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HTML5
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HTML5
(HyperText Markup Language)
Filename extension
.html
Internet media type
text/html
Type code
TEXT
Uniform Type Identifier (UTI)
public.html[1]
Initial release
28 October 2014
(3 years ago) (2014-10-28)[2]
Extended to
XHTML5 (XML-serialized HTML5)
Standard
HTML Specification
Open format?
Yes
XHTML5
(XHTML Syntax of HTML5)
Filename extension
.xhtml, .html
Internet media type
application/xml, application/xhtml+xml
Developed by
World Wide Web Consortium and WHATWG
Type of format
Markup language
Extended from
XML, HTML5
Standard
HTML Specification: XHTML Syntax
Open format?
Yes
HTML
HTML
Dynamic HTML
HTML5
audio
canvas
video
XHTML
Basic
Mobile Profile
C-HTML
HTML element
span and div
HTML attribute
HTML frame
HTML editor
Character encodings
Unicode
Language code
Document Object Model
Browser Object Model
Style sheets
CSS
Font family
Web colors
HTML scripting
JavaScript
WebGL
WebCL
W3C
Validator
WHATWG
Quirks mode
Web storage
Rendering engine
Comparisons
Document markup languages
HTML support
XHTML
1.1
v
t
e
HTML5[a] is a markup language used for structuring and presenting content on the World Wide Web. It is the fifth and current major version of the HTML standard.
It was published in October 2014 by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)[2][4] to improve the language with support for the latest multimedia, while keeping it both easily readable by humans and consistently understood by computers and devices such as web browsers, parsers, etc. HTML5 is intended to subsume not only HTML 4, but also XHTML 1 and DOM Level 2 HTML.[5]
HTML5 includes detailed processing models to encourage more interoperable implementations; it extends, improves and rationalizes the markup available for documents, and introduces markup and application programming interfaces (APIs) for complex web applications.[6] For the same reasons, HTML5 is also a candidate for cross-platform mobile applications, because it includes features designed with low-powered devices in mind.
Many new syntactic features are included. To natively include and handle multimedia and graphical content, the new <video>, <audio> and <canvas> elements were added, and support for scalable vector graphics (SVG) content and MathML for mathematical formulas. To enrich the semantic content of documents, new page structure elements such as <main>, <section>, <article>, <header>, <footer>, <aside>, <nav> and <figure>, are added. New attributes are introduced, some elements and attributes have been removed, and others such as <a>, <cite> and <menu> have been changed, redefined or standardized.
The APIs and Document Object Model (DOM) are now fundamental parts of the HTML5 specification[6] and HTML5 also better defines the processing for any invalid documents.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 "Thoughts on Flash"
1.2 Last call, candidacy, and recommendation stages
1.3 Timeline
2 Features and APIs
3 Features
3.1 Markup
3.2 New APIs
3.3 XHTML5 (XML-serialized HTML5)
3.4 Error handling
3.5 Popularity
3.6 Differences from HTML 4.01 and XHTML 1.x
4 Logo
5 Digital rights management
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
The Web Hypertext Application Technology Working Group (WHATWG) began work on the new standard in 2004. At that time, HTML 4.01 had not been updated since 2000,[8] and the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) was focusing future developments on XHTML 2.0. In 2009, the W3C allowed the XHTML 2.0 Working Group's charter to expire and decided not to renew it.[9] W3C and WHATWG are currently working together on the development of HTML5.[9]
The Mozilla Foundation and Opera Software presented a position paper at a World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) workshop in June 2004,[10] focusing on developing technologies that are backward compatible with existing browsers,[11] including an initial draft specification of Web Forms 2.0. The workshop concluded with a vote—8 for, 14 against—for continuing work on HTML.[12] Immediately after the workshop, WHATWG was formed to start work based upon that position paper, and a second draft, Web Applications 1.0, was also announced.[13] The two specifications were later merged to form HTML5.[14] The HTML5 specification was adopted as the starting point of the work of the new HTML working group of the W3C in 2007.
