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Arachidonic acid
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Arachidonic acid
Names
IUPAC name
(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z)-5,8,11,14-Eicosatetraenoic acid
Systematic IUPAC name
(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z)-Icosa-5,8,11,14-tetraenoic acid[1]
Other names
5,8,11,14-all-cis-Eicosatetraenoic acid; all-cis-5,8,11,14-Eicosatetraenoic acid; Arachidonate
Identifiers
CAS Number
506-32-1 Y
3D model (JSmol)
Interactive image
3DMet B00061
Beilstein Reference
1713889
ChEBI
CHEBI:15843 Y
ChEMBL
ChEMBL15594 Y
ChemSpider
392692 Y
DrugBank
DB04557 N
ECHA InfoCard 100.007.304
EC Number 208-033-4
IUPHAR/BPS
2391
KEGG
C00219 N
MeSH Arachidonic+acid
PubChem CID
444899
RTECS number CE6675000
UNII
27YG812J1I Y
InChI[show]
InChI=1S/C20H32O2/c1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10-11-12-13-14-15-16-17-18-19-20(21)22/h6-7,9-10,12-13,15-16H,2-5,8,11,14,17-19H2,1H3,(H,21,22) N
Key: YZXBAPSDXZZRGB-UHFFFAOYSA-N N
InChI=1S/C20H32O2/c1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10-11-12-13-14-15-16-17-18-19-20(21)22/h6-7,9-10,12-13,15-16H,2-5,8,11,14,17-19H2,1H3,(H,21,22)/b7-6-,10-9-,13-12-,16-15-
Key: YZXBAPSDXZZRGB-DOFZRALJSA-N
SMILES[show]
CCCCC/C=C\C/C=C\C/C=C\C/C=C\CCCC(=O)O
Properties
Chemical formula
C20H32O2
Molar mass 304.47 g·mol−1
Density 0.922 g/cm3
Melting point −49 °C (−56 °F; 224 K)
Boiling point 169 to 171 °C (336 to 340 °F; 442 to 444 K) at 0.15 mmHg
log P 6.994
Acidity (pKa) 4.752
Hazards
R-phrases (outdated) R19
NFPA 704
1
1
0
Flash point 113 °C (235 °F; 386 K)
Related compounds
Related compounds
Eicosatetraenoic acid
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
N verify (what is Y N ?)
Infobox references
Arachidonic acid (AA, sometimes ARA) is a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid 20:4(ω-6). It is structurally related to the saturated arachidic acid found in Cupuaçu butter (L. arachis – peanut).[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Chemistry
2 Biology
3 Conditionally essential fatty acid
4 The synthesis and cascade in humans
4.1 PLA2 activation
4.2 PLC activation
5 In the body
5.1 Muscle growth
5.2 Brain
5.3 Alzheimer's disease
5.4 Bodybuilding supplement
6 Dietary arachidonic acid and inflammation
7 Health effects of arachidonic acid supplementation
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Chemistry[edit]
In chemical structure, arachidonic acid is a carboxylic acid with a 20-carbon chain and four cis-double bonds; the first double bond is located at the sixth carbon from the omega end.
Some chemistry sources define 'arachidonic acid' to designate any of the eicosatetraenoic acids. However, almost all writings in biology, medicine and nutrition limit the term to all-cis-5,8,11,14-eicosatetraenoic acid.
Biology[edit]
Arachidonic acid is a polyunsaturated fatty acid present in the phospholipids (especially phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylcholine, and phosphatidylinositides) of membranes of the body's cells, and is abundant in the brain, muscles, and liver. Skeletal muscle is an especially active site of arachidonic acid retention, accounting for roughly 10-20% of the phospholipid fatty acid content on average.[3]
In addition to being involved in cellular signaling as a lipid second messenger involved in the regulation of signaling enzymes, such as PLC-γ, PLC-δ, and PKC-α, -β, and -γ isoforms, arachidonic acid is a key inflammatory intermediate and can also act as a vasodilator.[4] (Note separate synthetic pathways, as described in section below.)
