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Russian Provisional Government
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Coordinates: 59°56′27″N 30°18′47″E / 59.9408°N 30.313°E / 59.9408; 30.313
Lvov Government
9th cabinet of Russia
Date formed
2 March [15 March, N.S.] 1917
Date dissolved
July 1917
People and organisations
Head of state
Alexis II (unproclaimed)
Michael II (conditionally)
Georgy Lvov (de facto)
Head of government
Georgy Lvov
Member party
Progressive Bloc
Status in legislature
Coalition
Opposition cabinet
Executive Committee of Petrograd Soviet
Opposition party
Socialist coalition
Opposition leader
Nikolay Chkheidze
History
Incoming formation
Golitsyn
Outgoing formation
Kerensky I
Predecessor
Nikolay Golitsyn
Successor
Alexander Kerensky
The Russian Provisional Government (Russian: Временное правительство России, tr. Vremennoye pravitel'stvo Rossii) was a provisional government of Russia established immediately following the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II of the Russian Empire on 2 March [15 March, New Style] 1917.[1][2] The intention of the provisional government was the organization of elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly and its convention. The provisional government lasted approximately eight months, and ceased to exist when the Bolsheviks gained power after the October Revolution in October [November, N.S.] 1917. According to Harold Whitmore Williams the history of eight months during which Russia was ruled by the Provisional Government was the history of the steady and systematic disorganisation of the army.[3]
For most of the life of the Provisional Government, the status of the monarchy was unresolved. This was finally clarified on 1 September [14 September, N.S.], when the Russian Republic was proclaimed, in a decree signed by Kerensky as Minister-President and Zarudny as Minister of Justice.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
1.1 World recognition
2 Formation
3 Initial composition
4 April Crisis
5 July crisis and second coalition government
6 Third coalition
7 Legislative policies and problems
8 Democratization
9 Kornilov affair and declaration of Republic
10 October Revolution
11 See also
12 Footnotes
13 Further reading
13.1 Primary sources
Overview[edit]
The Provisional Government was formed in Petrograd by the Provisional Committee of the State Duma and was led first by Prince Georgy Lvov and then by Alexander Kerensky. It replaced the institution of the Council of Ministers of Russia, members of which after the February Revolution presided in the Chief Office of Admiralty.[citation needed] At the same time the Russian Emperor Nicholas II abdicated in favor of the Grand Duke Michael who agreed that he would accept after the decision of Russian Constituent Assembly. The Provisional Government was unable to make decisive policy decisions due to political factionalism and a breakdown of state structures.[5] This weakness left the government open to strong challenges from both the right and the left. The Provisional Government's chief adversary on the left was the Petrograd Soviet, which tentatively cooperated with the government at first, but then gradually gained control of the army, factories, and railways.[6] The period of competition for authority ended in late October 1917, when Bolsheviks routed the ministers of the Provisional Government in the events known as the October Revolution, and placed power in the hands of the soviets, or "workers' councils," which had given their support to the Bolsheviks. The weakness of the Provisional Government is perhaps best reflected in the derisive nickname given to Kerensky: "persuader-in-chief."[7]
World recognition[edit]
country
date
United States 22 March 1917
United Kingdom 24 March 1917
France
Italy
Formation[edit]
Russian Provisional Government in March 1917
The authority of the Tsar's government began disintegrating on 1 November 1916, when Milyukov attacked the Boris Stürmer government in the Duma. Stürmer was succeeded by Alexander Trepov and Nikolai Golitsyn, both Prime Ministers for only a few weeks. During the February Revolution two rival institutions, the Imperial Duma and the Petrograd Soviet, both located in the Tauride Palace, competed for power. Tsar Nicholas II abdicated on 2 March [15 March, N.S.] and Milyukov announced the committee's decision to offer the Regency to his brother, Grand Duke Michael as the next tsar.[8] Grand Duke Michael did not want to take the poisoned chalice[9] and deferred acceptance of imperial power the next day. The Provisional Government was designed to set up elections to the Assembly while maintaining essential government services, but its power was effectively limited by the Petrograd Soviet's growing authority.
Public announcement of the formation of the Provisional Government was made. It was published in Izvestia the day after its formation.[10] The announcement stated the declaration of government
Full and immediate amnesty on all issues political and religious, including: terrorist acts, military uprisings, and agrarian crimes etc.
Freedom of word, press, unions, assemblies, and strikes with spread of political freedoms to military servicemen within the restrictions allowed by military-technical conditions.
Abolition of all hereditary, religious, and national class restrictions.
Immediate preparations for the convocation on basis of universal, equal, secret, and direct vote for the Constituent Assembly which will determine the form of government and the constitution.
Replacement of the police with a public militsiya and its elected chairmanship subordinated to the local authorities.
Elections to the authorities of local self-government on basis of universal, direct, equal, and secret vote.
Non-disarmament and non-withdrawal out of Petrograd the military units participating in the revolution movement.
Under preservation of strict discipline in ranks and performing a military service - elimination of all restrictions for soldiers in the use of public rights granted to all other citizens.
It also said, "The provisional government feels obliged to add that it is not intended to take advantage of military circumstances for any delay in implementing the above reforms and measures."
Initial composition[edit]
Initial composition of the Provisional Government:
Post
Name
Party
Time of appointment
Minister-President and Minister of the Interior Georgy Lvov March 1917
Minister of Foreign Affairs Pavel Milyukov Kadet March 1917
Mikhail Tereshchenko Non-Party April 1917
Minister of War and Navy Alexander Guchkov Octobrist March 1917
Alexander Kerensky Socialist-Revolutionary Party April 1917
Minister of Transport Nikolai Nekrasov Kadet March 1917
Minister of Trade and Industry Alexander Konovalov Progressist March 1917
Minister of Justice Alexander Kerensky Socialist-Revolutionary Party March 1917
Pavel Pereverzev Socialist-Revolutionary Party April 1917
Minister of Finance Mikhail Tereshchenko Non-Party March 1917
Andrei Shingarev Kadet April 1917
Minister of Education Andrei Manuilov Kadet March 1917
Minister of Agriculture Andrei Shingarev Kadet March 1917
Victor Chernov Socialist-Revolutionary Party April 1917
Minister of Labour Matvey Skobelev Menshevik April 1917
Minister of Food Alexey Peshekhonov Popular Socialists (Russia) April 1917
Minister of Post and Telegraph Irakli Tsereteli Menshevik April 1917
Ober-Procurator of the Holy Synod Vladimir Lvov Progressist March 1917
April Crisis[edit]
On 18 April [1 May, N.S.] 1917 minister of Foreign Affairs Pavel Milyukov sent a note to the Allied governments, promising to continue the war to 'its glorious conclusion'. On 20–21 April 1917 massive demonstrations of workers and soldiers erupted against the continuation of war. Demonstrations demanded resignation of Milyukov. They were soon met by the counter-demonstrations organised in his support. General Lavr Kornilov, commander of the Petrograd military district, wished to suppress the disorders, but premier Georgy Lvov refused to resort to violence.
The Provisional Government accepted the resignation of Foreign Minister Milyukov and War Minister Guchkov, and made a proposal to the Petrograd Soviet to form a coalition government. As a result of negotiations, on 22 April 1917 agreement was reached and 6 socialist ministers joined the cabinet.