WHATWG published the First Public Working Draft of the specification on 22 January 2008.[15]
"Thoughts on Flash"[edit]
While some features of HTML5 are often compared to Adobe Flash, the two technologies are very different. Both include features for playing audio and video within web pages, and for using Scalable Vector Graphics. However, HTML5 on its own cannot be used for animation or interactivity – it must be supplemented with CSS3 or JavaScript. There are many Flash capabilities that have no direct counterpart in HTML5 (see Comparison of HTML5 and Flash). HTML5's interactive capabilities became a topic of mainstream media attention around April 2010[16][17][18][19] after Apple Inc.'s then-CEO Steve Jobs issued a public letter titled "Thoughts on Flash" in which he concluded that "Flash is no longer necessary to watch video or consume any kind of web content" and that "new open standards created in the mobile era, such as HTML5, will win".[20] This sparked a debate in web development circles suggesting that, while HTML5 provides enhanced functionality, developers must consider the varying browser support of the different parts of the standard as well as other functionality differences between HTML5 and Flash.[21] In early November 2011, Adobe announced that it would discontinue development of Flash for mobile devices and reorient its efforts in developing tools using HTML5.[22] On July 25, 2017, Adobe announced that both the distribution and support of Flash will cease by the end of 2020.[23]
Last call, candidacy, and recommendation stages[edit]
On 14 February 2011, the W3C extended the charter of its HTML Working Group with clear milestones for HTML5. In May 2011, the working group advanced HTML5 to "Last Call", an invitation to communities inside and outside W3C to confirm the technical soundness of the specification. The W3C developed a comprehensive test suite to achieve broad interoperability for the full specification by 2014, which was the target date for recommendation.[24] In January 2011, the WHATWG renamed its "HTML5" living standard to "HTML". The W3C nevertheless continued its project to release HTML5.[25]
In July 2012, WHATWG and W3C decided on a degree of separation. W3C will continue the HTML5 specification work, focusing on a single definitive standard, which is considered as a "snapshot" by WHATWG. The WHATWG organization will continue its work with HTML5 as a "Living Standard". The concept of a living standard is that it is never complete and is always being updated and improved. New features can be added but functionality will not be removed.[26]
In December 2012, W3C designated HTML5 as a Candidate Recommendation.[27] The criterion for advancement to W3C Recommendation is "two 100% complete and fully interoperable implementations".[28]
On 16 September 2014, W3C moved HTML5 to Proposed Recommendation.[29]
On 28 October 2014, HTML5 was released as a W3C Recommendation,[30] bringing the specification process to completion.[2]
On 1 November 2016, HTML 5.1 was released as a W3C Recommendation.[31].
On 14 December 2017, HTML 5.2 was released as a W3C Recommendation.[32].
Timeline[edit]
The combined timelines for HTML 5.0, HTML 5.1 and HTML 5.2:
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
HTML 5.0 Candidate Rec Call for Review Recommendation
HTML 5.1 1st Working Draft Last Call Candidate Recommendation Recommendation
HTML 5.2[33] 1st Working Draft Candidate Recommendation Recommendation
HTML 5.3[34] Editor’s Draft
Features and APIs[edit]
The W3C proposed a greater reliance on modularity as a key part of the plan to make faster progress, meaning identifying specific features, either proposed or already existing in the spec, and advancing them as separate specifications. Some technologies that were originally defined in HTML5 itself are now defined in separate specifications:
HTML Working Group – HTML Canvas 2D Context;
Web Apps Working Group – Web Messaging, Web workers, Web storage, WebSocket, Server-sent events, Web Components[35] (this was not part of HTML5 though); Note that the Web Applications Working Group was closed in October 2015 and its deliverables transferred to the Web Platform Working Group (WPWG).
IETF HyBi Working Group – WebSocket Protocol;
WebRTC Working Group – WebRTC;
Web Media Text Tracks Community Group – WebVTT.
After the standardization of the HTML5 specification in October 2014,[36] the core vocabulary and features are being extended in four ways.[37] Likewise, some features that were removed from the original HTML5 specification have been standardized separately as modules, such as Microdata and Canvas. Technical specifications introduced as HTML5 extensions such as Polyglot Markup have also been standardized as modules. Some W3C specifications that were originally separate specifications have been adapted as HTML5 extensions or features, such as SVG. Some features that might have slowed down the standardization of HTML5 will be standardized as upcoming specifications, instead. HTML 5.1 is expected to be finalized in 2016, and it is currently on the standardization track at the W3C.