Conditionally essential fatty acid[edit]
Main article: Essential fatty acid § Essentiality
Arachidonic acid in the human body usually comes from dietary animal sources—meat, eggs, dairy—or is synthesized from linoleic acid.
Arachidonic acid is not one of the essential fatty acids. However, it does become essential if there is a deficiency in linoleic acid or if there is an inability to convert linoleic acid to arachidonic acid.
Some mammals lack the ability to, or have a very limited capacity to convert linoleic acid in to arachidonic acid, making it an essential part of their diets. Since little or no arachidonic acid is found in common plants, such animals are obligate carnivores; the cat is a common example having inability to desaturate essential fatty acids .[5][6] A commercial source of arachidonic acid has been derived, however, from the fungus Mortierella alpina.[7]
The synthesis and cascade in humans[edit]
Eicosanoid synthesis.
Arachidonic acid is freed from a phospholipid molecule by the enzyme phospholipase A2 (PLA2), which cleaves off the fatty acid, but can also be generated from DAG by diacylglycerol lipase.[4]
Arachidonic acid generated for signaling purposes appears to be derived by the action of group IVA cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2, 85 kDa), whereas inflammatory arachidonic acid is generated by the action of a low-molecular-weight secretory PLA2 (sPLA2, 14-18 kDa).[4]
Arachidonic acid is the precursor that is metabolized by various enzymes to a wide range of biologically and clinically important eicosanoids and metabolites of these eicosanoids:
The enzymes cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 (i.e. prostaglandin G/H synthase 1 and 2 {PTGS1 and PTGS2}) metabolize arachidonic acid to Prostaglandin G2 and prostaglandin H2, which in turn may be converted to various prostaglandins, to prostacyclin, to thromboxanes, and to the 17-carbon product of thromboxane metabolism of prostaglandin G2/H2, 12-Hydroxyheptadecatrienoic acid (12-HHT).[8][9]
The enzyme 5-lipoxygenase metabolizes arachidonic acid to 5-hydroperoxyicosatetraenoic acid (5-HPETE), which in turn is metabolized to various leukotrienes (i.e. leukotriene B4, leukotriene C4, leukotriene D4, and leukotriene E4 as well as to 5-hydroxyicosatetraenoic acid (5-HETE) which may then be further metabolized to 5-HETE's more potent 5-keto analog, 5-oxo-eicosatetraenoic acid (5-oxo-ETE) (also see 5-Hydroxyicosatetraenoic acid.[10]
The enzymes 15-lipoxygenase-1 (ALOX15 and 15-lipoxygenase-2 (ALOX15B metabolize arachidonic acid to 15-hydroperoxyicosatetraemoic acid (15-HPETE) which may then be further metabolized to 15-hydroxyicosatetraenoic acid (15-HETE) and lipoxins;[11][12][13] 15-Lipoxygenase-1 may also further metabolize 15-HPETE to eoxins in a pathway analogous to (and presumably using the same enzymes as used in) the pathway which metabolizes 5-HPETE to leukotrienes.[14]
The enzyme 12-lipoxygenase (ALOX12) metabolizes arachidonic acid to 12-hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid (12-HPETE0 which may then be metabolized to 12-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (12-HETE) and to hepoxilins.[15]
Arachidonic acid is also used in the biosynthesis of anandamide.[16]
Some arachidonic acid is converted into hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs) and epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs) by epoxygenase.[17]
The production of these derivatives and their action in the body are collectively known as the "arachidonic acid cascade"; see essential fatty acid interactions and the enzyme and metabolite linkages given in the previous paragraph for more details.
