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Novichok agent
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Novichok (Russian: Новичо́к, "newcomer") is a series of nerve agents developed by the Soviet Union and Russia between 1971 and 1993.[a][2][3] Russian scientists who developed the agents claim they are the deadliest nerve agents ever made, with some variants possibly five to eight times more potent than VX,[4][5] and others up to ten times more potent than soman.[6]
They were designed as part of a Soviet program codenamed "FOLIANT".[1][7] Five Novichok variants are believed to have been adapted for military use.[8] The most versatile is A-232 (Novichok-5).[9] Novichok agents have never been used on the battlefield. Theresa May, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, and many heads of state, said that one such agent was used in the poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal in England in March 2018.[10] Russia denies producing or researching agents "under the title novichok".[11]
In 2016, Iranian chemists synthesised five Novichok agents for analysis and produced detailed mass spectral data which was added to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons Central Analytical Database.[12][13] Previously there had been no detailed descriptions of their spectral properties in open scientific literature.[12][14]
Contents
[hide]
1 Design objectives
2 Disclosure
3 Development and test sites
4 Description of Novichok agents
4.1 Chemistry
5 Effects
6 Use
6.1 Poisoning of Ivan Kivelidi and Zara Ismailova
6.2 Poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Design objectives
These agents were designed to achieve four objectives:[15][16]
To be undetectable using standard 1970s and 1980s NATO chemical detection equipment;
To defeat NATO chemical protective gear;
To be safer to handle;
To circumvent the Chemical Weapons Convention list of controlled precursors, classes of chemical and physical form.[17]
Some of these agents are binary weapons, in which precursors for the nerve agents are mixed in a munition to produce the agent just prior to its use. Because the precursors are generally significantly less hazardous than the agents themselves, this technique makes handling and transporting the munitions a great deal simpler. Additionally, precursors to the agents are usually much easier to stabilize than the agents themselves, so this technique also made it possible to increase the shelf life of the agents. This has the disadvantage that careless preparation may produce a non-optimal agent. During the 1980s and 1990s, binary versions of several Soviet agents were developed and are designated as "Novichok" agents. The FOLIANT program may have been influenced by information on a secret American nerve agent code named "GJ" fed to the Soviet Union by a double agent as part of Operation Shocker.[18][19][20]
Disclosure
The Soviet Union and Russia reportedly developed extremely potent fourth-generation chemical weapons from the 1970s until the early 1990s, according to a publication by two chemists, Lev Fyodorov and Vil Mirzayanov in Moskovskiye Novosti weekly in 1992.[21][22][b] The publication appeared just on the eve of Russia's signing of the Chemical Weapons Convention. According to Mirzayanov, the Russian Military Chemical Complex (MCC) was using defense conversion money received from the West for development of a chemical warfare facility.[4][5] Mirzayanov made his disclosure out of environmental concerns. He was the head of a counter-intelligence department and performed measurements outside the chemical weapons facilities to make sure that foreign spies could not detect any traces of production. To his horror, the levels of deadly substances were 80 times greater than the maximum safe concentration.[5][24]
Russian military industrial complex authorities admitted the existence of Novichok agents when they brought a treason case against Mirzayanov. According to expert witness testimonies that three scientists prepared for the KGB, Novichok and other related chemical agents had indeed been produced and therefore Mirzayanov's disclosure represented high treason.[c]
Mirzayanov was arrested on 22 October 1992 and sent to Lefortovo prison for divulging state secrets. He was released later because "not one of the formulas or names of poisonous substances in the Moscow News article was new to the Soviet press, nor were locations ... of testing sites revealed."[5] According to Yevgenia Albats, "the real state secret revealed by Fyodorov and Mirzayanov was that generals had lied—and were still lying—to both the international community and their fellow citizens."[5] Mirzayanov now lives in the U.S.[26]
