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Dazed and Confused (film)
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Dazed and Confused
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Richard Linklater
Produced by
Richard Linklater
Sean Daniel
James Jacks
Written by
Richard Linklater
Cinematography
Lee Daniel
Edited by
Sandra Adair
Production
company
Alphaville
Distributed by
Gramercy Pictures
Release date
September 24, 1993 (1993-09-24)
Running time
102 minutes[1]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$6.9 million[2][3]
Box office
$8.0 million
Dazed and Confused is a 1993 American coming-of-age comedy film written and directed by Richard Linklater. The film features a large ensemble cast of actors who would later become stars, including Jason London, Ben Affleck, Milla Jovovich, Cole Hauser, Parker Posey, Adam Goldberg, Joey Lauren Adams, Matthew McConaughey, Nicky Katt, and Rory Cochrane. The plot follows various groups of Texas teenagers during the last day of school in 1976.
The film grossed less than $8 million at the U.S. box office. In 2002, Quentin Tarantino listed it as the 10th best film of all time in a Sight and Sound poll.[4] It ranked third on Entertainment Weekly magazine's list of the 50 Best High School Movies.[5] The magazine also ranked it 10th on their "Funniest Movies of the Past 25 Years" list.[6]
The title of the film is derived from Led Zeppelin's version of the song of the same name.[7] Linklater approached the surviving members of Led Zeppelin for permission to use their song "Rock and Roll" in the film, but while Jimmy Page and John Paul Jones agreed, Robert Plant refused.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Development
3.2 Casting
4 Reception
5 Legacy
6 Home video
7 Soundtracks
8 Book
9 References
10 External links
Plot[edit]
It's May 28, 1976, the last day of school at Lee High School in the suburbs of Austin, Texas. The next year's group of seniors are preparing for the annual hazing of incoming freshmen. Randall "Pink" Floyd, the school's star football player, is asked to sign a pledge promising not to take drugs during the summer or do anything that would "jeopardize the goal of a championship season". When classes end, the incoming freshman boys are hunted down by the seniors and paddled. The incoming freshman girls are also hazed, they are rounded up in the school parking lot by senior girls, covered in mustard, ketchup, flour and raw eggs and forced to propose to senior boys.
Freshman Mitch Kramer escapes the initial hazing with his best friend Carl Burnett but is later cornered after a baseball game and violently paddled. Fred O'Bannion, a senior participating in the hazing tradition for a second year after failing to graduate, delights in punishing Mitch. Pink gives the injured Mitch a ride home and offers to take him cruising with friends that night. Plans for the evening are ruined when Kevin Pickford's parents discover his intention to host a keg party. Elsewhere, the intellectual trio of Cynthia Dunn, Tony Olson and Mike Newhouse decide to participate in the evening's festivities. Pink and his friend David Wooderson, a man in his early 20s who still socializes with high school students, pick up Mitch and head for the Emporium, a pool hall frequented by teenagers.
As the night progresses, students loiter around the Emporium, listen to rock music, cruise the neighborhood and stop at the hamburger drive-in. Mitch is introduced to sophomore Julie Simms, with whom he shares a mutual attraction. While cruising again with Pink, Pickford and Don Dawson, Mitch drinks beer and smokes marijuana for the first time. After a game of mailbox baseball, a neighborhood resident brandishing a gun threatens to call the police. They barely escape after the resident fires at their car. After returning to the Emporium, Mitch runs into his middle school friends. They hatch a plan to get revenge on O'Bannion. It culminates with them dumping paint on O'Bannion, who leaves in a fit of rage.
After the Emporium closes, an impromptu keg party is planned in a field under a moonlight tower. Cynthia, Tony and Mike arrive at their first keg party, where Mike is threatened by tough guy Clint Bruno. Tony runs into freshman Sabrina Davis, whom he met earlier during the hazing and they begin hanging out together. Cynthia likes Wooderson and exchanges phone numbers with him. Mike, suffering from the humiliation of his confrontation with Clint, decides to make a stand, punches him and gets tackled. The fight is broken up by Pink and Wooderson. Football player Benny O'Donnell confronts Pink about his refusal to sign the pledge. Pink, the only player not to have signed, believes it violates his individuality and beliefs. Mitch leaves the keg party with Julie. They drive to a nearby hill overlooking town to make out. Tony gives Sabrina a ride home and they kiss goodnight.
As night turns to dawn, Pink, Wooderson, Don, Ron Slater and several other friends decide to smoke marijuana on the 50-yard line of the football field. The police arrive so they ditch the drugs. Recognizing Pink, the police call Coach Conrad, his football coach. Conrad lectures Pink about hanging out with "losers" and insists that he sign the pledge. Pink says that he might play football but he is not going to sign it. Pink leaves with his friends to get tickets to an Aerosmith concert. Mitch arrives home after sunrise to find his mother has waited up for him. She decides against punishment but warns him about coming home late again. Mitch goes to his bedroom, puts on headphones and listens to "Slow Ride" by Foghat as Pink, Wooderson, Slater and Simone Kerr travel down a highway to purchase their tickets.
Cast[edit]
A selection of the film's cast. Clockwise: Matthew McConaughey, Jason London, Cole Hauser, Milla Jovovich, Ben Affleck, and Parker Posey.
