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Beer Hall Putsch
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Beer Hall Putsch
The Marienplatz in Munich during the Beer Hall Putsch
Date
8–9 November 1923
Location
Munich, Bavaria, Germany
48°07′49″N 11°35′31″E / 48.1304°N 11.592°E / 48.1304; 11.592Coordinates: 48°07′49″N 11°35′31″E / 48.1304°N 11.592°E / 48.1304; 11.592
Action
Hitler and his associates planned to seize Munich and later to use Munich as a base for a march against Germany's Weimar Republic government
Result
Reichswehr victory.
Putsch failure, arrest of NSDAP leadership.
Insurgents v. Government
Nazi Party
Sturmabteilung
Weimar Republic
Bavaria Free State
Reichswehr
Commanders and leaders
Adolf Hitler (WIA)
Erich Ludendorff
Ernst Röhm
Rudolf Hess
Scheubner-Richter †
Hermann Göring (WIA)
Gustav von Kahr
Eugen von Knilling
Hans von Seisser
Otto von Lossow
Military support
2,000+ 130
Casualties and losses
16 killed
About a dozen injured
Many captured and imprisoned 4 killed
Several wounded
The Beer Hall Putsch, also known as the Munich Putsch,[1] and, in German, as the Hitlerputsch, Hitler-Ludendorff-Putsch, Bürgerbräu-Putsch or mostly Marsch auf die Feldherrnhalle, was a failed coup attempt by the Nazi Party (NSDAP) leader Adolf Hitler—along with Generalquartiermeister Erich Ludendorff and other Kampfbund leaders—to seize power in Munich, Bavaria, during 8–9 November 1923. About two thousand Nazis marched to the centre of Munich, where they confronted the police, which resulted in the death of 16 Nazis and four police officers.[1] Hitler was not wounded during the clash, although he locked his left arm with the right arm of Max Erwin von Scheubner-Richter who, when he was shot and killed, pulled Hitler to the pavement with him. Hitler escaped immediate arrest and was spirited off to safety in the countryside. After two days, Hitler was arrested and charged with treason.[2]
From Hitler's perspective, there were three positive benefits from this attempt to seize power unlawfully. First, the putsch brought Hitler to the attention of the German nation and generated front page headlines in newspapers around the world. His arrest was followed by a 24-day trial, which was widely publicized and gave Hitler a platform to publicize his nationalist sentiment to the nation. Hitler was found guilty of treason and sentenced to five years in Landsberg Prison.[3] The second benefit to Hitler was that he used his time in prison to produce Mein Kampf, which was dictated to his fellow prisoners Emil Maurice and Rudolf Hess. On 20 December 1924, having served only nine months, Hitler was released.[4][5] The final benefit to Hitler was the insight that the path to power was through legitimate means rather than revolution or force. Accordingly, the most significant outcome of the putsch was a decision by Hitler to change NSDAP tactics, which would demand an increasing reliance on the development and furthering of Nazi propaganda.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 The Putsch
2.1 Counterattack
3 Trial and prison
4 Fatalities
4.1 Bavarian police
4.2 National Socialists
5 Martyrdom
6 Supporters of the Putsch
6.1 Key supporters
6.2 Other notable supporters
6.3 At the front of the march
6.4 Chief defendants in the "Ludendorff–Hitler" trial
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 External links
Background[edit]
In the early 20th century, many of the larger cities of southern Germany had beer halls where hundreds or even thousands of people would socialize in the evenings, drink beer and participate in political and social debates. Such beer halls also became the host of occasional political rallies. One of Munich's largest beer halls was the "Bürgerbräukeller". This was the location of the famous Beer Hall Putsch.
The Treaty of Versailles, which ended World War I, sounded the death knell of German power and prestige. Like many Germans of the period, Hitler believed that the treaty was a betrayal, with the country having been "stabbed in the back" by its own government, particularly as the German Army was popularly thought to have been undefeated in the field. Germany, it was felt, had been betrayed by civilian leaders and Marxists, who were later called the "November Criminals".[7]
Hitler remained in the army, in Munich, after World War I. He participated in various "national thinking" courses. These had been organized by the Education and Propaganda Department of the Bavarian Army, under Captain Karl Mayr,[8] of which Hitler became an agent. Captain Mayr ordered Hitler, then an army lance corporal, to infiltrate the tiny Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, abbreviated DAP (German Workers' Party).[9] Hitler joined the DAP on 12 September 1919.[10] He soon realized that he was in agreement with many of the underlying tenets of the DAP, and he rose to its top post in the ensuing chaotic political atmosphere of postwar Munich.[11] By agreement, Hitler assumed the political leadership of a number of Bavarian "patriotic associations" (revanchist), called the Kampfbund.[12] This political base extended to include about 15,000 Sturmabteilung (SA, lit. "Storm Detachment"), the paramilitary wing of the NSDAP.
On 26 September 1923, following a period of turmoil and political violence, Bavarian Prime Minister Eugen von Knilling declared a state of emergency, and Gustav von Kahr was appointed Staatskomissar, or state commissioner, with dictatorial powers to govern the state. In addition to von Kahr, Bavarian state police chief Colonel Hans Ritter von Seisser and Reichswehr General Otto von Lossow formed a ruling triumvirate.[13] Hitler announced that he would hold 14 mass meetings beginning on 27 September 1923. Afraid of the potential disruption, one of Kahr's first actions was to ban the announced meetings.[14] Hitler was under pressure to act. The Nazis, with other leaders in the Kampfbund, felt they had to march upon Berlin and seize power or their followers would turn to the Communists.[15] Hitler enlisted the help of World War I general Erich Ludendorff in an attempt to gain the support of Kahr and his triumvirate. However, Kahr had his own plan with Seisser and Lossow to install a nationalist dictatorship without Hitler.[15] November 1923 was the height of hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic.
The Putsch[edit]
The attempted putsch was inspired by Benito Mussolini's successful March on Rome, from 22 to 29 October 1922. Hitler and his associates planned to use Munich as a base for a march against Germany's Weimar Republic government. But the circumstances were different from those in Italy. Hitler came to the realization that Kahr sought to control him and was not ready to act against the government in Berlin. Hitler wanted to seize a critical moment for successful popular agitation and support.[16] He decided to take matters into his own hands. Hitler, along with a large detachment of SA, marched on the Bürgerbräukeller, where Kahr was making a speech in front of 3,000 people.[17]
In the cold, dark evening, 603 SA surrounded the beer hall and a machine gun was set up in the auditorium. Hitler, surrounded by his associates Hermann Göring, Alfred Rosenberg, Rudolf Hess, Ernst Hanfstaengl, Ulrich Graf, Johann Aigner, Adolf Lenk, Max Amann, Max Erwin von Scheubner-Richter, Wilhelm Adam, and others (some 20 in all), advanced through the crowded auditorium. Unable to be heard above the crowd, Hitler fired a shot into the ceiling and jumped on a chair yelling: "The national revolution has broken out! The hall is filled with six hundred men. Nobody is allowed to leave." He went on to state the Bavarian government was deposed and declared the formation of a new government with Ludendorff.[18]
Hitler, accompanied by Hess, Lenk and Graf, ordered the triumvirate of Kahr, Seisser, and Lossow into an adjoining room at gunpoint and demanded they support the putsch.[19] Hitler demanded they accept government positions he assigned them.[20] Hitler had promised Lossow a few days earlier that he would not attempt a coup,[21] but now thought that he would get an immediate response of affirmation from them, imploring Kahr to accept the position of Regent of Bavaria. Kahr replied that he could not be expected to collaborate, especially as he had been taken out of the auditorium under heavy guard.[22]
Heinz Pernet, Johann Aigne and Scheubner-Richter were dispatched to pick up Ludendorff, whose personal prestige was being harnessed to give the Nazis credibility. A telephone call was made from the kitchen by Hermann Kriebel to Ernst Röhm, who was waiting with his Bund Reichskriegsflagge in the Löwenbräukeller, another beer hall, and he was ordered to seize key buildings throughout the city. At the same time, co-conspirators under Gerhard Rossbach mobilized the students of a nearby Officers Infantry school to seize other objectives.
