoresis, with the DNA showing considerable elasticity as it alternately stretching in the direction of the applied field and then contracting into a ball, or becoming hooked into a U-shape when it gets caught on the polymer fibres. This observation may be termed the "caterpillar" model. Other model proposes that the DNA gets entangled with the polymer matrix, and the larger the molecule, the more likely it is to become entangled and its movement impeded.

This is a document about Plasmid
  of small linear DNA fragments is a function of their length. Large linear fragments (over 20 kb or so) migrate at a certain fixed rate regardless of length. This is because the molecules 'respirate', with the bulk of the molecule following the leading end through the gel matrix. Restriction digests are frequently used to analyse purified plasmids. These enzymes specifically break the DNA at certain short sequences. The resulting linear fragments form 'bands' after gel electrophoresis. It is possible to purify certain fragments by cutting the bands out of the gel and dissolving the gel to release the DNA fragments. Because of its tight conformation, supercoiled DNA migrates faster through a gel than linear or open-circular DNA.

This is a document about Gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids
  size of the molecule affects its mobility, smaller fragments end up nearer to the anode than longer ones in a given period. After some time, the voltage is removed and the fragmentation gradient is analyzed. For larger separations between similar sized fragments, either the voltage or run time can be increased. Extended runs across a low voltage gel yield the most accurate resolution. Voltage is, however, not the sole factor in determining electrophoresis of nucleic acids. The nucleic acid to be separated can be prepared in several ways before separation by electrophoresis. In the case of large DNA molecules, the DNA is frequently cut into smaller

This is a document about Gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids
  The gel sieves the DNA by the size of the DNA molecule whereby smaller molecules travel faster. Double-stranded DNA moves at a rate that is approximately inversely proportional to the logarithm of the number of base pairs. This relationship however breaks down with very large DNA fragments and it is not possible to separate them using standard agarose gel electrophoresis. The limit of resolution depends on gel composition and field strength. and the mobility of larger circular DNA may be more strongly affected than linear DNA by the pore size of the gel. Separation of very large DNA fragments requires pulse field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). In field inversion gel electrophoresis (FIGE, a kind of PFGE), it is possible to have "band inversion" - where large molecules may move faster than small molecules.

This is a document about Agarose gel electrophoresis
  breaks down for large molecules whereby the pores are significantly smaller than size of the molecule. For DNA molecules of size greater than 1 kb, a reptation model (or its variants) is most commonly used. This model assumes that the DNA can crawl in a "snake-like" fashion (hence "reptation") through the pores as an elongated molecule. A biased reptation model applies at higher electric field strength, whereby the leading end of the molecule become strongly biased in the forward direction and pulls the rest of the molecule along. Real-time fluorescence microscopy of stained molecules, however, showed more subtle dynamics during electrophoresis, with the DNA showing considerable elasticity as it alternately stretching in the direction of the applied field and then contracting into a ball, or becoming hooked into a U-shape when it gets caught on the polymer fibres.

This is a document about Agarose gel electrophoresis
  large DNA fragments are separated as they reorient themselves with the changing field. For standard agarose gel electrophoresis, larger molecules are resolved better using a low concentration gel while smaller molecules separate better at high concentration gel. Higher concentration gels, however, require longer run times (sometimes days). The movement of the DNA may be affected by the conformation of the DNA molecule, for example, supercoiled DNA usually moves faster than relaxed DNA because it is tightly coiled and hence more compact. In a normal plasmid DNA preparation, multiple forms of DNA may be present. Gel electrophoresis of the plasmids would normally show the negatively supercoiled form as the main band,

This is a document about Agarose gel electrophoresis
  The negative charge of its phosphate backbone moves the DNA towards the positively charged anode during electrophoresis. However, the migration of DNA molecules in solution, in the absence of a gel matrix, is independent of molecular weight during electrophoresis. The gel matrix is therefore responsible for the separation of DNA by size during electrophoresis, and a number of models exist to explain the mechanism of separation of biomolecules in gel matrix. A widely accepted one is the Ogston model which treats the polymer matrix as a sieve. A globular protein or a random coil DNA moves through the interconnected pores, and the movement of larger molecules is more likely to be impeded and slowed down by collisions with the gel matrix, and the molecules of different sizes can therefore be separated in this sieving process. The Ogston model

This is a document about Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis
  While in general small fragments can find their way through the gel matrix more easily than large DNA fragments, a threshold length exists above 30–50 kb where all large fragments will run at the same rate, and appear in a gel as a single large diffuse band. However, with periodic changing of field direction, the various lengths of DNA react to the change at differing rates. That is, larger pieces of DNA will be slower to realign their charge when field direction is changed, while smaller pieces will be quicker. Over the course of time with the consistent changing of directions, each band will begin to separate more and more even at very large lengths. Thus separation of very large DNA pieces using PFGE is made possible.