During this period the Provisional Government merely reflected the will of the Soviet, where left tendencies (Bolshevism) were gaining ground. The Government, however, influenced by the "bourgeois" ministers, tried to base itself on the right wing of the Soviet. Socialist ministers, coming under fire from their left wing Soviet associates, were compelled to pursue a double-faced policy. The Provisional Government was unable to make decisive policy decisions due to political factionalism and a breakdown of state structures.[5]
July crisis and second coalition government[edit]
Kerensky First Government
10th cabinet of Russia
Date formed
July 1917 (see July Days)
Date dissolved
1 September 1917
People and organisations
Head of state
Grand Duke Michael (conditionally)
Alexander Kerensky (de facto)
Head of government
Alexander Kerensky
Member party
Socialist-Revolutionaries
Status in legislature
Coalition
Opposition cabinet
Executive Committee of Petrograd Soviet
Opposition party
RSDLP
Opposition leader
Nikolay Chkheidze / Leon Trotsky
History
Incoming formation
Lvov
Outgoing formation
Kerensky II
Predecessor
Georgy Lvov
Successor
Alexander Kerensky
The July Days took place in Petrograd between 3–7 July [16–20 July, N.S.] 1917, when soldiers and industrial workers in the city took to the streets in opposition to the Provisional Government. After the rising was put down, the Bolsheviks were blamed for it, and their leader Vladimir Lenin went into hiding, while other leaders were arrested.[11]
The result of the events was new protracted crisis in the Provisional Government. "Bourgeois" ministers, belonging to the Constitutional Democratic Party resigned, and no cabinet could be formed to the end of the month. Finally, on 24 July [6 August, N.S.] 1917, a new coalition cabinet, composed mostly of socialists, was formed with Kerensky at its head.
Second coalition:
Post
Name
Party
Minister-President and Minister of War and Navy Alexander Kerensky Socialist-Revolutionary Party
Vice-President, Minister of Finance Nikolai Nekrasov
Minister of Foreign Affairs Mikhail Tereshchenko Non-party
Minister of Internal Affairs Nikolai Avksentiev Socialist-Revolutionary Party
Minister of Transport Piotr Yurenev Kadet
Minister of Trade and Industry Sergei Prokopovich Non-party
Minister of Justice Alexander Zarudny Popular Socialists (Russia)
Minister of Education Sergey Oldenburg Kadet
Minister of Agriculture Victor Chernov Socialist-Revolutionary Party
Minister of Labour Matvey Skobelev Menshevik
Minister of Food Alexey Peshekhonov Popular Socialists (Russia)
Minister of Health Care Ivan Efremov
Minister of Post and Telegraph Alexei Nikitin Menshevik
Ober-Procurator of the Holy Synod Vladimir Lvov Progressist
Third coalition[edit]
See also: Directorate (Russia)
Third Russian Provisional Government
From 25 September [8 October, N.S.] 1917.
Post
Name
Party
Minister-President Alexander Kerensky Socialist-Revolutionary Party
Vice-President, Minister of Trade and Industry Alexander Konovalov Kadets
Minister of Foreign Affairs Mikhail Tereshchenko Non-party
Minister of Internal Affairs, Post and Telegraph Alexei Nikitin Menshevik
Minister of War Alexander Verkhovsky
Minister of Navy Dmitry Verderevsky
Minister of Finance Mikhail Bernatsky
Minister of Justice Pavel Malyantovitch Menshevik
Minister of Transport Alexander Liverovsky Non-party
Minister of Education Sergei Salazkin Non-party
Minister of Agriculture Semen Maslov Socialist-Revolutionary Party
Minister of Labour Kuzma Gvozdev Menshevik
Minister of Food Sergei Prokopovich Non-party
Minister of Health Care Nikolai Kishkin Kadet
Minister of Post and Telegraph Alexei Nikitin Menshevik
Minister of Religion Anton Kartashev Kadet
Legislative policies and problems[edit]
Government Seal
With the 1917 February Revolution, Tsar Nicholas II’s abdication, and the formation of a completely new Russian state, Russia’s political spectrum dramatically altered. The tsarist leadership represented an authoritarian, conservative form of governance. The Kadet Party (see Constitutional Democratic Party), composed mostly of liberal intellectuals, formed the greatest opposition to the tsarist regime leading up to the February Revolution. The Kadets transformed from an opposition force into a role of established leadership, as the former opposition party held most of the power in the new Provisional Government, which replaced the tsarist regime. The February Revolution was also accompanied by further politicization of the masses. Politicization of working people led to the leftward shift of the political spectrum.
Many urban workers originally supported the socialist Menshevik Party (see Menshevik), while some, though a small minority in February, favored the more radical Bolshevik Party (see Bolshevik). The Mensheviks often supported the actions of the Provisional Government and believed that the existence of such a government was a necessary step to achieve Communism. On the other hand, the Bolsheviks violently opposed the Provisional Government and desired a more rapid transition to Communism. In the countryside, political ideology also shifted leftward, with many peasants supporting the Socialist Revolutionary Party (see Socialist-Revolutionary Party). The SRs advocated a form of agrarian socialism and land policy that the peasantry overwhelmingly supported. For the most part, urban workers supported the Mensheviks and Bolsheviks (with greater numbers supporting the Bolsheviks as 1917 progressed), while the peasants supported the Socialist Revolutionaries. The rapid development and popularity of these leftist parties turned moderate-liberal parties, such as the Kadets, into "new conservatives." The Provisional Government was mostly composed of "new conservatives," and the new government faced tremendous opposition from the left.
Opposition was most obvious with the development and dominance of the Petrograd Soviet, which represented the socialist views of leftist parties. A dual power structure quickly arose consisting of the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet. While the Provisional Government retained the formal authority to rule over Russia, the Petrograd Soviet maintained actual power. With its control over the army and the railroads, the Petrograd Soviet had the means to enforce policies.[12] The Provisional Government lacked the ability to administer its policies. In fact, local soviets, political organizations mostly of socialists, often maintained discretion when deciding whether or not to implement the Provisional Government’s laws.
Despite its short reign of power and implementation shortcomings, the Provisional Government passed very progressive legislation. The policies enacted by this moderate government (by 1917 Russian standards) represented arguably the most liberal legislation in Europe at the time.[citation needed] The independence of Church from state, the emphasis on rural self governance, and the affirmation of fundamental civil rights (such as freedom of speech, press, and assembly) that the tsarist government had periodically restricted shows the progressivism of the Provisional Government. Other policies included the abolition of capital punishment and economic redistribution in the countryside. The Provisional Government also granted more freedoms to previously suppressed regions of the Russian Empire. Poland was granted independence and Lithuania and Ukraine became more autonomous.[13]
The main obstacle and problem of the Provisional Government was its inability to enforce and administer legislative policies. Foreign policy was the one area in which the Provisional Government was able to exercise its discretion to a great extent. However, the continuation of aggressive foreign policy (for example, the Kerensky Offensive) increased opposition to the government. Domestically, the Provisional Government’s weaknesses were blatant. The dual power structure was in fact dominated by one side, the Petrograd Soviet. Minister of War Alexander Guchkov stated that "We (the Provisional Government) do not have authority, but only the appearance of authority; the real power lies with the Soviet".[14] Severe limitations existed on the Provisional Government's ability to rule.
While it was true that the Provisional Government lacked enforcement ability, prominent members within the Government encouraged bottom-up rule. Politicians such as Prime Minister Georgy Lvov favored devolution of power to decentralized organizations. The Provisional Government did not desire the complete decentralization of power, but certain members definitely advocated more political participation by the masses in the form of grassroots mobilization.