Features[edit]
Markup[edit]
HTML5 introduces elements and attributes that reflect typical usage on modern websites. Some of them are semantic replacements for common uses of generic block (<div>) and inline (<span>) elements, for example <nav> (website navigation block), <footer> (usually referring to bottom of web page or to last lines of HTML code), or <audio> and <video> instead of <object>.[38][39][40] Some deprecated elements from HTML 4.01 have been dropped, including purely presentational elements such as <font> and <center>, whose effects have long been superseded by the more capable Cascading Style Sheets.[41] There is also a renewed emphasis on the importance of DOM scripting (e.g., JavaScript) in Web behavior.
The HTML5 syntax is no longer based on SGML[42][43] despite the similarity of its markup. It has, however, been designed to be backward compatible with common parsing of older versions of HTML. It comes with a new introductory line that looks like an SGML document type declaration, <!DOCTYPE html>, which triggers the standards-compliant rendering mode.[44] Since 5 January 2009, HTML5 also includes Web Forms 2.0, a previously separate WHATWG specification.[45][46]
New APIs[edit]
HTML5 related APIs[47]
In addition to specifying markup, HTML5 specifies scripting application programming interfaces (APIs) that can be used with JavaScript.[48] Existing Document Object Model (DOM) interfaces are extended and de facto features documented. There are also new APIs, such as:
Canvas;[49]
Timed Media Playback;[50]
Offline;[51]
Editable content;[52]
Drag and drop;[53]
History;[54]
MIME type and protocol handler registration;[55][56]
Microdata;[57]
Web Messaging;[58]
Web Storage – a key-value pair storage framework that provides behaviour similar to cookies but with larger storage capacity and improved API.[59]
Not all of the above technologies are included in the W3C HTML5 specification, though they are in the WHATWG HTML specification.[60] Some related technologies, which are not part of either the W3C HTML5 or the WHATWG HTML specification, are as follows. The W3C publishes specifications for these separately:
Geolocation;
IndexedDB – an indexed hierarchical key-value store (formerly WebSimpleDB);[61]
File[62] – an API intended to handle file uploads and file manipulation;[63]
Directories and System – an API intended to satisfy client-side-storage use cases not well served by databases;[64]
File Writer – an API for writing to files from web applications;[65]
Web Audio[66] – a high-level JavaScript API for processing and synthesizing audio in web applications;
ClassList.[67]
Web cryptography API[68]
WebRTC[69]
Web SQL Database – a local SQL Database (no longer maintained);[70]
HTML5 cannot provide animation within web pages. Additional JavaScript or CSS3 is necessary for animating HTML elements. Animation is also possible using JavaScript and HTML 4[71][not in citation given], and within SVG elements through SMIL, although browser support of the latter remains uneven as of 2011.
XHTML5 (XML-serialized HTML5)[edit]
XML documents must be served with an XML Internet media type (often called "MIME type") such as application/xhtml+xml or application/xml,[48] and must conform to strict, well-formed syntax of XML. XHTML5 is simply XML-serialized HTML5 data (e.g. not having any unclosed tags), sent with one of XML media types. HTML that has been written to conform to both the HTML and XHTML specifications and which will therefore produce the same DOM tree whether parsed as HTML or XML is known as Polyglot markup[72]
Error handling[edit]
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HTML5 is designed so that old browsers can safely ignore new HTML5 constructs.[6] In contrast to HTML 4.01, the HTML5 specification gives detailed rules for lexing and parsing, with the intent that compliant browsers will produce the same results when parsing incorrect syntax.[73] Although HTML5 now defines a consistent behavior for "tag soup" documents, those documents are not regarded as conforming to the HTML5 standard.[73]
Popularity[edit]
According to a report released on 30 September 2011, 34 of the world's top 100 Web sites were using HTML5 – the adoption led by search engines and social networks.[74] Another report released in August 2013 has shown that 153 of the Fortune 500 U.S. companies implemented HTML5 on their corporate websites.[75]
Since 2014, HTML5 is at least partially supported by most popular layout engines.
Differences from HTML 4.01 and XHTML 1.x[edit]
The following is a cursory list of differences and some specific examples.
