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History of Cameroon
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German-built building at Ambam, today used as a school
Contents
[hide]
1 Early history
2 Colonization
3 Towards Independence (1955-1960)
4 Cameroon after independence
5 Football
6 See also
7 References
8 Notes
9 External links
Early history[edit]
Part of a series on the
History of Cameroon
Pre-colonial
Sao civilisation
Kotoko kingdom
Mandara Kingdom
Kingdom of Bamum
Colonial
Kamerun 1884–1919
Bafut Wars 1889–1907
Neukamerun 1911–1916
French Cameroons 1918–1960
British Cameroons
Southern Cameroons
1922–1961
Post-colonial
Cameroon 1961–present
Cameroon portal
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The earliest inhabitants of Cameroon were probably the Baka (Pygmies). They still inhabit the forests of the south and east provinces.[1] Bantu speakers originating in the Cameroonian highlands were among the first groups to move out before other invaders. The Mandara kingdom in the Mandara Mountains was founded around 1500 and erected fortified structures, the purpose and exact history of which are still unresolved. The Aro Confederacy of Nigeria had a presence in western (later called British) Cameroon due to trade and migration in the 18th and 19th centuries.
During the late 1770s and the early 19th century, the Fulani, a pastoral Islamic people of the western Sahel, conquered most of what is now northern Cameroon, subjugating or displacing its largely non-Muslim inhabitants.
Although the Portuguese arrived on Cameroon's doorstep in the 16th century, malaria prevented significant European settlement and conquest of the interior until the late 1870s, when large supplies of the malaria suppressant quinine became available. The early European presence in Cameroon was primarily devoted to coastal trade and the acquisition of slaves. The northern part of Cameroon was an important part of the Muslim slave trade network. The slave trade was largely suppressed by the mid-19th century. Christian missionaries established a presence in the late 19th century and continue to play a role in Cameroonian life.
Colonization[edit]
Cameroon over time
German Kamerun
British Cameroons
French Cameroun
Republic of Cameroon
German Settlers celebrating Christmas in Kamerun
Further information: German Kamerun, French Cameroun, British Cameroons
Beginning on July 5, 1884, all of present-day Cameroon and parts of several of its neighbours became a German colony, Kamerun, with a capital first at Buea and later at Yaoundé.
The imperial German government made substantial investments in the infrastructure of Cameroon, including the extensive railways, such as the 160-metre single-span railway bridge on the South Sanaga River branch. Hospitals were opened all over the colony, including two major hospitals at Douala, one of which specialised in tropical diseases. However, the indigenous peoples proved reluctant to work on these projects, so the Germans instigated a harsh and unpopular system of forced labour.[2] In fact, Jesko von Puttkamer was relieved of duty as governor of the colony due to his untoward actions toward the native Cameroonians.[3] In 1911 at the Treaty of Fez after the Agadir Crisis, France ceded a nearly 300,000 km² portion of the territory of French Equatorial Africa to Kamerun which became Neukamerun, while Germany ceded a smaller area in the north in present-day Chad to France.
In World War I, the British invaded Cameroon from Nigeria in 1914 in the Kamerun campaign, with the last German fort in the country surrendering in February 1916. After the war, this colony was partitioned between the United Kingdom and France under June 28, 1919 League of Nations mandates (Class B). France gained the larger geographical share, transferred Neukamerun back to neighboring French colonies, and ruled the rest from Yaoundé as Cameroun (French Cameroons). Britain's territory, a strip bordering Nigeria from the sea to Lake Chad, with an equal population was ruled from Lagos as Cameroons (British Cameroons). German administrators were allowed to once again run the plantations of the southwestern coastal area. A British parliamentary publication, Report on the British Sphere of the Cameroons (May 1922, p. 62-8), reports that the German plantations there were "as a whole . . . wonderful examples of industry, based on solid scientific knowledge. The natives have been taught discipline and have come to realize what can be achieved by industry. Large numbers who return to their villages take up cocoa or other cultivation on their own account, thus increasing the general prosperity of the country."