Jason London as Randall "Pink" Floyd
Wiley Wiggins as Mitch Kramer
Sasha Jenson as Don Dawson
Michelle Burke as Jodi Kramer
Christine Harnos as Kaye Faulkner
Rory Cochrane as Ron Slater
Ben Affleck as Fred O'Bannion
Adam Goldberg as Mike Newhouse
Anthony Rapp as Tony Olson
Marissa Ribisi as Cynthia Dunn
Catherine Avril Morris as Julie Simms
Matthew McConaughey as David Wooderson
Shawn Andrews as Kevin Pickford
Cole Hauser as Benny O'Donnell
Milla Jovovich as Michelle Burroughs
Joey Lauren Adams as Simone Kerr
Christin Hinojosa as Sabrina Davis
Parker Posey as Darla Marks
Deena Martin as Shavonne Wright
Nicky Katt as Clint Bruno
Esteban Powell as Carl Burnett
Jason O. Smith as Melvin Spivey
Mark Vandermeulen as Tommy Houston
Jeremy Fox as Hirschfelder
Renée Zellweger as Nesi White
Production[edit]
Development[edit]
When asked in an interview what he wanted to do after Slacker, Richard Linklater said "'I want to make this teenage rock’n’roll spree.' I knew I wanted the story to take place on one day in the spring of 1976, but at one point it was much more experimental. The whole movie took place in a car with the characters driving around listening to ZZ Top."[9] Lee Daniel, the director of photography, described the concept: "It would have been two shots—one of a guy putting in an eight-track of ZZ Top’s Fandango! and one of two guys driving around talking. The film would be the length of the actual album, and you’d hear each track in the background as a source."[9]
Casting[edit]
Vince Vaughn was almost cast as the bully O'Bannion before Ben Affleck was chosen.[10] As Linklater put it, "Ben was smart and full of life. You don’t cast the unappealing person, you cast the appealing person."[9] Other young actors considered for roles include Elizabeth Berkley, Mira Sorvino, Ron Livingston, and Claire Danes.[10] Casting director Don Phillips said, "We wanted Claire Danes for the girl, but she was too young. She couldn’t leave school."[9] Renee Zellweger has a nonspeaking role in the film, but was originally considered for the part of Darla, that went to Parker Posey instead.[11] Linklater said, "Parker was just crazier."[10]
Some roles which were intended to be larger were reduced. The Kevin Pickford character, played by Shawn Andrews, was meant to be a larger role, but due to his behavior with other cast members, Pickford's screen time was cut in favor of Matthew McConaughey's character, Wooderson. Linklater recalled "There was another actor [Shawn Andrews] who was kind of the opposite [of McConaughey]. He wasn’t really getting along with everybody. I could tell the actors weren’t responding to him."[9] Linklater had to break up a fight between Andrews and London at one point. On screen, the two characters barely speak to each other during the film.[11] Milla Jovovich, who played Michelle, Pickford's girlfriend, had her role reduced because, in Linklater's words, "it didn't really gel."[10]
McConaughey was not originally cast in the film. He approached casting director Phillips in the bar of the Radisson in Austin where the cast was staying.[11] Phillips recalls, "The bartender says to him, 'See that guy down there? That’s Don Phillips. He cast Sean Penn in Fast Times.' And Matthew goes, 'I’m gonna go down and talk to this guy.'" Phillips also recalls that Linklater didn't like McConaughey at first "because he was too handsome." Much of the Wooderson role was improvised or written on the spot, giving McConaughey more screen time.[9]
Reception[edit]
Dazed and Confused was released on September 24, 1993 in 183 theaters, grossing $918,127 on its opening weekend. It went on to make $7.9 million in North America.[12]
The film received positive reviews from critics. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, it garnered a 94% approval rating from 53 critics, with an average rating of 7.8 out of 10. The website's critical consensus reads: "Featuring an excellent ensemble cast, a precise feel for the 1970s, and a killer soundtrack, Dazed and Confused is a funny, affectionate, and clear-eyed look at high school life."[13] Metacritic provides a score of 78 out of 100 from 18 critics, indicating "generally favorable" reviews.[14]
Film critic Roger Ebert awarded the film three stars out of four, praising the film as "art crossed with anthropology" with a "painful underside".[15] In her review for The New York Times, Janet Maslin wrote, "Dazed and Confused has an enjoyably playful spirit, one that amply compensates for its lack of structure".[16] Desson Howe, in his review for The Washington Post, wrote, "Dazed succeeds on its own terms and reflects American culture so well, it becomes part of it".[17] In her review for The Austin Chronicle, Marjorie Baumgarten gave particular praise to Matthew McConaughey's performance: "He is a character we're all too familiar with in the movies but McConaughey nails this guy without a hint of condescension or whimsy, claiming this character for all time as his own".[18]
Rolling Stone's Peter Travers gave the film four stars out of four, and praised Linklater as a "sly and formidable talent, bringing an anthropologist's eye to this spectacularly funny celebration of the rites of stupidity. His shitfaced American Graffiti is the ultimate party movie – loud, crude, socially irresponsible and totally irresistible".[19] In his review for Time, Richard Corliss wrote, "Linklater is surely no ham-fisted moralist, and his film has lots of attitude to shake a finger at. But it also has enough buoyant '70s music to shake anybody's tail feather, and a kind of easy jubilance of narrative and character".[20] Entertainment Weekly gave the film an "A" rating, and Owen Gleiberman wrote, "Yet if Linklater captures the comic goofiness of the time, he also evokes its liberating spirit. The film finds its meaning in the subtle clash between the older, sadistic macho-jock ethos and the follow-your-impulse hedonism that was the lingering legacy of the '60s".[21]
Legacy[edit]
Quentin Tarantino included it on his list of the 10 greatest films of all time in the 2002 Sight and Sound poll.[22] In 2003, Entertainment Weekly ranked the film #17 on their list of "The Top 50 Cult Films",[23] third on their list of the 50 Best High School Movies,[24] 10th on their "Funniest Movies of the Past 25 Years" list,[25] and ranked it #6 on their "The Cult 25: The Essential Left-Field Movie Hits Since '83" list.[26]
In October 2004, three of Linklater's former classmates from Huntsville High School, whose surnames are Wooderson, Slater, and Floyd, filed a defamation lawsuit against Linklater, claiming to be the basis for the similarly named characters on the film. The lawsuit was filed in New Mexico rather than Texas because New Mexico has a longer statute of limitations.[27] The suit was subsequently dismissed.[28]
