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Third Rome
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She-wolf with Romulus and Remus, original symbol of Rome, still present in Mussolini's "Third Rome"[1]
Third Rome is the hypothetical successor to the legacy of ancient Rome (the "first Rome"). Second Rome usually refers to Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, officially called "New Rome", or one of the claimed successors to the Western Roman Empire such as the Papal States and the Holy Roman Empire.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Successor to Byzantium
1.1 Russian claims
1.2 Ottoman claims
1.3 Greek claims
1.4 Bulgarian claims
1.5 Serbian claims
2 Successor to the Holy Roman Empire
2.1 German claims
3 French claims
4 Italy as the Third Rome
4.1 Risorgimento
4.2 Fascist Empire
5 The European Union as Third Rome
5.1 Continuity of European Civilisation and Unity
5.1.1 Greco-Mionoan Civilisation
5.1.2 Greco-Roman Civilisation
5.1.3 The Holy Roman Empire and Modern Era
5.2 Historic Symbolism used by the European Union
5.2.1 Europa and the Bull
5.2.2 Charlemagne
6 In popular culture
7 See also
8 References
9 Bibliography
Successor to Byzantium[edit]
The Byzantine eagle
Symbol of the Palaiologos dynasty
Russian claims[edit]
See also: The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir
Coat of arms of the Russian Empire with the double-headed eagle, formerly associated with the Byzantine Empire
Known as a theological and a political concept "Moscow is the Third Rome", it was formulated in the 15-16th centuries in the Grand Duchy of Moscow.[3] In the concept there could be traced three interrelated and interpenetrating fields of ideas: a) theology that is linked with justification of necessity and inevitability in unity of Eastern Orthodox Church; b) social politics that are derived out of the feeling of unity in East Slavic territories being historically tied through Christian Orthodox faith and Slavic culture; c) state doctrine, according to which the Moscow Prince should act as a supreme sovereign (Sovereign and legislator) of Christian Orthodox nations and become a defender of the Christian Orthodox Church. Herewith the Church should facilitate the Sovereign in execution of his function supposedly determined by God, the autocratic administration.[3]
After the fall of Tǎrnovo to the Ottoman Turks in 1393, a number of Bulgarian clergymen sought shelter in the Russian lands and transferred the idea of the Third Rome there, which eventually resurfaced in Tver, during the reign of Boris of Tver, when the monk Foma (Thomas) of Tver had written The Eulogy of the Pious Grand Prince Boris Alexandrovich in 1453.[4][5]
Within decades after the capture of Constantinople by Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire on 29 May 1453, some Eastern Orthodox people were nominating Moscow as the "Third Rome", or the "New Rome".[6] Stirrings of this sentiment began during the reign of Ivan III of Russia who had married Sophia Paleologue. Sophia was a niece of Constantine XI, the last Byzantine emperor. By the rules and laws of inheritance followed by most European monarchies of the time, Ivan could claim that he and his offspring were heirs of the fallen Empire, but the Roman traditions of the empire had never recognized automatic inheritance of the Imperial office.[7]. It is also important to note that she was not the heiress of the Byzantine throne: her brother, Andreas Palaiologos, in fact had the rights of succession to the Byzantine throne. Andreas died in 1502, having sold his titles and royal and imperial rights to Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. This would mean that, in a purely legal sense, the Russian tsars were never entitled to the Byzantine throne. A stronger claim was based on religious symbolism. The Orthodox faith was central to Byzantine notions of their identity and what distinguished them from "barbarians". Vladimir the Great had converted Kievan Rus' to Orthodoxy in 988, in return for which he became the first barbarian to ever get an Imperial princess as a wife.
The idea of Muscovy as heir to Rome crystallized with a panegyric letter composed by the Russian monk Philotheus (Filofey) of Pskov in 1510 to their son Grand Duke Vasili III,[3] which proclaimed, "Two Romes have fallen. The third stands. And there will be no fourth. No one shall replace your Christian Tsardom!" Contrary to the common misconception, Filofey[8] explicitly identifies Third Rome with Muscovy (the country) rather than with Moscow (the city), although the term "Muscovy" was considered synonymous with the Russian lands at the time. Somewhat notably, Moscow is placed on seven hills, as were Rome and Constantinople.
The whole idea could be traced as early as 1492 when Metropolitan of Moscow Zosimus expressed it in a foreword to his work of 1492 "Presentation of the Paschalion" (Russian: "Изложение Пасхалии").[3]
Shortly before Joseph II inherited the States of the House of Austria, he traveled to Russia in 1780. In her conversations with him Catherine II made it clear that she would renew the Byzantine empire and to use her one-year-old grandson Konstantin as Emperor of Constantinople. The guest tried to suggest to the guest that he could be held harmless in the Papal States.[9]
Ottoman claims[edit]
Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror with patriarch Gennadius II depicted on an 18th-century mosaic
After the fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD, Mehmed II declared himself Kayser-i Rum, literally "Caesar of Rome".[10] The claim was recognized by the Orthodox Patriarch of Constantinople, but not by Roman Catholic Western Europe. Gennadios (Georgios Scholarios), a staunch enemy of the West, had been enthroned Patriarch of Constantinople with all the ceremonial attributes of Byzantium by Mehmed himself acting as Roman Emperor and in turn Gennadios recognized Mehmed as successor to the throne.[11] Mehmed's claim rested with the concept that Constantinople was the seat of the Roman Empire, after the transfer of its capital to Constantinople in 330 AD and the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Mehmed also had a blood lineage to the Byzantine Imperial family; his predecessor, Sultan Orhan I had married a Byzantine princess, and Mehmed may have claimed descent from John Tzelepes Komnenos.[12] During that period the Ottoman Empire also destroyed Otranto and its people, and Mehmed II was planning on taking Rome itself when the Italian campaign was cut short by his sudden death.[13] The title fell into disuse after his death, but the imperial bodies created by Mehmed II lived on for centuries to come.[citation needed]
Greek claims[edit]
Main article: Megali Idea
The term appeared for the first time during the debates of Prime Minister Ioannis Kolettis with King Otto that preceded the promulgation of the 1844 constitution.[14] This was a visionary nationalist aspiration that was to dominate foreign relations and, to a significant extent, determine domestic politics of the Greek state for much of the first century of independence. The expression was new in 1844 but the concept had roots in the Greek popular psyche. It long had hopes of liberation from Turkish rule and restoration of the Byzantine Empire.[14]
Πάλι με χρόνια με καιρούς,
πάλι δικά μας θα 'ναι!