Towards Independence (1955-1960)[edit]
On 18 December 1956, the outlawed Union of the Peoples of Cameroon (UPC), based largely among the Bamileke and Bassa ethnic groups, began an armed struggle for independence in French Cameroon. This rebellion continued, with diminishing intensity, even after independence until 1961.[4] Some tens of thousands died during this conflict.[5][6]
Legislative elections were held on 23 December 1956 and the resulting Assembly passed a decree on 16 April 1957 which made French Cameroon a State. It took back its former status of associated territory as a member of the French Union. Its inhabitants became Cameroonian citizens, Cameroonian institutions were created under the sign of parliamentary democracy. On 12 June 1958 the Legislative Assembly of French Cameroon asked the French government to: 'Accord independence to the State of Cameroon at the ends of their trusteeship. Transfer every competence related to the running of internal affairs of Cameroon to Cameroonians`. On 19 October 1958 France recognized the right of her United Nations trust territory of the Cameroons to choose independence.[7] On 24 October 1958 the Legislative Assembly of French Cameroon solemnly proclaimed the desire of Cameroonians to see their country accede full independence on 1 January 1960. It enjoined the government of French Cameroon to ask France to inform the General Assembly of the United Nations, to abrogate the trusteeship accord concomitant with the independence of French Cameroon. On 12 November 1958 having accorded French Cameroon total internal autonomy and thinking that this transfer no longer permitted it to assume its responsibilities over the trust territory for an unspecified period, the government of France asked the United Nations to grant the wish of French Cameroonians. On 5 December 1958 the United Nations’ General Assembly took note of the French government’s declaration according to which French Cameroon, which was under French administration, would gain independence on 1 January 1960, thus marking an end to the trusteeship period.[8][9] On 13 March 1959 the United Nations’ General Assembly resolved that the UN Trusteeship Agreement with France for French Cameroon would end when French Cameroon became independent on 1 January 1961.[10]
Cameroon after independence[edit]
1961–1975
Reunification Monument in Yaoundé
French Cameroon achieved independence on January 1, 1960 as La Republique du Cameroun. After Guinea, it was the second of France's colonies in Sub-Saharan Africa to become independent. On 21 February 1960, the new nation held a constitutional referendum. On 5 May 1960, Ahmadou Ahidjo became president. On 11 February 1961, a plebiscite organised by the United Nations was held in the British controlled part of Cameroon (British Northern and British Southern Cameroons). The pleibiscite was to choose between free association with an independent Nigerian state or re-unification with the independent Republic of Cameroun. On 12 February 1961,the results of the plebiscite were released and British Northern Cameroons attached itself to Nigeria, while the southern part voted for reunification with the Republic Of Cameroon. To negotiate the terms of this union, the Foumban Conference was held on 16–21 July 1961. John Ngu Foncha, the leader of the Kamerun National Democratic Party, accepted a federation while thinking of a confederation. The British Southern Cameroons was to be referred to as West Cameroon and the French part as East Cameroon. Buea became the capital of the now West Cameroon while Yaounde doubled as the federal capital and East Cameroon. Ahidjo accepted the federation, thinking it was a step towards a unitary state. On 14 August 1961, the federal constitution was adopted, with Ahidjo as president. Foncha became the prime minister of west Cameroon and vice president of the Federal Republic of Cameroon. On 1 September 1966 the Cameroon National Union(CNU) was created by the union of political parties of East and West Cameroon. Most decisions about West Cameroon were taken without consultation, which led to widespread feelings amongst the West Cameroonian public that although they voted for reunification, what they were getting is absorption or domination".[11]
On October 1, 1961, the largely Muslim northern two-thirds of British Cameroons voted to join Nigeria; the largely Christian southern third, Southern Cameroons, voted, in a referendum, to join with the Republic of Cameroon to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. The formerly French and British regions each maintained substantial autonomy. Ahidjo, a French-educated Fulani, was chosen president of the federation in 1961. In 1962, the Francs CFA became the official currency in Cameroon.
Ahidjo, relying on a pervasive internal security apparatus, outlawed all political parties but his own in 1966. He successfully suppressed the continuing UPC rebellion, capturing the last important rebel leader in 1970. On 28 March 1970 Ahidjo renewed his mandate as the supreme magistracy; Solomon Tandeng Muna became Vice President. In 1972, a new constitution replaced the federation with a unitary state called the United Republic of Cameroon. This is the major cause of tension between the French and English speaking areas of Cameroon. Southern Cameroonians feel the agreement at the Foumban constitution conference is not respected.