Further disclosures followed when Vladimir Uglev, one of Russia's leading binary weapons scientists, revealed the existence of A-232/Novichok-5 in an interview with the magazine Novoye Vremya in early 1994.[27] In his 1998 interview with David E. Hoffman for The Washington Post the chemist claimed that he helped invent the A-232 agent, that it's more frostproof, and confirmed that a binary version has been developed from it.[28] Uglev revealed more details in 2018 following the poisoning of the Skripals, stating that "several hundred" compounds were synthesised during the Foliant research but only four agents were weaponised (presumably the Novichok-5, -7, -8 and -9 mentioned by other sources), the first three were liquids and only the last, which was not developed until 1980, could be made into a powder. Unlike the interview 20 years earlier, he denied any binary agents were developed successfully, at least up until his involvement in the research ceased in 1994.[29]
Novichok was referred to in a patent filed in 2008 for an organophosphorus poisoning treatment. The University of Maryland, Baltimore research was part funded by the U.S. Army.[30]
Leonid Rink, who said he had done his doctoral dissertation research on the Novichok agents, [31] confirmed that the structures leaked by Mirzayanov were the correct ones.[32] Leonid Rink himself was convicted in Russia in 1994 for illegally selling the agent.[33][34]
Development and test sites
Stephanie Fitzpatrick, an American geopolitical consultant, has claimed that the Chemical Research Institute in Nukus, Soviet Uzbekistan,[35] produced Novichok agents and The New York Times has reported that U.S. officials said the site was the major research and testing site for Novichok agents.[36][37] Small, experimental batches of the weapons may have been tested on the nearby Ustyurt Plateau.[37] Fitzpatrick also writes that the agents may have been tested in a research centre in Krasnoarmeysk near Moscow.[35] Precursor chemicals were made at the Pavlodar Chemical Plant in Soviet Kazakhstan, which was also thought to be the intended Novichok weapons production site, until its still-under-construction chemical warfare agent production building was demolished in 1987 in view of the forthcoming 1990 Chemical Weapons Accord and the Chemical Weapons Convention.[38][39]
Since its independence in 1991, Uzbekistan has been working with the government of the United States to dismantle and decontaminate the sites where the Novichok agents and other chemical weapons were tested and developed.[35][37] Between 1999[40] and 2002 the United States Department of Defense dismantled the major research and testing site for Novichok at the Chemical Research Institute in Nukus, under a $6 million Cooperative Threat Reduction program.[36][41]
Hamish de Bretton-Gordon, a British chemical weapons expert and former commanding officer of the UK's Joint Chemical, Biological, Radiation and Nuclear Regiment and its NATO equivalent, "dismissed" suggestions that Novichok agents could be found in other places in the former Soviet Union such as Uzbekistan and has asserted that Novichok agents were produced only at Shikhany in Saratov Oblast, Russia.[42] Mirzayanov also says that it was at Shikhany, in 1973, that scientist Pyotr Petrovich Kirpichev first produced Novichok agents; Vladimir Uglev joined him on the project in 1975.[43] According to Mirzayanov, while production took place in Shikhany, the weapon was tested at Nukus between 1986 and 1989.[4]
Following the poisoning of the Skripals, former head of the GosNIIOKhT security department Nikolay Volodin confirmed in an interview to Novaya Gazeta that there have been tests at Nukus, and said that dogs were used.[44]
Description of Novichok agents
Examples of structures claimed as Novichok agents[45][46][47][48][49][50]
Mirzayanov provided the first description of these agents.[24] Dispersed in an ultra-fine powder instead of a gas or a vapor, they have unique qualities. A binary agent was then created that would mimic the same properties but would either be manufactured using materials which are not controlled substances under the CWC,[26] or be undetectable by treaty regime inspections.[37] The most potent compounds from this family, Novichok-5 and Novichok-7, are supposedly around five to eight times more potent than VX.[51] The "Novichok" designation refers to the binary form of the agent, with the final compound being referred to by its code number (e.g. A-232). The first Novichok series compound was in fact the binary form of a known V-series nerve agent, VR,[51] while the later Novichok agents are the binary forms of compounds such as A-232 and A-234.[52]
According to a classified (secret) report by the US Army National Ground Intelligence Center in Military Intelligence Digest dated 24 January 1997,[53] agent designated A-232 and its ethyl analog A-234 developed under the Foliant program "are as toxic as VX, as resistant to treatment as soman, and more difficult to detect and easier to manufacture than VX". The binary versions of the agents reportedly uses acetonitrile and an organic phosphate "that can be disguised as a pesticide precursor."
Example of a declared Novichok derivative, researched in Iran in 2016
Mirzayanov gives somewhat different structures for Novichok agents in his autobiography to those which have been identified by Western experts.[54] He makes clear that a large number of compounds were made, and many of the less potent derivatives were reported in the open literature as new organophosphate insecticides,[55] so that the secret chemical weapons program could be disguised as legitimate pesticide research.