In 2012, McConaughey reprised his role as Wooderson in the Butch Walker and The Black Widows music video "Synthesizers".[29] To celebrate the film's 20th anniversary in 2013, the film received the Star of Texas award from the Texas Film Hall of Fame. Linklater accepted the award after being introduced by Tarantino, who reiterated his appreciation of the film as his favorite of the 1990s. The event featured a reunion of several cast members including Joey Lauren Adams, Wiley Wiggins, Christin Hinojosa, Nicky Katt, Mona Lee, Catherine Avril Morris, Anthony Rapp, Marissa Ribisi, Michelle Burke Thomas, and Mark Vandermeulen. At the event, Linklater described his intent to create an inverse John Hughes film: "The drama is so low-key in [Dazed & Confused]. I don’t remember teenage being that dramatic. I remember just trying to go with the flow, socialize, fit in and be cool. The stakes were really low. To get Aerosmith tickets or not? That’s a big thing. It was really rare when the star-crossed lovers from the opposite side of the tracks and the girl gets pregnant and there’s a car crash and somebody dies. That didn’t really happen much. But riding around and trying to look for something to do with the music cranked up, now that happened a lot!"[30][31]
After Boyhood was released Linklater announced that his next film, Everybody Wants Some!!, would be a "spiritual sequel" to Dazed and Confused.[32] The newer film takes place in a Texas college in 1980.[32]
The line "alright, alright, alright" became a catchphrase for Matthew McConaughey.[33]
Home video[edit]
MCA/Universal released Dazed and Confused on laserdisc in January 1994,[34] followed by a VHS release two months later.[35]
The film was released on HD DVD in 2006.[36] The Criterion Collection released a two-disc boxed-set edition of the film on June 6, 2006 in the U.S. and Canada. Features included an audio commentary by Richard Linklater, deleted scenes, the original trailer, the 50 minute "Making Dazed" documentary that aired on the American Movie Classics channel on September 18, 2005, on-set interviews, behind-the-scenes footage, cast auditions and footage from the ten-year anniversary celebration. Also included is a 72-page book featuring new essays by Kent Jones, Jim DeRogatis, and Chuck Klosterman as well as memories from the cast and crew, character profiles and a mini reproduction of the original film poster designed by Frank Kozik. Entertainment Weekly gave it an "A" rating and stated that it "grants this enduring cult classic the DVD treatment it deserves".[37]
Universal Studios released Dazed and Confused on Blu-ray in August 2011, in a 1080p/AVC MPEG-4 transfer, with a DTS-HD Master Audio 5.1 soundtrack.[36]
Soundtracks[edit]
The soundtrack for the film was released on September 28, 1993 by The Medicine Label. The songs "Hurricane" by Bob Dylan, "Hey Baby" by Ted Nugent, and "Sweet Emotion" by Aerosmith were also included in the film, but not on the commercial soundtracks. "The Alien Song (For Those Who Listen)" by Milla Jovovich was briefly performed by the character Michelle Burroughs, but was not included in the soundtrack either.
Dazed and Confused
Soundtrack album by Various Artists
Released
September 28, 1993
Genre
Hard rock, blues rock, heavy metal, glam rock, Southern rock, funk, soft rock
Length
56:56
Label
Giant/Medicine
Dazed and Confused (1993)
No.
Title
Artist
Length
1. "Rock and Roll, Hoochie Koo" Rick Derringer 3:44
2. "Slow Ride" (Single version) Foghat 3:58
3. "School's Out" Alice Cooper 3:29
4. "Jim Dandy" Black Oak Arkansas 2:42
5. "Tush" ZZ Top 2:17
6. "Love Hurts" Nazareth 3:53
7. "Stranglehold" Ted Nugent 8:24
8. "Cherry Bomb" The Runaways 2:19
9. "Fox on the Run" Sweet 3:26
10. "Low Rider" War 3:13
11. "Tuesday's Gone" Lynyrd Skynyrd 7:32
12. "Highway Star" Deep Purple 6:08
13. "Rock and Roll All Nite" Kiss 2:57
14. "Paranoid" Black Sabbath 2:47
Total length: 56:56
[show]Even More Dazed and Confused (1994)
No.
Title
Artist
Length
1. "Free Ride" Edgar Winter Group 3:08
2. "No More Mr. Nice Guy" Alice Cooper 3:07
3. "Livin' in the USA" The Steve Miller Band 4:05
4. "Never Been Any Reason" Head East 5:12
5. "Why Can't We Be Friends?" War 3:51
6. "Summer Breeze" Seals and Crofts 3:25
7. "Right Place, Wrong Time" Dr. John 2:54
8. "Balinese" ZZ Top 2:39
9. "Lord Have Mercy On My Soul" Black Oak Arkansas 6:14
10. "I Just Want to Make Love to You" Foghat 4:19
11. "Show Me the Way" Peter Frampton 4:41
12. "Do You Feel Like We Do" Peter Frampton 7:13
Total length: 50:52
Book[edit]
In September 1993, St. Martin's Press published a 127-page, softcover book (ISBN 0-312-09466-3) inspired by Richard Linklater's screenplay. It was compiled by Linklater, Denise Montgomery, and others, and designed by Erik Josowitz. It was presented as a kind of yearbook, with character profiles, essays by characters, a time-line focusing on the years 1973 to 1977, and various 1970s pop culture charts and quizzes. It also featured dozens of black-and-white photos from the film.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Dazed and Confused". British Board of Film Classification. February 12, 1993. Retrieved June 24, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Dazed and Confused - The Numbers". thenumbers.com. Retrieved September 19, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Dazed and Confused (1993)". thisdistractedglobe.com. August 8, 2008. Retrieved September 19, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Sight & Sound | Top Ten Poll 2002 – How the directors and critics voted". BFI. 2008-09-29. Retrieved 2012-10-08.
Jump up ^ "50 Best High School Movies". Filmsite.org. 2006-09-15. Retrieved 2011-04-20.
Jump up ^ "The Comedy 25: The Funniest Movies of the Past 25 Years | Movies". EW.com. Retrieved 2011-04-20.
Jump up ^ "Interview – Richard Linklater". Mindjack. Retrieved 2011-04-20.
Jump up ^ Led-Zeppelin.org. "Led Zeppelin Assorted Info". Archived from the original on 2012-05-14.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Spitz, Marc (December 26, 2013). "An Oral History of Dazed and Confused". Maxim. Retrieved May 7, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Gorber, Jason (January 28, 2016). "'Dazed and Confused' at Sundance: 12 things we learned from Richard Linklater". Mashable. Retrieved May 7, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Stern, Marlow (September 24, 2013). "'Dazed and Confused' 20th Anniversary: 20 Craziest Facts About the Cult Classic". The Daily Beast. Retrieved May 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Dazed and Confused". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 2009-02-10.