New parsing rules: oriented towards flexible parsing and compatibility; not based on SGML
Ability to use inline SVG and MathML in text/html
New elements: article, aside, audio, bdi, canvas, command, data, datalist, details, embed, figcaption, figure, footer, header, keygen, mark, meter, nav, output, progress, rp, rt, ruby, section, source, summary, time, track, video, wbr
New types of form controls: dates and times, email, url, search, number, range, tel, color[76]
New attributes: charset (on meta), async (on script)
Global attributes (that can be applied for every element): id, tabindex, hidden, data-* (custom data attributes)
Deprecated elements will be dropped altogether: acronym, applet, basefont, big, center, dir, font, frame, frameset, isindex, noframes, strike, tt
W3C Working Group provides "HTML5 differences from HTML 4",[77] which provides a complete outline of additions, removals and changes between HTML5 and HTML 4.
Logo[edit]
The W3C HTML5 logo
On 18 January 2011, the W3C introduced a logo to represent the use of or interest in HTML5. Unlike other badges previously issued by the W3C, it does not imply validity or conformance to a certain standard. As of 1 April 2011, this logo is official.[78]
When initially presenting it to the public, the W3C announced the HTML5 logo as a "general-purpose visual identity for a broad set of open web technologies, including HTML5, CSS, SVG, WOFF, and others".[79] Some web standard advocates, including The Web Standards Project, criticized that definition of "HTML5" as an umbrella term, pointing out the blurring of terminology and the potential for miscommunication.[79] Three days later, the W3C responded to community feedback and changed the logo's definition, dropping the enumeration of related technologies.[80] The W3C then said the logo "represents HTML5, the cornerstone for modern Web applications".[78]
Digital rights management[edit]
Industry players including the BBC, Google, Microsoft, Apple.Inc have been lobbying for the inclusion of Encrypted Media Extensions (EME),[81][82][83][84][85] a form of digital rights management (DRM), into the HTML5 standard. As of the end of 2012 and the beginning of 2013, 27 organisations[86] including the Free Software Foundation[87] have started a campaign against including digital rights management in the HTML5 standard.[88][89] However, in late September 2013, the W3C HTML Working Group decided that Encrypted Media Extensions, a form of DRM, was "in scope" and will potentially be included in the HTML 5.1 standard.[90][91] WHATWG's "HTML Living Standard" continued to be developed without DRM-enabled proposals.[91]
Manu Sporny, a member of the W3C, said that EME will not solve the problem it's supposed to address.[92] Opponents point out that EME itself is just an architecture for a DRM plug-in mechanism.[93]
The initial enablers for DRM in HTML5 were Google[94] and Microsoft.[95] Supporters also include Adobe.[96] On 14 May 2014, Mozilla announced plans to support EME in Firefox, the last major browser to avoid DRM.[97][98] Calling it "a difficult and uncomfortable step", Andreas Gal of Mozilla explained that future versions of Firefox would remain open source but ship with a sandbox designed to run a content decryption module developed by Adobe.[97] While promising to "work on alternative solutions", Mozilla's Executive Chair Mitchell Baker stated that a refusal to implement EME would have accomplished little more than convincing many users to switch browsers.[98] This decision was condemned by Cory Doctorow and the Free Software Foundation.[99][100]
See also[edit]
Computer science portal
Internet portal
Cache manifest in HTML5
Comparison of layout engines (HTML5)
HTML5 in mobile devices
Polyglot HTML5
Ian Hickson, Google maineditor of HTML5 specs
David Hyatt, Apple editor of HTML5 specs
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ In the W3C recommendation, there is no space between "HTML" and "5" in the name.[3]
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to HTML5.
Latest version of HTML
HTML Media Extensions Working Group
HTML.next, Feature requests for future versions of HTML
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text:
Foreign exchange option
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Foreign exchange
Exchange rates
Currency band
Exchange rate
Exchange-rate regime
Exchange-rate flexibility
Dollarization
Fixed exchange rate
Floating exchange rate
Linked exchange rate
Managed float regime
Dual exchange rate
Markets
Foreign exchange market
Futures exchange
Retail foreign exchange trading
Assets
Currency
Currency future
Currency forward
Non-deliverable forward
Foreign exchange swap
Currency swap
Foreign exchange option
Historical agreements
Bretton Woods Conference
Smithsonian Agreement
Plaza Accord
Louvre Accord
See also
Bureau de change
Hard currency
Currency pair
Foreign exchange fraud
Currency intervention
v
t
e
In finance, a foreign exchange option (commonly shortened to just FX option or currency option) is a derivative financial instrument that gives the right but not the obligation to exchange money denominated in one currency into another currency at a pre-agreed exchange rate on a specified date.[1] See Foreign exchange derivative.