Hitler became irritated by Kahr and summoned Ernst Pöhner, Friedrich Weber and Hermann Kriebel to stand in for him while he returned to the auditorium flanked by Rudolf Hess and Adolf Lenk. He followed up on Göring's speech and stated that the action was not directed at the police and Reichswehr, but against "...the Berlin Jew government and the November criminals of 1918".[18] Dr. Karl Alexander von Mueller, a professor of modern history and political science at the University of Munich and a supporter of Kahr, was an eyewitness. He reported:
I cannot remember in my entire life such a change in the attitude of a crowd in a few minutes, almost a few seconds ... Hitler had turned them inside out, as one turns a glove inside out, with a few sentences. It had almost something of hocus-pocus, or magic about it.
Hitler ended his speech with: "Outside are Kahr, Lossow and Seisser. They are struggling hard to reach a decision. May I say to them that you will stand behind them?"[23]
Odeonsplatz in Munich on 9 November.
The crowd in the hall backed Hitler with a roar of approval.[23] He finished triumphantly:
You can see that what motivates us is neither self-conceit or self-interest, but only a burning desire to join the battle in this grave eleventh hour for our German Fatherland ... One last thing I can tell you. Either the German revolution begins tonight or we will all be dead by dawn![23]
Hitler returned to the anteroom, where the triumvirs remained, to ear-shattering acclaim, which the triumvirs could not have failed to notice. On his way back, Hitler ordered Göring and Hess to take Eugen von Knilling and seven other members of the Bavarian government into custody.
During Hitler's speech, Pöhner, Weber, and Kriebel had been trying in a conciliatory fashion to bring the triumvirate round to their point of view. The atmosphere in the room had become lighter but Kahr continued to dig in his heels. Ludendorff showed up a little before 9 p.m. and, being shown into the ante-room, concentrated on Lossow and Seisser, appealing to their sense of duty. Eventually the triumvirate reluctantly gave in.
Hitler, Ludendorff et al. returned to the main hall's podium, where they gave speeches and shook hands. The crowd was then allowed to leave the hall.[23] In a tactical mistake, Hitler decided to leave the Bürgerbräukeller shortly thereafter to deal with a crisis elsewhere. Around 10:30 p.m., Ludendorff released Kahr and his associates.
The night was marked by confusion and unrest among government officials, armed forces, police units, and individuals deciding where their loyalties lay. Units of the Kampfbund were scurrying around to arm themselves from secret caches, and seizing buildings. At around 3 am, the first casualties of the putsch occurred when the local garrison of the Reichswehr spotted Röhm's men coming out of the beer hall. They were ambushed while trying to reach the Reichswehr barracks by soldiers and state police; shots were fired, but there were no fatalities on either side. Encountering heavy resistance, Röhm and his men were forced to fall back. In the meantime, the Reichswehr officers put the whole garrison on alert and called for reinforcements. Foreign attachés were seized in their hotel rooms and put under house arrest.
Early Nazis who participated in the attempt to seize power during the 1923 Putsch
In the early morning, Hitler ordered the seizure of the Munich city council as hostages. He further sent the communications officer of the Kampfbund, Max Neunzert, to enlist the aid of Crown Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria to mediate between Kahr and the putschists. Neunzert failed in the mission.
By midmorning on 9 November, Hitler realized that the putsch was going nowhere. The Putschists did not know what to do and were about to give up. At this moment, Ludendorff cried out, "Wir marschieren!" (We will march!). Röhm's force together with Hitler's (a total of approximately 2000 men) marched out—but with no specific plan of where to go. On the spur of the moment, Ludendorff led them to the Bavarian Defence Ministry. However, at the Odeonsplatz in front of the Feldherrnhalle, they met a force of 130 soldiers blocking the way under the command of State Police Senior Lieutenant Baron Michael von Godin. The two groups exchanged fire, killing four state police officers and 16 Nazis.[24]
This was the origin of the Blutfahne (blood-flag), which became stained with the blood of two SA members who were shot: the flagbearer Heinrich Trambauer, who was badly wounded, and Andreas Bauriedl, who fell dead onto the fallen flag.[25] A bullet killed Scheubner-Richter.[26] Göring was shot in the leg, but escaped.[27] The rest of the Nazis scattered or were arrested. Hitler was arrested two days later.
In a description of Ludendorff's funeral at the Feldherrnhalle in 1937 (which Hitler attended but without speaking) William L. Shirer wrote: "The World War [One] hero [Ludendorff] had refused to have anything to do with him [Hitler] ever since he had fled from in front of the Feldherrnhalle after the volley of bullets during the Beer Hall Putsch." However, when a consignment of papers relating to Landsberg prison (including the visitor book) were later sold at auction, it was noted that Ludendorff had visited Hitler a number of times. The case of the resurfacing papers was reported in Der Spiegel ("The Mirror", German news magazine) on 23 June 2006; the new information (which came out more than 30 years after Shirer wrote his book, and which Shirer did not have access to) nullifies Shirer's statement.[28][29]
Counterattack[edit]
State Police and Police units were first notified of trouble by three police detectives stationed at the Löwenbräukeller. These reports reached Major Sigmund von Imhoff of the State police. He immediately called all his green police units and had them seize the central telegraph office and the telephone exchange, although his most important act was to notify Major-General Jakob von Danner, the Reichswehr city commandant of Munich. As a staunch aristocrat, Danner loathed the "little corporal" and those "Freikorps bands of rowdies". He also did not much like his commanding officer, Generalleutnant Otto von Lossow, "a sorry figure of a man". He was determined to put down the putsch with or without Lossow. Danner set up a command post at the 19th Infantry Regiment barracks and alerted all military units.[30]
Meanwhile, Captain Karl Wild, learning of the putsch from marchers, mobilized his command to guard Kahr's government building, the Commissariat, with orders to shoot.[30]
Around 11 p.m., Major-General von Danner, along with fellow generals Adolf Ritter von Ruith and Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein, compelled Lossow to repudiate the putsch.[30]
There was one member of the cabinet who was not at the Bürgerbräukeller: Franz Matt, the vice-premier and minister of education and culture. A staunchly conservative Roman Catholic, he was having dinner with the Archbishop of Munich, Cardinal Michael von Faulhaber and with the Nuncio to Bavaria, Archbishop Eugenio Pacelli (who would later become Pope Pius XII), when he learned of the putsch. He immediately telephoned Kahr. When he found the man vacillating and unsure, Matt decisively began plans to set up a rump government-in-exile in Regensburg and composed a proclamation calling upon all police officers, members of the armed forces, and civil servants to remain loyal to the government. The action of these few men spelled doom for those attempting the putsch.[30]
On Wednesday, 3,000 students from the University of Munich rioted and marched to the Feldherrnhalle to lay wreaths. They continued to riot until Friday, when they learned of Hitler's arrest. Kahr and Lossow were called Judases and traitors.[30]
Trial and prison[edit]
Defendants in the Beer Hall Putsch trial. From left to right: Pernet, Weber, Frick, Kriebel, Ludendorff, Hitler, Bruckner, Röhm, and Wagner. Note that only two of the defendants (Hitler and Frick) were wearing civilian clothes. All those in uniform are carrying swords, indicating officer and/or aristocratic status