(Once more, as years and time go by, once more they shall be ours).[15]
The Megali Idea implied the goal of reviving the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, by establishing a Greek state, which would be, as ancient geographer Strabo wrote, a Greek world encompassing mostly the former Byzantine lands from the Ionian Sea to the west, to Asia Minor and the Black Sea to the east and from Thrace, Macedonia and Epirus to the north, to Crete and Cyprus to the south. This new state would have Constantinople as its capital: it would be the "Greece of Two Continents and Five Seas" (Europe and Asia, the Ionian, Aegean, Marmara, Black and Libyan seas, respectively).
Bulgarian claims[edit]
In 913, Simeon I of Bulgaria was crowned Emperor (Tsar) by the Patriarch of Constantinople and imperial regent Nicholas Mystikos outside of the Byzantine capital. In its final simplified form, the title read "Emperor and Autocrat of all Bulgarians and Romans" (Tsar i samodarzhets na vsichki balgari i gartsi in the modern vernacular). The Roman component in the Bulgarian imperial title indicated both rulership over Greek speakers and the derivation of the imperial tradition from the Romans, however this component was never recognised by the Byzantine court.
Byzantine recognition of Simeon's imperial title was revoked by the succeeding Byzantine government. The decade 914–924 was spent in destructive warfare between Byzantium and Bulgaria over this and other matters of conflict. The Bulgarian monarch, who had further irritated his Byzantine counterpart by claiming the title "Emperor of the Romans" (basileus tōn Rōmaiōn), was eventually recognized, as "Emperor of the Bulgarians" (basileus tōn Boulgarōn) by the Byzantine Emperor Romanos I Lakapenos in 924. Byzantine recognition of the imperial dignity of the Bulgarian monarch and the patriarchal dignity of the Bulgarian patriarch was again confirmed at the conclusion of permanent peace and a Bulgarian-Byzantine dynastic marriage in 927. In the meantime, the Bulgarian imperial title may have been also confirmed by the pope. The Bulgarian imperial title "tsar" was adopted by all Bulgarian monarchs up to the fall of Bulgaria under Ottoman rule. 14th-century Bulgarian literary compositions clearly denote the Bulgarian capital (Tarnovo) as a successor of Rome and Constantinople, in effect, the "Third Rome".
Serbian claims[edit]
See also: Emperor of the Serbs
Flag of the Serbian Empire
In 1345, the Serbian King Stefan Uroš IV Dušan proclaimed himself Emperor (Tsar) and was crowned as such at Skopje on Easter 1346 by the newly created Serbian Patriarch, and by the Patriarch of Bulgaria and the autocephalous Archbishop of Ohrid. His imperial title was recognized by Bulgaria and various other neighbors and trading partners but not by the Byzantine Empire. In its final simplified form, the Serbian imperial title read "Emperor of Serbs and Greeks" (цар Срба и Грка in modern Serbian). It was only employed by Stefan Uroš IV Dušan and his son Stefan Uroš V in Serbia (until his death in 1371), after which it became extinct. A half-brother of Dušan, Simeon Uroš, and then his son Jovan Uroš, claimed the same title, until the latter's abdication in 1373, while ruling as dynasts in Thessaly. The "Greek" component in the Serbian imperial title indicates both rulership over Greeks and the derivation of the imperial tradition from the Romans.
Successor to the Holy Roman Empire[edit]
German claims[edit]
Austrian Empire
German Empire
Both claimed to be the heir of the Holy Roman Empire.
The Carolingian Empire has been claimed to have deliberately sought to revive the Roman Empire in the West.[16] According to early German nationalism, the Carolingian Empire transformed into the Holy Roman Empire as a continuation of the Western Roman Empire.[16] In 800, the title of Emperor of the Romans was granted to Charlemagne by Pope Leo III. The word "holy" (often retroactively applied to all emperors since Charlemagne) was added under the reign of emperor Frederick I Barbarossa in 1157.[17]
After the Holy Roman Empire was dismantled in 1806, the Austrian Empire sought to lay claim as the heir of the Holy Roman Empire as Austria's Habsburgs attempted to unite Germany under their rule.[16] Later the German Empire in 1871 also claimed to be the Third Rome, also through lineage of the HRE.[18][19] The title for emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, the Austrian Empire and the German Empire was Kaiser (derived from Latin Caesar), the German word for emperor.
Claims by the German Empire of 1871 to 1918 of being a "Third Rome" have been criticized because the German Empire was led by a Protestant ruler and no concordat had been achieved with the Catholic Church (that was a major basis of the continuation of Roman culture in the West).[19]
French claims[edit]
Main article: First French Empire
Eagle of Napoleon Bonaparte of France
In four campaigns, the Emperor transformed his "Carolingian" feudal and federal empire into one modelled on the Roman Empire. The memories of imperial Rome were for a third time, after Julius Caesar and Charlemagne, used to modify the historical evolution of France. Though the vague plan for an invasion of Great Britain was never executed, the Battle of Ulm and the Battle of Austerlitz overshadowed the defeat of Trafalgar, and the camp at Boulogne put at Napoleon's disposal the best military resources he had commanded, in the form of La Grande Armée.
Italy as the Third Rome[edit]
In Italy, the concept of a "Third Rome" is related to the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, created in 1861, and the current Italian Republic, created in 1946.
Risorgimento[edit]
Giuseppe Mazzini, Italian nationalist and patriot, promoted the notion of the "Third Rome" during the Risorgimento. He said, "After the Rome of the emperors, after the Rome of the Popes, there will come the Rome of the people", addressing Italian unification and the establishment of Rome as the capital.[20] After the unification of Italy into the Kingdom of Italy, the state was referred to as the Third Rome by Italian figures.[21]
After the unification, Mazzini spoke of the need of Italy as a Third Rome to have imperial aspirations.[22] Mazzini said that Italy should "invade and colonize Tunisian lands" as it was the "key to the Central Mediterranean", and he viewed Italy as having the right to dominate the Mediterranean Sea as ancient Rome had done.[22]
Fascist Empire[edit]
See also: Italian Empire and Italian Fascism
An aquila clutching a fasces was a common symbol used in Fascist Italy.
