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Dome of the Rock
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Not to be confused with Al-Aqsa Mosque or Mosque of Omar (Jerusalem).
Dome of the Rock
Qubbat As-Sakhrah
قبّة الصخرة
Location within the Old City of Jerusalem
Basic information
Location
Jerusalem
Geographic coordinates
31°46′41″N 35°14′07″E / 31.7780°N 35.2354°E / 31.7780; 35.2354Coordinates: 31°46′41″N 35°14′07″E / 31.7780°N 35.2354°E / 31.7780; 35.2354
Affiliation
Islam
Country
Israel
Administration
Ministry of Awqaf (Jordan)
Architectural description
Architectural type
Shrine
Architectural style
Umayyad, Abbasid, Ottoman
Date established
built 688–692,[1] expanded 820s, restored 1020s, 1545–1566, 1721/2, 1817, 1874/5, 1959–1962, 1993.
Specifications
Dome(s)
1
Minaret(s)
0
The Dome of the Rock (Arabic: قبة الصخرة Qubbat al-Sakhrah, Hebrew: כיפת הסלע Kippat ha-Sela) is an Islamic shrine located on the Temple Mount in the Old City of Jerusalem.
It was initially completed in 691 CE at the order of Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik during the Second Fitna, built on the site of the Roman temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, which had in turn been built on the site of the Second Jewish Temple, destroyed during the Roman Siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE. The original dome collapsed in 1015 and was rebuilt in 1022–23. The Dome of the Rock is in its core one of the oldest extant works of Islamic architecture.[2]
Its architecture and mosaics were patterned after nearby Byzantine churches and palaces,[3] although its outside appearance has been significantly changed in the Ottoman period and again in the modern period, notably with the addition of the gold-plated roof, in 1959–61 and again in 1993. The octagonal plan of the structure may have been influenced by the Byzantine Church of the Seat of Mary (also known as Kathisma in Greek and al-Qadismu in Arabic) built between 451 and 458 on the road between Jerusalem and Bethlehem.[3]
The site's great significance for Muslims derives from traditions connecting it to the creation of the world and to the belief that the Prophet Muhammad's Night Journey to heaven started from the rock at the center of the structure.[4][5]
In Jewish tradition the rock bears great significance as the Foundation Stone, the place from which the world expanded into its present form and where God gathered the dust used to create the first human, Adam[6]; as the site on Mount Moriah where Abraham attempted to sacrifice his son; and as the place where God's divine presence is manifested more than in any other place, towards which Jews turn during prayer.
A UNESCO World Heritage Site, it has been called "Jerusalem's most recognizable landmark,"[7] along with two nearby Old City structures, the Western Wall, and the "Resurrection Rotunda" in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Pre-Islamic
1.2 Original construction
1.3 Abbasids and Fatimids
1.4 Crusaders
1.5 Ayyubids and Mamluks
1.6 Ottoman Empire (1517–1917)
1.7 Modern history
2 Accessibility
3 Religious significance
4 Architectural homages
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
History
Pre-Islamic
Main articles: Temple Mount, Herod's Temple, and Aelia Capitolina
Reconstruction of Herod's Temple as seen from the east (Holyland Model of Jerusalem, 1966)
The Dome of the Rock is situated in the center of the Temple Mount, the site of the Temple of Solomon and the Jewish Second Temple, which had been greatly expanded under Herod the Great in the 1st century BCE. Herod's Temple was destroyed in 70 CE by the Romans, and after the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, a Roman temple to Jupiter Capitolinus was built at the site.[9]
Jerusalem was ruled by the Christian Byzantine Empire throughout the 4th to 6th centuries. During this time, Christian pilgrimage to Jerusalem began to develop.[10] The Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built under Constantine in the 320s, but the Temple Mount was left undeveloped after a failed project of restoration of the Jewish Temple under Julian the Apostate.[11]
Original construction
The Dome of the Rock is now mostly assumed to have been built by the order of Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik and his son and successor Al-Walid I. According to Sibt ibn al-Jawzi, construction started in 687. Construction cost was reportedly seven times the yearly tax income of Egypt.[12] A dedicatory inscription in Kufic script is preserved inside the dome. The date is recorded as AH 72 (691/2 CE), the year historians believe the construction of the original Dome was completed.[13] In this inscription, the name of al-Malik was deleted and replaced by the name of Abbasid caliph Al-Ma'mun. This alteration of the original inscription was first noted by Melchior de Vogüé in 1864.[14] Some scholars have suggested that the dome was added to an existing building, built either by Muawiyah I (r. 661–680),[15] or indeed a Byzantine building dating to before the Muslim conquest, built under Heraclius (r. 610–641).[16]
Its architecture and mosaics were patterned after nearby Byzantine churches and palaces.[3] The two engineers in charge of the project were Raja ibn Haywah, a Muslim theologian from Beit She'an and Yazid Ibn Salam, a non-Arab who was Muslim and a native of Jerusalem.[3][17]
Cross section of the Dome (print from 1887, after the first detailed drawings of the Dome, made by Frederick Catherwood in 1833).[18]
Shelomo Dov Goitein of the Hebrew University has argued that the Dome of the Rock was intended to compete with the many fine buildings of worship of other religions: "The very form of a rotunda, given to the Qubbat as-Sakhra, although it was foreign to Islam, was destined to rival the many Christian domes."[19] K.A.C. Creswell in his book The Origin of the Plan of the Dome of the Rock notes that those who built the shrine used the measurements of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The diameter of the dome of the shrine is 20.20 m (66.3 ft) and its height 20.48 m (67.2 ft), while the diameter of the dome of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is 20.90 m (68.6 ft) and its height 21.05 m (69.1 ft).
The structure was basically octagonal. It comprised a wooden dome, approximately 20 m (66 ft) in diameter, which was mounted on an elevated drum consisting of a circle of 16 piers and columns.[20] Surrounding this circle was an octagonal arcade of 24 piers and columns.
Abbasids and Fatimids
The building was severely damaged by earthquakes in 808 and again in 846.[21] The dome collapsed in an earthquake in 1015 and was rebuilt in 1022–23. The mosaics on the drum were repaired in 1027–28.[22]
Crusaders
Main article: Templum Domini