Although Ahidjo's rule was characterised as authoritarian, he was seen as noticeably lacking in charisma in comparison to many post-colonial African leaders. He didn't follow the anti-western policies pursued by many of these leaders, which helped Cameroon achieve a degree of comparative political stability and economic growth.
On 30 June 1975 Paul Biya was appointed vice president. Ahidjo resigned as president in 1982 and was constitutionally succeeded by his Prime Minister, Paul Biya, a career official from the Beti-Pahuin ethnic group. Ahidjo later regretted his choice of successors, but his supporters failed to overthrow Biya in a 1984 coup. Biya won single-candidate elections in 1983 and 1984 when the country was again named the Republic of Cameroon. Biya has remained in power, winning flawed multiparty elections in 1992, 1997, 2004 and 2011. His Cameroon People's Democratic Movement (CPDM) party holds a sizeable majority in the legislature.
By April 6, 1984, the country witnessed its first coup d'état headed by col. Issa Adoum. At about 3 am rebel forces mostly of the Republican guard under the orders of colonel Ibrahim Saleh, attempted to unseat Biya's government. The rebels took charge of the Yaounde airport, national radio station and announced the takeover of government. They attacked the presidency. The civilian northerner who was manager of FONADER Issa Adoum was expected to become the new interim president. Unfortunately, many reasons led to its failure. The principal coup plotters had been arrested by April 10, 1984 and President Biya addressed the nation that calm had been restored.
On August 15, 1984, Lake Monoun exploded in a limnic eruption that released carbon dioxide, suffocating 37 people to death. On August 21, 1986, another limnic eruption at Lake Nyos killed as many as 1,800 people and 3,500 livestock. The two disasters are the only recorded instances of limnic eruptions.
In May 2014, in the wake of the Chibok schoolgirl kidnapping, Presidents Paul Biya of Cameroon and Idriss Déby of Chad announced they were waging war on Boko Haram, and deployed troops to the Nigerian border.[12][13]
In early 2006 a final resolution to the dispute between Cameroon and Nigeria over the oil-rich Bakassi peninsula was expected. In October 2002, the International Court of Justice had ruled in favour of Cameroon. Nonetheless, a lasting solution would require agreement by both countries’ presidents, parliaments, and by the United Nations. The peninsula was the site of fighting between the two countries in 1994 and again in June 2005, which led to the death of a Cameroonian soldier.
Football[edit]
Cameroon has received some international attention following the relative success of its football team. It has qualified for the FIFA World Cup on a number of occasions. Its most notable performance was at Italia 90, when the team beat Argentina, the then reigning Champions in the opening game; Cameroon eventually lost in extra time in the Semi Finals to England.
See also[edit]
Ambazonia
History of Africa
Politics of Cameroon
List of heads of government of Cameroon
List of heads of state of Cameroon
Douala history and timeline
Yaoundé history and timeline
References[edit]
Background Note: Cameroon from the U.S. Department of State.
Bullock, A. L. C. (1939). Germany's Colonial Demands, Oxford University Press.
DeLancey, Mark W., and DeLancey, Mark Dike (2000): Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Cameroon (3rd ed.). Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press.
Schnee, Heinrich (1926). German Colonization, Past and Future: The Truth about the German Colonies. London: George Allen & Unwin.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "About.com".
Jump up ^ DeLancey and DeLancey 125.
Jump up ^ DeLancey and DeLancey 226.
Jump up ^ "8. British/French Cameroon (1948-1961)".
Jump up ^ Eckhardt, William, in World Military and Social Expenditures 1987-88 (12th ed., 1987) by Ruth Leger Sivard.
Jump up ^ The Cambridge History of Africa (1986), ed. J. D. Fage and R. Oliver
Jump up ^ Brady, Thomas F. (20 October 1958). "CAMEROONS GETS FREEDOM PLEDGE; Paris Backs Independence for African Trust Territory After Interim Self-Rule" – via NYTimes.com.