The foreign exchange options market is the deepest, largest and most liquid market for options of any kind. Most trading is over the counter (OTC) and is lightly regulated, but a fraction is traded on exchanges like the International Securities Exchange, Philadelphia Stock Exchange, or the Chicago Mercantile Exchange for options on futures contracts. The global market for exchange-traded currency options was notionally valued by the Bank for International Settlements at $158.3 trillion in 2005.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 Example
2 Terms
3 Trading
4 Hedging
5 Valuation: the Garman–Kohlhagen model
6 Risk management
7 References
Example[edit]
For example, a GBPUSD contract could give the owner the right to sell £1,000,000 and buy $2,000,000 on December 31. In this case the pre-agreed exchange rate, or strike price, is 2.0000 USD per GBP (or GBP/USD 2.00 as it is typically quoted) and the notional amounts (notionals) are £1,000,000 and $2,000,000.
This type of contract is both a call on dollars and a put on sterling, and is typically called a GBPUSD put, as it is a put on the exchange rate; although it could equally be called a USDGBP call.
If the rate is lower than 2.0000 on December 31 (say 1.9000), meaning that the dollar is stronger and the pound is weaker, then the option is exercised, allowing the owner to sell GBP at 2.0000 and immediately buy it back in the spot market at 1.9000, making a profit of (2.0000 GBPUSD − 1.9000 GBPUSD) × 1,000,000 GBP = 100,000 USD in the process. If instead they take the profit in GBP (by selling the USD on the spot market) this amounts to 100,000 / 1.9000 = 52,632 GBP.
Terms[edit]
Call option – the right to buy an asset at a fixed date and price.
Put option – the right to sell an asset at a fixed date and price.
Foreign exchange option – the right to sell money in one currency and buy money in another currency at a fixed date and rate.
Strike price – the asset price at which the investor can exercise an option.
Spot price – the price of the asset at the time of the trade.
Forward price – the price of the asset for delivery at a future time.
Notional – the amount of each currency that the option allows the investor to sell or buy.
Ratio of notionals – the strike, not the current spot or forward.
Numéraire – the currency in which an asset is valued.
Non-linear payoff – the payoff for a straightforward FX option is linear in the underlying currency, denominating the payout in a given numéraire.
Change of numéraire – the implied volatility of an FX option depends on the numéraire of the purchaser, again because of the non-linearity of x ↦ 1 / x {\displaystyle x\mapsto 1/x} .
In the money – for a put option, this is when the current price is less than the strike price, and would thus generate a profit were it exercised; for a call option the situation is inverted.
Trading[edit]
The difference between FX options and traditional options is that in the latter case the trade is to give an amount of money and receive the right to buy or sell a commodity, stock or other non-money asset. In FX options, the asset in question is also money, denominated in another currency.[2]
For example, a call option on oil allows the investor to buy oil at a given price and date. The investor on the other side of the trade is in effect selling a put option on the currency.
To eliminate residual risk, match the foreign currency notionals, not the local currency notionals, else the foreign currencies received and delivered don't offset.
In the case of an FX option on a rate, as in the above example, an option on GBPUSD gives a USD value that is linear in GBPUSD using USD as the numéraire (a move from 2.0000 to 1.9000 yields a .10 * $2,000,000 / $2.0000 = $100,000 profit), but has a non-linear GBP value. Conversely, the GBP value is linear in the USDGBP rate, while the USD value is non-linear. This is because inverting a rate has the effect of x ↦ 1 / x {\displaystyle x\mapsto 1/x} , which is non-linear.
Hedging[edit]
Corporations primarily use FX options to hedge uncertain future cash flows in a foreign currency. The general rule is to hedge certain foreign currency cash flows with forwards, and uncertain foreign cash flows with options.
Suppose a United Kingdom manufacturing firm expects to be paid US$100,000 for a piece of engineering equipment to be delivered in 90 days. If the GBP strengthens against the US$ over the next 90 days the UK firm loses money, as it will receive less GBP after converting the US$100,000 into GBP. However, if the GBP weakens against the US$, then the UK firm receives more GBP. This uncertainty exposes the firm to FX risk. Assuming that the cash flow is certain, the firm can enter into a forward contract to deliver the US$100,000 in 90 days time, in exchange for GBP at the current forward rate. This forward contract is free, and, presuming the expected cash arrives, exactly matches the firm's exposure, perfectly hedging their FX risk.