Jump up ^ "Dazed and Confused (1993)". Rotten Tomatoes. Fandango Media. Retrieved June 23, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Dazed and Confused Reviews". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Retrieved June 23, 2012.
Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger (September 24, 1993). "Dazed and Confused". RogerEbert.com. Ebert Digital LLC. Retrieved April 9, 2018.
Jump up ^ Maslin, Janet (September 24, 1993). "Reviews/Film; Nervously Contemplating Life After High School". New York Times. The New York Times Company. Retrieved April 9, 2018.
Jump up ^ Howe, Desson (October 22, 1993). "'Dazed and Confused'". The Washington Post. The Washington Post Company. Retrieved February 10, 2009.
Jump up ^ Baumgarten, Marjorie (September 24, 1993). "Dazed and Confused". The Austin Chronicle. Retrieved April 9, 2018.
Jump up ^ Travers, Peter (December 8, 2000). "Dazed and Confused". Rolling Stone. Retrieved April 9, 2018.
Jump up ^ Corliss, Richard (October 11, 1993). "A Toke of Our Esteem". Time. Retrieved February 10, 2009.
Jump up ^ Gleiberman, Owen (September 24, 1994). "Dazed and Confused: EW Review". Entertainment Weekly. Time. Retrieved April 9, 2018.
Jump up ^ Tarantino, Quentin. "Sight and Sound Top Ten Poll 2002". Sight and Sound. Archived from the original on 2008-04-23. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
Jump up ^ "The Top 50 Cult Films". Entertainment Weekly. May 23, 2003.
Jump up ^ "50 Best High School Movies". Entertainment Weekly. 2008-07-31. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
Jump up ^ "The Comedy 25: The Funniest Movies of the Past 25 Years". Entertainment Weekly. August 27, 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
Jump up ^ "The Cult 25: The Essential Left-Field Movie Hits Since '83" list". Entertainment Weekly. September 3, 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-04.
Jump up ^ Carlson, Peter (2004-12-08). "Bummer, Man Portrayed as Potheads In 'Dazed,' Trio Has A New Joint Venture: Suing the Filmmaker". The Washington Post. washingtonpost.com. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
Jump up ^ Linklater, Richard. Director's commentary, Dazed and Confused, Criterion Collection DVD.
Jump up ^ Hughes, Sarah Anne (January 23, 2012). "Matthew McConaughey reprises 'Dazed and Confused' role for music video". The Washington Post. The Washington Post Company. Archived from the original on April 21, 2013. Retrieved April 21, 2013.
Jump up ^ Valby, Karen (March 8, 2013). "Quentin Tarantino pays tribute to 'Dazed and Confused' at the Texas Film Hall of Fame Awards". Entertainment Weekly. Time Warner. Archived from the original on April 21, 2013. Retrieved April 21, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Dazed And Confused 20Th Anniversary Reunion". Austin Film Society. 2013. Archived from the original on April 21, 2013. Retrieved April 21, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Richard Linklater reveals follow-up to 'Boyhood'". NME. Retrieved August 5, 2013.
Jump up ^ "How Matthew McConaughey Came Up With 'Alright, Alright, Alright'". Huffington Post. Retrieved 2014-12-02. Matthew McConaughey might as well trademark "alright, alright, alright," the catchphrase so closely associated with him ...
Jump up ^ "Expectations High". Billboard. January 15, 1994. Retrieved 2014-04-30. MCA/Universal bows the 1976 high school tale Dazed and Confused...
Jump up ^ "Dazed and Confused VHS". familyvideo.com. Retrieved 2014-04-30.
^ Jump up to: a b Cohen, Steven (August 8, 2011). "Dazed and Confused". High-Def Digest. Retrieved 2014-04-30.
Jump up ^ Labrecque, Jeff (June 2, 2006). "Dazed and Confused". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Dazed and Confused
Dazed and Confused on IMDb
Dazed and Confused at AllMovie
Dazed and Confused at Rotten Tomatoes
Dazed and Confused at Box Office Mojo
[show]
v
t
e
Films directed by Richard Linklater
It's Impossible to Learn to Plow by Reading Books (1988)
Slacker (1991)
Dazed and Confused (1993)
Before Sunrise (1995)
subUrbia (1996)
The Newton Boys (1998)
Waking Life (2001)
Tape (2001)
School of Rock (2003)
Before Sunset (2004)
Bad News Bears (2005)
A Scanner Darkly (2006)
Fast Food Nation (2006)
Me and Orson Welles (2008)
Bernie (2011)
Before Midnight (2013)
Boyhood (2014)
Everybody Wants Some!! (2016)
Last Flag Flying (2017)
Where'd You Go, Bernadette (2018)
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 199736797
GND: 4574739-8
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State of matter
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with Phase (matter).
The four fundamental states of matter. Clockwise from top left, they are solid, liquid, plasma, and gas, represented by an ice sculpture, a drop of water, electrical arcing from a tesla coil, and the air around clouds, respectively.
In physics, a state of matter is one of the distinct forms in which matter can exist. Four states of matter are observable in everyday life: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Many other states are known to exist, such as glass or liquid crystal, and some only exist under extreme conditions, such as Bose–Einstein condensates, neutron-degenerate matter, and quark-gluon plasma, which only occur, respectively, in situations of extreme cold, extreme density, and extremely high-energy. Some other states are believed to be possible but remain theoretical for now. For a complete list of all exotic states of matter, see the list of states of matter.
Historically, the distinction is made based on qualitative differences in properties. Matter in the solid state maintains a fixed volume and shape, with component particles (atoms, molecules or ions) close together and fixed into place. Matter in the liquid state maintains a fixed volume, but has a variable shape that adapts to fit its container. Its particles are still close together but move freely. Matter in the gaseous state has both variable volume and shape, adapting both to fit its container. Its particles are neither close together nor fixed in place. Matter in the plasma state has variable volume and shape, but as well as neutral atoms, it contains a significant number of ions and electrons, both of which can move around freely.
The term phase is sometimes used as a synonym for state of matter, but a system can contain several immiscible phases of the same state of matter.