Depiction of the Templum Domini on the reverse side of the seal of the Knights Templar
For centuries Christian pilgrims were able to come and experience the Temple Mount, but escalating violence against pilgrims to Jerusalem (Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, who ordered the destruction of the Holy Sepulchre, was an example) instigated the Crusades.[23] The Crusaders captured Jerusalem in 1099 and the Dome of the Rock was given to the Augustinians, who turned it into a church, while the Al-Aqsa Mosque became a royal palace. The Knights Templar, active from c. 1119, identified the Dome of the Rock as the site of the Temple of Solomon and set up their headquarters in the Al-Aqsa Mosque adjacent to the Dome for much of the 12th century. The Templum Domini, as they called the Dome of the Rock, featured on the official seals of the Order's Grand Masters (such as Everard des Barres and Renaud de Vichiers), and soon became the architectural model for round Templar churches across Europe.
Ayyubids and Mamluks
Jerusalem was recaptured by Saladin on 2 October 1187, and the Dome of the Rock was reconsecrated as a Muslim shrine. The cross on top of the dome was replaced by a crescent,[citation needed] and a wooden screen was placed around the rock below.[citation needed] Saladin's nephew al-Malik al-Mu'azzam Isa carried out other restorations within the building, and added the porch to the Al-Aqsa Mosque.[citation needed]
The Dome of the Rock was the focus of extensive royal patronage by the sultans during the Mamluk period, which lasted from 1250 until 1510.[citation needed]
Ottoman Empire (1517–1917)
During the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566) the exterior of the Dome of the Rock was covered with tiles. This work took seven years.[citation needed]
The interior of the dome is lavishly decorated with mosaic, faience and marble, much of which was added several centuries after its completion. It also contains Qur'anic inscriptions. Surah Ya Sin (the "Heart of the Quran") is inscribed across the top of the tile work and was commissioned in the 16th century by Suleiman the Magnificent. Al-Isra, the Surah 17 which tells the story of the Isra or Night Journey, is inscribed above this.
Adjacent to the Dome of the Rock, the Ottomans built the free-standing Dome of the Prophet in 1620. Large-scale renovation was undertaken during the reign of Mahmud II in 1817.
In a major restoration project undertaken in 1874–75 during the reign of the Ottoman Sultan Abdülaziz, all the tiles on the west and southwest walls of the octagonal part of the building were removed and replaced by copies that had been made in Turkey.[24][25]
View from the north, Francis Bedford (1862)
West front in 1862. By this date many of the 16th century tiles were missing.
Interior showing mosaic decoration (1914)
Tiled façade (2013)
Interior showing rock (1915)
Modern history
1920s photograph
Haj Amin al-Husseini, appointed Grand Mufti by the British during the 1917 mandate of Palestine, along with Yaqub al-Ghusayn, implemented the restoration of the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.
The Dome of the Rock was badly shaken during the 11 July 1927 Jericho earthquake, damaging many of the repairs that had taken place over previous years.
In 1955, an extensive program of renovation was begun by the government of Jordan, with funds supplied by Arab governments and Turkey. The work included replacement of large numbers of tiles dating back to the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, which had become dislodged by heavy rain. In 1965, as part of this restoration, the dome was covered with a durable aluminium bronze alloy made in Italy that replaced the lead exterior. Before 1959, the dome was covered in blackened lead. In the course of substantial restoration carried out from 1959 to 1962, the lead was replaced by aluminum-bronze plates covered with gold leaf.
A few hours after the Israeli flag was hoisted over the Dome of the Rock in 1967 during the Six-Day War, Israelis lowered it on the orders of Moshe Dayan and invested the Muslim waqf (religious trust) with the authority to manage the Temple Mount / Haram al-Sharif, in order to "keep the peace".[26]
The reverse of a 1000-rials banknote from 1982.
In 1993, the golden dome covering was refurbished following a donation of USD 8.2 million by King Hussein of Jordan who sold one of his houses in London to fund the 80 kilograms of gold required.[citation needed]
The Dome of the Rock is depicted on the reverse of the Iranian 1000 rials banknote.[27]
Accessibility
Sign at visitors entrance to Temple Mount
The Dome is maintained by the Ministry of Awqaf in Amman, Jordan.[28]
Until the mid-twentieth century, non-Muslims were not permitted in the area. Since 1967, non-Muslims have been permitted limited access; however non-Muslims are not permitted to pray on the Temple Mount, bring prayer books, or wear religious apparel. The Israeli police help enforce this.[29] Israel restricted access for a short time during 2012 of Palestinian residents of the West Bank to the Temple Mount. West Bank Palestinian men had to be over 35 to be eligible for a permit.[30] Palestinian residents of Jerusalem, who hold Israeli residency cards, and Palestinians with Israeli citizenship are permitted unrestricted access.
Some Orthodox rabbis encourage Jews to visit the site, while most forbid entry to the compound lest there be a violation of Jewish law. Even rabbis who encourage entrance to the Temple Mount prohibit entrance to the actual Dome of the Rock.[31]
Religious significance
The Temple in Jerusalem depicted as the Dome of the Rock on the printer's mark of Marco Antonio Giustiniani, Venice 1545–52
According to some Islamic scholars, the rock is the spot[32] from which the Islamic prophet Muhammad ascended to Heaven accompanied by the angel Gabriel. Further, Muhammad was taken here by Gabriel to pray with Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.[33] Other Islamic scholars believe that the Prophet ascended to Heaven from the Al-Aqsa Mosque.[34][35]
Muslims believe the location of the Dome of the Rock to be the site mentioned in Sura 17 of the Qur'an, which tells the story of the Isra and Mi'raj, the miraculous Night Journey of Prophet Muhammad from Mecca to "the farthest mosque", where he leads prayers and rises to heaven to receive instructions from Allah. The Night Journey is mentioned in the Qur'an in a very brief form and is further elaborated by the hadiths. Caliph Umar ibn Al-Khattab (579–644) was advised by Ka'ab al-Ahbar, a Jewish rabbi who converted to Islam,[36] that "the farthest mosque" is identical with the site of the former Jewish Temples in Jerusalem.[citation needed]
The Foundation Stone viewed from the dome. Photograph was taken between 1900 and 1920, before the removal of the surrounding iron grill.