PLA2 activation[edit]
Further information: Phospholipase_A2 § Regulation
PLA2, in turn, is activated by ligand binding to receptors, including:
5-HT2 receptors [18]
mGLUR1[18]
bFGF receptor[18]
IFN-α receptor[18]
IFN-γ receptor[18]
Furthermore, any agent increasing intracellular calcium may cause activation of some forms of PLA2.[19]
PLC activation[edit]
Further information: Phospholipase C § Activation
Alternatively, arachidonic acid may be cleaved from phospholipids after phospholipase C (PLC) cleaves off the inositol trisphosphate group, yielding diacylglycerol (DAG), which subsequently is cleaved by DAG lipase to yield arachidonic acid.[18]
Receptors that activate this pathway include:
A1 receptor[19]
D2 receptor[19]
α-2 adrenergic receptor[19]
5-HT1 receptor[19]
PLC may also be activated by MAP kinase. Activators of this pathway include PDGF and FGF.[19]
In the body[edit]
Muscle growth[edit]
Arachidonic acid promotes the repair and growth of skeletal muscle tissue via conversion to prostaglandin PGF2alpha during and following physical exercise.[20] PGF2alpha promotes muscle protein synthesis by signaling through the Akt/mTOR pathway,[20] similar to leucine, β-hydroxy β-methylbutyric acid, and phosphatidic acid.
Brain[edit]
Arachidonic acid is one of the most abundant fatty acids in the brain, and is present in similar quantities to docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The two account for approximately 20% of its fatty acid content.[21] Like DHA, neurological health is reliant upon sufficient levels of arachidonic acid. Among other things, arachidonic acid helps to maintain hippocampal cell membrane fluidity.[22] It also helps protect the brain from oxidative stress by activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma.[23] ARA also activates syntaxin-3 (STX-3), a protein involved in the growth and repair of neurons.[24]
Arachidonic acid is also involved in early neurological development. In one study funded by the U.S. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, infants (18 months) given supplemental arachidonic acid for 17 weeks demonstrated significant improvements in intelligence, as measured by the Mental Development Index.[25] This effect is further enhanced by the simultaneous supplementation of ARA with DHA.
In adults, the disturbed metabolism of ARA may contribute to neuropsychiatric disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and Bipolar disorder.[26] There is evidence of significant alterations in the conversion of arachidonic acid to other bioactive molecules (overexpression or disturbances in the ARA enzyme cascade) in these conditions.
Alzheimer's disease[edit]
Studies on arachidonic acid and the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease is mixed, with one study of AA and its metabolites that suggests they are associated with the onset of Alzheimer's disease,[27] whereas another study suggests that the supplementation of arachidonic acid during the early stages of this disease may be effective in reducing symptoms and slowing the disease progress.[28] Additional studies on arachidonic acid supplementation for Alzheimer's patients are needed. Another study indicates that air pollution is the source of inflammation and arachidonic acid metabolites promote the inflammation to signal the immune system of the cell damage.[29]
Bodybuilding supplement[edit]
Arachidonic acid is marketed as an anabolic bodybuilding supplement in a variety of products. Supplementation of arachidonic acid (1,500 mg/day for 8 weeks) has been shown to increase lean body mass, strength, and anaerobic power in experienced resistance-trained men. This was demonstrated in a placebo-controlled study at the University of Tampa. Thirty men (aged 20.4 ± 2.1 years) took arachidonic acid or a placebo for 8 weeks, and participated in a controlled resistance-training program. After 8 weeks, Lean Body Mass (LBM) had increased significantly, and to a greater extent, in the ARA group (1.62 kg) vs. placebo (0.09 kg) (p<0.05). The change in muscle thickness was also greater in the ARA group (.47 cm) than placebo (.25 cm) (p<0.05). Wingate anaerobic power increased to a greater extent in ARA group as well (723.01 to 800.66 W) vs. placebo (738.75 to 766.51 W). Lastly, the change in total strength was significantly greater in the ARA group (109.92 lbs.) compared to placebo (75.78 lbs.). These results suggest that ARA supplementation can positively augment adaptations in strength and skeletal muscle hypertrophy in resistance-trained men.[30]