Contents
[hide]
1 The four fundamental states
1.1 Solid
1.2 Liquid
1.3 Gas
1.4 Plasma
2 Phase transitions
3 Non-classical states
3.1 Glass
3.2 Crystals with some degree of disorder
3.3 Liquid crystal states
3.4 Magnetically ordered
3.5 Microphase-separated
4 Low-temperature states
4.1 Superfluid
4.2 Bose–Einstein condensate
4.3 Fermionic condensate
4.4 Rydberg molecule
4.5 Quantum Hall state
4.6 Photonic matter
4.7 Dropleton
5 High-energy states
5.1 Degenerate matter
5.2 Quark matter
5.3 Color-glass condensate
6 Very high energy states
7 Other proposed states
7.1 Supersolid
7.2 String-net liquid
7.3 Superglass
7.4 Dark matter
8 See also
9 Notes and references
10 External links
The four fundamental states
Solid
A crystalline solid: atomic resolution image of strontium titanate. Brighter atoms are Sr and darker ones are Ti.
Main article: Solid
In a solid, constituent particles (ions, atoms, or molecules) are closely packed together. The forces between particles are so strong that the particles cannot move freely but can only vibrate. As a result, a solid has a stable, definite shape, and a definite volume. Solids can only change their shape by force, as when broken or cut.
In crystalline solids, the particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern. There are various different crystal structures, and the same substance can have more than one structure (or solid phase). For example, iron has a body-centred cubic structure at temperatures below 912 °C, and a face-centred cubic structure between 912 and 1394 °C. Ice has fifteen known crystal structures, or fifteen solid phases, which exist at various temperatures and pressures.[1]
Glasses and other non-crystalline, amorphous solids without long-range order are not thermal equilibrium ground states; therefore they are described below as nonclassical states of matter.
Solids can be transformed into liquids by melting, and liquids can be transformed into solids by freezing. Solids can also change directly into gases through the process of sublimation, and gases can likewise change directly into solids through deposition.
Liquid
Structure of a classical monatomic liquid. Atoms have many nearest neighbors in contact, yet no long-range order is present.
Main article: Liquid
A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a (nearly) constant volume independent of pressure. The volume is definite if the temperature and pressure are constant. When a solid is heated above its melting point, it becomes liquid, given that the pressure is higher than the triple point of the substance. Intermolecular (or interatomic or interionic) forces are still important, but the molecules have enough energy to move relative to each other and the structure is mobile. This means that the shape of a liquid is not definite but is determined by its container. The volume is usually greater than that of the corresponding solid, the best known exception being water, H2O. The highest temperature at which a given liquid can exist is its critical temperature.[2]
Gas
The spaces between gas molecules are very big. Gas molecules have very weak or no bonds at all. The molecules in "gas" can move freely and fast.
Main article: Gas
A gas is a compressible fluid. Not only will a gas conform to the shape of its container but it will also expand to fill the container.
In a gas, the molecules have enough kinetic energy so that the effect of intermolecular forces is small (or zero for an ideal gas), and the typical distance between neighboring molecules is much greater than the molecular size. A gas has no definite shape or volume, but occupies the entire container in which it is confined. A liquid may be converted to a gas by heating at constant pressure to the boiling point, or else by reducing the pressure at constant temperature.
At temperatures below its critical temperature, a gas is also called a vapor, and can be liquefied by compression alone without cooling. A vapor can exist in equilibrium with a liquid (or solid), in which case the gas pressure equals the vapor pressure of the liquid (or solid).
A supercritical fluid (SCF) is a gas whose temperature and pressure are above the critical temperature and critical pressure respectively. In this state, the distinction between liquid and gas disappears. A supercritical fluid has the physical properties of a gas, but its high density confers solvent properties in some cases, which leads to useful applications. For example, supercritical carbon dioxide is used to extract caffeine in the manufacture of decaffeinated coffee.[3]
Plasma
In a plasma, electrons are ripped away from their nuclei, forming an electron "sea". This gives it the ability to conduct electricity.
Main article: Plasma (physics)
Like a gas, plasma does not have definite shape or volume. Unlike gases, plasmas are electrically conductive, produce magnetic fields and electric currents, and respond strongly to electromagnetic forces. Positively charged nuclei swim in a "sea" of freely-moving disassociated electrons, similar to the way such charges exist in conductive metal, where this electron "sea" allows matter in the plasma state to conduct electricity.
A gas is usually converted to a plasma in one of two ways. e.g. Either from a huge voltage difference between two points, or by exposing it to extremely high temperatures. Heating matter to high temperatures causes electrons to leave the atoms, resulting in the presence of free electrons. This creates a so-called partially ionised plasma. At very high temperatures, such as those present in stars, it is assumed that essentially all electrons are "free", and that a very high-energy plasma is essentially bare nuclei swimming in a sea of electrons. This forms the so-called fully ionised plasma.
The plasma state is often misunderstood, and although not freely existing under normal conditions on Earth, it is quite commonly generated by either lightning, electric sparks, fluorescent lights, neon lights or in plasma televisions. Also plasma appears in some types of flame, the Sun's corona, and stars are all examples of illuminated matter in the plasma state.
Phase transitions
Main article: Phase transitions
This diagram illustrates transitions between the four fundamental states of matter.
A state of matter is also characterized by phase transitions. A phase transition indicates a change in structure and can be recognized by an abrupt change in properties. A distinct state of matter can be defined as any set of states distinguished from any other set of states by a phase transition. Water can be said to have several distinct solid states.[4] The appearance of superconductivity is associated with a phase transition, so there are superconductive states. Likewise, ferromagnetic states are demarcated by phase transitions and have distinctive properties. When the change of state occurs in stages the intermediate steps are called mesophases. Such phases have been exploited by the introduction of liquid crystal technology. [5][6]
The state or phase of a given set of matter can change depending on pressure and temperature conditions, transitioning to other phases as these conditions change to favor their existence; for example, solid transitions to liquid with an increase in temperature. Near absolute zero, a substance exists as a solid. As heat is added to this substance it melts into a liquid at its melting point, boils into a gas at its boiling point, and if heated high enough would enter a plasma state in which the electrons are so energized that they leave their parent atoms.
Forms of matter that are not composed of molecules and are organized by different forces can also be considered different states of matter. Superfluids (like Fermionic condensate) and the quark–gluon plasma are examples.