This is a document about Gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids
  Nucleic acid electrophoresis is an analytical technique used to separate DNA or RNA fragments by size and reactivity. Nucleic acid molecules which are to be analyzed are set upon a viscous medium, the gel, where an electric field induces the nucleic acids (which are negatively charged due to their sugar-phosphate backbone) to migrate toward the anode (which is positively charged because this is an electrolytic rather than galvanic cell). The separation of these fragments is accomplished by exploiting the mobilities with which different sized molecules are able to pass through the gel. Longer molecules migrate more slowly because they experience more resistance within the gel. Because

This is a document about Gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids
  The conformation of the DNA molecule can significantly affect the movement of the DNA, for example, supercoiled DNA usually moves faster than relaxed DNA because it is tightly coiled and hence more compact. In a normal plasmid DNA preparation, multiple forms of DNA may be present, and gel from the electrophoresis of the plasmids would normally show a main band which would be the negatively supercoiled form, while other forms of DNA may appear as minor fainter bands. These minor bands may be nicked DNA (open circular form) and the relaxed closed circular form which normally run slower than supercoiled DNA, and the single-stranded form (which can sometimes

This is a document about Agarose gel electrophoresis
  supercoiling topology. DNA damage due to increased cross-linking will also reduce electrophoretic DNA migration in a dose-dependent way. The rate of migration of the DNA is proportional to the voltage applied, i.e. the higher the voltage, the faster the DNA moves. The resolution of large DNA fragments however is lower at high voltage. The mobility of DNA may also change in an unsteady field – in a field that is periodically reversed, the mobility of DNA of a particular size may drop significantly at a particular cycling frequency. This phenomenon can result in band inversion in field inversion gel electrophoresis (FIGE), whereby larger DNA fragments move faster than smaller ones.

This is a document about Gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids
  At low voltages, the rate of migration of the DNA is proportional to the voltage applied, i.e. the higher the voltage, the faster the DNA moves. However, in increasing electric field strength, the mobility of high-molecular-weight DNA fragments increases differentially, and the effective range of separation decreases and resolution therefore is lower at high voltage. For optimal resolution of DNA greater than 2kb in size in standard gel electrophoresis, 5 to 8 V/cm is recommended. Voltage is also limited by the fact that it heats the gel and may cause the gel to melt if a gel is run at high voltage for a prolonged period, particularly for low-melting point agarose gel. The mobility of DNA however may change in an unsteady field. In a field that is periodically reversed, the mobility of DNA of a particular size may drop significantly at a particular cycling frequency. This phenomenon can result in band inversion whereby larger DNA fragments move faster than smaller ones in PFGE.

This is a document about Plasmid
  ; Supercoiled denatured DNA is like supercoiled DNA, but has unpaired regions that make it slightly less compact; this can result from excessive alkalinity during plasmid preparation. Plasmid DNA may appear in one of five conformations, which (for a given size) run at different speeds in a gel during electrophoresis. The conformations are listed below in order of electrophoretic mobility (speed for a given applied voltage) from slowest to fastest: The rate of migration for small linear fragments is directly proportional to the voltage applied at low voltages. At higher voltages, larger fragments migrate at continuously increasing yet different rates. Thus, the resolution of a gel decreases with increased voltage. At a specified, low voltage, the migration

This is a document about Synchronous coefficient of drag alteration
  DNA molecules are unique in that they are long, charged polymers which when in a separation medium, such as agarose gel, can exhibit highly non-linear velocity profiles in response to an electric field. As such, DNA is easily separated from other molecules that are not both charged and strongly non-linear, using SCODA