In his speeches, Italian leader Benito Mussolini referred to his Fascist Italy as a "Third Rome" or as a New Roman Empire.[23] Terza Roma (Third Rome; the Fascist Rome after the Imperial and the Papal ones) was also a name for Mussolini's plan to expand Rome towards Ostia and the sea. The EUR neighbourhood was the first step in that direction.[24]
The European Union as Third Rome[edit]
Although the European Union has never officially claimed to be the resurrection of the Roman Empire, it has a substantial cultural, geographical and historical claim. Greco-Roman culture was spread throughout Europe during the Empire and has laid the foundation of European civilisation,[25] and as such, Roman laws, philosophy and cultural institutions have largely survived in Europe and the territories that make up the European Union, whereas they have been close to completely lost in the non-European parts of the Empire post the Islamic Expansion.[26] With the spread of Latin Christendom, the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire, and the survival of the Byzantine Empire and the Roman Catholic Church, the Roman identity was never completely lost, but transformed into a Christian Identity, as Europe became synonymous with the Land of Christendom during the Carolingian Renaissance [27]. As Greco-Roman culture was imitated and consciously resurrected during the Italian Renaissance of the 14th century, this Christian identity lost its emphasis on religion and gained focus on shared linguistic, historic and cultural origins, transforming into the European Identity. These three identities (Roman, Christian and European) are ultimately based on a sense of belonging to European Civilisation, and as such, one can claim that the European identity is a modern version of the Roman, making a union of Europeans a modern version of Rome.
Continuity of European Civilisation and Unity[edit]
Greco-Mionoan Civilisation[edit]
European Civilisation started in Crete as the Minoans created the first European high culture in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC [28]. The Minoans remained the only high culture in Europe for over 1000 years, and spread their civilisation throughout the Aegean world, most notably to the Mycenaean Greeks, who had settled on the Greek mainland. By the middle of the 2nd millennium BC, the Mycenaeans had become heavily "Minoanised" and made large parts of Minoan culture their own, including art, writing system, architecture and religion [29]. After the Mycenaean conquest of Crete and remaining Minoan territories, these two cultures merged into a single Graco-minoan culture. This culture was largely lost in the Bronze Age collapse, after which the Greek Dark Ages ensued.[30]
Greco-Roman Civilisation[edit]
In the early 9th century BC, the Greeks embarked on a conscious effort to restore their former grandeur and sophistication, leading to the Greek Renaissance ca. 900-600 BC and revival of Greco-Minoan culture. This period is followed by Classical Antiquity, during which the Greeks established the intellectual core of European civilisation. They spent most of this time disunited, with the most powerful Greek states, Athens, Sparta and Thebes, competed for hegemony. However, they did unite for short periods, most notably during the Persian wars and under Phillip the Great of Macedonia. More importantly, they had an extremely strong in-out-group mentality with regards to their culture, considering the peoples of Asia alien degenerates,[31] and viewing the non-hellenised peoples in Europe as barbarians. As such, even though political unity was mostly absent during this time, Greek (and thus European) civilisation was viewed as something very distinct from other peoples.
As the Greek influence grew, much of European Mediterranean was colonised and Hellenised. This included modern Italy from Sicily to Naples (founded by the Greeks as Neapolis). In particular, the Latin people and the City-state of Rome was Hellenised to an extent where they adopted Greek philosophy, architecture, writing system and religion and made it their own, much like the Greeks had adopted the Minoan culture. As the Romans expanded their power and conquered all of Southern and most of Western and Central Europe, these regions were Romanised, many of them to an extent that they adopted the Roman identity, Latin as their primary language (e.g. all of France and Iberia), and as Rome converted to Christendom, so did all of Roman Europe. As the West Roman Empire collapsed in 476 AD, [32] Roman civilisation in Western Europe was severely damaged, and the European Dark Ages began.
The Holy Roman Empire and Modern Era[edit]
In the 8th century, the Franks, with the support of the Catholic Church, had established an Empire that compromised most of Western Europe. As Charlemagne (German: Karl der Große) inherited the Frankish realm, he expanded it to all of Central and Western Europe except the southern tip of Italy and Iberia, and proclaimed the Roman Empire (calling it the Holy Roman Empire) to have been reestablished,[33] and was crowned as Roman Emperor by the Pope in Rome. During his reign, he launched an enormous project to resurrect Roman culture, copying the former Empire's organisational, education and legal systems, art, and classical literature. This is today known as the Carolingian Renaissance, and its main instrument was the Catholic church, the only Roman institution that had survived the collapse, and preserved major elements of Greco-Roman thought, philosophy, science and administration. This, combined with the influence of the Eastern Roman Empire over eastern Europe and the spread of Orthodox Christendom, lead to the subsequent European renaissances (i.e. the Ottoian, 12th century and in particular the Italian Renaissance from the 14th to 17th centuries), which transferred Roman culture to modern era Europe.
The most successful effort of any Holy Roman Emperor to ever fully revive the West Roman Empire was arguably made by Emperor Charles V Quint of Hapsburg, who at the height of his power rule all of Spain, half of Italy, the Netherlands, Alsace and Loarraine, Austria and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.[34] He had the ambition to unite all the Lands of Christendom, but had to abdicate due to religious tension within the Empire, debt in Spain and humiliating loss of Imperial territory to France. The Holy Roman Empire survived as a super-national institution until 1806, when it was conquered by Napoleon,[35] and saw itself as the legitimate heir of Rome and uniter of the Lands of Christendom during most if not all of its existence. After this, Napoleon laid his own claim to having resurrected the Roman Empire, as he had united not only the regions of Charlemagne's Empire, but also Italy and Spain, giving him control of close to all of the West Roman Empire. He was crowned Emperor by the Pope in Rome in 1807 in a ceremony entirely modeled on the coronation of Charlemagne. He adopted the Roman eagle as his standard and proclaimed the following:[36]
“I am a true Roman Emperor; I am of the best race of the Caesars – those who are founders.”