Two days after the putsch, Hitler was arrested and charged with high treason in the special People's Court.[2] Some of his fellow conspirators, including Rudolf Hess, were also arrested, while others, including Hermann Göring and Ernst Hanfstaengl, escaped to Austria.[31] The Nazi Party's headquarters was raided, and its newspaper, the Völkischer Beobachter ("The People's Observer"), was banned. In January 1924, the Emminger Reform, an emergency decree, abolished the jury as trier of fact and replaced it with a mixed system of judges and lay judges in Germany's judiciary, which still exists.[32][33][34]
This was not the first time Hitler had been in trouble with the law. In an incident in September 1921, he and some men of the SA had disrupted a meeting of the Bayernbund ("Bavaria Union") which Otto Ballerstedt, a Bavarian federalist, was to have addressed, and the Nazis who had gone there to cause trouble were arrested as a result. Hitler ended up serving a little over a month of a three-month jail sentence.[35] Judge Georg Neithardt (de) was the presiding judge at both of Hitler's trials.[4]
Hitler's trial began on 26 February 1924 and lasted until 1 April 1924.[5] Lossow acted as chief witness for the prosecution.[21] Hitler moderated his tone for the trial, centering his defense on his selfless devotion to the good of the people and the need for bold action to save them; dropping his usual anti-Semitism.[36] He claimed the putsch had been his sole responsibility, inspiring the title "Führer" or "Leader".[37] The lay judges were fanatically pro-Nazi and had to be dissuaded by the presiding Judge, Georg Neithardt (de), from acquitting Hitler.[38] Hitler and Hess were both sentenced to five years in Festungshaft (literally fortress confinement) for treason. Festungshaft was the mildest of the three types of jail sentence available in German law at the time; it excluded forced labour, provided reasonably comfortable cells, and allowed the prisoner to receive visitors almost daily for many hours. This was the customary sentence for those whom the judge believed to have had honourable but misguided motives, and it did not carry the stigma of a sentence of Gefängnis or Zuchthaus. In the end, Hitler served only a little over eight months of this sentence before his early release for good behaviour.[39]
However, Hitler used the trial as an opportunity to spread his ideas. The event was extensively covered in the newspapers the next day. The judges were impressed (Presiding Judge Neithardt was inclined to favouritism towards the defendants prior to the trial), and as a result Hitler served a little over eight months and was fined 500 Reichsmark.[4] Due to his story that he was present by accident, an explanation he had also used in the Kapp Putsch, along with his war service and connections, Ludendorff was acquitted. Both Röhm and Wilhelm Frick, though found guilty, were released. Göring, meanwhile, had fled after suffering a bullet wound to his leg,[27] which led him to become increasingly dependent on morphine and other painkilling drugs. This addiction continued throughout his life.
One of Hitler's greatest worries at the trial was that he was at risk of being deported back to his native Austria by the Bavarian government.[40] The trial judge, Neithardt, was very sympathetic towards Hitler and held that the relevant laws of the Weimar Republic could not be applied to a man "who thinks and feels like a German, as Hitler does." The result was that the Nazi leader remained in Germany.[41][note 1]
Though Hitler failed to achieve his immediate stated goal, the putsch did give the Nazis their first exposure to national attention and a propaganda victory.[6] While serving their "fortress confinement" sentences at Landsberg am Lech, Hitler, Emil Maurice and Rudolf Hess wrote Mein Kampf. Also, the putsch changed Hitler's outlook on violent revolution to effect change. From then on he thought that, in order to win the German heart, he must do everything by the book, "strictly legal".[citation needed]
The process of combination, where the conservative-nationalist-monarchist group thought that its members could piggyback onto, and control, the National Socialist movement to garner the seats of power, was to repeat itself ten years later in 1933 when Franz von Papen would legally ask Hitler to form a coalition government.
Fatalities[edit]
Bavarian police[edit]
Friedrich Fink
Nikolaus Hollweg
Max Schobert
Rudolf Schraut
National Socialists[edit]
Felix Allfarth, merchant, born 5 July 1901 in Leipzig. Alfarth had studied merchandising at the Siemens-Schuckert Works and moved to Munich in 1923 to begin his career.[43]
Andreas Bauriedl, hatter, born 4 May 1879 in Aschaffenburg. Bauriedl was hit in the abdomen, killing him and causing him to fall on the Nazi flag, which had fallen to the ground when its flagbearer, Heinrich Trambauer, was severely wounded. Bauriedl's blood soaked the flag, which later became the Nazi relic known as the Blutfahne.[44]
Theodor Casella, bank clerk, born 8 August 1900.
Wilhelm Ehrlich, bank clerk, born 8 August 1894.
Martin Faust, bank clerk, born 4 January 1901.
Anton Hechenberger, locksmith, born 28 September 1902.
Oskar Körner, businessman, born 4 January 1875 in Ober-Peilau
Karl Kuhn, head waiter in a restaurant, born 7 July 1875.
Karl Laforce, engineering student, born 28 October 1904; the youngest to die in the putsch.
Kurt Neubauer, valet, born 27 March 1899 in Hopfengarten, Kreis Bernberg.
Klaus von Pape, businessman, born 16 August 1904 in Oschatz.
Theodor von der Pfordten, county court counsel, who had fought in World War I; born 14 May 1873 in Bayreuth; the eldest to die in the putsch.[citation needed]
Johann Rickmers, retired cavalry captain who had fought in World War I; born 7 May 1881 in Bremen.
Max Erwin von Scheubner-Richter, Nazi leader, born 21 January 1884 in Riga.
Lorenz Ritter von Stransky-Griffenfeld, engineer, born 14 March 1889.
Wilhelm Wolf, businessman, born 19 October 1898.
Scheubner-Richter was walking arm-in-arm with Hitler during the putsch; he was shot in the lungs and died instantly.[45] He brought Hitler down and dislocated Hitler's shoulder when he fell. He was the only first-tier Nazi leader to die during the Putsch. Of all the party members who died in the Putsch, Hitler claimed Scheubner-Richter to be the only "irreplaceable loss".[46]
According to Ernst Röhm, Martin Faust and Theodor Casella, both members of the armed militia organisation Reichskriegsflagge, were shot down accidentally in a burst of machine gun fire during the occupation of the War Ministry as the result of a misunderstanding with II/Inf.Regt 19.[47]
Martyrdom[edit]
One of the Munich Ehrentempels (Honour Temples), 1936
The 16 fallen were regarded as the first "blood martyrs" of the NSDAP and were remembered by Hitler in the foreword of Mein Kampf. The Nazi flag they carried, which in the course of events had been stained with blood, came to be known as the Blutfahne (blood flag) and was brought out for the swearing-in of new recruits in front of the Feldherrnhalle when Hitler was in power.
Shortly after he came to power, a memorial was placed at the south side of the Feldherrnhalle crowned with a swastika. The back of the memorial read Und ihr habt doch gesiegt! (And you triumphed nevertheless!). Behind it flowers were laid, and either policemen or the SS stood guard in between a lower plaque. Passers-by were required to give the Hitler salute. The putsch was also commemorated on three sets of stamps. Mein Kampf was dedicated to the fallen and, in the book Ich Kämpfe (given to those joining the party circa 1943), they are listed first even though the book lists hundreds of other dead. The header text in the book read "Though they are dead for their acts they will live on forever." The army had a division named the Feldherrnhalle regiment, and there was also an SA Feldherrnhalle division.
Der neunte Elfte (9/11, literally the Ninth of the Eleventh) became one of the most important dates on the Nazi calendar, especially following the seizure of power in 1933. Annually until the fall of Nazi Germany, the putsch would be commemorated nationwide, with the major events taking place in Munich. On the night of 8 November, Hitler would address the Alte Kämpfer (Old Fighters) in the Bürgerbräukeller (after 1939, the Löwenbräu, in 1944, the Circus Krone Building), followed the next day by a re-enactment of the march through the streets of Munich. The event would climax with a ceremony recalling the 16 dead marchers on the Königsplatz.