The Foundation Stone and its surroundings is the holiest site in Judaism. Though Muslims now pray towards the Kaaba at Mecca, they once[year needed] faced the Temple Mount as the Jews do. Muhammad changed the direction of prayer for Muslims after a revelation from Allah. Jews traditionally regarded[year needed] the location of the stone as the holiest spot on Earth, the site of the Holy of Holies during the Temple Period.
According to Jewish tradition, the stone is the site where Abraham prepared to sacrifice his son Isaac.
On the walls of the Dome of the Rock is an inscription in a mosaic frieze that includes an explicit rejection of the divinity of Christ, from Quran (19:33–35):
33. "So peace is upon me the day I was born, and the day I die, and the day I shall be raised alive!" 34. Such is Jesus, son of Mary. It is a statement of truth, about which they doubt. 35. It is not befitting to (the majesty of) Allah that He should take himself a child. Glory be to Him! when He determines a matter, He only says to it, "Be", and it is.
According to Goitein, the inscriptions decorating the interior clearly display a spirit of polemic against Christianity, whilst stressing at the same time the Qur'anic doctrine that Jesus was a true prophet. The formula la sharika lahu ("God has no companion") is repeated five times; the verses from Sura Maryam 19:35–37, which strongly reaffirm Jesus' prophethood to God, are quoted together with the prayer: Allahumma salli ala rasulika wa'abdika 'Isa bin Maryam – "O Lord, send your blessings to your Prophet and Servant Jesus son of Mary." He believes that this shows that rivalry with Christendom, together with the spirit of Muslim mission to the Christians, was at work at the time of construction.[19]
The Temple Institute wishes to relocate the Dome to another site and replace it with a Third Temple.[37] Many Israelis are ambivalent about the Movement's wishes.[weasel words] Some religious Jews, following rabbinic teaching, believe that the Temple should only be rebuilt in the messianic era, and that it would be presumptuous of people to force God's hand. However, some Evangelical Christians consider rebuilding of the Temple to be a prerequisite to Armageddon and the Second Coming.[38] Jeremy Gimpel, a US-born candidate for Habayit Hayehudi in the 2013 Israeli elections, caused a controversy when he was recorded telling a Fellowship Church evangelical group in Florida in 2011 to imagine the incredible experience that would follow were the Dome to be destroyed. All Christians would be immediately transported to Israel, he opined.[39]
Architectural homages
The Dome of the Rock has inspired the architecture of a number of buildings. These include the octagonal Church of St. Giacomo in Italy, the Mausoleum of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent in Istanbul, the octagonal Moorish Revival style Rumbach Street Synagogue in Budapest, and the New Synagogue in Berlin, Germany. It was long believed by Christians that the Dome of the Rock echoed the architecture of the Temple in Jerusalem, as can be seen in Raphael's The Marriage of the Virgin and in Perugino's Marriage of the Virgin.[40]
Panorama of the Temple Mount, including Al-Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock, from the Mount of Olives
See also
Islam portal
Christianity portal
Judaism portal
Ablaq
History of Medieval Arabic and Western European domes
List of the oldest mosques in the world
New Jerusalem
Well of Souls
Notes
Jump up ^ Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
Jump up ^ Slavik, Diane (2001). Cities through Time: Daily Life in Ancient and Modern Jerusalem. Geneva, Illinois: Runestone Press. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-8225-3218-7.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Avner, Rina (2010). "The Dome of the Rock in light of the development of concentric martyria in Jerusalem" (PDF). Muqarnas. Volume 27: An Annual on the Visual Cultures of the Islamic World. Leiden: Brill. pp. 31–50 [43–44]. ISBN 978-900418511-1. JSTOR 25769691.
Jump up ^ M. Anwarul Islam and Zaid F. Al-hamad (2007). "The Dome of the Rock: Origin of its octagonal plan". Palestine Exploration Quarterly. 139 (2): 109–128.
Jump up ^ Nasser Rabbat (1989). "The meaning of the Umayyad Dome of the Rock". Muqarnas. 6: 12–21.
Jump up ^ Carol Delaney, Abraham on Trial: The Social Legacy of Biblical Myth, Princeton University Press 2000 p.120.
Jump up ^ Goldberg, Jeffrey (29 January 2001). "Arafat's Gift". The New Yorker. Retrieved 11 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "UNESCO World Heritage".
Jump up ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Aelia Capitolina". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 256. Lester L. Grabbe (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. p. 29.
Jump up ^ Davidson, Linda Kay and David Martin Gitlitz Pilgrimage: From the Ganges to Graceland : an Encyclopedia Volume 1, ABC-CLIO, Inc, Santa Barbara, CA 2002, p. 274.
Jump up ^ "Julian thought to rebuild at an extravagant expense the proud Temple once at Jerusalem, and committed this task to Alypius of Antioch. Alypius set vigorously to work, and was seconded by the governor of the province, when fearful balls of fire, breaking out near the foundations, continued their attacks, till the workmen, after repeated scorchings, could approach no more: and he gave up the attempt." Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 23.1.2–3.
Jump up ^ Jacob Lassner: Muslims on the sanctity of Jerusalem: preliminary thoughts on the search for a conceptual framework. In: Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam. Band 31 (2006), p. 176.
Jump up ^ Necipoğlu 2008, p. 22.
Jump up ^ Vogüé 1864, p. 85.
Jump up ^ Oleg Grabar: The Meaning of the Dome of the Rock.
Jump up ^ Busse, Heribert (1991). "Zur Geschichte und Deutung der frühislamischen Ḥarambauten in Jerusalem". Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins (in German). 107: 144–154. JSTOR 27931418.
Jump up ^ Richard Ettinghausen; Oleg Grabar; Marilyn Jenkins (2001). Islamic Art and Architecture 650–1250. Yale University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-300-08869-4.
Jump up ^ "Drawings of Islamic Buildings: Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem". Victoria and Albert Museum. Archived from the original on 9 March 2009. Until 1833 the Dome of the Rock had not been measured or drawn; according to Victor von Hagen, 'no architect had ever sketched its architecture, no antiquarian had traced its interior design...' On 13 November in that year, however, Frederick Catherwood dressed up as an Egyptian officer and accompanied by an Egyptian servant 'of great courage and assurance', entered the buildings of the mosque with his drawing materials... 'During six weeks, I continued to investigate every part of the mosque and its precincts.' Thus, Catherwood made the first complete survey of the Dome of the Rock, and paved the way for many other artists in subsequent years, such as William Harvey, Ernest Richmond and Carl Friedrich Heinrich Werner.