After Napoleon's final defeat and the dissolution of his Empire in 1815, no European ruler has claimed to revive the Roman Empire. The 19th century did, however, see the birth of the first pan-European movements, calling for a united Europe. This idea was popular among intellectuals, and the term "United States of Europe" became widespread, perhaps most famously used be Victor Hugo during his speech at the International Peace Conference 1847:[37]
"A day will come when all nations on our continent will form a European brotherhood ... A day will come when we shall see ... the United States of America and the United States of Europe face to face, reaching out for each other across the seas."
During the second world war, Nazi Germany did subjugate France and the Netherlands, giving it political control over much of Charlemagne's original empire, however, it saw itself as an entirely German entity with no pan-European identity. It considered itself as the Third German Reich, with the Holy Roman Empire being the first and Imperial Germany being the second, its symbolism was modeled on pre-Romanised pagan Germanic culture, using runes and other pagan symbols in its iconography, and its ultimate goal was to expand ethic Germany, exterminating other European peoples (especially to the east), as opposed to uniting European civilisation.
After the war, France launched a European unification project with itself at its core, starting with the Coal and Steal union, followed by the European Community, and finally the European Union. As such, throughout all of European history, there has powerful driving force for political unity. A similar phenomenon can be found at the other side of the Eurasian continent in China, although this driving force has arguably been much stronger than the European equivalent for the past 2000 years. [38]
Historic Symbolism used by the European Union[edit]
Europa and the Bull[edit]
The European Union uses a variety symbols from Greco-Roman culture. In its official buildings are statues of the Goddess Europa and the bull, taken from ancient Crete. In Greek mythology, Zeus transforms himself into a bull, and carries Europa to Crete, where they have the son Minos, who is the first ruler of Crete. This is hence a reference not only to the Hellenic religion practiced by both the Greeks, the Romans, and the peoples they brought into European civilisation, but also to the Minoans, and it represents the ancient Greeks understanding and veneration of where their culture comes from. This bull can further be seen on the Residence Permit of all non-European residing within the Union[39].
Charlemagne[edit]
Since 2008, the European Parliament, together with the city of Aachen (which was Charlemagne's capital city), hands out Charlemagne's Youth Price to a young European who has done a great service to European Unity. This is a recognition of Charlemagne's contribution to resurrecting European civilisation in Western Europe and his ambition for European unity. Perhaps it is also a recognition of the fact that the Holy Roman Empire laid the institutional groundwork for the Union, as it too was an entity above nation states that provided politically alignment and collective protection for a range of different European peoples[40].
In popular culture[edit]
The concept of a "Third Rome" figures greatly in the second memoir of Whittaker Chambers. Although published posthumously as Cold Friday (1964), Chambers had planned it from inception as "The Third Rome". A long chapter called "The Third Rome" appears in the memoir.[41][42][43]
Third Rome is also a DLC for Europa Universalis IV, a grand strategy history game adding features for the Russians.
See also[edit]
Europe portal
History portal
Byzantium after Byzantium (monograph)
Legacy of the Roman Empire
Russian Empire
Translatio imperii
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b c d Mashkov, A.D. Moscow is the Third Rome (МОСКВА - ТРЕТІЙ РИМ). Ukrainian Soviet Encyclopedia.
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Jump up ^ Norwich, John Julius (1995). Byzantium:The Decline and Fall. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 81–82. ISBN 0-679-41650-1.
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^ Jump up to: a b c Craig M. White. The Great German Nation: Origins and Destiny. AuthorHouse, 2007. P. 139.
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Jump up ^ Warwick Ball. Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. London, England, UK: Routledge, 2000. P. 449.
^ Jump up to: a b Craig M. White. The Great German Nation: Origins and Destiny. AuthorHouse, 2007. P. 169.
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Jump up ^ Christopher Duggan. The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796. New York, New York, USA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2008. P. 304.
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Jump up ^ Martin Clark, Mussolini: Profiles in Power (London: Pearson Longman, 2005), 136.
Jump up ^ Discorso pronunciato in Campidoglio per l'insediamento del primo Governatore di Roma il 31 dicembre 1925, Internet Archive copy of a page with a Mussolini speech.
Jump up ^ https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/legal-roman-eagles_how-ancient-rome-influenced-european-law/36688830
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Jump up ^ Cite error: The named reference Dawson, Christopher; Glenn Olsen (1961). Crisis in Western Education (reprint ed.). p. 108. ISBN 9780813216836. was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
Jump up ^ Cite error: The named reference Hood, Sinclair. The Minoans: Crete in the Bronze Age. Thames and Hudson, 1971, pg.114 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
Jump up ^ Cite error: The named reference Karl-Wilhelm Welwei: Die Griechische Frühzeit, C.H. Beck, München, 2002. ISBN 3406479855. pp.12–18 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
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Jump up ^ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-mVFAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA284&lpg=PA284&dq=ancient+greek+asia+degenerate&source=bl&ots=RxC-Jm68Vm&sig=T3Njm0OVqyrYNM0gFC2B0wavjB4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwij-IvAkcHYAhVC6RQKHarZBOQQ6AEIPjAF#v=onepage&q=ancient%20greek%20asia%20degenerate&f=false
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Jump up ^ http://www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/end-holy-roman-empire
Jump up ^ https://www.warhistoryonline.com/ancient-history/napoleon-as-augustus.html
Jump up ^ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideas_of_European_unity_before_1945
Jump up ^ http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture5b.html
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Jump up ^ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Rome#The_Holy_Roman_Empire_and_Modern_Era
Jump up ^ Chambers, Whittaker (1964). Cold Friday. New York: Random House.
Jump up ^ O’Brien, Conor Cruise (19 November 1964). "The Perjured Saint". The New York Review of Books.
Jump up ^ Chambers, David (9 July 2011). "Whittaker Chambers (1901–1961): Ghosts and Phantoms". WhittakerChambers.org.
Bibliography[edit]
Chambers, Whittaker (1964). Cold Friday. New York: Random House.