The anniversary could be a time of tension in Nazi Germany. The ceremony was cancelled in 1934, coming as it did after the so-called Night of the Long Knives. In 1938, it coincided with the Kristallnacht, and in 1939 with the attempted assassination of Hitler by Johann Georg Elser. With the outbreak of war in 1939, security concerns caused the re-enactment of the march to be suspended, never to be resumed. However, Hitler continued to deliver his 8 November speech through 1943. In 1944, Hitler skipped the event and Heinrich Himmler spoke in his place. As the war went on, residents of Munich came increasingly to dread the approach of the anniversary, concerned that the presence of the top Nazi leaders in their city would act as a magnet for Allied bombers.
Every Gau (administrative region of Germany) was also expected to hold a small remembrance ceremony. As material given to propagandists said, the 16 fallen were the first losses and the ceremony was an occasion to commemorate everyone who had died for the movement.[48]
On 9 November 1935, the dead were taken from their graves and to the Feldherrnhalle. The SA and SS carried them down to the Königplatz, where two Ehrentempel (Honour Temples) had been constructed. In each of the structures eight of the martyrs were interred in a sarcophagus bearing their name.
Plaque commemorating policemen
In June 1945 the Allied Commission removed the bodies from the Ehrentempels and contacted their families. They were given the option of having their loved ones buried in Munich cemeteries in unmarked graves or having them cremated, common practice in Germany for unclaimed bodies. On 9 January 1947, the upper parts of the structures were blown up.
Since 1994, a commemorative plaque in the pavement in front of the Feldherrnhalle contains the names of the four Bavarian policemen who died in the fight against the Nazis. The plaque reads:
Den Mitgliedern der Bayerischen Landespolizei, die beim Einsatz gegen die Nationalsozialistischen Putschisten am 9.11.1923 Ihr Leben ließen. ("To the members of the Bavarian Police, who gave their lives opposing the National Socialist coup on 9 November 1923")
Supporters of the Putsch[edit]
Key supporters[edit]
Adolf Hitler
Rudolf Hess
Hermann Göring
Alfred Rosenberg
Erich Ludendorff
Ernst Röhm
Julius Streicher
Hermann Kriebel
Friedrich Weber
Max Erwin von Scheubner-Richter
Ulrich Graf
Hermann Esser
Ernst Hanfstaengl
Gottfried Feder
Joseph Berchtold
Ernst Pöhner
Emil Maurice
Max Amann
Heinz Pernet
Wilhelm Brückner
Lt. Robert Wagner
Other notable supporters[edit]
Heinrich Himmler
Edmund Heines
Gerhard Roßbach
Hans Frank
Julius Schaub
Walther Hewel
Dietrich Eckart
Wilhelm Frick
Julius Schreck
Josef 'Sepp' Dietrich
Philipp Bouhler
Franz Pfeffer von Salomon
Gustav Adolf Lenk
Gregor Strasser
Hans Kallenbach
Ernst Rüdiger Starhemberg
Adolf Wagner
Jakob Grimminger
Heinrich Trambauer
Karl Beggel
Rudolf Jung
Rudolf Buttmann
Albrecht von Graefe
Hans Ulrich Klintzsch
Heinrich Hoffmann
Josef Gerum
Capt. Eduard Dietl
Hans Georg Hofmann
Matthaeus Hofmann
Helmut Klotz
Adolf Hühnlein
Max Neunzert
Michael Ried
Karl Fischer von Treuenfeld
Theodor Oberländer
Eleonore Baur
At the front of the march[edit]
In the vanguard were four flag bearers followed by Adolf Lenk and Kurt Neubauer, Ludendorff's servant. Behind those two came more flag bearers, then the leadership in two rows.
Hitler was in the centre, slouch hat in hand, the collar of his trenchcoat turned up against the cold. To his left, in civilian clothes, a green felt hat, and a loose loden coat, was Ludendorff. To Hitler's right was Scheubner-Richter. To his right came Alfred Rosenberg. On either side of these men were Ulrich Graf, Hermann Kriebel, Friedrich Weber, Julius Streicher, Hermann Göring, and Wilhelm Brückner.
Behind these came the second string of Heinz Pernet, Johann Aigner (Scheubner-Richter's servant), Gottfried Feder, Theodor von der Pfordten, Wilhelm Kolb, Rolf Reiner, Hans Streck, and Heinrich Bennecke, Brückner's adjutant.
Behind this row marched the Stoßtrupp-Hitler, the SA, the Infantry School, and the Oberländer.
Chief defendants in the "Ludendorff–Hitler" trial[edit]
Heinz Pernet
Friedrich Weber
Wilhelm Frick
Hermann Kriebel
Erich Ludendorff
Adolf Hitler
Wilhelm Brückner
Ernst Röhm
Lt. Robert Wagner
See also[edit]
Germany portal
Bavaria portal
Weimar Republic portal
Fascism portal
Early timeline of Nazism
Timeline of the Weimar Republic
Blutfahne
Hamburg Uprising
Blood Order An award given to participants
Other people given posthumous fame by the Nazis:
Wilhelm Gustloff
Herbert Norkus
Horst Wessel
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The court explained why it rejected the deportation of Hitler under the terms of the Protection of the Republic Act: "Hitler is a German-Austrian. He considered himself to be a German. In the opinion of the court, the meaning and the terms of section 9, para II of the Law for the Protection of the Republic cannot apply to a man who thinks and feels as German as Hitler, who voluntarily served for four and a half years in the German army at war, who attained high military honours through outstanding bravery in the face of the enemy, was wounded, suffered other damage to his health, and was released from the military into the control of the district Command Munich I."[42]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Dan Moorhouse, ed. The Munich Putsch. schoolshistory.org.uk, accessed 2008-05-31.
^ Jump up to: a b Hitler, Adolf (1924). Der Hitler-Prozeß vor dem Volksgericht in München [The Hitler Trial Before the People's Court in Munich]. Munich: Knorr & Hirth. OCLC 638670803.
Jump up ^ Hitler's Festungshaft ("fortress-way"). Hitler's sentence was to be served in the mildest form of incarceration under German law.
^ Jump up to: a b c Harold J. Gordon Jr., The Hitler Trial Before the People's Court in Munich (Arlington, VA: University Publications of America 1976)
^ Jump up to: a b Fulda, Bernhard (2009). Press and politics in the Weimar Republic. Oxford University Press. pp. 68–69. ISBN 978-0-19-954778-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Claudia Koonz, The Nazi Conscience, p. 24, ISBN 0-674-01172-4.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 61–63.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 72–74.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 75.
Jump up ^ Stackelberg, Roderick (2007), The Routledge Companion to Nazi Germany, New York: Routledge, p. 9, ISBN 978-0-415-30860-1
Jump up ^ Sayers, Michael and Kahnn, Albert E. (1945), The Plot Against the Peace. Dial Press.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 124.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 125–126.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 125.
^ Jump up to: a b Kershaw 2008, p. 126.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 125–127.
Jump up ^ Piers Brendon, The Dark Valley: A Panorama of the 1930s, p. 36 ISBN 0-375-40881-9
^ Jump up to: a b Kershaw 2008, p. 128.
Jump up ^ Piers Brendon, The Dark Valley: A Panorama of the 1930s, pp. 36–37 ISBN 0-375-40881-9
Jump up ^ Shirer, William (2011). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (Fiftieth Anniversary ed.). New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. p. 69. ISBN 978-1-4516-4259-9.
^ Jump up to: a b Knickerbocker, H. R. (1941). Is Tomorrow Hitler's? 200 Questions on the Battle of Mankind. Reynal & Hitchcock. p. 12.
Jump up ^ Bear 2016, p. PT20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Kershaw 2008, p. 129.
Jump up ^ Shirer 1960, pp. 73–76.
Jump up ^ Hilmar Hoffmann, The Triumph of Propaganda: Film and National Socialism, 1933–1945, Volume 1, pp. 20–22.