An earlier clinical study examining the effects of 1,000 mg/day of arachidonic acid for 50 days found supplementation to enhance anaerobic capacity and performance in exercising men. During this study, a significant group–time interaction effect was observed in Wingate relative peak power (AA: 1.2 ± 0.5; P: -0.2 ± 0.2 W•kg-1, p=0.015). Statistical trends were also seen in bench press 1RM (AA: 11.0 ± 6.2; P: 8.0 ± 8.0 kg, p=0.20), Wingate average power (AA:37.9 ± 10.0; P: 17.0 ± 24.0 W, p=0.16), and Wingate total work (AA: 1292 ± 1206; P: 510 ± 1249 J, p=0.087). AA supplementation during resistance-training promoted significant increases in relative peak power with other performance related variables approaching significance. These findings support the use of AA as an ergogenic.[31]
Dietary arachidonic acid and inflammation[edit]
Increased consumption of arachidonic acid will not cause inflammation during normal metabolic conditions unless lipid peroxidation products are mixed in. Arachidonic acid is metabolized to both proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory eicosanoids during and after the inflammatory response, respectively. Arachidonic acid is also metabolized to inflammatory and anti-inflammatory eicosanoids during and after physical activity to promote growth. However chronic inflammation from exogenous toxins and excessive exercise should not be confused with acute inflammation from exercise and sufficient rest that is required by the inflammatory response to promote the repair and growth of the micro tears of tissues.[32] However, the evidence is mixed. Some studies giving between 840 mg and 2,000 mg per day to healthy individuals for up to 50 days have shown no increases in inflammation or related metabolic activities.[32][33][34][35] However, others show that increased arachidonic acid levels are actually associated with reduced pro-inflammatory IL-6 and IL-1 levels and increased anti-inflammatory tumor necrosis factor-beta.[36] This may result in a reduction in systemic inflammation.[medical citation needed]
Arachidonic acid does still play a central role in inflammation related to injury and many diseased states. How it is metabolized in the body dictates its inflammatory or anti-inflammatory activity. Individuals suffering from joint pains or active inflammatory disease may find that increased arachidonic acid consumption exacerbates symptoms, presumably because it is being more readily converted to inflammatory compounds[medical citation needed]. Likewise, high arachidonic acid consumption is not advised for individuals with a history of inflammatory disease, or who are in compromised health. Of note, while ARA supplementation does not appear to have proinflammatory effects in healthy individuals, it may counter the anti-inflammatory effects of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation.[37]
Health effects of arachidonic acid supplementation[edit]
Arachidonic acid supplementation in daily dosages of 1,000–1,500 mg for 50 days has been well tolerated during several clinical studies, with no significant side effects reported. All common markers of health, including kidney and liver function,[34] serum lipids,[38] immunity,[39] and platelet aggregation[33] appear to be unaffected with this level and duration of use. Furthermore, higher concentrations of ARA in muscle tissue may be correlated with improved insulin sensitivity.[40] Arachidonic acid supplementation of the diets of healthy adults appears to offer no toxicity or significant safety risk.
While studies looking at arachidonic acid supplementation in sedentary subjects have failed to find changes in resting inflammatory markers in doses up to 1,500 mg daily, strength-trained subjects may respond differently. One study at Baylor University reported a significant reduction in resting inflammation (via marker IL-6) in young men supplementing 1,000 mg/day of arachidonic acid for 50 days in combination with resistance training. This suggests that rather being pro-inflammatory, supplementation of ARA while undergoing resistance training may actually improve the regulation of systemic inflammation.[41]
A meta-analysis by Cambridge University looking for associations between heart disease risk and individual fatty acids reported a significantly reduced risk of heart disease with higher levels of EPA and DHA (Omega-3 fats), as well as the Omega-6 Arachidonic Acid.[42] A scientific advisory from the American Heart Association has also favorably evaluated the health impact of dietary omega-6 fats, including arachidonic acid.[32] The group does not recommend limiting this essential fatty acid. In fact, the paper recommends individuals follow a diet that consists of at least 5–10% of calories coming from omega-6 fats, including arachidonic acid. It suggests dietary ARA is not a risk factor for heart disease, and may play a role in maintaining optimal metabolism and reduced heart disease risk. It is, therefore, recommended to maintain sufficient intake levels of both omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids for optimal health.