Jump up ^ "From trusteeship to independence (1946 – 1960)". Archived from the original on 27 October 2012. Retrieved 2011-12-30. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ "Question of the future of the Trust Territories of the Cameroons under French administration and the Cameroons under United Kingdom administration". undocs.org. United Nations. A/RES/1282(XIII). Retrieved 17 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "The future of the Trust Territories of the Cameroons under French administration". undocs.org. United Nations. A/RES/1349(XIII). Retrieved 17 March 2017.
Jump up ^ The Untold Story of Reunification: (1955-1961)
Jump up ^ "Cameroon, Chad Deploy Troops to Fight Boko Haram - Nigeria". ReliefWeb. Retrieved 2014-06-10.
Jump up ^ Kaze, Rennier (2014-06-06). "Dans le Nord du Cameroun, la "guerre" contre Boko Haram a commencé - Cameroon". ReliefWeb (in French). Retrieved 2014-06-10.
External links[edit]
Media related to History of Cameroon at Wikimedia Commons
Map of German Cameroon (Kamerun) in 1914 at the Wayback Machine (archived 4 April 2013)
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Icon depicting the Emperor Constantine, accompanied by the bishops of the First Council of Nicaea (325 A.D.), holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381.
The Four Marks of the Church, also known as the Attributes of the Church, is a term describing four distinctive adjectives — "One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic"[1] — of traditional Christian ecclesiology as expressed in the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed completed at the First Council of Constantinople in AD 381: "[I believe] in one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church."[2] This ecumenical creed is today recited in the liturgy of the Roman Catholic Church (both Latin and Eastern Rites), the Eastern Orthodox Churches, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Church of the East, the Moravian Church, the Lutheran Churches, the Methodist Churches, the Anglican Communion, the Reformed Churches, and other Christian denominations.[3]
While specific doctrines, based on both tradition and different interpretations of the Bible, distinguish one denomination from another, largely explaining why there are so many different ones, the Four Marks, when defined the same way, represent a summary of what many clerical authorities have historically considered to be the most important affirmations of the Christian faith.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Marks
2.1 One
2.2 Holy
2.3 Catholic
2.4 Apostolic
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
History[edit]
The ideas behind the Four Marks have been in the Christian Church since early Christianity. Allusions to them can be found in the writings of 2nd century early Church Father and bishop, Ignatius of Antioch. They were not established in doctrine until the First Council of Constantinople in 381 as an antidote to certain heresies that had crept into the Church in its early history. There the Council elaborated on the Nicene Creed, established by the First Council of Nicea 56 years before by adding to the end a section that included the affirmation: "[We believe] in one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church."[4] The phrase has remained in versions of the Nicene Creed to this day.
In some languages, for example, German, the Latin "catholica" was substituted by "Christian" before the Reformation, though this was an anomaly[5] and continues in use by some Protestant churches today. Hence, "holy catholic" becomes "holy Christian."[6]
Roman Catholics believe the description "one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church" to be applicable only to the Roman Catholic Church. They hold that "Christ established here on earth only one Church" and they believe in "the full identity of the Church of Christ with the Catholic Church". While "there are numerous elements of sanctification and of truth which are found outside her structure", these, "as gifts properly belonging to the Church of Christ, impel towards Catholic Unity". The eastern Churches not in full communion with the Catholic Church thereby "lack something in their condition as particular Churches". The communities born out of the 16th-century Protestant Reformation "do not enjoy apostolic succession in the sacrament of Orders, and are, therefore, deprived of a constituent element of the Church."[7]
The Eastern Orthodox Church, in disagreement with the Roman Catholic, regards itself as the historical and organic continuation of the original Church founded by Christ and his apostles.[8] The Oriental Orthodox Church disagrees with both and claims to be the historical and organic continuation of the original Church founded by Christ and his apostles, the "One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic" Church of the ancient Christian creeds and the only Church that has always kept the true Christology and faith declared by the first three councils, Nicaea, Constantinople, and Ephesus affirmed by the Church Fathers and the Holy Tradition.