Dmytryshyn, Basil (transl). 1991. Medieval Russia: A Source Book, 850–1700. 259–261. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Fort Worth, Texas.
Poe, Marshall. "Moscow, the Third Rome: the Origins and Transformations of a 'Pivotal Moment'." Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas (2001) (In Russian: "Izobretenie kontseptsii "Moskva—Tretii Rim". Ab Imperio. Teoriia i istoriia natsional'nostei i natsionalizma v postsovetskom prostranstve 1: 2 (2000), 61–86.)
Martin, Janet. 1995. Medieval Russia: 980-1584. 293. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.
Stremooukhoff, Dimitri (January 1953). "Moscow The Third Rome: Sources of the Doctrine". Speculum. 84–101.
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ICQ
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see ICQ (disambiguation).
ICQ LLC
Original author(s)
Mirabilis
Developer(s)
Mail.Ru
Initial release
November 15, 1996; 20 years ago (1996-11-15)
Stable release
10.0 Build 12094 / June 27, 2016; 15 months ago (2016-06-27)
Repository
github.com/mailru/icqdesktop
Written in
Linux: C++, C
Java ME: Java
Platform
Windows, macOS, Android, iOS, Windows Phone, Linux, Symbian, Java ME, Web platform
Type
Instant messaging client
License
Adware; Linux version under Apache license 2.0
Website
icq.com
ICQ is an instant messaging client that was first developed and popularized by the Israeli company Mirabilis in 1996. The name ICQ derives from the English phrase "I Seek You".[1] Ownership of ICQ passed from Mirabilis to AOL in 1998, and from AOL to Mail.Ru Group in 2010.
The ICQ client application and service were initially released in November 1996 and the client was freely available to download. Users could register an account and would be assigned a number, like a phone number, for others to be able to contact them (users could also provide handles). ICQ was the first stand-alone instant messenger and the first online instant messenger service — while real-time chat was not in itself new to the internet (IRC being the most common platform at the time), the concept of a fully centralized service with individual user accounts focused on one-on-one conversations set the blueprint for later instant messaging services like AIM, and its influence is seen in modern social media applications.
At its peak around 2001, ICQ had more than 100 million accounts registered.[1] At the time of the Mail.Ru acquisition in 2010, there were around 42 million daily users.[2] Since 2013, ICQ has 11 million monthly users.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Features
1.1 Additional products
2 UIN
3 History
3.1 Development history
4 Criticism
4.1 Privacy and copyright
4.2 Pressure on alternative clients
5 Clients
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Features[edit]
ICQ features include offline user messaging, multi-user chats, free daily-limited SMS sending, resumable file transfers, greeting cards, multiplayer games and a searchable user directory. Users can use emoticons while chatting with other users.
ICQ6 was launched on April 17, 2007, and offered a single communication platform that combines the various user options: instant messaging services, free SMS from ICQ to mobile, voice and video communication. The software's sounds were created by the Israeli psychedelic trance duo Infected Mushroom. Among the new additional features in ICQ6 are Quick IM, which allows users to send a short message without opening a conversation window, a "follow me" service directly to the user’s mobile, a multi-chat service and support for Zlango, the animated icons language.
Additional products[edit]
ICQ provides all users additional services and content products:
ICQ TV—An online video magazine. The magazine broadcasts content for teens 24/7.
ICQ SIM Card (together with United Mobile)—A SIM card that enables users traveling across Europe to use their cellular telephones while paying a discount price.
ICQ Game Center—A games platform that enables the user to play with and/or against other users. Available by clicking a button in the contact list.
ICQ2Go—A web instant messaging option for users who cannot download the program onto their computers or use it on the networks they are accessing (for various reasons, like security restrictions or firewalls).
ICQ for Mac[4] (Beta)—Released in February 2010, a version of the client that was developed using the Adobe AIR platform, making it usable on additional operating systems which support the AIR runtime, such as Linux.[citation needed]
Also, users can choose and select their own avatars for their profile pages. In this way, they can protect their privacy.
UIN[edit]
ICQ users are identified and distinguished from one another by UIN, or User Identification Numbers, distributed in sequential order. The UIN was invented by Mirabilis, as the user name assigned to each user upon registration. Issued UINs started at '10,000' (5 digits) and every user receives a UIN when first registering with ICQ. As of ICQ6 users are also able to log in using the specific e-mail address they associated with their UIN during the initial registration process. Unlike other instant messaging software or web applications, on ICQ the only permanent user info is the UIN, although it is possible to search for other users using their associated e-mail address or any other detail they have made public by updating it in their account's public profile. In addition the user can change all of his or her personal information, including screen name and e-mail address, without having to re-register. Since 2000 ICQ and AIM users are able to add each other to their contact list without the need for any external clients. As a response to UIN theft or sale of attractive UINs, ICQ started to store email addresses previously associated with a UIN.[5] As such UINs that are stolen can sometimes be reclaimed. This applies only if (since 1999 onwards) a valid primary email address was entered into the user profile.
History[edit]
The founding company of ICQ, Mirabilis, was established in June 1996 by five Israelis: Yair Goldfinger, Sefi Vigiser, Amnon Amir, Arik Vardi, and Arik's father Yossi Vardi.[6] They recognized that many people were accessing the internet through non-UNIX operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows, and those users were unfamiliar with established chat technologies, e.g. IRC.[citation needed]
The technology Mirabilis developed for ICQ was distributed free of charge. The technology's success encouraged AOL to acquire Mirabilis on June 8, 1998, for $287 million up front and $120 million in additional payments over three years based on performance levels.[7] At the time this was the highest price ever paid to purchase an Israeli technology company.[citation needed] In 2002 AOL successfully patented the technology.[8]
After the purchase the product was initially managed by Ariel Yarnitsky and Avi Shechter. ICQ's management changed at the end of 2003. Under the leadership of the new CEO, Orey Gilliam,[9] who also assumed the responsibility for all of AOL's messaging business in 2007, ICQ resumed its growth; it was not only a highly profitable company, but one of AOL's most successful businesses. Eliav Moshe replaced Gilliam in 2009 and became ICQ's managing director.[10]
In April 2010, AOL sold ICQ to Digital Sky Technologies, headed by Alisher Usmanov, for $187.5 million.[11] While ICQ was displaced by AOL Instant Messenger, Google Talk, and other competitors in the U.S. and many other countries over the 2000s, it remained the most popular instant messaging network in Russian-speaking countries, and an important part of online culture.[12] Popular UINs demanded over 11,000 rubles in 2010.[12]
In September of that year, Digital Sky Technologies changed its name to Mail.Ru Group. Since the acquisition, Mail.ru has invested in turning ICQ from a desktop client to a mobile messaging system. As of 2013, around half of ICQ’s users were using its mobile apps, and in 2014, the number of users began growing for the first time since the purchase.[2]
In March 2016 the source code of the client was released under the Apache license released on github.com.[13][14]
Development history[edit]
ICQ's original logo (1999 - 2014)
ICQ 99a/b the first releases that were widely available.