Democratization[edit]
The rise of local organizations, such as trade unions and rural institutions, and the devolution of power within Russian government gave rise to democratization. It is difficult to say that the Provisional Government desired the rise of these powerful, local institutions. As stated in the previous section, some politicians within the Provisional Government advocated the rise of these institutions. Local government bodies had discretionary authority when deciding which Provisional Government laws to implement. For example, institutions that held power in rural areas were quick to implement national laws regarding the peasantry’s use of idle land. Real enforcement power was in the hands of these local institutions and the soviets. Russian historian W.E. Mosse points out, this time period represented "the only time in modern Russian history when the Russian people were able to play a significant part in the shaping of their destinies".[15] While this quote romanticizes Russian society under the Provisional Government, the quote nonetheless shows that important democratic institutions were prominent in 1917 Russia.
Special interest groups also developed throughout 1917. Special interest groups play a large role in every society deemed "democratic" today, and such was the case of Russia in 1917. Many on the far left would argue that the presence of special interest groups represent a form of bourgeois democracy, in which the interests of an elite few are represented to a greater extent than the working masses. The rise of special interest organizations gave people the means to mobilize and play a role in the democratic process. While groups such as trade unions formed to represent the needs of the working classes, professional organizations were also prominent.[16] Professional organizations quickly developed a political side to represent member’s interests. The political involvement of these groups represents a form of democratic participation as the government listened to such groups when formulating policy. Such interest groups played a negligible role in politics before February 1917 and after October 1917.
While professional special interest groups were on the rise, so too were worker organizations, especially in the cities. Beyond the formation of trade unions, factory committees of workers rapidly developed on the plant level of industrial centers. The factory committees represented the most radical viewpoints of the time period. The Bolsheviks gained their popularity within these institutions. Nonetheless, these committees represented the most democratic element of 1917 Russia. However, this form of democracy differed from and went beyond the political democracy advocated by the liberal intellectual elites and moderate socialists of the Provisional Government. Workers established economic democracy, as employees gained managerial power and direct control over their workplace. Worker self-management became a common practice throughout industrial enterprises.[17] As workers became more militant and gained more economic power, they supported the radical Bolshevik party and lifted the Bolsheviks into power in October, 1917. However, the Bolsheviks envisioned party-led control of the economy. Therefore, worker self-management, the ultimate form of economic democracy, disappeared when the Bolsheviks gained control of Russia.
Kornilov affair and declaration of Republic[edit]
Main article: Kornilov affair
The Kornilov affair was an attempted military coup d'état by the then commander-in-chief of the Russian army, General Lavr Kornilov in September 1917 [18](August old style). Due to the extreme weakness of the government at this point, there was talk among the elites of bolstering its power by including Kornilov as a military dictator on the side of Kerensky. The extent to which this deal had indeed been accepted by all parties is still unclear. What is clear, however, is that when Kornilov's troops approached Petrograd, Kerensky branded them as counter-revolutionaries and demanded their arrest. This move can be seen as an attempt to bolster his own power by making him a defender of the revolution against a Napoleon-type figure. However, it had terrible consequences, as Kerensky's move was seen in the army as a betrayal of Kornilov, making them finally disloyal to the Provisional Government. Furthermore, as Kornilov's troops were arrested by the now armed Red Guard, it was the Soviet that was seen to have saved the country from military dictatorship. In order to defend himself and Petrograd, he provided the Bolsheviks with arms as he had little support from the army. When Kornilov did not attack Kerensky, the Bolsheviks did not return their weapons, making them a greater concern to Kerensky and the Provisional Government.
Thus far, the status of the monarchy had been unresolved. This was clarified on 1 September [14 September, N.S.], when the Russian Republic (Российская республика, Rossiyskaya respublika) was proclaimed, in a decree signed by Kerensky as Minister-President and Zarudny as Minister of Justice.[4]
The Decree read as follows:
The Coup of General Kornilov is suppressed. But the turmoil that he spread in the ranks of the army and in the country is great. Once again, a great danger threatens the fate of the country and its freedom. Considering it necessary to put an end to the uncertainty in the political system, and keeping in mind the unanimous and enthusiastic recognition of Republican ideas, which affected the Moscow State Conference, the Provisional Government announces that the state system of the Russian state is the republican system and proclaims the Russian Republic. Urgent need for immediate and decisive action to restore the shocked state system has prompted the Provisional Government to pass the power of government to five individuals from its staff, headed by the Prime Minister. The Provisional Government considers its main objective to be the restoration of public order and the fighting efficiency of the armed forces. Believing that only the concentration of all the surviving forces of the country can help the Motherland out of the difficulty in which it now finds itself, the Provisional Government will seek to expand its membership by attracting to its ranks all those who consider the eternal and general interests of the country more important than the short-term and particular needs of certain parties or classes. The Provisional Government has no doubt that it will succeed in this task in the days ahead.[4]
On 12 September [25, N.S] an All-Russian Democratic Conference was convened, and its presidium decided to create a Pre-Parliament and a Special Constituent Assembly which was to elaborate the future Constitution of Russia. This Constitutional Assembly was to be chaired by Professor N. I. Lazarev and the historian V. M. Gessen.[4] The Provisional Government was expected to continue to administer Russia until the Constituent Assembly had determined the future form of government. On 16 September 1917, the Duma was dissolved by the newly created Directorate.
October Revolution[edit]
Main articles: October Revolution and Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
Milrevcom proclamation about the overthrowing of the Provisional Government
On 25–26 October Red Guard forces under the leadership of Bolshevik commanders launched their final attack on the ineffectual Provisional Government. Most government offices were occupied and controlled by Bolshevik soldiers on the 25th; the last holdout of the Provisional Ministers, the Tsar's Winter Palace on the Neva River bank, was captured on the night of the 26th. Kerensky escaped the Winter Palace raid and fled to Pskov, where he rallied some loyal troops for an attempt to retake the capital. His troops managed to capture Tsarskoe Selo but were beaten the next day at Pulkovo. Kerensky spent the next few weeks in hiding before fleeing the country. He went into exile in France and eventually emigrated to the U.S.
The Bolsheviks then replaced the government with their own. The Little Council (or Underground Provisional Government) met at the house of Sofia Panina briefly in an attempt to resist the Bolsheviks. However this initiative ended on 28 November with the arrest of Panina, Fyodor Kokoshkin, Andrei Ivanovich Shingarev and Prince Pavel Dolgorukov and Panina being the subject of a political trial.[19]
Some academics, such as Pavel Osinsky, argue that the October Revolution was as much a function of the failures of the Provisional Government as it was of the strength of the Bolsheviks. Osinsky described this as "socialism by default" as opposed to "socialism by design." [20]
Riasanovsky argued that the Provisional Government made perhaps its "worst mistake"[7] by not holding elections to the Constituent Assembly soon enough. They wasted time fine-tuning details of the election law, while Russia slipped further into anarchy and economic chaos. By the time the Assembly finally met, Riasanovsky noted, "the Bolsheviks had already gained control of Russia."[21]
See also[edit]
Diplomatic history of World War I
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ Manifest of abdication (in Russian)
Jump up ^ "Announcement of the First Provisional Government, 13 March 1917". FirstWorldWar.com. 2002-12-29. Retrieved 2007-12-12.