The Augsburg Confession found within the Book of Concord, a compendium of belief of the Lutheran Churches, teaches that "the faith as confessed by Luther and his followers is nothing new, but the true catholic faith, and that their churches represent the true catholic or universal church".[9] When the Lutherans presented the Augsburg Confession to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor in 1530, they believe to have "showed that each article of faith and practice was true first of all to Holy Scripture, and then also to the teaching of the church fathers and the councils".[9] As such, the Lutheran Churches traditionally hold that theirs represents the true visible Church.[10]
Marks[edit]
One[edit]
See also: Christendom
"There is one body and one Spirit just as you were called to the one hope that belongs to your call one Lord, one faith, one baptism, one God and Father of all, who is over all and through all and in all" [Eph. 4:5-6]. This list in the Pauline letters of factors making Christians one body, one church, is doubtless not meant to be exhaustive, says Francis Aloysius Sullivan, but it affirms the oneness of the body, the church, through what Christians have in common, what they have communion in. Elsewhere, Paul the Apostle says: "There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is no male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus" (Gal. 3:28). This statement was about Christians as individuals, but it applied to them also as groups, as local churches, whether composed mainly of Jewish or Gentile Christians. In 1 Cor. 15:9, Paul spoke of himself as having persecuted "the church of God", not just the local church in Jerusalem but the same church that he addresses at the beginning of that letter as "the church of God that is in Corinth" (1 Cor. 1:2). In the same letter, he tells Christians: "You are the body of Christ and individually members of it" (1 Cor. 12:27), and declares that, "just as the body is one and has many members, and all the members of the body, though many, are one body, so it is with Christ" (1 Cor. 12:12).[11][12]
Holy[edit]
Main article: Sanctity
The word holy means set apart for a special purpose by and for God. It does not imply that the members of the Church are free from sin, nor that the institution of the Church cannot sin. Christ's Church is holy because it is Christ's Church: "...upon this rock, I will build my Church."[Matt. 16:18] Jesus founded his Church to continue his redemptive and sanctifying work in the world. Christians understand the holiness of the universal Church to derive from Christ's holiness.[Matt. 16:19][13] And the Church is holy because God is Holy and the Church shares in God's very own life and holiness.[Eph. 5:30-33]
Catholic[edit]
Further information: Catholic (term) and Catholicity
Jesus drew near and said to them, "I have been given all authority in heaven and on earth. Go, then, to all peoples everywhere and make them my disciples: baptize them in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, and teach them to obey everything I have commanded you. And I will be with you always, to the end of the age."
—  Matthew 28:18-20
The word "catholic" is derived from the Greek adjective καθολικός (katholikos), meaning "general", "universal".[14][15] It is associated with the Greek adverb καθόλου (katholou), meaning "according to the whole", "entirely", or "in general", a combination of the preposition κατά meaning "according to" and the adjective ὅλος meaning "whole".[16][17]
Applied to the church, the adjective "catholic" means that in the church the wholeness of the Christian faith, full and complete, all-embracing, and with nothing lacking, is proclaimed to all people without excluding any part of the faith or any class or group of people.[18][19][20] The adjective can be applied not only to the church as spread throughout the world but also to each local manifestation of the church, in each of which nothing essential is lacking for it to be the genuine Church of Christ.[20][21][22]
For his subjects, Emperor Theodosius I restricted to believers in "the one deity of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, in equal majesty and in a holy Trinity" the term "catholic christians", and applied the name "heretics" to others (Edict of Thessalonica of 27 February 380).[23]
In the following year 381, the First Council of Constantinople adopted the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, expressing belief in "one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church".
Apostolic[edit]
This describes the Church's foundation and beliefs as rooted and continuing in the living Tradition of the Apostles of Jesus (cf. the 1913 Webster's Dictionary).[24] The Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodoxy, and the Church of the East, each claim to have preserved the original teaching of the apostles. They also have apostolic succession in that their bishops derive their authority through a direct line of laying on of hands from the apostles, a claim that they accept can be made by the other churches in this group. Many Lutheran Churches, such as the Church of Sweden, and the Anglican Communion likewise teach the doctrine of apostolic succession.[25][26] Other Christian denominations, on the other hand, usually hold that what preserves apostolic continuity is the written word: as Milne put it, "A church is apostolic as it recognizes in practice the supreme authority of the apostolic scriptures."[27]
See also[edit]
First Council of Constantinople
Marks of the Church
Nicene Creed
State church of the Roman Empire
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Greek: μία, ἁγία, καθολικὴ καὶ ἀποστολικὴ ἐκκλησία.