Arachidonic acid is not carcinogenic, and studies show dietary level is not associated (positively or negatively) with risk of cancers.[43][44][45][46] ARA remains integral to the inflammatory and cell growth process, however, which is disturbed in many types of disease including cancer. Therefore, the safety of arachidonic acid supplementation in patients suffering from cancer, inflammatory, or other diseased states is unknown, and supplementation is not recommended.
See also[edit]
Aspirin—inhibits cyclooxygenase enzyme, preventing conversion of arachidonic acid to other signal molecules
Fish oil
Polyunsaturated fat
Polyunsaturated fatty acid
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Roberts, MD; Iosia, M; Kerksick, CM; Taylor, LW; Campbell, B; Wilborn, CD; Harvey, T; Cooke, M; Rasmussen, C; Greenwood, M; Wilson, R; Jitomir, J; Willoughby, D; Kreider, RB (Nov 28, 2007). "Effects of arachidonic acid supplementation on training adaptations in resistance-trained males". Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 4: 21. doi:10.1186/1550-2783-4-21. PMC 2217562  . PMID 18045476.
Jump up ^ Chowdhury, R; Warnakula, S; Kunutsor, S; Crowe, F; Ward, HA; Johnson, L; Franco, OH; Butterworth, AS; Forouhi, NG; Thompson, SG; Khaw, KT; Mozaffarian, D; Danesh, J; Di Angelantonio, E (Mar 18, 2014). "Association of dietary, circulating, and supplement fatty acids with coronary risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Annals of Internal Medicine. 160 (6): 398–406. doi:10.7326/M13-1788. PMID 24723079.
Jump up ^ Schuurman, AG; Van Den Brandt, PA; Dorant, E; Brants, HA; Goldbohm, RA (1999). "Association of energy and fat intake with prostate carcinoma risk: results from The Netherlands Cohort Study". Cancer. 86 (6): 1019–27. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0142(19990915)86:6<1019::AID-CNCR18>3.0.CO;2-H. PMID 10491529.
Jump up ^ Leitzmann, MF; Stampfer, MJ; Michaud, DS; Augustsson, K; Colditz, GC; Willett, WC; Giovannucci, EL (2004). "Dietary intake of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids and the risk of prostate cancer". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 80 (1): 204–16. PMID 15213050.
Jump up ^ Astorg, P (2005). "Dietary fatty acids and colorectal and prostate cancers: epidemiological studies". Bulletin du cancer. 92 (7): 670–84. PMID 16123006.
Jump up ^ Whelan, J; McEntee, MF (2004). "Dietary (n-6) PUFA and intestinal tumorigenesis". The Journal of Nutrition. 134 (12 Suppl): 3421S–3426S. PMID 15570048.