Jump up ^ Harold Whitmore Williams (1919) The Spirit of the Russian Revolution, p. 14, 15. Russian Liberation Committee, no. 9, 173 Fleet Street. London
^ Jump up to: a b c d The Russian Republic Proclaimed at prlib.ru, accessed 12 June 2017
^ Jump up to: a b "Annotated chronology (notes)". University of Oregon/Alan Kimball. 2004-11-29. Retrieved 2007-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kerensky, Alexander (1927). The Catastrophe— Kerensky’s Own Story of the Russian Revolu. D. Appleton and Company. p. 126. ISBN 0-527-49100-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Riasanovsky, Nicholas (2000). A History of Russia (sixth edition). Oxford University Press. p. 457. ISBN 0-19-512179-1.
Jump up ^ Harold Whitmore Williams (1919), p. 3
Jump up ^ M. Lynch, Reaction and Revolution: Russia 1894-1924 (3rd ed.), Hodder Murray, London 2005, pg. 79
Jump up ^ "Announcement of the First Provisional Government, 3 March 1917". FirstWorldWar.com. 2002-12-29. Retrieved 2007-12-12.
Jump up ^ Christopher Read (2005) Lenin. London, Routledge: 160-2
Jump up ^ Rex A. Wade, The Russian Revolution, 1917 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 67
Jump up ^ W. E. Mosse, "Interlude: The Russian Provisional Government 1917," Soviet Studies 15 (1964): 411-412
Jump up ^ Wade, The Russian Revolution, 1917, 57
Jump up ^ Mosse, "Interlude: The Russian Provisional Government 1917," 414
Jump up ^ Matthew Rendle, "The Officer Corps, Professionalism, And Democracy In The Russian Revolution," 922
Jump up ^ Sheila Fitzpatrick, The Russian Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 54-55
Jump up ^ "1917 Free History". Yandex Publishing. Retrieved 8 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Lindenmeyr, Adele (October 2001), "The First Soviet Political Trial: Countess Sofia Panina before the Petrograd Revolutionary Tribunal", The Russian Review, 60: 505–525, doi:10.1111/0036-0341.00188
Jump up ^ Osinsky, Pavel. War, State Collapse, Redistribution: Russian Revolution Revisited, Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, Montreal Convention Center, Montreal, Quebec, Canada August 2006
Jump up ^ Riasanovsky, Nicholas (2000). A History of Russia (sixth edition). Oxford University Press. p. 458. ISBN 0-19-512179-1.
Further reading[edit]
Abraham, Richard (1987). Kerensky: First Love of the Revolution. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-06108-0.
Acton, Edward, et al. eds. Critical companion to the Russian Revolution, 1914-1921 (Indiana UP, 1997).
Hickey, Michael C. "The Provisional Government and Local Administration in Smolensk in 1917." Journal of Modern Russian History and Historiography 9.1 (2016): 251-274.
Lipatova, Nadezhda V. "On the Verge of the Collapse of Empire: Images of Alexander Kerensky and Mikhail Gorbachev." Europe-Asia Studies 65.2 (2013): 264-289.
Orlovsky, Daniel. "Corporatism or democracy: the Russian Provisional Government of 1917." The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review 24.1 (1997): 15-25.
Thatcher, Ian D. "Post-Soviet Russian Historians and the Russian Provisional Government of 1917." Slavonic & East European Review 93.2 (2015): 315-337. online
Thatcher, Ian D. "Memoirs of the Russian Provisional Government 1917." Revolutionary Russia 27.1 (2014): 1-21.
Primary sources[edit]
Browder, Robert P. and Alexander F. Kerensky, eds. The Russian Provisional Government 1917 (3 vols, Stanford UP, 1961).
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The Book of Eli
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the 12th-century English chronicle, see Book of Ely.
The Book of Eli
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
The Hughes brothers
Produced by
Joel Silver
Susan Downey
Andrew Kosove
Broderick Johnson
Denzel Washington
Written by
Gary Whitta
Starring
Denzel Washington
Gary Oldman
Mila Kunis
Ray Stevenson
Jennifer Beals
Music by
Atticus Ross
Leopold Ross
Claudia Sarne
Cinematography
Don Burgess
Edited by
Cindy Mollo
Production
company
Alcon Entertainment
Silver Pictures
Distributed by
Warner Bros. Pictures (USA)
Summit Entertainment (International)
Release date
January 15, 2010 (2010-01-15)
Running time
117 minutes[1]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$80 million[2]
Box office
$157,107,755[3]
The Book of Eli is a 2010 American post-apocalyptic neo-Western action film directed by the Hughes brothers, written by Gary Whitta, and starring Denzel Washington, Gary Oldman, Mila Kunis, Ray Stevenson, and Jennifer Beals. The story revolves around Eli, a nomad in a post-apocalyptic world, who is told by a voice to deliver his copy of a mysterious book to a safe location on the West Coast of the United States. The history of the post-war world is explained along the way, as is the importance of Eli's task. Filming began in February 2009 and took place in New Mexico.[4]
The film has received mixed reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 47% of 200 critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 5.5 out of 10. The film was released in theaters in January 2010. Alcon Entertainment financed and co-produced the film with Silver Pictures, while it was distributed by Warner Bros. in the United States; international sales were handled by Summit Entertainment.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Reception
4.1 Box office
4.2 Critical reviews
5 Home media
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Plot
Thirty years after a nuclear apocalypse,[5] Eli (Denzel Washington) travels on foot toward the west coast of the former United States. Along the way he demonstrates uncanny survival and fighting skills, hunting wildlife and swiftly defeating a group of desert bandits who try to ambush him. Searching for water, he arrives in a ramshackle town rebuilt and overseen by Carnegie (Gary Oldman). Carnegie dreams of building more towns and of controlling the people by using the power of a certain book. His henchmen scour the desolate landscape daily in search of it, but to no avail.
In town Eli barters with a store owner, the Engineer (Tom Waits), to recharge the battery of his portable music player. While waiting, he goes across the street to the town bar, where a gang of bikers attack, but he quickly kills all fifteen. Realizing Eli is a literate man like himself, Carnegie asks Eli to stay, making it clear that the offer is non-negotiable. After Carnegie's blind mistress Claudia (Jennifer Beals) gives Eli some food and water, Carnegie orders Claudia's daughter Solara (Mila Kunis) to seduce Eli, but he turns her down. While killing time, she finds his book. Unperturbed, Eli offers to share his food with her, and before they eat, he says grace. The following day, Solara repeats the prayer, but Carnegie overhears them and realizes Solara's words relate to the book he has been seeking. He soon forces Solara to tell him if Eli was reading a book, and realizes Eli's book is the one he wants—a Bible.
Eli sneaks out of his room and Carnegie has his henchmen shoot at Eli, but the bullets seemingly just graze him, as if he is being protected. Eli shoots most of Carnegie's men and hits Carnegie in the leg with a shotgun blast. Solara, having left the town, leads Eli to a cave which is the town's water supply, hoping she can accompany him on his travels. Eli traps her inside and continues on alone. Solara escapes and soon finds herself ambushed by two bandits who attempt to rape her, but Eli reappears and kills them. As they continue on, Eli explains his mission to Solara. According to Eli, his book is the last remaining copy of the Bible, as all other copies were intentionally destroyed following the nuclear war thirty years ago. He says he was led to the book by a voice in his head, which then directed him to travel westward to a place where it would be safe. The voice assured him that he would be protected and guided on his journey.