^ Jump up to: a b Goitein, Shelomo Dov (1950). "The historical background of the erection of the Dome of the Rock". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 70 (2): 104–108. JSTOR 595539.
Jump up ^ "Dome of the Rock". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 4 April 2012.
Jump up ^ Amiran, D.H.K.; Arieh, E.; Turcotte, T. (1994). "Earthquakes in Israel and adjacent areas: macroseismic observations since 100 B.C.E". Israel Exploration Journal. 44 (3/4): 260–305 [267]. JSTOR 27926357.
Jump up ^ Necipoğlu 2008, p. 31.
Jump up ^ Stark, Rodney. God's Battalions; a Case for the Crusades. Harper Collins, NY, 2009, pp. 84–85.
Jump up ^ Clermont-Ganneau 1899, p. 179.
Jump up ^ St. Laurent, Beatrice; Riedlmayer, András (1993). "Restorations of Jerusalem and the Dome of the Rock and their political significance, 1537–1928" (PDF). In Necipoğlu, Gülru. Muqarnas. Volume 10: Essays in Honor of Oleg Grabar. Leiden: Brill. pp. 76–84. JSTOR 1523174.
Jump up ^ "Letter from Jerusalem: A Fight Over Sacred Turf by Sandra Scham". Archaeology.org. Retrieved 4 April 2012.
Jump up ^ Central Bank of Iran. Banknotes & Coins: 1000 Rials. – Retrieved on 24 March 2009.
Jump up ^ Business Optimization Consultants B.O.C. "Hashemite Restorations of the Islamic Holy Places in Jerusalem – kinghussein.gov.jo – Retrieved 21 January 2008". Kinghussein.gov.jo. Retrieved 4 April 2012.
Jump up ^ Jerusalem's Holy Places and the Peace Process Marshall J. Breger and Thomas A. Idinopulos, Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 1998.
Jump up ^ Browning, Noah (15 August 2012). "Palestinians flock to Jerusalem as Israeli restrictions eased – Yahoo! News". News.yahoo.com. Archived from the original on 18 August 2012. Retrieved 31 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Zivotofsky. "Tzarich Iyun: The Har HaBayit – OU Torah". OU Torah. Retrieved 2015-11-16.
Jump up ^ Braswell, G. Islam – Its Prophets, People, Politics and Power. Nashville, TN: Broadman and Holman Publishers. 1996. p. 14
Jump up ^ Ali, A. The Holy Qur'an – Translation and Commentary. Bronx, NY: Islamic Propagation Centre International. 1946. pp. 1625–31
Jump up ^ "Me'raj – The Night Ascension". Al-islam.org. Retrieved 31 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Meraj Article". Duas.org. Retrieved 31 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Yakub of Syria (Ka'b al-Ahbar) Last Jewish Attempt at Islamic Leadership Committee for Historical Research in Islam and Judaism, © 2004–2012, accessed July 2013.[dead link] "He continued to follow Rabbinic tradition such that later Islamic historians questioned whether he ever 'converted' to Islam."
Jump up ^ raisa (2014-07-30). "'Third Temple' crowdfunding plan aims to relocate Jerusalem's Dome of the Rock" (Text). The Stream - Al Jazeera English. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
Jump up ^ Stephen Spector, Evangelicals and Israel:The Story of American Christian Zionism, Oxford University Press, 2008 p. 202.
Jump up ^ Andrew Esensten U.S.-born Knesset candidate, Jeremy Gimpel, and his Dome of the Rock 'joke', Haaretz 20 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Burckhardt, Jacob; Peter Murray; James C. Palmes (1986). The Architecture of the Italian Renaissance. University of Chicago Press. p. 81.
References
Creswell, K.A.C. (1924). The Origin of the Plan of the Dome of the Rock (2 Volumes). London: British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem. OCLC 5862604.
Peterson, Andrew (1994). Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-06084-2
Braswell, G. (1996). Islam – Its Prophets, People, Politics and Power. Nashville, TN: Broadman and Holman Publishers.
Clermont-Ganneau, Charles (1899). "Chapter VIII The Kubbet es Sakhra". Archaeological Researches in Palestine During the Years 1873–1874. Volume 1. London: Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund. pp. 179–227.
Necipoğlu, Gülru (2008). "The Dome of the Rock as palimpsest: 'Abd al-Malik's grand narrative and Sultan Süleyman's glosses" (PDF). In Necipoğlu, Gülru; Bailey, Julia. Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Culture of the Islamic World. Volume 25. Leiden: Brill. pp. 17–105. ISBN 978-900417327-9.
Ali, A. (1946). The Holy Qur’an – Translation and Commentary. Bronx, NY: Islamic Propagation Centre International.
Islam, M. Anwarul; Al-Hamad, Zaid (2007). "The Dome of the Rock: origin of its octagonal plan". Palestine Exploration Quarterly. 139 (2): 109–128. doi:10.1179/003103207x194145.
Christoph Luxenberg: Neudeutung der arabischen Inschrift im Felsendom zu Jerusalem. In: Karl-Heinz Ohlig / Gerd-R. Puin (Hg.): Die dunklen Anfänge. Neue Forschungen zur Entstehung und frühen Geschichte des Islam, Berlin (Verlag Hans Schiler) 2005, S. 124–147. English version: "A New Interpretation of the Arabic Inscription in Jerusalem's Dome of the Rock". In: Karl-Heinz Ohlig / Gerd-R. Puin (eds.): The Hidden Origins of Islam: New Research into Its Early History, Amherst, N.Y. (Prometheus Books) 2010
Vogüé, Melchior de (1864). Le Temple de Jérusalem : monographie du Haram-ech-Chérif, suivie d'un essai sur la topographie de la Ville-sainte (in French). Paris: Noblet & Baudry.
Further reading
Grabar, Oleg (2006). The Dome of the Rock. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02313-0.
Flood, Finbarr B. (2000). "The Ottoman windows in the Dome of the Rock and the Aqsa Mosque" (PDF). In Auld, Sylvia; Hillenbrand, Robert. Ottoman Jerusalem: The Living City: 1517–1917. Volume 1. London: Altajir World of Islam Trust. pp. 431–463. ISBN 978-1-901435-03-0.
Kessler, Christel (1964). "Above the ceiling of the outer ambulatory in the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (3/4): 83–94. JSTOR 25202759.
Kessler, Christel (1970). "'Abd Al-Malik's inscription in the Dome of the Rock: a reconsideration". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1): 2–14. JSTOR 25203167.
Richmond, Ernest Tatham (1924). The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem: A Description of its Structure and Decoration. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
St. Laurent, Beatrice (1998). "The Dome of the Rock and the politics of restoration". Bridgewater Review. 17 (2): 14–20.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dome of the Rock.
"Qubba al-Sakhra, Jerusalem". Archnet Digital Archive.
Dome of the Rock Sacred sites
The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem Masterpieces of Islamic Architecture