Jump up ^ Louis Berkhof, Systematic Theology (London: Banner of Truth, 1949), 572.
Jump up ^ Scharper, Philip J. (1969). Meet the American Catholic. Broadman Press. p. 34. It is interesting to note, however, that the Nicene Creed, recited by Roman Catholics in their worship, is also accepted by millions of other Christians as a testimony of their faith — Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Methodists, Lutherans, and members of many of the Reformed Churches. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Creeds of Christendom
Jump up ^ See footnote 12 in The Book of Concord, Translators Kolb, R. and Wengert, T. Augsburg Fortress, 2000, p. 22. ISBN 978-0-8006-2740-9
Jump up ^ For example, see Lutheran Service Book. Concordia Publishing House, 2006, p. 158. ISBN 978-0-7586-1217-5
Jump up ^ Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Responses to some questions regarding certain aspects of the doctrine of the Church Archived August 13, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Bishop Kallistos (Ware). The Orthodox Church. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-014656-3. p. 307
^ Jump up to: a b Ludwig, Alan (12 September 2016). "Luther's Catholic Reformation". The Lutheran Witness. When the Lutherans presented the Augsburg Confession before Emperor Charles V in 1530, they carefully showed that each article of faith and practice was true first of all to Holy Scripture, and then also to the teaching of the church fathers and the councils and even the canon law of the Church of Rome. They boldly claim, “This is about the Sum of our Doctrine, in which, as can be seen, there is nothing that varies from the Scriptures, or from the Church Catholic, or from the Church of Rome as known from its writers” (AC XXI Conclusion 1). The underlying thesis of the Augsburg Confession is that the faith as confessed by Luther and his followers is nothing new, but the true catholic faith, and that their churches represent the true catholic or universal church. In fact, it is actually the Church of Rome that has departed from the ancient faith and practice of the catholic church (see AC XXIII 13, XXVIII 72 and other places). Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Frey, H. (1918). Is One Church as Good as Another?. 37. The Lutheran Witness. pp. 82–83.
Jump up ^ Francis Aloysius Sullivan, The Church We Believe In (Paulist Press 1988 ISBN 978-0-80913039-9), pp. 36–38
Jump up ^ Ephesians 5:30-33
Jump up ^ Whitehead, Kenneth D. "The Church of the Apostles," This Rock, March 1995. See article at ewtn.com
Jump up ^ "Catholic". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
Jump up ^ (cf. Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon)
Jump up ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Etymonline.com. Retrieved 2011-09-16.
Jump up ^ "On Being Catholic", by Claire Anderson M.Div.
Jump up ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, 830-856 Archived April 7, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Pope Francis, Talk at General Audience of 9 October 2013
^ Jump up to: a b Hopko, Thomas. "The Orthodox Faith". oca.org. Orthodox Church in America. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Jenson, Matt; Wilhite, David (2010). The Church: A Guide for the Perplexed. A&C Black. pp. 70–75. ISBN 9780567033376. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Second Vatican Council. "Decree Concerning the Pastoral Office of Bishops in the Church, Christus Dominus, 11". Archived from the original on 2 August 2013. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Henry Bettenson (editor), Documents of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 1970 ISBN 978-0-19501293-4), p. 22
Jump up ^ Cf. also an Armenian statement, a Roman Catholic statement.
Jump up ^ Gassmann, Günther; Larson, Duane Howard; Oldenburg, Mark W. (2001). Historical Dictionary of Lutheranism,. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0810839458. Retrieved 11 November 2012. In addition to the primary understanding of succession, the Lutheran confessions do express openness, however, to the continuation of the succession of bishops. This is a narrower understanding of apostolic succession, to be affirmed under the condition that the bishops support the Gospel and are ready to ordain evangelical preachers. This form of succession, for example, was continued by the Church of Sweden (which included Finland) at the time of the Reformation.
Jump up ^ Benedetto, Robert; Duke, James O. (13 August 2008). The New Westminster Dictionary of Church History: The Early, Medieval, and Reformation Eras. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 594. ISBN 0664224164. Retrieved 10 June 2013. In Sweden the apostolic succession was preserved because the Catholic bishops were allowed to stay in office, but they had to approve changes in the ceremonies.