Eventually, Eli and Solara investigate an isolated house. They fall into a trap, but manage to allay the suspicions of the residents, George (Michael Gambon) and Martha (Frances de la Tour), who invite them in for tea. When Eli realizes that the couple are cannibals, they attempt to leave just as Carnegie and his henchmen arrive. In the ensuing shootout, George, Martha and many of Carnegie's men are killed. While Eli and Solara are captured, Carnegie threatens to kill Solara unless Eli surrenders the Bible. With the Bible now in his possession, Carnegie shoots Eli, leaving him for dead. Solara escapes and drives back to help Eli. Rather than chase her, Carnegie returns to the town, since his sole remaining vehicle is running low on fuel. Solara finds Eli, and they drive until they reach the Golden Gate Bridge, and then row to Alcatraz Island, where they find a group intent on preserving what they can of literature and music. Eli tells the guards that he has a copy of the King James Version of the Bible. Once inside, Eli, revealed to be blind, begins to dictate the Bible from memory to Lombardi (Malcolm McDowell), the leader of the group.[6][5]
Meanwhile, back in the town, the Engineer opens the locked Bible where Carnegie discovers, to his dismay, that it is in Braille, and orders Claudia to read it to him. She pretends that she cannot remember how to read it, telling Carnegie his leg wound has become infected and his men have begun to run amok. At the sanctuary, Eli has died, but not before he finished reciting the entire book. The printing press at Alcatraz begins producing copies of the Bible, and Lombardi places one on a bookshelf between the Torah and Tanakh on one side and the Quran on the other. Solara, though offered sanctuary, chooses to return home, taking with her Eli's sword and other possessions.
Cast
Denzel Washington as Eli
Gary Oldman as Carnegie
Mila Kunis as Solara
Ray Stevenson as Redridge
Jennifer Beals as Claudia
Evan Jones as Martz
Joe Pingue as Hoyt
Frances de la Tour as Martha
Michael Gambon as George
Tom Waits as Engineer
Chris Browning as Hijack Leader
Malcolm McDowell as Lombardi (uncredited)
Production
In May 2007, Columbia Pictures and Warner Bros. signed the Hughes brothers to direct The Book of Eli, based on a script by Gary Whitta. (The brothers had last directed the 2001 film From Hell.)[7] Subsequently, Anthony Peckham rewrote the script, and in September 2008 Denzel Washington won the lead role.[8] The following October, Gary Oldman was cast to star alongside Washington.[9] Principal photography began in February 2009 and took place in New Mexico.[10] Alcon Entertainment financed the film and co-produced with Silver Pictures.[11]
Jeff Imada choreographed the complex fight scenes, which feature the Filipino martial art of Kali. Washington trained for months with Dan Inosanto and Imada for his role.[12]
Reception
Box office
The film was released in North America on January 15, 2010 in 3,111 theaters. It took in $11,672,970—$3,752 per theater, its opening day.[13] By the end of its opening four-day holiday weekend it grossed $38,437,553—$12,355 per theater. It ranked number two, behind Avatar.[14] On its second weekend, it placed third with Legion taking its number two place and grossed $15,732,493—$5,057 per theater.[15] By its third weekend it dropped down to number five and made $8,908,286—$2,897 per theater.[16] The film has come to gross $94,835,059 in the United States and Canada, and $62,256,659 in other markets, with an estimated worldwide total of $157,091,718.[3]
Critical reviews
The film has received mixed reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 48% of 188 critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 5.5 out of 10. The site's consensus is that "It's certainly uneven, and many viewers will find that its reach exceeds its grasp, but The Book of Eli finds the Hughes brothers injecting some fresh stylish fun into the kind of post-apocalyptic wasteland filmgoers have seen more than enough of lately."[17] Based on 33 critics reviews, Metacritic (another review aggregator) has assigned the film a weighted average score of 53 out of 100, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[18]
Todd McCarthy of Variety predicted "this will not be one of ... Denzel Washington's bigger grossers."[19] Chicago Sun-Times critic Roger Ebert gave the film 3 of 4 stars and said of the film: "You won't be sorry you went. It grips your attention, and then at the end throws in several WTF! moments, which are a bonus."[20] Reviewing the film for The A.V. Club, Scott Tobias graded the film a B, and wrote "At a time when theaters are experiencing a glut of doomsday scenarios, the Hughes' ashen, bombed-out future world looks a little too familiar, no matter how crisply they present it. But the showdown between Washington and a deliciously hammy Oldman complicates the film's overt religiosity...".[21] Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a D, calling it "a ponderous dystopian bummer that might be described as The Road Warrior without car chases, or The Road without humanity.[22]
Home media
The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc on May 31, 2010 in the UK and on June 15, 2010 in the United States and Canada. The DVD took the top spot on all three national home video market charts in its first week. It premiered No. 1 on Home Media Magazine's Rental Chart, the Nielsen VideoScan Blu-ray chart, and the Nielsen VideoScan First Alert Sales Chart, where it outdistanced its nearest competitor in sales by a 3 to 1 margin.[23]
See also
Eli (biblical figure)
References
Jump up ^ THE BOOK OF ELI rated 15 by the BBFC
Jump up ^ "Movie projector: 'Book of Eli' first major challenger to 'Avatar'". Los Angeles Times. Tribune Company. January 14, 2010. Retrieved January 22, 2010. Alcon spent $80 million to produce the movie, which stars Denzel Washington.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Book of Eli (2010)". Box Office Mojo. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved October 23, 2010.
Jump up ^ Goundry, Nick (February 1, 2010). "The Book of Eli shoots in New Mexico". The Location Guide. Retrieved July 15, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Giroux, Jack (18 January 2010). "Interview, Part 1: Gary Whitta on 'The Book of Eli'". The Film Stage. Retrieved 2 Aug 2017.
Jump up ^ Bakhshian, Sara (January 2010). "'The Book of Eli': Interview with Denzel Washington, Mila Kunis, and Gary Oldman". Retrieved 3 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Fleming, Michael (May 21, 2007). "Hughes brothers set for 'Book of Eli'". Variety. Retrieved November 28, 2008.
Jump up ^ Fleming, Michael; Dave McNary (September 4, 2008). "Denzel Washington picks up 'Book'". Variety. Retrieved November 28, 2008.
Jump up ^ McNary, Dave (October 29, 2008). "Gary Oldman joins 'Book of Eli'". Variety. Retrieved November 28, 2008.
Jump up ^ Vozick-Levinson, Simon (February 2009). "Jack Black Rocks 'Yo Gabba Gabba' and More First Looks". Entertainment Weekly. Time Warner. Retrieved February 26, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Gary Oldman joins Denzel on 'Eli'". Reel Suave. October 30, 2008.
Jump up ^ "The Book of Eli – Behind the Scenes:Stunts". Yahoo! Movies. Yahoo!. 2010.
Jump up ^ "Daily Box Office for Friday, January 15, 2010". Box Office Mojo. IMDb. January 15, 2010. Retrieved January 22, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Weekend Box Office Results for January 15–18, 2010 (4-day weekend)". Box Office Mojo. IMDb. January 18, 2010. Retrieved January 22, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Weekend Box Office Results for January 22–24, 2010". Box Office Mojo. IMDb. January 24, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Weekend Box Office Results for January 29–31, 2010". Box Office Mojo. IMDb. January 31, 2010. Retrieved February 15, 2010.
Jump up ^ "The Book of Eli (2010)". Rotten Tomatoes. Flixster. Retrieved January 3, 2010.
Jump up ^ "The Book of Eli: Reviews". Metacritic. CNET Networks. Retrieved January 22, 2010.