This is a document about Temperature gradient gel electrophoresis
  DNA has a negative charge and so will move to the positive electrode in an electric field. A gel is a molecular mesh, with holes roughly the same size as the diameter of the DNA string. When an electric field is applied, the DNA will begin to move through the gel, at a speed roughly inversely proportional to the length of the DNA molecule (shorter lengths of DNA travel faster) — this is the basis for size dependent separation in standard electrophoresis. In TGGE there is also a temperature gradient across the gel. At room temperature, the DNA will exist stably in

This is a document about Gel electrophoresis
  sizes. If such a marker was run on one lane in the gel parallel to the unknown samples, the bands observed can be compared to those of the unknown to determine their size. The distance a band travels is approximately inversely proportional to the logarithm of the size of the molecule. There are limits to electrophoretic techniques. Since passing a current through a gel causes heating, gels may melt during electrophoresis. Electrophoresis is performed in buffer solutions to reduce pH changes due to the electric field, which is important because the charge of DNA and RNA depends on pH, but running for too long can

This is a document about Gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids
  responsible for the separation of DNA by size during electrophoresis, however the precise mechanism responsible the separation is not entirely clear. A number of models exists for the mechanism of separation of biomolecules in gel matrix, a widely accepted one is the Ogston model which treats the polymer matrix as a sieve consisting of randomly distributed network of inter-connected pores. A globular protein or a random coil DNA moves through the connected pores large enough to accommodate its passage, and the movement of larger molecules is more likely to be impeded and slowed down by collisions with the gel matrix, and the molecules of different sizes can therefore be separated in this process of

Longer DNA molecules move more slowly than shorter ones during electrophoresis due to their larger size and the hydrodynamic interaction with the surrounding medium. This effect is independent of the electric field and is a result of the size of the DNA molecules.


Question: where do i find the url of a website

Answer: address bar

This is a document about URL
  A Uniform Resource Locator (URL), colloquially termed a web address, is a reference to a web resource that specifies its location on a computer network and a mechanism for retrieving it. A URL is a specific type of Uniform Resource Identifier (URI), although many people use the two terms interchangeably. URLs occur most commonly to reference web pages (http) but are also used for file transfer (ftp), email (mailto), database access (JDBC), and many other applications. Most web browsers display the URL of a web page above the page in an address bar. A typical URL could have the form //www.example.com/index.html, which indicates a protocol , a hostname , and a file name.

This is a document about Uniform Resource Identifier
  URL refers to a resource identified as , whose representation, in the form of HTML and related code, is obtainable via the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (http:) from a network host whose domain name is. A URN may be compared to a person's name, while a URL may be compared to their street address. In other words, a URN identifies an item and a URL provides a method for finding it. Technical publications, especially standards produced by the IETF and by the W3C, normally reflect a view outlined in a W3C Recommendation of 30 July 2001, which acknowledges the precedence of the term URI rather than endorsing any formal subdivision into URL and URN. URL

This is a document about Pocket Kingdom: Own the World
 Website on the Webarchive

This is a document about OpenURL
  An OpenURL is similar to a web address, but instead of referring to a physical website, it refers to an article, book, patent, or other resource within a website. OpenURLs are similar to permalinks because they are permanently connected to a resource, regardless of which website the resource is connected to. Libraries and other resource centers are the most common place to find OpenURLs because an OpenURL can help Internet users find a copy of a resource that they may otherwise have limited access to. The source that generates an OpenURL is often a bibliographic citation or bibliographic record in a database.

This is a document about Memento Project
 urltoarchive ; urltoarchive ; urltoarchive ; urltoarchive ; urltoarchive ; or urltoarchive ; urltoarchive ; urltoarchive ; urltoarchive ; urltoarchive One can find copies of page by simply navigating, in a web browser, to a link formatted, replacing   with the full URL of the page desired: JSON description of a Memento: redirect to a Memento with a datetime that is close to a desired datetime:

This is a document about World Wide Web
   A website is a collection of related web resources including web pages, multimedia content, typically identified with a common domain name, and published on at least one web server. Notable examples are wikipedia.org, google.com, and amazon.com. A website may be accessible via a public Internet Protocol (IP) network, such as the Internet, or a private local area network (LAN), by referencing a uniform resource locator (URL) that identifies the site. Websites can have many functions and can be used in various fashions; a website can be a personal website, a corporate website for a company, a government website, an organization website, etc. Websites are typically dedicated to a particular topic or purpose, ranging