Jump up ^ Bruce Milne, "Know the Truth" (2nd edition). (Nottingham: Inter-Varsity Press, 1998), 271.
Further reading[edit]
The Symbol of Faith by Father Thomas Hopko
Four Marks of the Church by Kenneth D. Whitehead
The Four Marks of the Church by Fr. William Saunders
Marks of the Church by Loyola Press
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List of Indian spices
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Indian spices
Indian spices include a variety of spices grown across the Indian subcontinent (a sub-region of South Asia). With different climates in different parts of the country, India produces a variety of spices, many of which are native to the subcontinent, while others were imported from similar climates and have since been cultivated locally for centuries.
Spices are used in different forms: whole, chopped, ground, roasted, sautéed, fried, and as topping. They blend food to extract the nutrients and bind them in a palatable form. Some spices are added at the end as a flavouring and are typically heated in a pan with ghee or cooking oil before being added to a dish. Lighter spices are added last, and spices with strong flavour should be added first. "Curry" refers to any dish in Indian cuisine that contains several spices blended together, whether dry or with a gravy base. However, it also refers to Curry leaves, commonly used in South Indian cuisine.
Below is a list of spices and other flavouring substances commonly used in India.[1]
Image
Standard English
Hindi
Telugu
Notes
Alkanet Root रातीं जोट rātīṃ (rātīn) joṭ
Fennel seed[2] सौंफ/सुव्वा/शोप saunf/suvvā/śop
Asafoetida हींग hiṃg (hing) ఇంగువ
ఇంగువు
Intensely aromatic - related to Truffle and Garlic
Red Chilli लाल मिर्च lāl mirch ఎర్ర మిరప
Black cardamom काली इलायची kāli ilāyachī Very earthy and darkly aromatic. A much used in North Indian curries.
White Pepper सफ़ेद मिर्च saphed mirch
Black Pepper काली मिर्च kālī mirch Largest producer is the southern Indian state of Kerala.
Peppercorns काली मिर्च kālī mirch
Black Cumin शाही जीरा śāhī jīrā Sweet, floral and smokey cumin and anise-like flavour. Smaller in size than regular cumin. Often mistaken as Caraway seed. Though English translation is black cumin, the term black cumin is also used as English translation of Nigella sativa, kalonji
Capers कचरा/कब्र/करेर kacharā/kabr/karer
Capsicum शिमला मिर्च śimalā mirch
Celery / Radhuni Seed अज्मुद/अज्मोदा ajmud/ajmodā
Charoli चिरोंजी chiroṃjī (chironjī) a type of nut particularly used in making desserts
Indian Bay Leaf, Bay Leaf तेज पत्ता tej pattā Both Indian bay leaf and bay leaf are similar and called as Tej Patta in Hindi. however, they are from two different species and have differences in taste
Cinnamon Buds नाग केशर nāg keśar
Cinnamon दालचीनी dālachīnī దాల్చిన చెక్క Grown commercially in Kerala in southern India. Two types, cassia (common) and royal.
Citric Acid निंबू फूल niṃbū phūl
Cloves लवंग/लौंग lavaṃg (lavang) / lauṃg (laung) లవంగము Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka are largest producers in India.
Coriander Powder धनिया पाउडर / पिसा धनिया dhaniyā pāuḍar / pisā dhaniyā
Coriander Seed धनिया dhaniyā ధనియాలు
Cubeb कबाब चीनी kabāb chīnī Tastes of Clove + Persistent Mild Numbing + Bitterness
Cumin Seed ground into balls ज़ीरा गोली zīrā (jīrā) golī
Cumin Seed ज़ीरा zīrā (jīrā) See Kali Jeera.
Curry Tree or Sweet Neem Leaf करीपत्ता / कढ़ीपत्ता karīpattā/kaḍhīpattā కరివేపాకు Cannot retain flavour when dried. Only use fresh.
Fennel Seed सौंफ / संचल sauṃph (saunph)/saṃchal (sanchal)
Fenugreek Leaf कसूरी मेथी kasūrī methī
Fenugreek Leaf मेथी पत्ता methī pattā
Fenugreek Seed मेथी दाना methī dānā మెంతులు
Four Seeds तरबूज खरबूज ककडी पैंठे के बीज tarabūj kharabūj kakaḍī pauṃṭhe ke bīj Seeds of Water melon, musk melon, cucumber and pumpkin
Garcinia gummi-gutta Used in fish preparations of Kerala
Garam Masala गरम मसाला garam masālā Blend of 8+ spices. Each family has their own secret recipe.