Jump up ^ [1] Hitler Sites by Steven Lehrer. McFarland & Co, Publishers, ISBN 0-7864-1045-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Kershaw 2008, p. 131.
Jump up ^ Der Spiegel, 23 June 2006.
Jump up ^ Shirer 1960, p. 312.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Bear 2016, p. PT22.
Jump up ^ "Hermann Goring (German minister) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2011-03-26.
Jump up ^ Kahn-Freund, Otto (January 1974). "On Uses and Misuses of Comparative Law". Modern Law Review. footnote 73, p. 18. 37 (1). JSTOR 1094713.
Jump up ^ Wolff, Hans Julius (June 1944). "Criminal Justice in Germany". Michigan Law Review. footnote 7, pp. 1069–1070. 42 (6). JSTOR 1283584.
Jump up ^ Casper, Gerhard; Zeisel, Hans (January 1972). "Lay Judges in the German Criminal Courts". The Journal of Legal Studies. 1 (1): 135. doi:10.1086/467481. JSTOR 724014.
Jump up ^ Richard J Evans: The Coming of the Third Reich. A History, 2004, S. 181; Joachim Fest: Hitler, 2002, S. 160 und 225.
Jump up ^ Claudia Koonz, The Nazi Conscience, p. 21
Jump up ^ Piers Brendon, The Dark Valley: A Panorama of the 1930s, p. 38
Jump up ^ Landauer, Carl (September 1944). "The Bavarian Problem in the Weimar Republic: Part II". The Journal of Modern History. 16 (3): 222. doi:10.1086/236826. JSTOR 1871460.
Jump up ^ Claudia Koonz, The Nazi Conscience, p. 22
Jump up ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 238.
Jump up ^ Revoking the Fuehrer's Passport at spiegel.de
Jump up ^ Ian Kershaw. Hitler 1889–1936: Hubris. Penguin Books. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-14-192579-0.
Jump up ^ Christian Zentner, Friedemann Bedürftig (1991). The Encyclopedia of the Third Reich. Macmillan, New York. ISBN 0-02-897502-2
Jump up ^ Bear 2016, p. PT21.
Jump up ^ Toland, John. Adolf Hitler: The Definitive Biography. New York: Anchor Books, 1976 p. 170 ISBN 0-385-42053-6
Jump up ^ Balakian, Peter. The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response. New York, HarperCollins, 2003 p. 407 ISBN 0-06-055870-9
Jump up ^ "Ernst Röhm, Die Geschichte eines Hochverräters, Franz Eher Verlag, Munich 1928.
Jump up ^ Bytwerk, Randall (2000). "Nazi ceremonies for 9 November 1942". German Propaganda Archive. Archived from the original on 5 May 2009. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
Bibliography[edit]
Bear, Ileen (2016). Adolf Hitler: A Biography. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. ISBN 978-93-86019-47-9.
Dornberg, John (1982). Munich 1923: The Story of Hitler's First Grab for Power. New York: Harper & Row.
Gordon, Harold J., Jr. (1972). Hitler and the Beer Hall Putsch. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Gordon, Harold J., Jr. (1976). The Hitler Trial Before the People's Court in Munich. University Publications of America.
Kershaw, Ian (1999) [1998]. Hitler: 1889–1936: Hubris. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-04671-7.
Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler: A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-06757-2.
Large, David Clay (1997). Where Ghosts Walked, Munich's Road to the Third Reich. New York: W.W. Norton.
Shirer, William L. (1960). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. New York: Simon & Schuster. OCLC 824193307.
Shirer, William L. (1961). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. London: Secker and Warburg. OCLC 225383220.
Snyder, Louis Leo (1961). Hitler and Nazism. New York: Franklin Watts.
The full text of The Adolf Hitler Trial before the People's Court in Munich Judgment at Wikisource
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hitlerputsch.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Adolf Hitler's Speech on the 19th Anniversary of the Beer Hall Putsch
Map of Europe at time of Beer Hall Putsch at omniatlas.com
The Feldherrnhalle with the plaque to the four Bavarians killed, now removed
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Ides of March
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the day in the Roman calendar. For events that occurred on 15 March, see 15 March. For the 2011 film directed by George Clooney, see The Ides of March (film). For other uses, see Ides of March (disambiguation).
The Death of Caesar (1798) by Vincenzo Camuccini
The Ides of March (Latin: Idus Martiae, Late Latin: Idus Martii)[1] is a day on the Roman calendar that corresponds to 15 March. It was marked by several religious observances and was notable for the Romans as a deadline for settling debts.[2] In 44 BC, it became notorious as the date of the assassination of Julius Caesar which made the Ides of March a turning point in Roman history.
Contents
[hide]
1 Ides
1.1 Religious observances
2 Assassination of Caesar
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Ides[edit]
The Romans did not number days of a month from the first to the last day. Instead, they counted back from three fixed points of the month: the Nones (5th or 7th, depending on the length of the month), the Ides (13th or 15th), and the Kalends (1st of the following month). The Ides occurred near the midpoint, on the 13th for most months, but on the 15th for March, May, July, and October. The Ides were supposed to be determined by the full moon, reflecting the lunar origin of the Roman calendar. On the earliest calendar, the Ides of March would have been the first full moon of the new year.[3]
Religious observances[edit]
Panel thought to depict the Mamuralia, from a mosaic of the months in which March is positioned at the beginning of the year (first half of the 3rd century AD, from El Djem, Tunisia, in Roman Africa)
The Ides of each month were sacred to Jupiter, the Romans' supreme deity. The Flamen Dialis, Jupiter's high priest, led the "Ides sheep" (ovis Idulius) in procession along the Via Sacra to the arx, where it was sacrificed.[4]
In addition to the monthly sacrifice, the Ides of March was also the occasion of the Feast of Anna Perenna, a goddess of the year (Latin annus) whose festival originally concluded the ceremonies of the new year. The day was enthusiastically celebrated among the common people with picnics, drinking, and revelry.[5] One source from late antiquity also places the Mamuralia on the Ides of March.[6] This observance, which has aspects of scapegoat or ancient Greek pharmakos ritual, involved beating an old man dressed in animal skins and perhaps driving him from the city. The ritual may have been a new year festival representing the expulsion of the old year.[7][8]
In the later Imperial period, the Ides began a "holy week" of festivals celebrating Cybele and Attis,[9][10][11] being the day Canna intrat ("The Reed enters"), when Attis was born and found among the reeds of a Phrygian river.[12] He was discovered by shepherds or the goddess Cybele, who was also known as the Magna Mater ("Great Mother") (narratives differ).[13] A week later, on 22 March, the solemn commemmoration of Arbor intrat ("The Tree enters") commemorated the death of Attis under a pine tree. A college of priests, the dendrophoroi ("tree bearers") annually cut down a tree,[14] hung from it an image of Attis,[15] and carried it to the temple of the Magna Mater with lamentations. The day was formalized as part of the official Roman calendar under Claudius (d. 54 AD).[16] A three-day period of mourning followed,[17] culminating with celebrating the rebirth of Attis on 25 March, the date of the vernal equinox on the Julian calendar.[18]
Assassination of Caesar[edit]
Main article: Assassination of Julius Caesar
Reverse side of a coin issued by Caesar's assassin Brutus in the autumn of 42 BC, with the abbreviation EID MAR (Eidibus Martiis – on the Ides of March) under a "cap of freedom" between two daggers
In modern times, the Ides of March is best known as the date on which Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC. Caesar was stabbed to death at a meeting of the Senate. As many as 60 conspirators, led by Brutus and Cassius, were involved. According to Plutarch,[19] a seer had warned that harm would come to Caesar no later than the Ides of March. On his way to the Theatre of Pompey, where he would be assassinated, Caesar passed the seer and joked, "The Ides of March are come", implying that the prophecy had not been fulfilled, to which the seer replied "Aye, Caesar; but not gone."[19] This meeting is famously dramatised in William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar, when Caesar is warned by the soothsayer to "beware the Ides of March."[20][21] The Roman biographer Suetonius[22] identifies the "seer" as a haruspex named Spurinna.