Ochs, Christoph (2010). "Dome of the Rock". Bibledex in Israel. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.
Allen, Terry (2014). "The Marble Revetment of the Piers of the Dome of the Rock". Occidental, CA: Solipsist Press. Retrieved 26 March 2017.
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Group of Eight
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"G8" redirects here. For other uses, see G8 (disambiguation).
Group of Eight
Canada
Prime Minister Justin Trudeau
France
President Emmanuel Macron
Germany
Chancellor Angela Merkel
Italy
Prime Minister Paolo Gentiloni
Japan
Prime Minister Shinzō Abe
Russia (suspended)
President Vladimir Putin
United Kingdom
Prime Minister Theresa May
United States
President Donald Trump
European Union
Council President Donald Tusk
Commission President Jean-Claude Juncker
The G8 (reformatted as G7 from 2014 due to Russia's suspension)[1][2][3][4] was an inter-governmental political forum from 1997 until 2014, with participation from the world′s major highly industrialized economies in countries that viewed themselves as democracies.[5]
The forum originated with a 1975 summit hosted by France that brought together representatives of six governments: France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States, thus leading to the name Group of Six or G6. The summit came to be known as the Group of Seven, or G7, in 1976 with the addition of Canada. Russia was added to the political forum from 1997, which the following year became known as the G8. In March 2014 Russia was suspended following the annexation of Crimea, whereupon the group's name reverted to the G7.[6][7][8] Certain representatives of G7 countries stated that they would be interested in Russia's return to the group.[9][10][11][12][13][14] However in 2017 Russia announced that it would permanently leave the political forum G8. [15] The European Union was represented at the G8 since the 1980s as a "nonenumerated" participant, but originally could not host or chair summits.[16] The 40th summit was the first time the European Union was able to host and chair a summit. Collectively, in 2012 the G8 nations comprised 50.1 percent of 2012 global nominal GDP and 40.9 percent of global GDP (PPP).
"G7" can refer to the member states in aggregate or to the annual summit meeting of the G7 heads of government. The former term, G6, is now frequently applied to the six most populous countries within the European Union. G7 ministers also meet throughout the year, such as the G7 finance ministers (who meet four times a year), G7 foreign ministers, or G7 environment ministers.
Each calendar year, the responsibility of hosting the G8 was rotated through the member states in the following order: France, United States, United Kingdom, Russia (suspended), Germany, Japan, Italy, and Canada. The holder of the presidency sets the agenda, hosts the summit for that year, and determines which ministerial meetings will take place.
In 2005, the UK government initiated the practice of inviting five leading emerging markets — Brazil, China, India, Mexico, and South Africa — to participate in the G8 meetings that came to be known as G8+5; but this practice was short-lived.[5] With the G-20 major economies growing in stature since the 2008 Washington summit, world leaders from the group announced at their Pittsburgh summit in September 2009 that the group would replace the G8 as the main economic council of wealthy nations.[17][18] Nevertheless, the G7 retains its relevance as a "steering group for the West",[5] with special significance appointed to Japan.[19]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Food
1.2 Russia′s participation suspension (2014)
2 Structure and activities
2.1 Global energy
2.2 Annual summit
3 Member facts
4 Criticism
5 Relevance
6 Youth 8 Summit
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
History[edit]
Main article: Group of Seven § History
Following 1994's G7 summit in Naples, Russian officials held separate meetings with leaders of the G7 after the group's summits. This informal arrangement was dubbed the Political 8 (P8)—or, colloquially, the G7+1. At the invitation of UK Prime Minister Tony Blair and U.S. President Bill Clinton,[20] President Boris Yeltsin was invited first as a guest observer, later as a full participant. It was seen as a way to encourage Yeltsin with his capitalist reforms. Russia formally joined the group in 1998, resulting in the Group of Eight, or G8.
Food[edit]
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (July 2017)
A major focus of the G8 since 2009 has been the global supply of food.[21] At the 2009 L'Aquila summit, the G8's members promised to contribute $20 billion to the issue over three years.[22] Since then, only 22% of the promised funds have been delivered.[23]
At the 2012 summit, President Barack Obama asked G8 leaders to adopt the New Alliance for Food Security and Nutrition initiative to "help the rural poor produce more food and sell it in thriving local and regional markets as well as on the global market."[24][25]
Russia′s participation suspension (2014)[edit]
On 24 March 2014, the non-Russian G8 members cancelled the planned G8 summit that was to be held in June that year in the Russian city of Sochi, and suspended Russia′s membership of the group, due to Russia's annexation of Crimea; nevertheless, they stopped short of outright permanent expulsion.[26] Russian foreign minister Sergei Lavrov downplayed the importance of the decision by the U.S. and its allies, and pointed up that major international decisions were taken by the G20 countries.[27][6]
Later on, the Italian Foreign Affairs minister Federica Mogherini and other Italian authorities,[9][10] along with the EastWest Institute board member Wolfgang Ischinger,[11] suggested that Russia may restore its membership in the group. In April 2015, the German foreign minister Frank-Walter Steinmeier said that Russia would be welcomed to return to G8 provided the Minsk Protocol was implemented.[12] In 2016, he added that "none of the major international conflicts can be solved without Russia", and the G7 countries will consider Russia's return to the group in 2017. The same year, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe called for Russia's return to G8, stating that Russia's involvement is "crucial to tackling multiple crises in the Middle East".[13] In January 2017, the Italian foreign minister Angelino Alfano said that Italy hopes for "resuming the G8 format with Russia and ending the atmosphere of the Cold War".[14] On 13 January 2017, Russia announced that it would permanently leave the G8 grouping.[28]
Structure and activities[edit]
Leaders of the G8 on 18 June 2013, in Lough Erne, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