Jump up ^ McCarthy, Todd (January 10, 2010). "The Book of Eli Review". 'Variety. Reed Business Information. Retrieved January 13, 2010.
Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger (January 14, 2010). "The Book of Eli review". Chicago Sun-Times. Sun-Times Media Group.
Jump up ^ Tobias, Scott (January 14, 2010). "The Book of Eli". The AV Club. Retrieved August 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Owen Gleiberman (January 15, 2010). "The Book of Eli". Entertainment Weekly. Time Warner. Retrieved January 17, 2010.
Jump up ^ "The Book of Eli Sweeps Video Charts". wowcelebrities.us. June 24, 2010. Retrieved June 24, 2010.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to: The Book of Eli
The Book of Eli at the American Film Institute Catalog
The Book of Eli on IMDb
The Book of Eli at AllMovie
The Book of Eli at Box Office Mojo
The Book of Eli at Rotten Tomatoes
The Book of Eli at Metacritic
[show]
v
t
e
Films directed by Albert and Allen Hughes
Together
Menace II Society (1993)
Dead Presidents (1995)
American Pimp (1999)
From Hell (2001)
The Book of Eli (2010)
Allen only
Knights of the South Bronx (2005)
New York, I Love You (2008)
Broken City (2013)
The Defiant Ones (2017)
Albert only
Alpha (2018)
[show]
v
t
e
Films by Denzel Washington
Director
Antwone Fisher (2002)
The Great Debaters (2007)
Fences (2016)
Producer
Antwone Fisher (2002)
The Book of Eli (2010)
The Equalizer (2014)
Fences (2016)
The Equalizer 2 (2018)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Book_of_Eli&oldid=837549204"
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Phoenix Marketcity (Chennai)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (November 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Phoenix Marketcity Chennai..
Location
Velachery, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Coordinates
12°59′N 80°13′E / 12.99°N 80.21°E / 12.99; 80.21Coordinates: 12°59′N 80°13′E / 12.99°N 80.21°E / 12.99; 80.21
Address
142, Velachery main road, Velachery
Opening date
2013
Developer
Phoenix Mills Limited
Architect
Benoy[1]
No. of stores and services
250+
Total retail floor area
110,000 m2(1.2 million sq ft)
Parking
Basement & MLCP
Website
phoenixmarketcity.com/chennai
Phoenix Market City (Chennai) is a shopping mall developed by Phoenix Mills Limited located in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. It was opened in January 2013 and is the largest mall in the city.
Contents
[hide]
1 About
2 Shops
3 Entertainment
4 Food & Dining
5 See also
6 References
About[edit]
Phoenix Market City, Velachery, Chennai
This mall was jointly developed by Phoenix Mills Limited and Sharyans Resources. Phoenix Mall Chennai is part of a development which includes a premium residential space as part of Phase I. Phase II development includes a luxury mall and residential space.[2]
Shops[edit]
Phoenix mall has several national and international brands including Lifestyle, Valentine, Pantaloons, Globus, Manchester United, Steve Madden, Adidas, Aldo, Allen solly. It also houses electronic stores like Access, Reliance Digital,[3] Croma and Poorvika.[4]
Inside view of phoenix market city Chennai
Entertainment[edit]
Phoenix mall features an 11-screen multiplex, Luxe Cinemas from Jazz Cinemas,[5] and also Chennai's first IMAX theatre.[6]
IPlay is an interactive game zone with environmental effects such as snow, smoke, bubble and thunderstorm apart from the seat movement which is synchronized with the movie.[7]
Food & Dining[edit]
The food court at this mall has several counters set up by KFC, Domino’s pizza, Burger King, Dunkin donuts, Hard Rock Cafe, cafe coffee day, noodle bar, Rajdhani, Punjab Grill,[8] Starbucks, spaghetti kitchen, Habanero, California pizza kitchen, Arabian Hut, Kailash Parbat, Moti Mahal Express, China Wall, Fruit Punch, Kwality walls, Nala’s Aappakadai, Nando's and Wow Momo. SPI Cinemas' in-theatre restaurant 'iD' opened its first shop outside a theatre in the city here at Phoenix mall.[9]
See also[edit]
Phoenix Market City (Bangalore)
High Street Phoenix
List of shopping malls in India
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Benoy - Phoenix Market CityChennai". Benoy.
Jump up ^ "Phoenix Market City is opened in Chennai". phoenixmarketcity.com.
Jump up ^ "Reliance Digital at Phoenix MarketCity Chennai". phoenixmarketcity.com.
Jump up ^ "The Phoenix Mall Shops". phoenixmarketcity.com.
Jump up ^ https://www.phoenixmarketcity.com/chennai/movies
Jump up ^ "Luxe Cinemas at Velachery Phoenix mall". phoenixmarketcity.com.
Jump up ^ "IPLAY is a unique family entertainment zone in Phoenix Market City". chennaionline.
Jump up ^ "Punjab Grill at Phoenix MarketCity Chennai". phoenixmarketcity.com.
Jump up ^ "Phoenix MarketCity gets new restaurants". phoenixmarketcity.com.
[show]
v
t
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Shopping malls in India
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The Mall
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Ansal Plaza
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Phoenix Marketcity
Russell Market
VR Bengaluru
Elsewhere
BM Habitat Mall
City Centre, Mangalore
City Centre Mall, Shimoga
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Abad Nucleus Mall
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Maharashtra
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Growel's 101
High Street Phoenix
Infiniti Mall
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Neptune Magnet Mall
Phoenix Marketcity
R City Mall
R-Mall
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Raghuleela Mall
Elsewhere
Korum Mall
Nitesh HUB
Phoenix Marketcity (Pune)
Pinnacle Mall
Prozone Mall Aurangabad
Puducherry
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Paras Downtown Square
Pavilion Mall, Ludhiana
Rajasthan
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Tamil Nadu
Chennai
Abhirami Mega Mall
Alsa Mall
Ampa Skywalk
Bergamo
Chandra Mall
Chennai Citi Centre
Coromandel Plaza
Express Avenue
The Forum Vijaya
Gold Souk Grande Mall
Mayajaal
Phoenix Marketcity
Ramee Mall
Spectrum Mall
Spencer Plaza
Elsewhere
Brookefields Mall
Fun Republic Mall
Prozone Mall
TexValley
Vishaal de Mal
Telangana
GVK One
Hyderabad Central
Inorbit Mall
West Bengal
Dakshinapan shopping center
Forum
Mani Square
Quest Mall
South City Mall
Uttar Pradesh
Fun Republic Mall
The Great India Place
Rave@Moti Mall
Z Square Mall
Elsewhere
AlphaOne Mall
DB City Mall
P&M Hi-Tech City Centre Mall, Jamshedpur
City Center-Raipur
Crystal Mall Rajkot
Elante Mall
Mall De Goa
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Koko (gorilla)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Koko
Species
Western lowland gorilla
Sex
Female
Born
(1971-07-04) July 4, 1971 (age 46)[1]
San Francisco Zoo, US
Known for
Use of sign language, pet keeping
Hanabiko "Koko" (born July 4, 1971) is a female western lowland gorilla who is known for having learned a large number of hand signs from a modified version of American Sign Language (ASL).