Caesar's death was a closing event in the crisis of the Roman Republic, and triggered the civil war that would result in the rise to sole power of his adopted heir Octavian (later known as Augustus).[23] Writing under Augustus, Ovid portrays the murder as a sacrilege, since Caesar was also the Pontifex Maximus of Rome and a priest of Vesta.[24] On the fourth anniversary of Caesar's death in 40 BC, after achieving a victory at the siege of Perugia, Octavian executed 300 senators and knights who had fought against him under Lucius Antonius, the brother of Mark Antony.[25] The executions were one of a series of actions taken by Octavian to avenge Caesar's death. Suetonius and the historian Cassius Dio characterised the slaughter as a religious sacrifice,[26][27] noting that it occurred on the Ides of March at the new altar to the deified Julius.
See also[edit]
Julius Caesar, a play by William Shakespeare
The Ides of March, a novel by Thornton Wilder
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Anscombe, Alfred (1908). The Anglo-Saxon Computation of Historic Time in the Ninth Century (PDF). British Numismatic Society. p. 396.
Jump up ^ "Ides of March: What Is It? Why Do We Still Observe It?". 15 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Scullard, H.H. (1981). Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic. Cornell University Press. pp. 42–43.
Jump up ^ Scullard, H.H. Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic. p. 43.
Jump up ^ Scullard, H.H. Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic. p. 90.
Jump up ^ Lydus, John (6th century). De mensibus 4.36. Other sources place it on 14 March.
Jump up ^ Salzman, Michele Renee (1990). On Roman Time: The Codex-Calendar of 354 and the Rhythms of Urban Life in Late Antiquity. University of California Press. pp. 124 & 128–129.
Jump up ^ Fowler, William Warde (1908). The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic. London. pp. 44–50.
Jump up ^ Lancellotti, Maria Grazia (2002). Attis, Between Myth and History: King, Priest, and God. Brill. p. 81.
Jump up ^ Lançon, Bertrand (2001). Rome in Late Antiquity. Routledge. p. 91.
Jump up ^ Borgeaud, Philippe (2004). Mother of the Gods: From Cybele to the Virgin Mary & Hochroth, Lysa (Translator). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 51, 90, 123, 164.
Jump up ^ Gary Forsythe, Time in Roman Religion: One Thousand Years of Religious History (Routledge, 2012), p. 88; Lancellotti, Attis, Between Myth and History, p. 81.
Jump up ^ Michele Renee Salzman, On Roman Time: The Codex Calendar of 354 and the Rhythms of Urban Life in Late Antiquity (University of California Press, 1990), p. 166.
Jump up ^ Jaime Alvar, Romanising Oriental Gods: Myth, Salvation and Ethics in the Cults of Cybele, Isis and Mithras, translated by Richard Gordon (Brill, 2008), pp. 288–289.
Jump up ^ Firmicus Maternus, De errore profanarum religionum, 27.1; Rabun Taylor, "Roman Oscilla: An Assessment", RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics 48 (Autumn 2005), p. 97.
Jump up ^ Lydus, De Mensibus 4.59; Suetonius, Otho 8.3; Forsythe, Time in Roman Religion, p. 88.
Jump up ^ Forsythe, Time in Roman Religion, p. 88.
Jump up ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.21.10; Forsythe, Time in Roman Religion, p. 88; Salzman, On Roman Time, p. 168..
^ Jump up to: a b Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Caesar 63
Jump up ^ "William Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, Act 1, Scene II". The Literature Network. Jalic, Inc. 2010. Retrieved 15 March 2010.
Jump up ^ "William Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, Act 3, Scene I". The Literature Network. Jalic, Inc. 2010. Retrieved 15 March 2010.
Jump up ^ Suetonius, Divus Julius 81.
Jump up ^ "Forum in Rome," Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, p. 215.
Jump up ^ Ovid, Fasti 3.697–710; A.M. Keith, entry on "Ovid," Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, p. 128; Geraldine Herbert-Brown, Ovid and the Fasti: An Historical Study (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), p. 70.
Jump up ^ Melissa Barden Dowling, Clemency and Cruelty in the Roman World (University of Michigan Press, 2006), pp. 50–51; Arthur Keaveney, The Army in the Roman Revolution (Routledge, 2007), p. 15.
Jump up ^ Suetonius, Life of Augustus 15.
Jump up ^ Cassius Dio 48.14.2.
External links[edit]
Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, The Life of Julius Caesar
Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Augustus (translated by Clayton M. Hall)
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Caesar (1937)
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text:
Mean center of the United States population
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Map showing changes to the mean center of population for the United States, 1790–2010 (US Census Bureau)[1]
The center of the US population, 13th census, near Bloomington, Indiana
The center of the US population, 13th census (1910), near Bloomington, Indiana
Map all coordinates using: OpenStreetMap · Google Maps
Download coordinates as: KML · GPX
The mean center of the United States population is determined by the United States Census Bureau from the results of each national census. The Bureau defines it as follows:
The concept of the center of population as used by the U.S. Census Bureau is that of a balance point. The center of population is the point at which an imaginary, weightless, rigid, and flat (no elevation effects) surface representation of the 50 states (or 48 conterminous states for calculations made prior to 1960) and the District of Columbia would balance if weights of identical size were placed on it so that each weight represented the location on one person. More specifically, this calculation is called the mean center of population.[2]
After moving roughly 600 mi (966 km) west by south during the 19th century, the shift in the mean center of population during the 20th century was less pronounced, moving 324 mi (521 km) west and 101 mi (163 km) south. Nearly 79% of the overall southerly movement happened between 1950 and 2000.