The agent A-234 is also supposedly around five to eight times more potent than VX.[56][51]
The agents are reportedly capable of being delivered as a liquid, aerosol or gas via a variety of systems, including artillery shells, bombs, missiles and spraying devices.[35]
Chemistry
According to chemical weapons expert Jonathan Tucker, the first binary formulation developed under the Foliant program was used to make Substance 33 (VR), very similar to the more widely-known VX, differing only in the alkyl substituents on its nitrogen and oxygen atoms. "This weapon was given the code name Novichok.”[57]
Synthesis of the A230, A232, and A234 structures as described by Steven Hoenig. Ethanediol modified with up to two methyl groups is reacted with phosphorus trichloride to form a ring structure named as a phospholane analogue. The last chlorine atom is replaced by fluorine (nucleophilic substitution). This compound is then reacted with a phosgene oxime-like chloride to open the ring and create the product fluorophosphonate.[58]
A wide range of potential structures have been reported. These all feature the classical organophosphorus core (sometimes with the P=O replaced with P=S or P=Se), which is most commonly depicted as being a phosphoramidate or phosphonate, usually fluorinated (cf. monofluorophosphate). The organic groups are subject to more variety; however, a common substituent is phosgene oxime or analogues thereof. This is a potent chemical weapon in its own right, specifically as a nettle agent, and would be expected to increase the harm done by the Novichok agent. Many claimed structures from this group also contain cross-linking agent motifs which may covalently bind to the acetylcholinesterase enzyme's active site in several places, perhaps explaining the rapid denaturing of the enzyme that is claimed to be characteristic of the Novichok agents.
Zoran Radić, a chemist at the University of California, San Diego, performed an in silico docking study with Mirzayanov's version of the A-232 structure against the active site of the acetylcholinesterase enzyme. The model predicted a tight fit with high binding affinity and formation of a covalent bond to a serine residue in the active site, with a similar binding mode to established nerve agents such as sarin and soman.[59]
Effects
As nerve agents, the Novichok agents belong to the class of organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitors. These chemical compounds inhibit the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, preventing the normal breakdown of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Acetylcholine concentrations then increase at neuromuscular junctions to cause involuntary contraction of all skeletal muscles (cholinergic crisis). This then leads to respiratory and cardiac arrest (as the victim's heart and diaphragm muscles no longer function normally) and finally death from heart failure or suffocation as copious fluid secretions fill the victim's lungs.[60]
The use of a fast-acting peripheral anticholinergic drug such as atropine can block the receptors where acetylcholine acts to prevent poisoning (as in the treatment for poisoning by other acetylcholinesterase inhibitors). Atropine, however, is difficult to administer safely, because its effective dose for nerve agent poisoning is close to the dose at which patients suffer severe side effects such as changes in heart rate and thickening of the bronchial secretions which fill the lungs of someone suffering nerve agent poisoning, so that suctioning of these secretions and other advanced life support techniques may be necessary in addition to administration of atropine to treat nerve agent poisoning.[60]
In the treatment of nerve agent poisoning, atropine is most often administered along with a Hagedorn oxime such as pralidoxime, obidoxime, TMB-4, or HI-6, which reactivates acetylcholinesterase which has been inactivated by phosphorylation by an organophosphorus nerve agent and relieves the respiratory muscle paralysis caused by some nerve agents. Pralidoxime is not effective in reactivating acetylcholinesterase inhibited by some older nerve agents such as soman[60] or the Novichok nerve agents, described in the literature as being up to eight times more toxic than nerve agent VX.[48]
As can be seen with other organophosphate poisonings, novichok agents may cause lasting nerve damage, resulting in permanent disablement of victims, according to Russian scientists.[61] Their effect on humans was demonstrated by the accidental exposure of Andrei Zheleznyakov, one of the scientists involved in their development, to the residue of an unspecified Novichok agent while working in a Moscow laboratory in May 1987. He was critically injured and took ten days to recover consciousness after the incident. He lost the ability to walk and was treated at a secret clinic in Leningrad for three months afterwards. The agent caused permanent harm, with effects that included "chronic weakness in his arms, a toxic hepatitis that gave rise to cirrhosis of the liver, epilepsy, spells of severe depression, and an inability to read or concentrate that left him totally disabled and unable to work." He never recovered and died in July 1992 after five years of deteriorating health.[62]