In a chemical equation, the state of matter of the chemicals may be shown as (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, and (g) for gas. An aqueous solution is denoted (aq). Matter in the plasma state is seldom used (if at all) in chemical equations, so there is no standard symbol to denote it. In the rare equations that plasma is used in plasma is symbolized as (p).
Non-classical states
Glass
Main article: Glass
Schematic representation of a random-network glassy form (left) and ordered crystalline lattice (right) of identical chemical composition.
Glass is a non-crystalline or amorphous solid material that exhibits a glass transition when heated towards the liquid state. Glasses can be made of quite different classes of materials: inorganic networks (such as window glass, made of silicate plus additives), metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. Thermodynamically, a glass is in a metastable state with respect to its crystalline counterpart. The conversion rate, however, is practically zero.
Crystals with some degree of disorder
A plastic crystal is a molecular solid with long-range positional order but with constituent molecules retaining rotational freedom; in an orientational glass this degree of freedom is frozen in a quenched disordered state.
Similarly, in a spin glass magnetic disorder is frozen.
Liquid crystal states
Main article: Liquid crystal
Liquid crystal states have properties intermediate between mobile liquids and ordered solids. Generally, they are able to flow like a liquid, but exhibiting long-range order. For example, the nematic phase consists of long rod-like molecules such as para-azoxyanisole, which is nematic in the temperature range 118–136 °C.[7] In this state the molecules flow as in a liquid, but they all point in the same direction (within each domain) and cannot rotate freely. Like a crystalline solid, but unlike a liquid, liquid crystals react to polarized light.
Other types of liquid crystals are described in the main article on these states. Several types have technological importance, for example, in liquid crystal displays.
Magnetically ordered
Transition metal atoms often have magnetic moments due to the net spin of electrons that remain unpaired and do not form chemical bonds. In some solids the magnetic moments on different atoms are ordered and can form a ferromagnet, an antiferromagnet or a ferrimagnet.
In a ferromagnet—for instance, solid iron—the magnetic moment on each atom is aligned in the same direction (within a magnetic domain). If the domains are also aligned, the solid is a permanent magnet, which is magnetic even in the absence of an external magnetic field. The magnetization disappears when the magnet is heated to the Curie point, which for iron is 768 °C.
An antiferromagnet has two networks of equal and opposite magnetic moments, which cancel each other out so that the net magnetization is zero. For example, in nickel(II) oxide (NiO), half the nickel atoms have moments aligned in one direction and half in the opposite direction.
In a ferrimagnet, the two networks of magnetic moments are opposite but unequal, so that cancellation is incomplete and there is a non-zero net magnetization. An example is magnetite (Fe3O4), which contains Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions with different magnetic moments.
A quantum spin liquid (QSL) is a disordered state in a system of interacting quantum spins which preserves its disorder to very low temperatures, unlike other disordered states. It is not a liquid in physical sense, but a solid whose magnetic order is inherently disordered. The name "liquid" is due to an analogy with the molecular disorder in a conventional liquid. A QSL is neither a ferromagnet, where magnetic domains are parallel, nor an antiferromagnet, where the magnetic domains are antiparallel; instead, the magnetic domains are randomly oriented. This can be realized e.g. by geometrically frustrated magnetic moments that cannot point uniformly parallel or antiparallel. When cooling down and settling to a state, the domain must "choose" an orientation, but if the possible states are similar in energy, one will be chosen randomly. Consequently, despite strong short-range order, there is no long-range magnetic order.
Microphase-separated
Main article: Copolymer
SBS block copolymer in TEM
Copolymers can undergo microphase separation to form a diverse array of periodic nanostructures, as shown in the example of the styrene-butadiene-styrene block copolymer shown at right. Microphase separation can be understood by analogy to the phase separation between oil and water. Due to chemical incompatibility between the blocks, block copolymers undergo a similar phase separation. However, because the blocks are covalently bonded to each other, they cannot demix macroscopically as water and oil can, and so instead the blocks form nanometer-sized structures. Depending on the relative lengths of each block and the overall block topology of the polymer, many morphologies can be obtained, each its own phase of matter.
Ionic liquids also display microphase separation. The anion and cation are not necessarily compatible and would demix otherwise, but electric charge attraction prevents them from separating. Their anions and cations appear to diffuse within compartmentalized layers or micelles instead of freely as in a uniform liquid.[8]
Low-temperature states
Superfluid
Liquid helium in a superfluid phase creeps up on the walls of the cup in a Rollin film, eventually dripping out from the cup.
Main article: Superfluid
Close to absolute zero, some liquids form a second liquid state described as superfluid because it has zero viscosity (or infinite fluidity; i.e., flowing without friction). This was discovered in 1937 for helium, which forms a superfluid below the lambda temperature of 2.17 K. In this state it will attempt to "climb" out of its container.[9] It also has infinite thermal conductivity so that no temperature gradient can form in a superfluid. Placing a superfluid in a spinning container will result in quantized vortices.
These properties are explained by the theory that the common isotope helium-4 forms a Bose–Einstein condensate (see next section) in the superfluid state. More recently, Fermionic condensate superfluids have been formed at even lower temperatures by the rare isotope helium-3 and by lithium-6.[10]
Bose–Einstein condensate
Velocity in a gas of rubidium as it is cooled: the starting material is on the left, and Bose–Einstein condensate is on the right.
Main article: Bose–Einstein condensate
In 1924, Albert Einstein and Satyendra Nath Bose predicted the "Bose–Einstein condensate" (BEC), sometimes referred to as the fifth state of matter. In a BEC, matter stops behaving as independent particles, and collapses into a single quantum state that can be described with a single, uniform wavefunction.
In the gas phase, the Bose–Einstein condensate remained an unverified theoretical prediction for many years. In 1995, the research groups of Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman, of JILA at the University of Colorado at Boulder, produced the first such condensate experimentally. A Bose–Einstein condensate is "colder" than a solid. It may occur when atoms have very similar (or the same) quantum levels, at temperatures very close to absolute zero (−273.15 °C).
Fermionic condensate
Main article: Fermionic condensate
A fermionic condensate is similar to the Bose–Einstein condensate but composed of fermions. The Pauli exclusion principle prevents fermions from entering the same quantum state, but a pair of fermions can behave as a boson, and multiple such pairs can then enter the same quantum state without restriction.