Location information since 1790[edit]
US Census
County
Location description[2]
Decimal coordinates[2]
1790 Kent County, Maryland[a] 23 miles east of Baltimore 39°16′30″N 76°11′12″W / 39.27500°N 76.18667°W / 39.27500; -76.18667
1800 Howard County, Maryland 18 miles west of Baltimore 39°16′06″N 76°56′30″W / 39.26833°N 76.94167°W / 39.26833; -76.94167
1810 Loudoun County, Virginia 40 miles northwest by west of Washington, D.C. 39°11′30″N 77°37′12″W / 39.19167°N 77.62000°W / 39.19167; -77.62000
1820 Hardy County, West Virginia[b] 16 miles east of Moorefield 39°05′42″N 78°33′00″W / 39.09500°N 78.55000°W / 39.09500; -78.55000
1830 Grant County, West Virginia[b] 19 miles west-southwest of Moorefield 38°57′54″N 79°16′54″W / 38.96500°N 79.28167°W / 38.96500; -79.28167
1840 Upshur County, West Virginia[b] 16 miles south of Clarksburg 39°02′00″N 80°18′00″W / 39.03333°N 80.30000°W / 39.03333; -80.30000
1850 Wirt County, West Virginia[b] 23 miles southeast of Parkersburg 38°59′00″N 81°19′00″W / 38.98333°N 81.31667°W / 38.98333; -81.31667
1860 Pike County, Ohio 20 miles south by east of Chillicothe 39°00′24″N 82°48′48″W / 39.00667°N 82.81333°W / 39.00667; -82.81333
1870 Highland County, Ohio 48 miles east by north of Cincinnati 39°12′00″N 83°35′42″W / 39.20000°N 83.59500°W / 39.20000; -83.59500
1880 Boone County, Kentucky 8 miles west by south of Cincinnati 39°04′08″N 84°39′40″W / 39.06889°N 84.66111°W / 39.06889; -84.66111
1890 Decatur County, Indiana 20 miles east of Columbus 39°11′56″N 85°32′53″W / 39.19889°N 85.54806°W / 39.19889; -85.54806
1900 Bartholomew County, Indiana 6 miles southeast of Columbus 39°09′36″N 85°48′54″W / 39.16000°N 85.81500°W / 39.16000; -85.81500
1910 Monroe County, Indiana in the city of Bloomington 39°10′12″N 86°32′20″W / 39.17000°N 86.53889°W / 39.17000; -86.53889
1920 Owen County, Indiana 8 miles south-southeast of Spencer 39°10′21″N 86°43′15″W / 39.17250°N 86.72083°W / 39.17250; -86.72083
1930 Greene County, Indiana 3 miles northeast of Linton 39°03′45″N 87°08′06″W / 39.06250°N 87.13500°W / 39.06250; -87.13500
1940 Sullivan County, Indiana 2 miles southeast by east of Carlisle 38°56′54″N 87°22′35″W / 38.94833°N 87.37639°W / 38.94833; -87.37639
1950 Richland County, Illinois[c]
Clay County, Illinois[d] 8 miles north-northwest of Olney
3 miles northeast of Louisville 38°50′21″N 88°09′33″W / 38.83917°N 88.15917°W / 38.83917; -88.15917
38°48′15″N 88°22′08″W / 38.80417°N 88.36889°W / 38.80417; -88.36889
1960 Clinton County, Illinois[e] 6.5 miles northwest of Centralia 38°35′58″N 89°12′35″W / 38.59944°N 89.20972°W / 38.59944; -89.20972
1970 St. Clair County, Illinois 5 miles east-southeast of Mascoutah 38°27′47″N 89°42′22″W / 38.46306°N 89.70611°W / 38.46306; -89.70611
1980 Jefferson County, Missouri 0.3 mile west of DeSoto 38°08′13″N 90°34′26″W / 38.13694°N 90.57389°W / 38.13694; -90.57389
1990 Crawford County, Missouri 9.7 miles southeast of Steelville 37°52′20″N 91°12′55″W / 37.87222°N 91.21528°W / 37.87222; -91.21528
2000 Phelps County, Missouri 2.8 miles east of Edgar Springs 37°41′49″N 91°48′34″W / 37.696987°N 91.809567°W / 37.696987; -91.809567[3]
2010 Texas County, Missouri 2.7 miles northeast of Plato 37°31′03″N 92°10′23″W / 37.517534°N 92.173096°W / 37.517534; -92.173096[4]
2017 (estimated) Wright County, Missouri 11.3 miles southwest of Plato 37°24′42″N 92°23′40″W / 37.411764°N 92.394544°W / 37.411764; -92.394544[5]
2020 (projected) Wright County, Missouri 8.5 miles north-northeast of Hartville 37°22′18″N 92°28′43″W / 37.371644°N 92.478542°W / 37.371644; -92.478542[5]
Jump up ^ In the first census (1790), the mean population center was about 7.4 miles northwest by west of Chestertown, Maryland.[3]
^ Jump up to: a b c d The mean population centers of 1820, 1830, 1840 and 1850 were in Virginia at the time of their censuses, before West Virginia's split from Virginia in 1863.[3]
Jump up ^ Computation method used until 1950.
Jump up ^ Current computation method.
Jump up ^ The addition of Alaska and Hawaii to the union in 1959 contributed to moving the mean center of population about 2 miles (3.2 km) farther south and about 10 miles (16 km) farther west in the 1960 census.[2]
The 19.6-mile (31.5 km) shift projected for the 2010–2020 period would be the shortest centroid movement since the Great Depression intercensal period of 1930–1940.[5]
See also[edit]
Center of population
Median center of United States population
Geographic center of the United States
Geographic center of the contiguous United States
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Mean Center of Population for the United States: 1790 to 2010 from the U.S. Census Bureau website.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Centers of population computation, a U.S. Census Bureau publication, issued March 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c 2000 U.S. Population Centered in Phelps County, Mo., a U.S. Census Bureau press release.
Jump up ^ Centers of Population for the 2010 Census, U.S. Census Bureau.
^ Jump up to: a b c Alex Zakrewsky, Principal Planner/Data Manager, Middlesex County New Jersey Office of Planning.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mean_center_of_the_United_States_population&oldid=835766294"
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Girl, Interrupted
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the book. For the movie, see Girl, Interrupted (film).
Girl, Interrupted
Girl, Interrupted paperback cover
Author
Susanna Kaysen
Country
United States
Language
English
Genre
Memoir
Publisher
Turtle Bay Books
Publication date
1993
Media type
Print (hardcover & paperback)
Pages
168 pp
ISBN
0-679-42366-4
OCLC
28155618
Dewey Decimal
616.89/0092 B 20
LC Class
RC464.K36 A3 1993
Girl, Interrupted is a best-selling[1] 1993 memoir by American author Susanna Kaysen, relating her experiences as a young woman in a psychiatric hospital in the 1960s after being diagnosed with borderline personality disorder. The memoir's title is a reference to the Vermeer painting Girl Interrupted at Her Music.[2]
While writing the novel Far Afield, Kaysen began to recall her almost two years at McLean Hospital.[3] She obtained her file from the hospital with the help of a lawyer.[4]
In 1999, the memoir was adapted into a film of the same name starring Winona Ryder, Angelina Jolie and Brittany Murphy. It was directed by James Mangold.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
1.1 Structure
2 Characters
2.1 Patients
2.2 Staff
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Plot[edit]
In April 1967, 18-year-old Susanna Kaysen is admitted to McLean Hospital, in Belmont, Massachusetts, after attempting suicide by overdosing on pills. She denies that it was a suicide attempt to a psychiatrist, who suggests she take time to regroup in McLean, a private mental hospital. Susanna is diagnosed with borderline personality disorder, and her stay extends to 18 months[5] rather than the proposed couple of weeks.
Fellow patients Polly, Cynthia, Lisa Rowe, Lisa Cody, Georgina, and Daisy contribute to Susanna’s experiences at McLean as she describes their personal issues and how they come to cope with the time they must spend in the hospital. Susanna also introduces the reader to particular staff members, including Valerie, Dr. Wick and Mrs. McWeeney. Susanna and the other girls are eventually informed that the recently released Daisy committed suicide on her birthday. Daisy's death deeply saddens the girls and they hold a prolonged moment of silence in her memory.
Susanna reflects on the nature of her illness, including difficulty making sense of visual patterns, and suggests that sanity is a falsehood constructed to help the "healthy" feel "normal" in comparison. She also questions how doctors treat mental illness, and whether they are treating the brain or the mind. During her stay in the ward, Susanna also undergoes a period of depersonalization, where she bites open the flesh on her hand after she becomes terrified that she has "lost her bones." She develops a frantic obsession with the verification of this proposed reality and even insists on seeing an X-ray of herself to make sure. This hectic moment is described with shorter, choppy sentences that show Kaysen's state of mind and thought processes as she went through them. Also, during a trip to the dentist with Valerie, Susanna becomes frantic after she wakes from the general anesthesia, when no one will tell her how long she was unconscious, and she fears that she has lost time. Like the incident with her bones, Kaysen here also rapidly spirals into a panicky and obsessive state that is only ultimately calmed with medication.
After leaving McLean, Susanna mentions that she kept in touch with Georgina and eventually saw Lisa, now a single mother who was about to board the subway with her toddler son and seemed, although quirky, to be sane.
Structure[edit]
Girl, Interrupted does not follow a linear storyline, but instead the author provides personal stories through a series of short descriptions of events and personal reflections on why she was placed in the hospital. She begins by talking about the concept of a parallel universe and how easy it is to slip into one, comparing insanity to an alternate world. She discusses how some people fall into insanity gradually and others just snap. Kaysen also details the doctor's visit before first going to the hospital and the taxi ride there at the beginning of the book before launching into the chronicles of her time at the hospital.
Characters[edit]
There are two main groups of characters, the patients and the staff. In addition to those there are her parents, her boyfriend and various other minor characters such as her former boss.