The US Army has funded studies of the use of galantamine along with atropine in the treatment of a number of nerve agents, including soman and the Novichok agents. An unexpected synergistic interaction was seen to occur between galantamine (given between five hours before to thirty minutes after exposure) and atropine in an amount of 6 mg/kg or higher. Increasing the dose of galantamine from 5 to 8 mg/kg decreased the dose of atropine needed to protect experimental animals from the toxicity of soman in dosages 1.5 times the LD50 (lethal dose in half the animals studied).[30]
Use
Poisoning of Ivan Kivelidi and Zara Ismailova
Supposed Novichok agent formula from the forensic analysis in the Kivelidi case[63]
The forerunner of Novichok agents, substance-33 (frequently also referred to simply as "Novichok")[64] has been reportedly used in 1995 to poison Russian banker Ivan Kivelidi (ru), the head of the Russian Business Round Table, and Zara Ismailova, his secretary.[65][66][67][68][69] According to historians Yuri Felshtinsky and Vladimir Pribylovsky, the murder became "one of the first in the series of poisonings organized by Russia's security services". The Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs analyzed the substance and announced that it was "a phosphorus-based military-grade nerve agent"[70] "whose formula was strictly classified".[70] According to Nesterov, the administrative head of Shikhany, he did not know of "a single case of such poison being sold illegally" and noted that the poison "is used by professional spies".[70]
Vladimir Khutsishvili, a former business partner of the banker, was subsequently convicted for the killings.[65] According to The Independent, "A closed trial found that his business partner had obtained the substance via intermediaries from an employee of the State Research Institute of Organic Chemistry and Technology (ru) (GosNIIOKhT),[71] which was involved in the development of Novichoks. However, Khutsishvilli, who claimed that he was innocent, had not been detained at the time of the trial and freely left the country. He was arrested only in 2006 after he returned to Russia, believing that the ten-year old case was closed.[70] According to Felshtinsky and Pribylovsky, Khutsishvilli was framed for the murder by Russia's security services which had access to the chemical agent and used it to organize the murder on the orders of a senior Russian state official.[70]
The employee of GosNIIOKhT Leonard Rink received a one-year suspended sentence for selling Novichok agents to unnamed buyers "of Chechen ethnicity" soon after the poisoning of Kivelidi and Izmailova."[72][73]
Poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal
Main article: Poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal
On 12 March 2018, the UK government said that a Novichok agent had been used in an attack in the English city of Salisbury on 4 March 2018 in an attempt to kill former GRU officer Sergei Skripal and his daughter Yulia.[74] British Prime Minister Theresa May said in Parliament: "Either this was a direct action by the Russian state against our country, or the Russian government lost control of its potentially catastrophically damaging nerve agent and allowed it to get into the hands of others."[74] On 14 March 2018, the UK expelled 23 Russian diplomats after the Russian government refused to meet the UK's deadline of midnight on 13 March 2018 to give an explanation for the use of the substance.[75]
After the attack, 21 members of the emergency services and public were checked for possible exposure, and three were hospitalised. As of 12 March, one police officer remained in hospital.[74] Five hundred members of the public were advised to decontaminate their possessions to prevent possible long-term exposure, and 180 members of the military and 18 vehicles were deployed to assist with decontamination at locations in and around Salisbury. Up to 38 people in Salisbury have been affected by the agent to an undetermined extent.[76] Addressing the United Nations Security Council, Vassily Nebenzia, the Russian envoy to the UN, responded to the British allegations by denying that Russia had ever produced or researched the agents, stating: "No scientific research or development under the title Novichok were carried out."[11]