Garcinia indica कोकम kokam
Garlic लहसुन lahasun వెల్లుల్లి
Ginger अदरक adarak అల్లం
Dried Ginger सोंठ soṃṭh (sonṭh) mostly powdered
Green cardamom छोटी इलाइची chhoṭī ilāichī యాలకులు Malabar variety is native to Kerala.
Indian Bedellium Tree गुगल/गु्ग्गल gugal/guggal Very earthy aromatic mostly used in religious
Indian Gooseberry आँवला āṃvalā
Black Salt काला नमक / संचल kālā namak / saṃchal (sanchal) Rock salt, but with very sulfury smell.
Kalpasi पत्थर के फूल patthar ke phūl Also known as black stone flower
Licorice Powder जेठीमध jeṭhīmadh
Long Pepper पिप्पलि pippali
Mango Extract कामिकी kāmikī
Sour Dried Mango Powder आमचूर / अमचुर āmachūr/amachur
Mint पुदीना 'pudīnā పుదీనా
Mustard Seed सरसों sarasoṃ
Brown mustard Seed राई rāī ఆవాల
Nigella Seed कलोंजी kaloṃjī (kalomjī)
Nutmeg जैफल / जायफल jaiphal/jāyaphal Whole nuts last forever. Powder, only a month.
Mace जावित्री jāvitrī Mace is outer covering to nutmeg nut. Similar aroma.
Holy Basil तुलसी tulasī తులసి
Panch Phoron पञ्च फोरन pañch phoran This is a Bengali spice mix that combines fennel seeds, cumin seeds, fenugreek seeds, mustard seeds and nigella seeds.
Pomegranate Seed अनारदाना anārdānā Dried not fresh. Is ground in Middle East.
Poppy Seed खस-खस khas-khas very popular in West Bengal known Posto, with no of Bengali cuisine, most popular Allu Posto
Fresh Hemp Cannabis भांग Bhang
Saffron Pulp केसर मिरी मिरी kesar mirī mirī Actually, safflower concentrate
Saffron केसर / जाफरान kesar/jāpharān కుంకుమ పువ్వు World's most expensive spice. Flavouring for rice.
Salt नमक namak ఉప్పు
Sesame Seed तिल til
Star Anise चक्र फूल / बदल फुल chakra phūl/badal phul Exotic, Chinese-influenced flavours
Tamarind इमली imalī చింతకాయ Provides tartness in South Indian curries
Carom/thymol seed अज़वाइन azvāin
Turmeric हल्दी haldī పసుపు Source of "yellow color" in many curries.
Fresh basil तुलसी tulasī
Fresh Coriander हरा धनिया harā dhaniyā Fresh green leaves. AKA Cilantro.
Green Chili Pepper हरी मिर्च harī mirch పచ్చి మిరపకాయ
Gum Tragacanth कटीरा गोंद kaṭīrā goṃd (gond) A thickener and coating for desserts
Inknut Terminalia chebula हरद harad
Dried Red Chili Pepper लाल मिर्च lāl mirch ఎండు మిరపకాయ
See also[edit]
Spice trade
Masala dabba, traditional spice box
References[edit]
Jump up ^ About Indian spices, "[1]", Indian spices
Jump up ^ dictionary.reference.com: anise
External links[edit]
"Glossary Pakistani & Indian Spices (Masala)". Direct Advert Media LLC. Retrieved 2 October 2013.
"Glossary of Food Ingredients". Cymran LLC. Retrieved 2 October 2013.
"Glossary of Spices & Condiments - Indian Names". Syvum Technologies Inc. Retrieved 2 October 2013.
Gantzer, Hugh; Gantzer, Colleen (2014). SpiceStory. Spices Board of India. ISBN 9789383098385.
Raghavan, Susheela (2006). Handbook of Spices, Seasonings, and Flavorings (2nd ed.). Hoboken: CRC Press. ISBN 9781420004366.
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