Her instructor and caregiver, animal psychologist Francine "Penny" Patterson, reports that Koko is able to understand more than 1,000 signs of what Patterson calls "Gorilla Sign Language" (GSL).[2] In contrast to other experiments attempting to teach sign language to non-human primates, Patterson simultaneously exposed Koko to spoken English from an early age. Reports state that Koko understands approximately 2,000 words of spoken English, in addition to the signs.[3] Koko's life and learning process has been described by Patterson and some of her collaborators in a number of books, peer reviewed articles, and on a website.
As with other great ape language experiments, the extent to which Koko has mastered and demonstrates language through the use of these signs is disputed.[4][5] But it is generally accepted that she does not use syntax or grammar, and that her use of language does not exceed that of a young human child.[6][7][8][9][10]
Koko was born at the San Francisco Zoo and has lived most of her life in Woodside, California, although a move to a sanctuary on Maui, Hawaii, has been planned since the 1990s.[11] The name Hanabiko (花火子, literally meaning "fireworks child") is a reference to her date of birth, the Fourth of July. Koko gained public attention upon initial reportage of her adopting a kitten as a pet.[12]
Contents
[hide]
1 Life
2 Use of language
3 Koko's pets
4 Media
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Life
Koko was originally loaned to Francine Patterson for her doctoral research, but has stayed with Patterson ever since, supported by The Gorilla Foundation. Koko's weight of 280 lbs is higher than would be normal for a gorilla in the wild, where the average weight is approximately 150 to 200 lbs. For a while, Koko lived with another gorilla, Michael, who also learned sign language but died in 2000. She now lives with a male gorilla, Ndume.[13]
Use of language
Patterson reports that Koko's use of signs indicate that she has mastered the use of sign language.[2] Koko's training began at the age of 1, and now, according to Patterson, she can use more than 1,000 signs, including giving people the finger.[14]
Patterson has reported that Koko has made several complex uses of signs that suggest a more developed degree of cognition than is usually attributed to non-human primates and their use of communication. For example, Koko has been reported to use displacement (the ability to communicate about objects not currently present).[15] At age 19, Koko was also able to pass the mirror test of self recognition, which most other gorillas fail.[16][17] She has also been reported to relay personal memories.[18] Koko has also been reported to use meta-language, being able to use language reflexively to speak about language itself, signing "good sign" to another gorilla who successfully used signing.[19] Koko has also been reported to use language deceptively, and to use counterfactual statements for humorous effects, suggesting an underlying theory of other minds.[20]
Patterson also reports that she has documented Koko inventing new signs to communicate novel thoughts. For example, she says that nobody taught Koko the word for "ring", but to refer to it, Koko combined the words "finger" and "bracelet", hence "finger-bracelet".[21]
Criticism from some scientists centers on the fact that while publications often appear in the popular press about Koko, scientific publications with substantial data are fewer in number.[22][23][24] Other researchers argue that Koko does not understand the meaning behind what she is doing and learns to complete the signs simply because the researchers reward her for doing so (indicating that her actions are the product of operant conditioning).[25][26] Another concern that has been raised about Koko's ability to express coherent thoughts through signs is that interpretation of the gorilla's conversation is left to the handler, who may see improbable concatenations of signs as meaningful. For example, when Koko signs "sad" there is no way to tell whether she means it with the connotation of "How sad." Following Patterson's initial publications in 1978, a series of critical evaluations of her reports of signing behavior in great apes argued that video evidence suggested that Koko was simply being prompted by their trainers' unconscious cues to display specific signs, in what is commonly called the Clever Hans effect.[27][28][29][30][20][31] Such debate requires careful consideration of what it means to "learn" or "use" a language[citation needed] (see Animal language for further discussion).
A bonobo named Kanzi, who had learned to communicate using a keyboard with lexigrams, picked up some sign language from watching videos of Koko; Kanzi's researcher, Sue Savage-Rumbaugh, did not realize he had done so until Kanzi began signing to anthropologist Dawn Prince-Hughes, who had previously worked closely with gorillas.[32]
Koko's pets
Koko is one of the few non-humans known to keep a pet.[citation needed] Researchers at The Gorilla Foundation said that Koko asked for a cat for Christmas in 1983. Ron Cohn, a biologist with the foundation, explained to the Los Angeles Times that when she was given a lifelike stuffed animal, she was less than satisfied. She did not play with it and continued to sign "sad." So on her birthday in July 1984, she was able to choose a kitten from a litter of abandoned kittens. Koko selected a gray male Manx and named him "All Ball". Penny Patterson, who had custody of Koko and who had organized The Gorilla Foundation, wrote that Koko cared for the kitten as if it were a baby gorilla. Researchers said that she tried to nurse All Ball and was very gentle and loving. They believed that Koko's nurturing of the kitten and the skills she gained through playing with dolls would be helpful in Koko's learning how to nurture an offspring.[33][34]
In December of that same year, All Ball escaped from Koko's cage and was hit and killed by a car. Later, Patterson said that when she signed to Koko that All Ball had been killed, Koko signed "Bad, sad, bad" and "Frown, cry, frown, sad". Patterson also reported later hearing Koko making a sound similar to human weeping.[34]
In 1985, Koko was allowed to pick out two new kittens from a litter to be her companions. The animals she chose, she named "Lipstick" and "Smoky", were also Manxes.[35] Koko picked the name after seeing the tiny orange Manx for the first time. When her trainer asked the meaning of the name, Koko answered, Lips lipstick. Dr. Patterson was confused until she realized that Lips had a pink nose and mouth, unlike All Ball's gray markings. Koko picked Smoky's name because the kitten looks like a cat in one of the gorilla's books.
More recently, to celebrate her birthday in July 2015, Koko was presented another litter of kittens. Picking two she named them Miss Black and Miss Grey.[36]
Media
Koko and Dr. Patterson's work with her have been the subject of several books and documentaries.
1978 Koko: A Talking Gorilla, a documentary film by Barbet Schroeder
1980 Congo, a novel by Michael Crichton inspired by Koko's story
1981 The Education of Koko, a book by Patterson and naturalist Eugene Linden
1985 Koko's Kitten, a picture book by Patterson and photographer Ronald Cohn
1986 Silent Partners: The Legacy of the Ape Language Experiments, a book by Eugene Linden
1987 Koko's Story, a children's book by Patterson for Scholastic Corporation
1990 Koko's Kitten, a 15-minute re-enactment of the story of the gorilla's adoption of a kitten
1999 A Conversation with Koko, a PBS documentary for Nature (TV series) narrated by Martin Sheen
1999 The Parrot's Lament, by Eugene Linden
2000 Koko-Love!, a picture book by Patterson and photographer Ronald Cohn
2001 Koko and Robin Williams, a short featurette on their meeting[37]
2008 Little Beauty, a picture book by Anthony Browne inspired by Koko's adoption of a pet kitten
2016 Koko: The Gorilla Who Talks To People, a BBC documentary also shown on PBS[38][39]
See also
Great ape language
Primate cognition
Theory of mind
List of individual apes
References
Jump up ^ "Koko's Birthday Gallery Blog". koko.org. The Gorilla Foundation. Retrieved September 8, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Fischer, Steven R. (1999). A History of Language. Reaktion Books. pp. 26–28. ISBN 1-86189-080-X.
Jump up ^ Wise, Steven M. (2003). Drawing the Line: Science and the Case for Animal Rights. Basic Books. p. 216. ISBN 0-7382-0810-8.
Jump up ^ Ward, B. (1999). Koko: Fact or Fiction?. American Language Review, 3(3), 12-15.