Daniel Gerstein, a former senior official at the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, said it was possible that Novichok nerve agents had been used before in Britain to assassinate Kremlin targets, but had not been detected: "It's entirely likely that we have seen someone expire from this and not realized it. We realized in this case because they were found unresponsive on a park bench. Had it been a higher dose, maybe they would have died and we would have thought it was natural causes."[77]
On 20 March 2018, Ahmet Üzümcü, Director-General of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), said that it will take "another two to three weeks to finalize the analysis" of samples taken from the poisoning of Skripal.[78]
On April 3, 2018, the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory announced that it was "completely confident" that the agent used was Novichok, although they still did not know the "precise source" of the agent. Experts said that their findings did not challenge the conclusions by UK government: "We provided that information to the Government who have then used a number of other sources to come to the conclusions that they have."[79]
On April 12, 2018 the OPCW announced that their investigations agreed with the conclusions made by the UK about the identity of the chemical used.[80]
See also
Poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services
Russia and weapons of mass destruction
References
Notes
Jump up ^ Jonathon B. Tucker writes that approval to commence research into "fourth generation" chemical weapons was given by the Central Committee of the Communist Party and the Soviet Council of Ministers in May 1971. Vil Mirzayanov, the Russian scientist who first alerted the West to the existence of the Novichok agents, states that testing of Novichok-7 was successfully completed in 1993—after the signing of the Chemical Weapons Convention but before Russia ratified the treaty and when it came into force.[1][2]
Jump up ^ Mirzayanov had made a similar disclosure a year earlier in the 10 October 1991 issue of the Moscow newspaper, Kuranty.[23]
Jump up ^ "[T]he talk [by Mirzayanov] about binary weapons was no more than a verbal construct, an argument ex adverso, and only the MCC [Russian Military Chemical Complex] could corroborate or refute this natural assumption. By entangling V. S. Mirzayanov in investigation, the MCC confirmed the stated hypothesis, advancing it to the ranks of proven facts."[25]
References
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Jump up ^ McGregor 2011, p. 166
Jump up ^ "Theresa May accuses Russia of involvement in Skripal's poisoning, as Russian-made prohibited substance discovered". Crime Russia. 13 March 2018. Retrieved 13 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Stewart, Will. "Were these the first victims of nerve agent Novichok? Russian banker and secretary 'assassinated' in mysterious circumstances 20 years ago". Daily Mirror. Retrieved 13 March 2018. [unreliable source?]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Felshtinsky & Pribylovsky 2009, p. 453–457
Jump up ^ "Secret trial shows risks of nerve agent theft in post-Soviet chaos - experts". Thomson Reuters Foundation. 20 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Why is the UK accusing Russia of launching a nerve agent attack on Sergei Skripal in Salisbury, and what is the evidence?". The Independent. 16 March 2018.
Jump up ^ ""Novichok" has been already used for killing («Новичок» уже убивал)". Novaya Gazeta.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Russian spy: Highly likely Moscow behind attack, says Theresa May". BBC News. 12 March 2018. Retrieved 12 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Russian spy: UK to expel 23 Russian diplomats". BBC News. 14 March 2018. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Moran, Terry; Vlasto, Chris; Meek, James (March 18, 2018). "Russian ex-spy's poisoning in UK believed from nerve agent in car vents; at least 38 others sickened: Sources". ABCNews.com. Retrieved March 22, 2018. The intelligence officials told ABC News up to 38 individuals in Salisbury have been identified as having been affected by the nerve agent but the full impact is still being assessed and more victims sickened by the agent are expected to be identified
Jump up ^ Barry, Ellen; Yeginsu, Ceylan (13 March 2018). "The nerve agent too deadly to use—until someone did in Britain". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Two to three weeks to analyze samples from Salisbury attack: OPCW". Agence France-Presse. 20 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Defence experts 'unsure' of source behind novichok spy attack". ITV. April 3, 2018. Retrieved April 3, 2018.
Jump up ^ "OPCW Issues Report on Technical Assistance Requested by the United Kingdom". www.opcw.org. Retrieved 2018-04-13.