By design, the G8 deliberately lacked an administrative structure like those for international organizations, such as the United Nations or the World Bank. The group does not have a permanent secretariat, or offices for its members.
The presidency of the group rotates annually among member countries, with each new term beginning on 1 January of the year. The rotation order is: France, the United States, the United Kingdom, Russia (suspended), Germany, Japan, Italy, and Canada.[29] The country holding the presidency is responsible for planning and hosting a series of ministerial-level meetings, leading up to a mid-year summit attended by the heads of government. The president of the European Commission participates as an equal in all summit events.[30]
The ministerial meetings bring together ministers responsible for various portfolios to discuss issues of mutual or global concern. The range of topics include health, law enforcement, labor, economic and social development, energy, environment, foreign affairs, justice and interior, terrorism, and trade. There are also a separate set of meetings known as the G8+5, created during the 2005 Gleneagles, Scotland summit, that is attended by finance and energy ministers from all eight member countries in addition to the five "outreach countries" which are also known as the Group of Five—Brazil, People's Republic of China, India, Mexico, and South Africa.[31]
In June 2005, justice ministers and interior ministers from the G8 countries agreed to launch an international database on pedophiles.[32] The G8 officials also agreed to pool data on terrorism, subject to restrictions by privacy and security laws in individual countries.[33]
Global energy[edit]
Main articles: International Partnership for Energy Efficiency Cooperation and Climate Investment Funds
G8 leaders confer during the 2009 summit in L'Aquila (Abruzzo, Italy).
At the Heiligendamm Summit in 2007, the G8 acknowledged a proposal from the EU for a worldwide initiative on efficient energy use. They agreed to explore, along with the International Energy Agency, the most effective means to promote energy efficiency internationally. A year later, on 8 June 2008, the G8 along with China, India, South Korea and the European Community established the International Partnership for Energy Efficiency Cooperation, at the Energy Ministerial meeting hosted by Japan holding 2008 G8 Presidency, in Aomori.[34]
G8 Finance Ministers, whilst in preparation for the 34th Summit of the G8 Heads of State and Government in Toyako, Hokkaido, met on the 13 and 14 June 2008, in Osaka, Japan. They agreed to the "G8 Action Plan for Climate Change to Enhance the Engagement of Private and Public Financial Institutions." In closing, Ministers supported the launch of new Climate Investment Funds (CIFs) by the World Bank, which will help existing efforts until a new framework under the UNFCCC is implemented after 2012. The UNFCCC is not on track to meeting any of its stated goals.[35]
Annual summit[edit]
Main article: Group of Seven § List of summits
The first G8 summit was held in 1997 after Russia formally joined the G7 group, and the last one was held in 2013. The 2014 summit was scheduled to be held in Russia. However, due to the Crimean crisis, the other seven countries decided to hold a separate meeting without Russia as a G7 summit in Brussels, Belgium.
Member facts[edit]
The G8 leaders at the 36th summit in Huntsville, Ontario. Left to right: Cameron, Van Rompuy (European Council), Harper, Medvedev, Kan, Berlusconi, Obama, Barroso (European Commission), Merkel, Sarkozy.
7 of the 7 top-ranked advanced economies with the largest GDP and with the highest national wealth (United States, Japan, Germany, UK, France, Italy, Canada) last century also known as G7 [36]
7 of the 15 top-ranked countries with the highest net wealth per capita (United States, France, Japan, United Kingdom, Italy, Canada, Germany)
8 of 12 top-ranked leading export countries.[37]
6 of 10 top-ranked countries with the largest gold reserves (United States, Germany, Italy, France, Russia, Japan).
8 of 10 top-ranked economies (by nominal GDP), according to latest (2016 data) International Monetary Fund's statistics.
5 countries with a nominal GDP per capita above US$40,000 (United States, Canada, Germany, France, United Kingdom).
5 countries with a sovereign wealth fund, administered by either a national or a state/provincial government (Russia, United States, France, Canada, Italy).[38]
8 of 30 top-ranked nations with large amounts of foreign-exchange reserves in their central banks.
4 out of 9 countries having nuclear weapons (France, Russia, UK, United States).[39][40] plus 2 countries that have nuclear weapon sharing programs (Germany, Italy).[41][42]
7 of the 9 largest nuclear energy producers (United States, France, Japan, Russia, Germany, Canada, UK), although Germany announced in 2011 that it will close all of its nuclear power plants by 2022.[43] Following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, Japan shut down all of its nuclear reactors.[44] However, Japan restarted several nuclear reactors, with the refueling of other reactors underway.
8 of the 10 top donors to the UN budget for the 2016 annual fiscal year.
4 countries with a HDI index for 2013 of 0.9 and higher (United States, Germany, Japan, Canada).
2 countries with the highest credit rating from Standard & Poor's, Fitch, and Moody's at the same time (Canada and Germany).[45]
2 countries that retain the death penalty in law and practice (Japan and the United States; Russia retains the death penalty, but the regulations of the Council of Europe prohibit it from carrying out any executions).
2 countries consist of islands and have left-hand traffic (Japan and the United Kingdom; in the US Virgin Islands, they have left-hand traffic to remain compatible with the British Virgin Islands, but the rest of the United States has right-hand traffic).
In the G8 states, 6 languages have official status: English in 3 countries (Canada, United Kingdom and US), French in 2 countries (Canada and France), German, Italian, Japanese, and Russian in 1 country each (Germany, Italy, Japan, and Russia).
Criticism[edit]
20 July 2001, 27th G8 summit in Genoa, Italy: Protesters burn a police vehicle
Some criticism centres on the assertion that members of G8 do not do enough to help global problems, due to strict patent policy and other issues related to globalization. In Unraveling Global Apartheid, political analyst Titus Alexander described the G7, as it was in 1996, as the 'cabinet' of global minority rule, with a coordinating role in world affairs.[46]
The Heritage Foundation has criticized the G8 for advocating food security without making room for economic freedom.[47]
Relevance[edit]