Rydberg molecule
One of the metastable states of strongly non-ideal plasma is Rydberg matter, which forms upon condensation of excited atoms. These atoms can also turn into ions and electrons if they reach a certain temperature. In April 2009, Nature reported the creation of Rydberg molecules from a Rydberg atom and a ground state atom,[11] confirming that such a state of matter could exist.[12] The experiment was performed using ultracold rubidium atoms.
Quantum Hall state
Main article: Quantum Hall effect
A quantum Hall state gives rise to quantized Hall voltage measured in the direction perpendicular to the current flow. A quantum spin Hall state is a theoretical phase that may pave the way for the development of electronic devices that dissipate less energy and generate less heat. This is a derivation of the Quantum Hall state of matter.
Photonic matter
Main article: Photonic matter
Photonic matter is a phenomenon where photons interacting with a gas develop apparent mass, and can interact with each other, even forming photonic "molecules". The source of mass is the gas, which is massive. This is in contrast to photons moving in empty space, which have no rest mass, and cannot interact.
Dropleton
Main article: Dropleton
A "quantum fog" of electrons and holes that flow around each other and even ripple like a liquid, rather than existing as discrete pairs.[13]
High-energy states
Degenerate matter
Main article: Degenerate matter
Under extremely high pressure, as in the cores of dead stars, ordinary matter undergoes a transition to a series of exotic states of matter collectively known as degenerate matter, which are supported mainly by quantum mechanical effects. In physics, "degenerate" refers to two states that have the same energy and are thus interchangeable. Degenerate matter is supported by the Pauli exclusion principle, which prevents two fermionic particles from occupying the same quantum state. Unlike regular plasma, degenerate plasma expands little when heated, because there are simply no momentum states left. Consequently, degenerate stars collapse into very high densities. More massive degenerate stars are smaller, because the gravitational force increases, but pressure does not increase proportionally.
Electron-degenerate matter is found inside white dwarf stars. Electrons remain bound to atoms but are able to transfer to adjacent atoms. Neutron-degenerate matter is found in neutron stars. Vast gravitational pressure compresses atoms so strongly that the electrons are forced to combine with protons via inverse beta-decay, resulting in a superdense conglomeration of neutrons. Normally free neutrons outside an atomic nucleus will decay with a half life of just under 15 minutes, but in a neutron star, the decay is overtaken by inverse decay. Cold degenerate matter is also present in planets such as Jupiter and in the even more massive brown dwarfs, which are expected to have a core with metallic hydrogen. Because of the degeneracy, more massive brown dwarfs are not significantly larger. In metals, the electrons can be modeled as a degenerate gas moving in a lattice of non-degenerate positive ions.
Quark matter
Main article: QCD matter
In regular cold matter, quarks, fundamental particles of nuclear matter, are confined by the strong force into hadrons that consist of 2–4 quarks, such as protons and neutrons. Quark matter or quantum chromodynanamical (QCD) matter is a group of phases where the strong force is overcome and quarks are deconfined and free to move. Quark matter phases occur at extremely high densities or temperatures, and there are no known ways to produce them in equilibrium in the laboratory; in ordinary conditions, any quark matter formed immediately undergoes radioactively decay.
Strange matter is a type of quark matter that is suspected to exist inside some neutron stars close to the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit (approximately 2–3 solar masses), although there is no direct evidence of its existence. In strange matter, part of the energy available manifests as strange quarks, a heavier analogue of the common down quark. It may be stable at lower energy states once formed, although this is not known.
Quark–gluon plasma is a very high-temperature phase in which quarks become free and able to move independently, rather than being perpetually bound into particles, in a sea of gluons, subatomic particles that transmit the strong force that binds quarks together. This is analogous to the liberation of electrons from atoms in a plasma. This state is briefly attainable in extremely high-energy heavy ion collisions in particle accelerators, and allows scientists to observe the properties of individual quarks, and not just theorize. Quark–gluon plasma was discovered at CERN in 2000. Unlike plasma, which flows like a gas, interactions within QGP are strong and it flows like a liquid.
At high densities but relatively low temperatures, quarks are theorized to form a quark liquid whose nature is presently unknown. It forms a distinct color-flavor locked (CFL) phase at even higher densities. This phase is superconductive for color charge. These phases may occur in neutron stars but they are presently theoretical.
Color-glass condensate
Main article: Color-glass condensate
Color-glass condensate is a type of matter theorized to exist in atomic nuclei traveling near the speed of light. According to Einstein's theory of relativity, a high-energy nucleus appears length contracted, or compressed, along its direction of motion. As a result, the gluons inside the nucleus appear to a stationary observer as a "gluonic wall" traveling near the speed of light. At very high energies, the density of the gluons in this wall is seen to increase greatly. Unlike the quark–gluon plasma produced in the collision of such walls, the color-glass condensate describes the walls themselves, and is an intrinsic property of the particles that can only be observed under high-energy conditions such as those at RHIC and possibly at the Large Hadron Collider as well.
Very high energy states
Various theories predict new states of matter at very high energies. An unknown state has created the baryon asymmetry in the universe, but little is known about it. In string theory, a Hagedorn temperature is predicted for superstrings at about 1030 K, where superstrings are copiously produced. At Planck temperature (1032 K), gravity becomes a significant force between individual particles. No current theory can describe these state and they cannot be produced with any foreseeable experiment. However, these statws are important in cosmology because the universe may have passed through these states in the Big Bang.
The gravitational singularity predicted by general relativity to exist at the center of a black hole is not a phase of matter; it is not a material object at all (although the mass-energy of matter contributed to its creation) but rather a property of spacetime at a location. It could be argued, of course, that all particles are properties of spacetime at a location,[14] leaving a half-note of controversy on the subject.