Bibliography
Albats, Yevgenia (1994), The State Within a State: The KGB and Its Hold on Russia — Past, Present, and Future, translated by Fitzpatrick, Catherine A., New York: Farrar Straus & Giroux, ISBN 978-0-374-18104-8
Birstein, Vadim J. (2004), The Perversion Of Knowledge: The True Story of Soviet Science, Westview Press, ISBN 0-8133-4280-5
Darling, Robert G.; Noste, Erin E. (2016), "Future Biological and Chemical Weapons", in Ciottone, Gregory R., Ciottone's Disaster Medicine (Second ed.), Amsterdam: Elsevier, doi:10.1016/B978-0-323-28665-7.00080-7
Croddy, Eric A.; Wirtz, James J.; Larsen, Jeffrey A., eds. (2001), Weapons of Mass Destruction: The Essential Reference Guide, ABC-CLIO, ISBN 978-1-851-09490-5
Ellison, D. Hank (2008), Handbook of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents (Second ed.), CRC Press, ISBN 978-0-849-31434-6
Felshtinsky, Yuri; Pribylovsky, Vladimir (2009), The Corporation: Russia and the KGB in the Age of President Putin, London: Encounter Books, ISBN 978-1-594-03246-2
Gupta, Ramesh C., ed. (2015), Handbook of Toxicology of Chemical Warfare Agents, Cambridge, MA: Academic Press, ISBN 978-0-128-00494-4
Hoenig, Steven L. (2007), Compendium of Chemical Warfare Agents, Springer, ISBN 978-0-387-34626-7
Kendall, Ronald J.; Presley, Steven M.; Austin, Galen P.; Smith, Philip N. (2008), Advances in Biological and Chemical Terrorism Countermeasures, CRC Press, ISBN 978-1-420-07654-7
McGregor, Paul (2011), Toxic Politics: The Secret History of the Kremlin's Poison Laboratory—from the Special Cabinet to the Death of Litvinenko, Praeger, ISBN 978-0-313-38746-3
Mirzayanov, Vil S. (2008), State Secrets: An Insider's Chronicle of the Russian Chemical Weapons Program, Outskirts Press, ISBN 978-1-4327-2566-2
Pitschmann, Vladimír (2014), "Overall View of Chemical and Biochemical Weapons", Toxins, 6 (6), pp. 1761–1784, doi:10.3390/toxins6061761
Salem, Harry; Katz, Sidney A., eds. (2014), Inhalation Toxicology (3rd ed.), CRC Press, ISBN 978-1-466-55273-9
Tucker, Jonathon B. (2006), War of Nerves, New York: Anchor Books, ISBN 978-0-375-42229-4
Wise, David (2000), Cassidy's Run: The Secret Spy War Over Nerve Gas, Thorndike, ME: G.K. Hall & Co, ISBN 978-0-783-89144-6
Further reading
Kincaid, Cliff (February 1995), "Russia's Dirty Chemical Secret", American Legion Magazine, 138 (2), pp. 32–34, 58
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Novichok agents.
Fedorov, Lev (27 July 1994). "Chemical Weapons in Russia: History, Ecology, Politics". Federation of American Scientists.
"Russian chemical weapons". Federation of American Scientists.
[show]
v
t
e
Agents used in chemical warfare
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riot control
Blood
Cyanogen
Cyanogen bromide
Cyanogen chloride (CK)
Hydrogen cyanide (AC)
Arsine
Vinyl arsine
Blister
Ethyldichloroarsine (ED)
Methyldichloroarsine (MD)
Phenyldichloroarsine (PD)
Lewisite (L)
Sulfur mustard (HD H HT HL HQ)
Nitrogen mustard
HN1
HN2
HN3
Nerve
G-agents
Tabun (GA)
Sarin (GB)
Soman (GD)
Cyclosarin (GF)
GV
V-agents
EA-3148
VE
VG
VM
VP
VS
VR
VX
Novichok agents
A-234
Carbamates
EA-3990
EA-4056
T-1123
Neurotoxins
Saxitoxin (TZ)
Botulinum toxin (BTX)
Tetanospasmin (TeNT)
Ricin
Nettle
Phosgene oxime (CX)
Pulmonary/Choking agent
Chlorine
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Perfluoroisobutene
Chloropicrin (PS)
Diphosgene (DP)
Disulfur decafluoride
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Adamsite
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Diphenylchlorarsine
Diphenylcyanoarsine
Diphenylamincyanoarsine
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EA-3167
Kolokol-1
LSD-25
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List of chemical warfare agents
CB military symbol
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v
t
e
Acetylcholine metabolism and transport modulators
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Inhibitors: 1-(-Benzoylethyl)pyridinium
2-(α-Naphthoyl)ethyltrimethylammonium
3-Chloro-4-stillbazole
4-(1-Naphthylvinyl)pyridine
Acetylseco hemicholinium-3
Acryloylcholine
AF64A
B115
BETA
CM-54,903
N,N-Dimethylaminoethylacrylate
N,N-Dimethylaminoethylchloroacetate
AChE
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VE
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α-Viniferin