The G8's relevance has been subject to debate from 2008 onward.[48] It represented the major industrialized countries but critics argued that the G8 no longer represented the world's most powerful economies, as China has surpassed every economy but the United States.[49].
Vladimir Putin did not attend the 2012 G8 summit at Camp David, causing Foreign Policy (FP) magazine to remark that the summit has generally outlived its usefulness as a viable international gathering of foreign leaders.[50] Two years later, Russia was suspended from the G8, then chose to leave permanently in January 2017.
The G20 major economies leaders' summit has had an increased level of international prestige and influence.[51] However, British Prime Minister David Cameron said of the G8 in 2012:[52]
Some people ask, does the G8 still matter, when we have a Group of 20? My answer is, yes. The G8 is a group of like-minded countries that share a belief in free enterprise as the best route to growth. As eight countries making up about half the world's gross domestic product, the standards we set, the commitments we make, and the steps we take can help solve vital global issues, fire up economies and drive prosperity all over the world.
Youth 8 Summit[edit]
The Y8 Summit or simply Y8, formerly known as the G8 Youth Summit[53] is the youth counterpart to the G8 summit.[54] The first summit to use the name Y8 took place in May 2012 in Puebla, Mexico, alongside the Youth G8 that took place in Washington, D.C. the same year.
The Y8 Summit brings together young leaders from G8 nations and the European Union to facilitate discussions of international affairs, promote cross-cultural understanding, and build global friendships. The conference closely follows the formal negotiation procedures of the G8 Summit.[55] The Y8 Summit represents the innovative voice of young adults between the age of 18 and 35. The delegates jointly come up with a consensus-based[56] written statement in the end, the Final Communiqué.[57] This document is subsequently presented to G8 leaders in order to inspire positive change.
The Y8 Summit is organised annually by a global network of youth-led organisations called The IDEA (The International Diplomatic Engagement Association).[58] The organisations undertake the selection processes for their respective national delegations, while the hosting country is responsible for organising the summit. Now, several youth associations are supporting and getting involved in the project. For instance, every year, the Young European Leadership association is recruiting and sending EU Delegates.
The goal of the Y8 Summit is to bring together young people from around the world to allow the voices and opinions of young generations to be heard and to encourage them to take part in global decision-making processes.[59][60]
Summit
Year
Host country
Location held
1st International Student Model G8 2006 Russia Saint Petersburg
2nd Model G8 Youth Summit 2007 Germany Berlin
3rd Model G8 Youth Summit 2008 Japan Yokohama
4th G8 Youth Summit 2009 Italy Milano
5th G8 Youth Summit 2010 Canada Muskoka & Toronto
6th G8 Youth Summit 2011 France Paris
** Y8 Summit 2012 Mexico Puebla
7th G8 Youth Summit 2012 USA Washington D.C.
8th Y8 summit 2013 UK London
9th Y8 summit 2014 Russia Moscow*
The Y8 Summit 2014 in Moscow was suspended due to the suspension of Russia from the G8.
See also[edit]
D-8 Organization for Economic Cooperation
Developing 8 Countries
Forum for the Future (Bahrain 2005)
G3 Free Trade Agreement
G4 (EU)
G-20 major economies
Great Powers
Group of Two
Group of Eleven
Group of 15
Group of 24
Group of 30
Junior 8
List of countries by GDP (nominal)
List of countries by military expenditures
List of country groupings
List of G8 leaders
List of G8 summit resorts
List of longest serving G8 leaders
List of multilateral free-trade agreements
North–South divide
World Social Forum
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b c "The Group of Eight (G8) Industrialized Nations". CFR.
^ Jump up to: a b "U.S., other powers kick Russia out of G8". CNN.com. 24 March 2014. Retrieved 2014-03-25.
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Jump up ^ "Russia suspended from G8 over annexation of Crimea, Group of Seven nations says". National Post. 24 March 2014. Retrieved 21 December 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Italy hopes G7 returns to G8 format - Foreign Ministry". ITAR-TASS. 8 June 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Italy working for Russia return to G8". ANSA. 3 July 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Amb. Wolfgang Ischinger Urges Inclusion of Russia in G8 | EastWest Institute". www.ewi.info. Retrieved 2017-03-02.
^ Jump up to: a b Russian return to G8 depends on Ukraine ceasefire-German minister Reuters, 15 April 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Japan's Abe calls for Putin to be brought in from the cold". Financial Times.
^ Jump up to: a b "Italian Minister 'Hopes' For Russia's Return To G8". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty.
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Further reading[edit]
Bayne, Nicholas and Robert D. Putnam. (2000). Hanging in There: The G7 and G8 Summit in Maturity and Renewal. Aldershot, Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-1185-1; OCLC 43186692
Haas, P.M. (1992). "Introduction. Epistemic communities and international policy coordination," International Organization 46, 1:1–35.
Hajnal, Peter I. (1999). The G8 system and the G20 : Evolution, Role and Documentation. Aldershot, Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 9780754645504; OCLC 277231920
Kokotsis, Eleonore. (1999). Keeping International Commitments: Compliance, Credibility, and the G7, 1988–1995. New York: Garland Publishing. ISBN 9780815333326; OCLC 40460131
Reinalda, Bob and Bertjan Verbeek. (1998). Autonomous Policy Making by International Organizations. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-45085-7; OCLC 39013643
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to G8.
Wikinews has news related to:
G8
G8 Information Centre, G8 Research Group, University of Toronto
"Special Report: G8", Guardian Unlimited
"Profile: G8", BBC News
"We are deeply concerned. Again", New Statesman, 4 July 2005, —G8 development concerns since 1977
G8 Information Centre Finance Ministers Meetings
"G8: Cooking the books won’t feed anyone", Oxfam International
"Dear G8 Leaders, don’t lie about your aid", Oxfam International Blogs
"Wait, the G-8 still exists?", Foreign Policy Magazine
"Is this the last G-8 summit meeting?", Foreign Policy Magazine
https://www.un.org/french/pubs/chronique/2006/numero1/0106p54.htm "The Group of Eight, ECOSOC and the Constitutional Paradox"
No. of G8 Summit Protestors (1998-2015) Katapult-Magazin
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G8 (disambiguation)