If the cash flow is uncertain, a forward FX contract exposes the firm to FX risk in the opposite direction, in the case that the expected USD cash is not received, typically making an option a better choice.[citation needed]
Using options, the UK firm can purchase a GBP call/USD put option (the right to sell part or all of their expected income for pounds sterling at a predetermined rate), which:
protects the GBP value that the firm expects in 90 days' time (presuming the cash is received)
costs at most the option premium (unlike a forward, which can have unlimited losses)
yields a profit if the expected cash is not received but FX rates move in its favor
Valuation: the Garman–Kohlhagen model [edit]
As in the Black–Scholes model for stock options and the Black model for certain interest rate options, the value of a European option on an FX rate is typically calculated by assuming that the rate follows a log-normal process.[3]
In 1983 Garman and Kohlhagen extended the Black–Scholes model to cope with the presence of two interest rates (one for each currency). Suppose that r d {\displaystyle r_{d}} is the risk-free interest rate to expiry of the domestic currency and r f {\displaystyle r_{f}} is the foreign currency risk-free interest rate (where domestic currency is the currency in which we obtain the value of the option; the formula also requires that FX rates – both strike and current spot be quoted in terms of "units of domestic currency per unit of foreign currency"). The results are also in the same units and to be meaningful need to be converted into one of the currencies.[4]
Then the domestic currency value of a call option into the foreign currency is
c = S 0 e − r f T N ( d 1 ) − K e − r d T N ( d 2 ) {\displaystyle c=S_{0}e^{-r_{f}T}{\mathcal {N}}(d_{1})-Ke^{-r_{d}T}{\mathcal {N}}(d_{2})}
The value of a put option has value
p = K e − r d T N ( − d 2 ) − S 0 e − r f T N ( − d 1 ) {\displaystyle p=Ke^{-r_{d}T}{\mathcal {N}}(-d_{2})-S_{0}e^{-r_{f}T}{\mathcal {N}}(-d_{1})}
where :
d 1 = ln  ( S 0 / K ) + ( r d − r f + σ 2 / 2 ) T σ T {\displaystyle d_{1}={\frac {\ln(S_{0}/K)+(r_{d}-r_{f}+\sigma ^{2}/2)T}{\sigma {\sqrt {T}}}}}
d 2 = d 1 − σ T {\displaystyle d_{2}=d_{1}-\sigma {\sqrt {T}}}
S 0 {\displaystyle S_{0}} is the current spot rate
K {\displaystyle K} is the strike price
N ( x ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {N}}(x)} is the cumulative normal distribution function
r d {\displaystyle r_{d}} is domestic risk free simple interest rate
r f {\displaystyle r_{f}} is foreign risk free simple interest rate
T {\displaystyle T} is the time to maturity (calculated according to the appropriate day count convention)
and σ {\displaystyle \sigma } is the volatility of the FX rate.
Risk management[edit]
A wide range of techniques are in use for calculating the options risk exposure, or Greeks (as for example the Vanna-Volga method). Although the option prices produced by every model agree (with Garman–Kohlhagen), risk numbers can vary significantly depending on the assumptions used for the properties of spot price movements, volatility surface and interest rate curves.
After Garman–Kohlhagen, the most common models are SABR and local volatility[citation needed], although when agreeing risk numbers with a counterparty (e.g. for exchanging delta, or calculating the strike on a 25 delta option) Garman–Kohlhagen is always used.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Foreign Exchange (FX) Terminologies: Forward Deal and Options Deal" Published by the International Business Times AU on February 14, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Forex Options". Investing.com. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "British Pound (GBP) to Euro (EUR) exchange rate history". www.exchangerates.org.uk. Retrieved 21 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "Currency options pricing explained". www.derivativepricing.com. Retrieved 21 September 2016.
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NAND logic
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about NAND Logic in the sense of building other logic gates using just NAND gates. For NAND Gates, see NAND gate. For NAND in the purely logical sense, see Logical NAND. For logic gates generally, see Logic gate.