Affinine
Affinisine
Arisugacin A
Bulbocapnine
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Crimidine
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Lactucopicrin
Lycorine
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Ungeremine
Ungiminorine
Reactivators: Asoxime chloride
Methoxime
Obidoxime
Pralidoxime
Trimedoxime bromide
BChE
Inhibitors: Affinine
Affinisine
Conodurine
Cymserine
Ladostigil
Profenamine (ethopropazine)
Rivastigmine
Tacrine
ZINC-12613047
Many of the other AChE inhibitors listed above
Transporter
(modulators)
CHT
Inhibitors: Hemicholinium-3 (hemicholine)
Triethylcholine
Enhancers: Coluracetam
VAChT
Inhibitors: Vesamicol
Release
(modulators)
Inhibitors
SNAP-25 inactivators: Botulinum toxin (A, C, E)
VAMP inactivators: Botulinum toxin (B, D, F, G)
Others: Bungarotoxins (β-bungarotoxin, γ-bungarotoxin)
Enhancers
LPHN agonists: α-Latrotoxin
Others: Atracotoxin (e.g., robustoxin, versutoxin)
Crotoxin
See also: Receptor/signaling modulators • Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor modulators • Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor modulators
[show]
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Novichok_agent&oldid=837192997"
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text:
It Happened at the World's Fair
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
It Happened at the World's Fair
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Norman Taurog
Produced by
Ted Richmond
Written by
Si Rose
Seaman Jacobs
Starring
Elvis Presley
Joan O'Brien
Gary Lockwood
Vicky Tiu
Music by
Leith Stevens
Cinematography
Joseph Ruttenberg
Edited by
Fredric Steinkamp
Don Guidice (uncredited)
Production
company
Ted Richmond Productions
Distributed by
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (1963, original) Warner Bros. (2007, DVD)
Release date
April 3, 1963 (1963-04-03) (USA)
Running time
105 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Box office
$2,500,000 (US/ Canada)[1]
It Happened at the World's Fair is a 1963 American musical film starring Elvis Presley as a cropdusting pilot. It was filmed in Seattle, Washington, site of the Century 21 Exposition, the 1962 World's Fair. The governor of Washington at the time, Albert Rosellini, suggested the setting to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer executives. The film made $2.25 million at the box office.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Soundtrack
5 Home media
6 Notes
7 See also
8 References
9 Sources
10 External links
Plot[edit]
Pilot Mike Edwards finds himself in a dilemma, his partner and friend Danny, gambles away the money Mike had set aside to pay their debts. Since they lost their money and a $1,200 debt, the local sheriff takes possession of their plane, Bessie, a Boeing-Stearman Model 75 cropduster. If they cannot come up with the money in twelve days, Bessie will be auctioned off to the highest bidder.
Mike and Danny become reluctant hitchhikers, looking for a lift to anywhere. They are picked up by apple farmer Walter Ling and his niece Sue-Lin. They end up in Seattle, Washington, location of the 1962 World's Fair. When the uncle is called away on business, Danny persuades Mike to take Sue-Lin to tour the local World's Fair. It is during a visit to the doctor at the fair that Mike falls for Diane Warren, an attractive but stubborn nurse who resists Mike's advances. He gives a quarter to a boy (a very young Kurt Russell) who kicks him in the shin, so that he can be treated by her. Diane's supervisor then convinces her to give Mike a ride back to his apartment, convinced his leg is injured. Mike and Diane dine at the top of the fair's Space Needle. However, he also courts Dorothy Johnson.
Complications then arise. Walter inexplicably fails to come back the next day to get Sue-Lin, leaving her with Mike. Sue-Lin feigns illness so that nurse Diane will come to their apartment and examine her and see Mike again. When Diane discovers that Mike has no kinship to Sue-Lin, she wants to inform the Welfare Board so that Sue-Lin can be removed from Mike and Danny's apartment. There is a mysterious nightfall plane delivery for Mike's and Danny's friend Vince, who is smuggling valuable furs. The film ends with Mike and Diane in love.