Jump up ^ Hu, Jane C. (2014-08-20). "What Do Talking Apes Really Tell Us?". Slate. ISSN 1091-2339. Retrieved 2018-03-06.
Jump up ^ Michael W. Eysenck, 2000, Psychology: A Student's Handbook Taylor & Francis, p. 247
Jump up ^ Victoria Fromkin, Robert Rodman, Nina Hyams. 2013. An Introduction to Language. Cengage Learning, pp. 20-21
Jump up ^ William A. Haviland, Harald E. L. Prins, Dana Walrath, Bunny McBride. 2012. The Essence of Anthropology 3rd ed. Cengage Learning, p. 178
Jump up ^ Gisela Håkansson, Jennie Westander. 2013. Communication in Humans and Other Animals. John Benjamins Publishing, p. 131
Jump up ^ Joel Wallman.1992. Aping Language. Cambridge University Press, p. 20
Jump up ^ "CHECK IT OUT: Gorilla project under redesign". The Maui News. 2007-10-01. Retrieved 2008-05-26.
Jump up ^ Patterson, Francine (Penny), Koko's Kitten, photographs by Ron Cohn (1985)
Jump up ^ Hillix, W. A. & Rumbaugh, D. M. (2004). Koko Fine Sign Gorilla. In, "Animal Bodies, Human Minds: Ape, Dolphin, and Parrot Language Skills" (pp. 99-111). Springer US. Koko had two pet kittens, All Ball, and once All Ball got sadly hit by a car, Lipstick. Koko named All Ball All Ball because he had no tail. Lipstick was called Lipstick by Koko because she was a tabby, which Koko thought looked like lipstick
Jump up ^ Haviland, W. A.; Prins, H. E. L.; Walrath, D.; McBride, B. The Essence of Anthropology (3rd ed.). Cengage Learning, 2012. p. 178. ISBN 9781111833442.
Jump up ^ Nick Lund. 2013. Animal Cognition. Routledge, p. 77-78
Jump up ^ Shigeru Watanabe, Stan Kuczaj. 2012. Emotions of Animals and Humans: Comparative Perspectives. Springer Science & Business Media, p. 189
Jump up ^ Tomasello, M., & Call, J. (1997). Primate cognition. Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ Anne E. Russon, Kim A. Bard, Sue Taylor Parker. 1998. Reaching Into Thought: The Minds of the Great Apes. Cambridge University Press, Nov 26, 1998 p. 330
Jump up ^ Vyvyan Evans. 2014. The Language Myth: Why Language Is Not an Instinct Cambridge University Press,p. 57
^ Jump up to: a b Miles, H. L. (1986). How can I tell a lie? Apes, language, and the problem of deception. Deception: Perspectives on human and nonhuman deceit, 245-266.
Jump up ^ "Mission part 1: Research". koko.org.
Jump up ^ Patterson, FG. (1981). "Ape Language". Science. 211 (4477): 86–88. doi:10.1126/science.211.4477.86-a. PMID 7444454.
Jump up ^ Patterson, FG. (1978). "The gestures of a gorilla: language acquisition in another pongid". Brain and Language. 5 (1): 72–97. doi:10.1016/0093-934X(78)90008-1. PMID 618570.
Jump up ^ Hu, Jane C. (August 20, 2014). "What do talking apes really tell us?" slate.com
Jump up ^ Candland, Douglas Keith (1993). Feral Children and Clever Animals: Reflections on Human Nature. Oxford University Press US. pp. 293–301. ISBN 0-19-510284-3.
Jump up ^ Blackmore, Susan J. (2000). The Meme Machine. Oxford University Press. p. 88. ISBN 0-19-286212-X.
Jump up ^ Petitto, L. A., & Seidenberg, M. S. (1979). On the evidence for linguistic abilities in signing apes. Brain and Language, 8(2), 162-183.
Jump up ^ Miles, H. L. (1983). Apes and language: The search for communicative competence. In Language in primates (pp. 43-61). Springer New York.
Jump up ^ Terrace, H. S. (1983). Apes who “talk”: language or projection of language by their teachers?. In Language in Primates (pp. 19-42). Springer New York.
Jump up ^ Terrace, H. S., Petitto, L. A., Sanders, R. J., & Bever, T. G. (1979). Can an ape create a sentence?. Science, 206(4421), 891-902.
Jump up ^ Sanders, R. J. (1985). Teaching apes to ape language: Explaining the imitative and nonimitative signing of a chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 99(2), 197.
Jump up ^ Prince-Hughes, Dawn (1987). Songs of the Gorilla Nation. Harmony. p. 135. ISBN 1-4000-5058-8.
Jump up ^ Hannaford, A. (October 7, 2011, October 7). "Talking to Koko the gorilla". The Week. Retrieved December 7, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b McGraw, C. (1985, January 10). "Gorilla's Pets: Koko Mourns Kitten's Death". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved December 12, 2012.
Jump up ^ AP (August 15, 1985). "Koko the gorilla ape over her new kittens". Associated Press. Retrieved 10 February 2013. Koko picked the name after seeing the tiny orange Manx for the first time. When her trainer asked the meaning of the name, Koko answered, Lips lipstick. Ms. Patterson was confused until she realized that Lips had a pink nose and mouth, unlike All Ball's gray markings. Koko picked Smoky's name because the kitten looks like a cat in one of the gorilla's books, she said Wednesday.
Jump up ^ "Koko's New Kittens". www.koko.org. Retrieved 2016-07-13.
Jump up ^ Jan Turner (2012-07-02), Koko the Gorilla with Robin Williams.mp4, retrieved 2017-04-29
Jump up ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b07gxpd7
Jump up ^ https://www.pbs.org/show/koko-gorilla-who-talks/
Further reading
See also extensive further reading section at the Animal language article
Patterson, F. G. P.; M. L. Matevia (2001). "Twenty-seven Years of Project Koko and Michael". In Biruté M.F. Galdikas; Nancy Erickson Briggs; Lori K. Sheeran; Gary L. Shapiro; Jane Goodall. All Apes Great and Small: African Apes. Springer. pp. 165–176. ISBN 0-306-46757-7.
Patterson, Dr. Francine (1987). Koko's Kitten. Scholastic, Inc. ISBN 0-590-44425-5
Patterson, Francine and Wendy Gordon (1993) "The case for the personhood of gorillas" In: P Cavalieri and P Singer (Eds) The great ape project: Equality beyond humanity, St. Martin's Press, pp. 58–77. ISBN 9780312118181.
Vessels, Jane (January 1985). "Koko's Kitten". National Geographic. Vol. 167 no. 1. pp. 110–113. ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC 643483454.
Weiner, Jody (2005) "Hot Koko". California Lawyer. p. 80.
Weiner, Jody. "Hot Koko & the Fetching Cat". Kinship with Animals. Updated Edition Ed. Kate Solisti and Michael Tobias. San Francisco/Tulsa: Council Oak, 2006. 182-88. ISBN 978-1571781895
External links
Official website
Koko on IMDb
[show]
v
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Notable non-human apes
List of individual apes
Monkeys and apes in space
List of fictional primates
Bonobos
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Researchers
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Research centers
Chimpanzee and Human Communication Institute
Elgin Center
Iowa Primate Learning Sanctuary
The Gorilla Foundation
Media
Koko: A Talking Gorilla (1978 film)
The Mind of an Ape (1983 book)
Next of Kin (1997 book)
Project Nim (2011 film)
See also
Animal language
Animal communication
Primate cognition
Animal cognition
Human–animal communication
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