Other proposed states
Supersolid
Main article: Supersolid
A supersolid is a spatially ordered material (that is, a solid or crystal) with superfluid properties. Similar to a superfluid, a supersolid is able to move without friction but retains a rigid shape. Although a supersolid is a solid, it exhibits so many characteristic properties different from other solids that many argue it is another state of matter.[15]
String-net liquid
Main article: String-net liquid
In a string-net liquid, atoms have apparently unstable arrangement, like a liquid, but are still consistent in overall pattern, like a solid. When in a normal solid state, the atoms of matter align themselves in a grid pattern, so that the spin of any electron is the opposite of the spin of all electrons touching it. But in a string-net liquid, atoms are arranged in some pattern that requires some electrons to have neighbors with the same spin. This gives rise to curious properties, as well as supporting some unusual proposals about the fundamental conditions of the universe itself.
Superglass
Main article: Superglass
A superglass is a phase of matter characterized, at the same time, by superfluidity and a frozen amorphous structure.
Dark matter
Main article: Dark matter
While dark matter is estimated to comprise 83% of the mass of matter in the universe, most of its properties remain a mystery due to the fact that it neither absorbs nor emits electromagnetic radiation, and there are many competing theories regarding what dark matter is actually made of. Thus, while it is hypothesized to exist and comprise the vast majority of matter in the universe, almost all of its properties are unknown and a matter of speculation, because it has only been observed through its gravitational effects.[16][17]
See also
Hidden states of matter
Classical element
Condensed matter physics
Cooling curve
Phase (matter)
Supercooling
Superheating
Notes and references
Jump up ^ M.A. Wahab (2005). Solid State Physics: Structure and Properties of Materials. Alpha Science. pp. 1–3. ISBN 1-84265-218-4.
Jump up ^ F. White (2003). Fluid Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. p. 4. ISBN 0-07-240217-2.
Jump up ^ G. Turrell (1997). Gas Dynamics: Theory and Applications. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 3–5. ISBN 0-471-97573-7.
Jump up ^ M. Chaplin (20 August 2009). "Water phase Diagram". Water Structure and Science. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 23 February 2010.
Jump up ^ D.L. Goodstein (1985). States of Matter. Dover Phoenix. ISBN 978-0-486-49506-4.
Jump up ^ A.P. Sutton (1993). Electronic Structure of Materials. Oxford Science Publications. pp. 10–12. ISBN 978-0-19-851754-2.
Jump up ^ Shao, Y.; Zerda, T. W. (1998). "Phase Transitions of Liquid Crystal PAA in Confined Geometries". Journal of Physical Chemistry B. 102 (18): 3387–3394. doi:10.1021/jp9734437.
Jump up ^ Álvarez, V. H.; Dosil, N.; Gonzalez-Cabaleiro, R.; Mattedi, S.; Martin-Pastor, M.; Iglesias, M. & Navaza, J. M.: Brønsted Ionic Liquids for Sustainable Processes: Synthesis and Physical Properties. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data 55 (2010), Nr. 2, S. 625-632. doi: 10.1021/je900550v
Jump up ^ J.R. Minkel (20 February 2009). "Strange but True: Superfluid Helium Can Climb Walls". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 19 March 2011. Retrieved 23 February 2010.
Jump up ^ L. Valigra (22 June 2005). "MIT physicists create new form of matter". MIT News. Archived from the original on 11 December 2013. Retrieved 23 February 2010.
Jump up ^ V. Bendkowsky; et al. (2009). "Observation of Ultralong-Range Rydberg Molecules". Nature. 458 (7241): 1005–8. Bibcode:2009Natur.458.1005B. doi:10.1038/nature07945. PMID 19396141.
Jump up ^ V. Gill (23 April 2009). "World First for Strange Molecule". BBC News. Archived from the original on 1 July 2009. Retrieved 23 February 2010.
Jump up ^ Luntz, Stephen (3 January 2014). "New State of Matter Discovered". IFLScience. Archived from the original on 16 April 2017. Retrieved 16 April 2017.
Jump up ^ David Chalmers; David Manley; Ryan Wasserman (2009). Metametaphysics: New Essays on the Foundations of Ontology. Oxford University Press. pp. 378–. ISBN 978-0-19-954604-6. Archived from the original on 17 September 2014.
Jump up ^ G. Murthy; et al. (1997). "Superfluids and Supersolids on Frustrated Two-Dimensional Lattices". Physical Review B. 55 (5): 3104. arXiv:cond-mat/9607217  . Bibcode:1997PhRvB..55.3104M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.55.3104.
Jump up ^ Trimble, Virginia (1987). "Existence and nature of dark matter in the universe". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 25: 425–472. Bibcode:1987ARA&A..25..425T. doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.25.090187.002233.
Jump up ^ Hinshaw, Gary F. (29 January 2010). "What is the universe made of?". Universe 101. NASA website. Archived from the original on 26 July 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2010.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to States of aggregation.
2005-06-22, MIT News: MIT physicists create new form of matter Citat: "... They have become the first to create a new type of matter, a gas of atoms that shows high-temperature superfluidity."
2003-10-10, Science Daily: Metallic Phase For Bosons Implies New State Of Matter
2004-01-15, ScienceDaily: Probable Discovery Of A New, Supersolid, Phase Of Matter Citat: "...We apparently have observed, for the first time, a solid material with the characteristics of a superfluid...but because all its particles are in the identical quantum state, it remains a solid even though its component particles are continually flowing..."
2004-01-29, ScienceDaily: NIST/University Of Colorado Scientists Create New Form Of Matter: A Fermionic Condensate
Short videos demonstrating of States of Matter, solids, liquids and gases by Prof. J M Murrell, University of Sussex
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States of matter (list)
State
Solid
Liquid
Gas / Vapor
Plasma
Low energy
Bose–Einstein condensate
Fermionic condensate
Degenerate matter
Quantum Hall
Rydberg matter
Strange matter
Superfluid
Supersolid
Photonic matter
High energy
QCD matter
Lattice QCD
Quark–gluon plasma
Supercritical fluid
Other states
Colloid
Glass
Liquid crystal
Quantum spin liquid
Magnetically ordered
Antiferromagnet
Ferrimagnet
Ferromagnet
String-net liquid
Superglass
Transitions
Boiling
Boiling point
Condensation
Critical line
Critical point
Crystallization
Deposition
Evaporation
Flash evaporation
Freezing
Chemical ionization
Ionization
Lambda point
Melting
Melting point
Recombination
Regelation
Saturated fluid
Sublimation
Supercooling
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GND: 4141615-6
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