This is a document about Uniform Resource Identifier
  a useful but informal concept: a URL is a type of URI that identifies a resource via a representation of its primary access mechanism (e.g., its network "location"), rather than by some other attributes it may have. As such, a URL is simply a URI that happens to point to a resource over a network. However, in non-technical contexts and in software for the World Wide Web, the term "URL" remains widely used. Additionally, the term "web address" (which has no formal definition) often occurs in non-technical publications as a synonym for a URI that uses the http or https schemes. Such assumptions can lead to confusion, for example, in the case of XML

This is a document about Website
  A website (also written as web site) is a collection of web pages and related content that is identified by a common domain name and published on at least one web server. Notable examples are wikipedia.org, google.com, and amazon.com. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web. There are also private websites that can only be accessed on a private network, such as a company's internal website for its employees. Websites are typically dedicated to a particular topic or purpose, such as news, education, commerce, entertainment, or social networking. Hyperlinking between web pages guides the navigation of the site, which often starts with a home page. Users can access websites on a range of devices, including desktops, laptops, tablets, and smartphones. The app used on these devices is called a web browser.

This is a document about Adelaide Carpenter
 Web page at University of Cambridge Web page at University of Cambridge

This is a document about World Wide Web
  A web page (also written as webpage) is a document that is suitable for the World Wide Web and web browsers. A web browser displays a web page on a monitor or mobile device. The term web page usually refers to what is visible, but may also refer to the contents of the computer file itself, which is usually a text file containing hypertext written in HTML or a comparable markup language. Typical web pages provide hypertext for browsing to other web pages via hyperlinks, often referred to as links. Web browsers will frequently have to access multiple web resource elements, such as reading style sheets, scripts, and

This is a document about Ganymede Abducted by the Eagle
 Page at museum's website

This is a document about British Telecommunications plc v. Prodigy
  Once more, the court judged in favor of Prodigy, saying that Prodigy internet service did not include the complete address of a piece of information, as required by the Sargent patent. The Uniform Resource Locator ("URL") standard that uniquely names the location of resources requires additional information, in the form of a TCP/IP protocol, in order to access a web page from a web server. More specifically, when a user requests information, the web browser the user is using first obtains the IP address of the server where the corresponding information resides and then accesses the external Domain Name System (DNS) server to get the desired information. Thus, the way internet finds the location of requested information is not complete as specified in the Sargent patent.

This is a document about Launchy
 Allows web search ; Can launch URLs, also from bookmarks

This is a document about Canonicalization
  A canonical URL is the URL of the page that Google thinks is most representative from a set of duplicate pages on your site. For example, if you have URLs for the same page (for example  and  ), Google chooses one as canonical. Note that the pages do not need to be absolutely identical; minor changes in sorting or filtering of list pages do not make the page unique (for example, sorting by price or filtering by item color). The canonical can be in a different domain than a duplicate. Search engines may treat URLs as duplicate by different reasons. For example  These URLs may have similar content but Google may consider them duplicate. Adding a Canonical URL on original page could solve this problem.

This is a document about San Lazzaro degli Armeni
 Alt URL ; web version ; Part I, Part II, Part III Part I, Part II, Part III Part I, Part II, Part III Part I, Part II, Part III Part I, Part II, Part III

This is a document about National AIDS Commission of Indonesia
 Official website (dead link), archived copy in Internet Archive

This is a document about Germaine Cousin-Zermatten
 URL 2

This is a document about Sitemaps
  If Sitemaps are submitted directly to a search engine (pinged), it will return status information and any processing errors. The details involved with submission will vary with the different search engines. The location of the sitemap can also be included in the  file by adding the following line:  The  should be the complete URL to the sitemap, such as: This directive is independent of the user-agent line, so it doesn't matter where it is placed in the file. If the website has several sitemaps, multiple "Sitemap:" records may be included in, or the URL can simply point to the main sitemap index file. The following table lists the sitemap submission URLs for several major search engines: Sitemap URLs submitted using the sitemap submission URLs need to be URL-encoded, for example: replace  (colon) with  , replace  (slash) with.

This is a document about List of books about Jesus
 Link to online text in Wikipedia article.

This is a document about Professor Brainium's Games
 Website with info.

To find the URL of a website, you can look for it in the address bar of your web browser when you are already on the website, or you can search for it using a search engine by typing in the name of the website. For example, if you want to find the URL for "Google.com," you can type "Google.com URL" into a search engine and the first result will be the URL for that website.