ICQ 2000 incorporated into Notes and Reminder features.
ICQ 2001 included server-side storage of the contact list, allowing for its synchronization on multiple computers.
On December 19, 2002, AOL Time Warner announced that ICQ had been issued a United States patent for instant messaging.
ICQ 2002 was the last completely advertising-free ICQ version.
ICQ Pro 2003b was the first ICQ version to use the ICQ protocol version 10. However, ICQ 5 and 5.1 use version 9 of the protocol. ICQ 2002 and 2003a used version 8 of the ICQ protocol. Earlier versions (ICQ 2001b and all ICQ clients before it) used ICQ protocol version 7.
ICQ 4 and later ICQ 5 (released on Monday, February 7, 2005), were upgrades on ICQ Lite. One addition was Xtraz, which offers games and features intended to appeal to younger users of the Internet. ICQ Lite was originally an idea to offer the lighter users of instant messaging an alternative client which was a smaller download and less resource-hungry for relatively slow computers.
ICQ 5 introduced skins support. There are few official skins available for the current ICQ 5.1 at the official website; however, a number of user-generated skins have been made available for download.
ICQ 6, released on April 17, 2007, was the first major update since ICQ 4. The user interface has been redesigned using Boxely, the same rendering engine used in AIM Triton. This change adds new features such as the ability to send IMs directly from the client's contact list. ICQ has recently started forcing users of v5.1 to upgrade to version 6 (and XP). Those who do not upgrade will find their older version of ICQ does not start up. Although the upgrade to version 6 should be seen as a positive thing, some users may find that useful features such as sending multiple files at one time is no longer supported in the new version. At the beginning of July 2008, a network upgrade forced users to stop using ICQ 5.1 - applications that identified themselves as ICQ 5, such as Pidgin, were forced to identify themselves as ICQ 6. There seems to be no alternative for users other than using a different IM program or patching ICQ 5.1 with a special application.
ICQ 7.0, released on January 18, 2010. This update includes integration with Facebook and other websites. It also allows custom personal status similar to Windows Live Messenger (MSN Messenger). ICQ 7.0 does not support traditional Chinese on standard installation or with the addition of an official language pack. This has made its adoption difficult with the established user base from Hong Kong and Taiwan where traditional Chinese is the official language.
ICQ 8, released on February 5, 2012 - "Meet the new generation of ICQ, Enjoy free video calls, messages and SMS, social networks support and more."
ICQ 10.0 10242, released January 18, 2016 - Newest update.[15]
Criticism[edit]
According to security analyst Jeffrey Carr, use of ICQ may cause security problems because it was purchased by Russian investment company Digital Sky Technologies. ICQ has fallen out of fashion in the US and the UK, but it remains popular in Eastern Europe and Russia. Carr says the new ownership may be used by Russia's powerful secret service, the FSB (formerly the KGB) since Russian law requires ICQ to open its logs whenever they want.[16] Similar concerns apply to other instant messengers (see Skype security, YIM SPIM, AIM vulnerabilities etc.).
Privacy and copyright[edit]
When accepting "ICQ Privacy Policy" (2011), a user gives all the copyright in the posted information to ICQ Inc.[17] This implies that ICQ Inc. may publish, distribute etc. any messages sent through the system that could be meant to be private:
Please be aware that any information you may have published in a public area (Public Area) may be accessible to ICQ or third parties and used by ICQ or such third parties. Therefore carefully consider whether you wish such information to be accessible. Public areas may include your user profile (depending on the level of your privacy settings) any blogs, message boards, forums or similar services made available through the ICQ Services.
ICQ accounts may be deleted by user.
Pressure on alternative clients[edit]
AOL pursued an aggressive policy regarding alternative ("unauthorized") ICQ clients.
In July 2008 changes were implemented on ICQ servers causing many unofficial clients to stop working. These users received an official notification from "ICQ System".
On December 9, 2008, another change to the ICQ servers was made. The clients that were sending Client IDs not matching ICQ 5.1 or higher stopped working.
On December 29, 2008, ICQ press service distributed a statement characterizing alternative clients as dangerous.[18]
On January 21, 2009, ICQ servers started blocking all unofficial clients in Russia and Commonwealth of Independent States countries.[19] Users in Russia and Ukraine received a message from UIN 1:
"Системное сообщение
ICQ не поддерживает используемую вами версию. Скачайте бесплатную авторизованную версию ICQ с официального web-сайта ICQ.
System Message
The version you are using is not supported by ICQ. Download a free authorized ICQ version from ICQ’s official website."
On icq.com[20] there is an "important message" for Russian-speaking ICQ users: "ICQ осуществляет поддержку только авторизированных версий программ: ICQ Lite и ICQ 6.5." ("ICQ supports only authorized versions of programs: ICQ Lite and ICQ 6.5.")
On February 3, 2009, the events of January 21 have repeated.