This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. (July 2012)
Because the NAND function has functional completeness all logic systems can be converted into NAND gates. This is also true for NOR gates. In principle, any combinatorial logic function can be realized with enough NAND gates.
Contents
[hide]
1 NAND
2 Making other gates by using NAND gates
2.1 NOT
2.2 AND
2.3 OR
2.4 NOR
2.5 XOR
2.6 XNOR
3 MUX
4 DEMUX
5 See also
6 External links
7 References
NAND[edit]
A NAND gate is an inverted AND gate. It has the following truth table:
Q = NOT( A AND B )
Truth Table
Input A
Input B
Output Q
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Making other gates by using NAND gates[edit]
A NAND gate is a universal gate, meaning that any other gate can be represented as a combination of NAND gates.
NOT[edit]
A NOT gate is made by joining the inputs of a NAND gate together. Since a NAND gate is equivalent to an AND gate followed by a NOT gate, joining the inputs of a NAND gate leaves only the NOT gate.
Desired NOT Gate
NAND Construction
Q = NOT( A ) = A NAND A
Truth Table
Input A
Output Q
0 1
1 0
AND[edit]
An AND gate is made by following a NAND gate with a NOT gate as shown below. This gives a NOT NAND, i.e. AND.
Desired AND Gate
NAND Construction
Q = A AND B = ( A NAND B ) NAND ( A NAND B )
Truth Table
Input A
Input B
Output Q
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
OR[edit]
If the truth table for a NAND gate is examined or by applying De Morgan's Laws, it can be seen that if any of the inputs are 0, then the output will be 1. To be an OR gate, however, the output must be 1 if any input is 1. Therefore, if the inputs are inverted, any high input will trigger a high output.
Desired OR Gate
NAND Construction
Q = A OR B = ( A NAND A ) NAND ( B NAND B )
Truth Table
Input A
Input B
Output Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
NOR[edit]
A NOR gate is simply an inverted OR gate. Output is high when neither input A nor input B is high.
Desired NOR Gate
NAND Construction
Q = A NOR B = [ ( A NAND A ) NAND ( B NAND B ) ] NAND
[ ( A NAND A ) NAND ( B NAND B ) ]
Truth Table
Input A
Input B
Output Q
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
XOR[edit]
An XOR gate is constructed similarly to an OR gate, except with an additional NAND gate inserted such that if both inputs are high, the inputs to the final NAND gate will also be high, and the output will be low. This construction has a propagation delay three times that of a single NAND gate and uses four gates.
Desired XOR Gate
NAND Construction
Q = A XOR B = [ A NAND ( A NAND B ) ] NAND
[ B NAND ( A NAND B ) ]
Truth Table
Input A
Input B
Output Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Alternatively, the B-input of the XNOR gate with the 3-gate propagation delay can be inverted. This construction uses five gates instead of four.
Desired Gate
NAND Construction
Q = A XOR B = [ B NAND ( A NAND A ) ] NAND
[ A NAND ( B NAND B ) ]
XNOR[edit]
An XNOR gate is made by connecting the output of 3 NAND gates (connected as an OR gate) and the output of a NAND gate to the respective inputs of a NAND gate. This construction entails a propagation delay three times that of a single NAND gate and uses five gates.
Desired XNOR Gate
NAND Construction
Q = A XNOR B = [ ( A NAND A ) NAND ( B NAND B ) ] NAND
( A NAND B )
Truth Table
Input A
Input B
Output Q
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Alternatively, the 4-gate version of the XOR gate can be used with an inverter. This construction has a propagation delay four times (instead of three times) that of a single NAND gate.
Desired Gate
NAND Construction
Q = A XNOR B = { [ A NAND ( A NAND B ) ] NAND
[ B NAND ( A NAND B ) ] } NAND
{ [ A NAND ( A NAND B ) ]
NAND [ B NAND ( A NAND B ) ] }
MUX[edit]
A multiplexer or a MUX gate is a three-input gate that uses one of the inputs, called "selection bits", to select and output one of the other two inputs, called "data bits".[1]
Desired MUX Gate
NAND Construction
Q = [A AND NOT (S)] OR (B AND S) = NOT{ NOT[ A AND NOT( S AND S ) ] AND NOT( B AND S ) }
Truth Table
A
B
Select
Output
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1
DEMUX[edit]
A demultiplexer performs the opposite function of a multiplexer: It takes a single input and channels it to one of two possible outputs according to a selector bit that specifies which output to choose.[1]
Desired DEMUX Gate
NAND Construction
Truth Table
Select
A
B
0 in 0
1 0 in
See also[edit]
NOR logic. Like NAND gates, NOR gates are also universal gates.