Cast[edit]
Elvis Presley as Mike Edwards, cropduster pilot
Joan O'Brien as Diane Warren, World's Fair nurse and eventual love interest of Edwards
Gary Lockwood as Danny Burke, Mike's gambling-addicted business partner
Vicky Tiu as Sue-Lin, a young girl befriended by Mike. Tiu later grew up to be the first lady of Hawaii when she married Governor Ben Cayetano
Yvonne Craig as Dorothy Johnson, a love interest of Mike's
H. M. Wynant as Vince Bradley, Danny's crooked associate
Kam Tong as Walter Ling, Sue-Lin's uncle
Edith Atwater as Miss Steuben
Guy Raymond as Barney Thatcher
Dorothy Green as Miss Ettinger
Kurt Russell as Shin Kicker (uncredited)
Sandra Giles as Lily (uncredited)
Red West as Fred (uncredited)
Joe Esposito as Carnival Man (uncredited)
Production[edit]
The Seattle Center, including the Seattle Center Monorail and the Space Needle, serve as backdrops for several scenes in the film. Security officers pursue Presley and the girl through the fountains at what is now the Pacific Science Center. The hitchhiking scene with Elvis and Gary Lockwood was filmed near Camarillo, California, as were some of the flying scenes. The entire hitchhiking scene to the point where they are both picked up by Kam Tong and Vicky Tiu Cayetano in the truck is easily recognizable as 5th Street near Pleasant Valley Road on the South side of Camarillo.[3] While The Elvis Encyclopedia believes that the Wilburton Trestle was shown in the movie, further evidence points to a different location.[4] It is actually a trestle over the White River between Enumclaw and Buckley, now demolished. The view in the movie was taken at the intersection of Mud Mountain Road and Highway 410, looking southeasterly.[5] Mount Rainier is visible in the background, which isn't seen at that angle from the Wilburton Trestle. The Wilburton Trestle is actually bigger than the White River Trestle, at six sections high. The trestle pictured in the movie is only four sections high at the road crossing.[6]
Soundtrack[edit]
Main article: It Happened at the World's Fair (album)
Home media[edit]
The film was released to DVD by Warner Home Video on August 7, 2007 as a Region 1 Widescreen DVD.
Notes[edit]
It marked Kurt Russell's film debut.
Vicky Tiu, sister of entertainer Ginny, later grew up to be the first lady of Hawaii when she married Governor Benjamin J. Cayetano.
See also[edit]
List of American films of 1963
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Top Rental Features of 1963", Variety, 8 January 1964 p. 71. Please note figures are rentals as opposed to total gross.
Jump up ^ Adam Victor. The Elvis Encyclopedia. Overlook, 2008.
Jump up ^ Victor 2008.
Jump up ^ Key to the City's profile of Buckley The history blurb on this page was written before the trestle was demolished.
Jump up ^ Google Street View of Mud Mountain Road and Highway 410 You can still see the bend in the road and a guard rail in the same place as in the movie
Jump up ^ White River Journal, January 2002 White River History Museum. Includes a photo of the trestle, but not the part shown in the movie
Sources[edit]
Guralnick, Peter, and Ernst Jorgensen (1999). Elvis Day by Day: The Definitive Record of His Life and Music. Ballantine. ISBN 0-345-42089-6.
Kirchberg, Connie, and Marc Hendrickx (1999). Elvis Presley, Richard Nixon, and the American Dream. Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Company. ISBN 0-7864-0716-6.
Lisanti, Tom (2000). Fantasy Femmes of 60's Cinema: Interviews with 20 Actresses from Biker, Beach, and Elvis Movies. McFarland and Company. ISBN 0-7864-0868-5.
Marcus, Greil (1980). "Rock Films," The Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock & Roll, second edition. Random House. ISBN 0-394-73938-8.
Ponce de Leon, Charles L. (2007). Fortunate Son: The Life of Elvis Presley. Macmillan. ISBN 0-8090-1641-9.
Presley, Priscilla (1985). Elvis and Me. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 0-399-12984-7.
Thomson, David (1998). A Biographical Dictionary of Film (3d ed.). Knopf. ISBN 0-679-75564-0.
Victor, Adam (2008). The Elvis Encyclopedia. Overlook Duckworth. ISBN 1-58567-598-9
External links[edit]
It Happened at the World's Fair on IMDb
It Happened at the World's Fair at the TCM Movie Database
It Happened at the World's Fair at AllMovie
DVD reviews
"What Happened At The World’s Fair: Elvis And The Future In Seattle" by Jim Demetre at The Monarch Review, October 18, 2012.
Review by Bill Treadway at DVD Verdict, August 12, 2004.
Review by Mark Zimmer at digitallyOBSESSED!, August 4, 2004.
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