Clients[edit]
AOL's OSCAR network protocol used by ICQ is proprietary and using a third party client is a violation of ICQ Terms of Service, nevertheless a number of third-party clients have been created by using reverse-engineering and protocol descriptions. These clients include:
Adium: supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, Google Talk, XMPP, and others, for macOS
Ayttm: supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, and XMPP
bitlbee: IRC gateway, supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, Google Talk, and XMPP
centericq: supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC and XMPP, text-based
climm (formerly mICQ): text-based
Fire: supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, and XMPP, for macOS
Jimm: supports ICQ, for Java ME mobile devices
Kopete: supports AIM, ICQ, MSN, Yahoo, XMPP, Google Talk, IRC, Gadu-Gadu, Novell GroupWise Messenger and others, for Unix-like
Meetro: IM and social networking combined with location; supports AIM, ICQ, MSN, Yahoo!
Miranda IM: supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, Google Talk, XMPP, Gadu-Gadu, BNet and others, for Windows
Naim: ncurses-based
Pidgin (formerly Gaim): supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, Gtalk, MSN, IRC, XMPP, Gadu-Gadu, SILC, Meanwhile, (IBM Lotus Sametime) and others
QIP: supports ICQ, AIM, XMPP and XIMSS
stICQ: supports ICQ, for Symbian OS
Trillian: supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, Google Talk, XMPP and others
AOL supported clients include:
AOL Instant Messenger
Messages/iChat: uses ICQ's UIN as an AIM screenname, for macOS
See also[edit]
Comparison of instant messaging clients
Comparison of instant messaging protocols
LAN messenger
Online chat
Windows Live Messenger
Tencent QQ
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b ICQ Surpasses 100 Million Registered Users, Time Warner Press Release - May 09, 2001 (accessed 2015-05-12).
^ Jump up to: a b Khrennikov, Ilya (29 July 2014), "ICQ Messenger Is Growing for the First Time in Years", Bloomberg Business
Jump up ^ ICQ 11 million users in the world per month, 8 November 2015
Jump up ^ ICQ for Mac
Jump up ^ icq.com[not in citation given]
Jump up ^ An artist for the high-tech age
Jump up ^ "America Online to Buy Internet Chat Service for $287 Million". New York Times. June 9, 1998.
Jump up ^ "BBC NEWS | Technology | AOL wins instant messaging case". news.bbc.co.uk. December 19, 2002. Retrieved 2010-03-31.
Jump up ^ Haner, Lior (Jun 7, 2006). "ICQ, the fashion house Company to enter TV messaging and appliances too". Haaretz Daily Newspaper Ltd. Retrieved 25 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Schütz, Anja. "Why ICQ is so successful in Germany" (in German). NetMediaEurope Germany. Retrieved 25 April 2014.
Jump up ^ "AOL sells ICQ to Russian internet company". Financial Times. April 28, 2010. Archived from the original on April 30, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Kovalev, Alexey (3 May 2010), "Why ICQ is so important to Russia", Wired
Jump up ^ Messeneger ICQ has opened the source code
Jump up ^ icqdesktop on github.com
Jump up ^ "ICQ". File Horse. Retrieved January 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Russian spooks could claim web chat for themselves". Retrieved 2010-07-15.
Jump up ^ "ICQ Privacy Policy — Acceptable Use Policy"
Jump up ^ Официальное заявление ICQ: использовать QIP — опасно (in Russian)
Jump up ^ AOL Engaged in Dubious Competition Practices for ICQ in Russia
Jump up ^ icq.com
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to ICQ.
Official ICQ Website
ICQ Search Website
[hide]
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text:
The Riveras
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Riveras
Genre
Reality
Starring
Chiquis Rivera
Jacqie Campos
Michael Marin
Jenicka Lopez
Juan Angel Lopez
Miguel Campos
Jaylah Hope Yanez
Country of origin
United States
No. of seasons
3
No. of episodes
27 (list of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Janney Marin
Edward Paige
Liane Su
Production company(s)
Blank Paige Productions
Release
Original network
NBC Universo
Original release
October 16, 2016 (2016-10-16) – present
Chronology
Related shows
I Love Jenni
Chiquis 'N Control
External links
Website
The Riveras is an American reality television series that airs on UNIVERSO. The show is a spin-off of I Love Jenni. The series follows the five children of late Mexican-American singer Jenni Rivera as they begin to pursue their dreams and continue to honor Rivera's legacy. The series debuted on October 16, 2016.
Contents
[hide]
1 Production
1.1 Background and Development
1.2 Cast
2 Episodes
2.1 Series overview
2.2 Season 1 (2016)
2.3 Season 2 (2017)
2.4 Season 3 (2018)
2.5 Special
3 References
Production[edit]
Background and Development[edit]
After the death of singer Jenni Rivera, I Love Jenni ran its third and final season on NBC Universo (then known as mun2). The final episodes of the third season focused on Rivera's five children as they deal with life after her passing. The final season of I Love Jenni was the most-watched original mun2 original program. It finished as the fifth most-watched program with Hispanic females 18-49 and seventh most watched series with Hispanic adults 18-49[1][2]
In May 2016, Telemundo and UNIVERSO announced The Riveras as an upcoming series on UNIVERSO as well as other Jenni Rivera related programming.[3][4]
On November 6, 2017, during the finale of Mariposa de Barrio on Telemundo, UNIVERSO announced that a third season would premiere in 2018.
On March 1, 2018, UNIVERSO announced that The Riveras has been picked up for a fourth season set to premiere in 2019.
Cast[edit]
The series stars the five children of singer Jenni Rivera: Chiquis, Jacqie, Michael, Jenicka, and Juan Angel, as they pursue their dreams and honor their mother's legacy. Viewers see how they manage their mother's enterprise featuring her music, tequila, fashion line, and love foundation. The show features archive footage of Jenni Rivera from I Love Jenni and Chiquis 'N Control.