Functional Completeness
External links[edit]
TTL NAND and AND gates - All About Circuits
Steps to Derive XOR from NAND gate.
NAND Gate, Demonstrate an interactive simulation of the NAND Gate circuit created with Teahlab's simulator.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Nisan, N. & Schocken, S., 2005. In: From NAND to Tetris: Building a Modern Computer from First Principles. s.l.:The MIT Press, p. 20. Available at: http://www.nand2tetris.org/chapters/chapter%2001.pdf
Lancaster, Don (1974). TTL Cookbook (1st ed.). Indianapolis, IN: Howard W Sams. pp. 126–135. ISBN 0-672-21035-5.
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House of Representatives (Nigeria)
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This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
House of Representatives
8th National Assembly
Type
Type
Lower house of the National Assembly of Nigeria
Leadership
Speaker of the House of Representatives
Yakubu Dogara , APC
Since 6 June 2015
Deputy Speaker of the House of Representatives
Yusuf Sulaiman Lasun, APC
Since 6 June 2015
Structure
Seats
360
Political groups
Governing Party
All Progressives Congress (225)
Opposition Parties
People's Democratic Party (125)
Other parties (10)
Elections
Voting system
First-past-the-post
Last election
April 2015
Meeting place
Abuja
Website
http://www.nass.gov.ng
Nigeria
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Nigeria
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The House of Representatives is the lower house of Nigeria's bicameral National Assembly. The Senate is the upper house.
The current House of Representatives, formed following elections held in April 2015, has a total of 360 members who are elected in single-member constituencies using the simple majority (or first-past-the-post) system. Members serve four-year terms. The Speaker of the Nigerian House of Representatives is the presiding officer of the house.
Nigerian state delegations[edit]
Map legend State Senators Federal constituencies
1 Abia State 3 8
2 Adamawa State 3 8
3 Akwa-Ibom State 3 10
4 Anambra State 3 11
5 Bauchi State 3 12
6 Bayelsa State 3 5
7 Benue State 3 11
8 Borno State 3 10
9 Cross River State 3 8
10 Delta State 3 10
11 Ebonyi State 3 6
12 Edo State 3 9
13 Ekiti State 3 6
14 Enugu State 3 8
15 Gombe State 3 6
16 Imo State 3 10
17 Jigawa State 3 11
18 Kaduna State 3 16
19 Kano State 3 24
20 Katsina State 3 15
21 Kebbi State 3 8
22 Kogi State 3 9
23 Kwara State 3 6
24 Lagos State 3 24
25 Nasarawa State 3 5
26 Niger State 3 10
27 Ogun State 3 9
28 Ondo State 3 9
29 Osun State 3 9
30 Oyo State 3 14
31 Plateau State 3 8
32 Rivers State 3 13
33 Sokoto State 3 11
34 Taraba State 3 6
35 Yobe State 3 6
36 Zamfara State 3 7
37 Federal capital territory (Abuja) 1 2
All 109 360
Members (since 1979)[edit]
List of members of the House of Representatives of Nigeria, 1979–1992
List of members of the House of Representatives of Nigeria, 1992–1998
List of members of the House of Representatives of Nigeria, 1998–1999
List of members of the House of Representatives of Nigeria, 1999–2003
List of members of the House of Representatives of Nigeria, 2003–2007
List of members of the House of Representatives of Nigeria, 2007–2011
List of members of the House of Representatives of Nigeria, 2011–2015
List of members of the House of Representatives of Nigeria, 2015–present
See also[edit]
History of Nigeria
Legislative branch
List of national legislatures
Nigerian First Republic
Nigerian Second Republic
Nigerian Third Republic
Nigerian Fourth Republic
Party leaders of the Nigerian House of Representatives
[hide]
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t
e
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Coordinates: 9°04′05″N 7°30′40″E / 9.06806°N 7.51111°E / 9.06806; 7.51111
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=House_of_Representatives_(Nigeria)&oldid=837511426"
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