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value: Map of G8 member nations and the European Union

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value: Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation

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/wiki/Summit_meeting
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Summit meeting

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/wiki/Heads_of_government
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Heads of government

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/wiki/G7_(finance_ministers)
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G7 (finance ministers)

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/wiki/G-20_major_economies
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G-20 major economies

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/wiki/2008_G-20_Washington_summit
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2008 G-20 Washington summit

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/wiki/2009_G-20_Pittsburgh_summit
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2009 G-20 Pittsburgh summit

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value: Edit section: Russia′s participation suspension (2014)

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/wiki/Sergei_Lavrov
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Sergei Lavrov

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/wiki/Gleneagles,_Scotland
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Gleneagles, Scotland

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/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China
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People's Republic of China

value: International Partnership for Energy Efficiency Cooperation

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/wiki/European_Community
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European Community

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/wiki/Toyako,_Hokkaido
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Toyako, Hokkaido

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/wiki/Osaka,_Japan
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Osaka, Japan

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/wiki/2014_Crimean_crisis
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2014 Crimean crisis

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/wiki/Jose_Manuel_Barroso
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Jose Manuel Barroso

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/wiki/Advanced_economies
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Advanced economies

value: List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita

value: List of countries by foreign-exchange reserves

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/wiki/United_Nations_funding
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United Nations funding

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/wiki/Industrialized_countries
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Industrialized countries

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/wiki/International_affairs
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International affairs

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/wiki/Washington_D.C.
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Washington D.C.

value: D-8 Organization for Economic Cooperation

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/wiki/Developing_8_Countries
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Developing 8 Countries

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/wiki/Great_Powers
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Great Powers

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/wiki/Group_of_30
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Group of 30

value: List of countries by military expenditures

value: List of multilateral free-trade agreements

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external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331

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http://en.itar-tass.com/world/735279

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http://www.groupoffive.org/
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http://bayimg.com/iaPNHAaeP

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http://tinypic.com/r/2ia65q8/5

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external text
https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/43186692

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external text
https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/277231920

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https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/40460131

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external text
https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/39013643

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http://www.g8.utoronto.ca/
external text

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/wiki/G8_Research_Group
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G8 Research Group

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external text
https://www.theguardian.com/world/g8

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/wiki/Guardian_Unlimited
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Guardian Unlimited

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http://www.g8.utoronto.ca/finance/
external text

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http://www.oxfam.org/en

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http://blogs.oxfam.org/
external text

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https://foreignpolicy.com/
external text

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/wiki/Group_of_Six
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Group of Six

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/wiki/James_Mattis
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James Mattis

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/wiki/Justice_minister
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Justice minister

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/wiki/Interior_minister
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Interior minister

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/wiki/Central_bank_governor
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Central bank governor

value: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

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/wiki/City_of_Halifax
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City of Halifax

value: International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)

value: Balance of power (international relations)

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/wiki/Power_(philosophy)
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Power (philosophy)

value: Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf

value: China–Japan–South Korea trilateral summit

value: South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation

value: South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone

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https://viaf.org/viaf/238769742

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https://d-nb.info/gnd/4550251-1

value: Category:Organizations established in 1997

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value: Category:Use dmy dates from January 2018

value: Category:Wikipedia articles in need of updating from July 2017

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value: مجموعة الثماني – Arabic

value:
https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Asturian
ast
ast
interlanguage-link-target

value: Група Васьмі – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

value:
https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%938
Г8 – Bulgarian
bg
bg
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Bosnian
bs
bs
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Breton
br
br
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Welsh
cy
cy
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

value: Ομάδα των Οκτώ – Greek

value:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

value: گروه هشت – Persian

value:
https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Irish
ga
ga
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Manx
gv
gv
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://gag.wikipedia.org/wiki/G_-_8
G - 8 – Gagauz
gag
gag
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

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https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Korean
ko
ko
interlanguage-link-target

value: Մեծ ութնյակ – Armenian

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https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

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https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Ido
io
io
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

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https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

value: ארגון המדינות המתועשות – Hebrew

value: დიდი რვიანი – Georgian

value: Үлкен сегіздік – Kazakh

value:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

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https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Kurdish
ku
ku
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Luxembourgish
lb
lb
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Ligurian
lij
lij
interlanguage-link-target

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https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%938
Г8 – Macedonian
mk
mk
interlanguage-link-target

value: ജി-8 രാജ്യങ്ങൾ – Malayalam

value: 主要国首脳会議 – Japanese

value:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Khmer
km
km
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Albanian
sq
sq
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Sicilian
scn
scn
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Simple English
simple
simple
interlanguage-link-target

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https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

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https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%938
Г8 – Serbian
sr
sr
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

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https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://roa-tara.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Tarantino
roa-Tara
roa-Tara
interlanguage-link-target

value: Зур сигезлек – Tatar

value:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Ukrainian
uk
uk
interlanguage-link-target

value: گروہ 8 – Urdu

value: سەككىز دۆلەت گۇرۇھى (G8) – Uyghur

value:
https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Venetian
vec
vec
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Vietnamese
vi
vi
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8
G8 – Zazaki
diq
diq
interlanguage-link-target

value: 八大工業國組織 – Chinese

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