Episodes[edit]
Series overview[edit]
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
First aired
Last aired
1 10 October 16, 2016 (2016-10-16) December 18, 2016 (2016-12-18)
2 10 February 26, 2017 (2017-02-26) April 30, 2017 (2017-04-30)
3 TBA March 11, 2018 (2018-03-11) TBA
Season 1 (2016)[edit]
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Original air date
1
1 "Nueva Cabeza de Familia" October 16, 2016 (2016-10-16)
2
2 "Little Divas" October 23, 2016 (2016-10-23)
3
3 "Movin' On" October 30, 2016 (2016-10-30)
4
4 "Señor Madre" November 6, 2016 (2016-11-06)
5
5 "Birds & Boss Bees" November 13, 2016 (2016-11-13)
6
6 "Get Your Geek On" November 20, 2016 (2016-11-20)
7
7 "Mi Padre" November 27, 2016 (2016-11-27)
8
8 "Growing Pains" December 4, 2016 (2016-12-04)
9
9 "Paloma Negra" December 11, 2016 (2016-12-11)
10
10 "Mud Is Thicker Than Water" December 18, 2016 (2016-12-18)
Season 2 (2017)[edit]
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Original air date
11
1 "L.A.M.A.S." February 26, 2017 (2017-02-26)
12
2 "Million Dollar Mexican" March 5, 2017 (2017-03-05)
13
3 "Bright Lights, Big Sisters" March 12, 2017 (2017-03-12)
14
4 "The Butt Stops Here" March 19, 2017 (2017-03-19)
15
5 "Divine Inspiration" March 26, 2017 (2017-03-26)
16
6 "Día de los Muertos" April 2, 2017 (2017-04-02)
17
7 "The Cup is Half Empty" April 9, 2017 (2017-04-09)
18
8 "The Day After Tomorrow" April 16, 2017 (2017-04-16)
19
9 "Mex in the City" April 23, 2017 (2017-04-23)
20
10 "Talking Rivera" April 30, 2017 (2017-04-30)
Season 3 (2018)[edit]
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Original air date
21
1 "El amor no vive aquí" March 11, 2018 (2018-03-11)
22
2 "Tu eres el Juan que quiero" March 18, 2018 (2018-03-18)
23
3 "Casamenteras" March 25, 2018 (2018-03-25)
24
4 "¿Juntos o por separado?" April 1, 2018 (2018-04-01)
25
5 "Chiquis se lleva una sorpresa" April 8, 2018 (2018-04-08)
26
6 "Conmoción" April 15, 2018 (2018-04-15)
27
7 "Pónle un anillo" April 22, 2018 (2018-04-22)
Special[edit]
Title
Original air date
"Remembering Jenni, Our Mom" December 9, 2017 (2017-12-09)[5]
The Rivera family, their friends and fans celebrate the life of Jenni Rivera to commemorate the fifth anniversary of her departure, with her best moments and stories never before told.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "mun2 Has Largest Third Quarter Primetime Delivery Among Total Viewers". TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com. 2013-10-02. Retrieved 2016-08-22.
Jump up ^ "'The Riveras' Reality Show: Chiquis Rivera And Family's Life To Air On NBC Universo". Latin Times. May 16, 2016. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ "Telemundo & NBC Universo Announce New Music Programming & Series at Upfronts". Retrieved 2016-08-22.
Jump up ^ "Jenni Rivera's Family Is Coming Back To TV With New Reality Series". Latina. May 23, 2016. Retrieved 22 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "JENNI RIVERA'S CHILDREN CELEBRATE THE LIFE OF THEIR MOTHER WITH A ONE-HOUR SPECIAL "REMEMBERING JENNI, OUR MOM" ON UNIVERSO SAT., DEC. 9 AT 7PM/6C". nbcuniversal.com. Retrieved 14 December 2017.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Riveras&oldid=838093025"
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Rivers in Himachal Pradesh
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Himachal Pradesh provides water to both the Indus and Ganges basins. The drainage systems of the region are the Chandra Bhaga or the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas, the Sutlej and the Yamuna. These rivers are perennial and are fed by snow and rainfall. They are protected by an extensive cover of natural vegetation.
Beas river and mountains as seen from Van Vihar, Manali
Beas River in Himachal Pradesh
The Beas rises in the Pir Panjal range near the Rohtang Pass and flows about 256 kilometres (159 mi) in Himachal Pradesh. The river is formed by a numerous of tributaries; the major tributaries are the Parbati, the Hurla, the Sainj, the Uhl, the Suheti, the Luni, the Banganga and the Chaki. The northern and eastern tributaries of the river are snow fed and perennial, while the southern ones are seasonal. During the month of August, increase in the inflow sometimes results in floods.
The Chandrabhaga or Chenab (Vedic name Askni), the largest river (in terms of volume of water) is formed after the meeting of two streams namely, Chandra and Bhaga at Tandi, in Lahaul. It flows 122 kilometres (76 mi) and covers an area of 7,500 square kilometres (2,900 sq mi). in Himachal, before entering Kashmir. The Chandra passes through the barren tribal land.
The Ravi is born in Bara Banghal, Kangra district as a joint stream formed by the glacier fead Bhadal and Tantgari. The river is about 158 kilometres (98 mi) long and has a catchment area of nearly 5,451 square kilometres (2,105 sq mi). Chamba lies on its right bank.
Sutlej Valley from Rampur ca. 1857
Giri River, Nahan, district Sirmaur, Himachal Pardesh
The Satluj originates in distant Tibet. The river cuts through both the great Himalayan and the Zaskar ranges and crosses the Indo-Tibetan border (near Shipkila). Then the river Spiti joins Satluj from the north. Passing through gorges it emerges from the mountains at Bhakra. The catchment area of Satluj in Himachal Pradesh is about 20,000 square kilometres (7,700 sq mi).
The Yamuna has its origin in Yamunotri in Uttarkashi district, Uttarakhand. Its total catchment area in Himachal Pradesh is 2,320 square kilometres (900 sq mi). Its tributaries are the Tons, the Giri and the Bata.[1]
The Ghaggar river originates in the village of Dagshai in the Shivalik Hills of Himachal Pradesh at an elevation of 1,927 metres (6,322 ft) above mean sea level[2] and flows through Punjab and Haryana states into Rajasthan;[3] just southwest of Sirsa, Haryana and by the side of Talwara Lake in Rajasthan.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ General outline of rivers in Himachal @ webindia123
Jump up ^ Shanker Sharma, Hari; Kalwar, S. C. (2005). Geomorphology and Environmental Sustainability: Felicitation Volume in Honour of Professor H.S. Sharma. Concept Publishing Company. p. 61. ISBN 978-81-8069-028-0.
Jump up ^ "Sarasvati: Tracing the death of a river". Retrieved 12 June 2010.
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