Patients[edit]
Susanna Kaysen
The autobiographical main character, Susanna Kaysen is admitted to a psychiatric ward to be treated for borderline personality disorder following a suicide attempt. She voluntarily admits herself after a short consultation with a psychiatrist who is also an acquaintance of the family. She is told that she will only be staying there for a few weeks, but it turns out to be one and a half years instead. Throughout the book, she frequently contrasts the time of the consultation, twenty minutes, to the time she ended up spending there.
Lisa Rowe
Lisa is diagnosed as a sociopath, but whether she actually is one is left open to interpretation. Lisa periodically escapes from the hospital, only to be found a day or two later and re-admitted. She is usually happy enough to be back though she does put up a fight when restrained. She is an ex-junkie who never sleeps and barely eats, and enjoys making trouble for the staff. She apparently takes some pride in her diagnosis. Although she has a therapist assigned to her, she never actually sees him. Lisa is not in contact with her family except her brother, but the extent of their contact is not described. She also has a lawyer, though it appears he is mostly used to threaten the staff if she doesn't get what she wants. Her behavior is wildly unpredictable, and while she can be kind, she is also capable of cruelty towards the other patients. For example, Lisa has an ongoing rivalry with Lisa Cody that ends in Lisa Cody reverting to drugs.
Polly Clark
Polly is a disfigured patient who was hospitalised for schizophrenia and depression. Polly has severe scarring on her body, the result of setting herself on fire. According to Kaysen, because of the sheer guts it took to actually do it, Polly is highly respected for her courage, to the extent that none of the patients will ask why she did it. During her first year at the hospital, she appears calm and even cheerful: "Life was hellish, she knew that. But, her smile hinted, she’d burned all that out of her."[6] But one day she suddenly breaks down and begins to scream inconsolably, as if realizing for the first time her appearance and the permanency of it. Kaysen then realizes that while the other patients might be released from the hospital, Polly is trapped forever in her scarred body.
Georgina Tuskin
Hospitalized for schizophrenia,[6] Georgina is Susanna's roommate at the institution. The two of them are considered the healthiest patients on the ward and are good friends throughout the book. Georgina apparently experienced her first symptoms after an episode in a movie theatre where she suddenly felt as if the darkness had surrounded her completely. It is not clear what the immediate reason for her diagnosis is. She also has a boyfriend in the hospital named Wade. In the movie, Georgina identifies herself as a pathological liar.
Lisa Cody
Lisa is admitted to the ward after Susanna, and from her first days there she looks up to Lisa Rowe. She, too, is diagnosed as a sociopath, though Rowe questions this and is clearly annoyed that she is no longer the only sociopath there. A former drug addict like Rowe, she tries hard to defend herself from Lisa Rowe's accusations that she isn't "real". She eventually escapes and is apparently found by Lisa Rowe during one of her escapes from the hospital. Lisa tells the other girls with pride that Lisa Cody has become a "real" drug addict. Her fate after her escape is not described any further.
Daisy Randone
Daisy is thin girl who arrives before Thanksgiving each year, staying through Christmas. She has a single room, where she spends most of her time. The other girls think she is addicted to laxatives and will only eat chicken, and only in her room. However, after letting Lisa into her room, Lisa reports back to the rest of them that she only needs the laxatives because of all of the chicken. She peels off the meat and keeps the carcasses, saying that when she has 14 carcasses, it's time to leave the hospital, possibly due to obsessive compulsive disorder. Daisy's father visits her quite often, and it is implied he has incestuous feelings for her. Daisy eventually commits suicide on her birthday. Susanna describes her as "sexy" and says Daisy had a spark that the rest of the girls lack. Daisy is reclusive and often refuses to be social. She hates it when anyone goes near her and is hostile when people approach her. However, she does allow Lisa to enter her room. Sometimes they even share cigarettes, indicating that Daisy does respect Lisa out of all the other patients on the ward.
Torrey
Tossey is a former drug addict. She was put into the ward after her parents discovered her promiscuity. She is the best friend of all the fellow patients. Her parents take her out against her will, and take her back to Mexico, where she believes she will become an amphetamine addict again. She describes Mexico, saying "being in Mexico means being dead and shooting speed to feel like you're not quite dead" (Kaysen 97). The girls do try to help her with an escape plan and pool their money for her to help her, but eventually that plan is ruined, partly by Torrey herself as she is too afraid to do it and partly by Valerie after she gives her a cup of thorazine just prior to her departure to calm her down. Though she only appears for a short time she is an important character. Kaysen distinguishes between those put there indefinitely by parents willing to pay without questioning the progress of their treatment and those whose parents are not willing to do so. Torrey is used as an example of the latter group.
Alice Calais
At first Alice seems quiet and, in Kaysen's words, "not too crazy"; but after about a month she breaks down and is taken to maximum security. When the girls go to visit her they find that she has painted herself and the walls in her seclusion room with her own feces. Most of the other patients believe she was "raised in a closet" because she is ignorant about the trivial things in life. For example, she has never tasted honey and doesn't know how it tastes. She is also completely unaware that her last name is a well-known location in France and is overwhelmed in awe when she hears of the Hundred Years' War. It is not explained what happens to her after the girls visit her.
Wade
Wade, Georgina's boyfriend, is also a patient. Wade entertains the female patients with stories about his father, who he claims to be a CIA agent. He is prone to violent outbursts, which eventually results in his being moved to the maximum-security ward.
Cynthia Crowley
a severely depressive patient, who undergoes weekly electro-convulsive therapy.[6] There are only a few references to her in the book and she isn't a major character in it.
Staff[edit]
Valerie
The head nurse on the ward. She works there during the day and though she can be strict she is generally liked by the patients and Kaysen in particular. She is described as down to earth and rarely uses the psychiatric terms used by the therapists, which is something that Susanna herself despises. Kaysen recalls her as honest and direct.
Mrs. McWeeney
The evening nurse on the ward. Described as the exact opposite of Valerie and very much disliked by the patients. Kaysen recalls her as "clearly nuts." Valerie does not like her and tends to ignore her, although she does describe her as a professional when the patients complain to her. Although the patients don't like her, they recognize that she needs to earn a living and that she has to work somewhere for that to happen.
Dr. Wick
The consultant psychiatrist. She is described as very old-fashioned and easy to embarrass. Susanna purposely tries to embarrass her, deliberately saying things that she knows Dr. Wick will react to, during their sessions together. She has previously worked in Africa and her direct contact with the patients is very limited, talking to them for only a matter of minutes in a session.
Melvin
Kaysen's late therapist and analyst. Susanna says that the two of them used to be good friends and that she once enjoyed sessions with him. According to her, he was old, balding, and slightly unattractive. Susanna would go into his office sometimes and just sit there in silence because there wasn't very much silence in the hospital and she needed a break. However, this relationship was short-lived; Melvin rolled into the hospital parking lot, and, when greeted enthusiastically by Susanna, refused to entertain her. Her opinion of him spiraled downward from that point.
See also[edit]
Mental illness in fiction
Orange Is the New Black: My Year in a Women's Prison (2010)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ The Unconfessional Confessionalist, Time Magazine, July 11, 1994
Jump up ^ Girl, Interrupted, Variety, December 10, 1999
Jump up ^ A teenager's interrupted life, Knight Ridder Newspapers, December 1, 1993
Jump up ^ "Girl, Interrupted (Reel Life)". Clinical Psychiatry News. August 1, 2003. Archived from the original on February 18, 2008.
Jump up ^ Susanna Kaysen finds stability in examining youthful 'insanity', Knight-Ridder Newspapers, August 4, 1993
^ Jump up to: a b c Susana Kaysen, Girl, Interrupted (Virago Press, 2000 ed.)
External links[edit]
Girl, Interrupted on SparkNotes
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Girl,_Interrupted&oldid=830245097"
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