External links[edit]
Arachidonic Acid at acnp.org
Arachidonic Acid at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
[show]
v
t
e
Eicosanoids
Precursor
Arachidonic acid
Prostanoids
Prostaglandins (PG)
Precursor
H2
Active
D/J
D2
E/F
E2 (Dinoprostone)
E1 (Alprostadil)
F2α (Dinoprost):
I
I2 (Prostacyclin/Epoprostenol):
Thromboxanes (TX)
A2
B2
Leukotrienes (LT)
Precursor
Arachidonic acid 5-hydroperoxide
Initial
A4
B4
SRS-A
C4
D4
E4
Eoxins (EX)
Precursor
Arachidonic acid 15-hydroperoxide
Eoxins
A4
C4
D4
E4
Nonclassic
Lipoxins (LX) (A4, B4)
Virodhamine
By function
bronchoconstriction
PGD2
TXA2
LTC4
LTD4
LTE4
vasoconstriction
PGF2α
TXA2
TXB2)
vasodilation
PGE2
PGI2
LTC4
LTD4
LTE4
platelets: induce
TXA2
inhibit
PGD2
PGI2
leukocytes: induce
TXA2
LTB4
inhibit
PGD2
PGE2
fever stimulation:
PGE2
labor stimulation:
PGE2 (Dinoprostone)
PGF2α (Dinoprost)
[show]
v
t
e
Lipids: fatty acids
Saturated
Butyric (C4)
Valeric (C5)
Caproic (C6)
Enanthic (C7)
Caprylic (C8)
Pelargonic (C9)
Capric (C10)
Undecylic (C11)
Lauric (C12)
Tridecylic (C13)
Myristic (C14)
Pentadecanoic (C15)
Palmitic (C16)
Margaric (C17)
Stearic (C18)
Nonadecylic (C19)
Arachidic (C20)
Heneicosylic (C21)
Behenic (C22)
Tricosylic (C23)
Lignoceric (C24)
Pentacosylic (C25)
Cerotic (C26)
Heptacosylic (C27)
Montanic (C28)
Nonacosylic (C29)
Melissic (C30)
Hentriacontylic (C31)
Lacceroic (C32)
Psyllic (C33)
Geddic (C34)
Ceroplastic (C35)
Hexatriacontylic (C36)
Heptatriacontanoic (C37)
Octatriacontanoic (C38)
Nonatriacontanoic (C39)
Tetracontanoic (C40)
ω−3 Unsaturated
α-Linolenic (18:3)
Stearidonic (18:4)
Eicosapentaenoic (20:5)
Docosahexaenoic (22:6)
ω−5 Unsaturated
Myristoleic (14:1)
α-Eleostearic (18:3)
β-Eleostearic (trans-18:3)
Punicic (18:3)
ω−6 Unsaturated
Linoleic (18:2)
Linolelaidic (trans-18:2)
γ-Linolenic (18:3)
Calendic (18:3)
Pinolenic (18:3)
Dihomo-γ-linolenic (20:3)
Arachidonic (20:4)
Adrenic (22:4)
Osbond (22:5)
ω−7 Unsaturated
Palmitoleic (16:1)
Vaccenic (18:1)
Paullinic (20:1)
ω−9 Unsaturated
Oleic (18:1)
Elaidic (trans-18:1)
Gondoic (20:1)
Erucic (22:1)
Nervonic (24:1)
Mead (20:3)
ω−10 Unsaturated
Sapienic (16:1)
ω−11 Unsaturated
Gadoleic (20:1)
ω−12 Unsaturated
Petroselinic (18:1)
[show]
Biological activity
[show]
v
t
e
Leukotriene signaling modulators
Receptor
(ligands)
BLT
BLT1
Agonists: 12-HETE
20-Hydroxy-LTB4
Leukotriene B4
LY-255283
Antagonists: 20-Carboxy-LTB4
Amelubant
CGS-23131 (LY-223982)
CGS-25019C
CP-105696
CP-195543
Etalocib
LY-293111
Moxilubant
ONO-4057
RG-14893
RP-69698
SB-209247
SC-53228
Ticolubant
U-75302
ZK-158252
BLT2
Agonists: 12-HETE
12-HHT
12-HpETE
15-HETE
15-HpETE
20-Hydroxy-LTB4
Leukotriene B4
Antagonists: CP-195543
LY-255283
ZK-158252
CysLT
CysLT1
Agonists: Leukotriene C4
Leukotriene D4
Leukotriene E4
Antagonists: Ablukast
BAYu9773
BAYu9916
BAYx7195
Cinalukast
FPL-55712
ICI-198615
Iralukast
LY-170680
Masilukast
MK-571
Montelukast
ONO-1078
Pobilukast
Pranlukast
Ritolukast
SKF-104353
SR-2640
Sulukast
Tipelukast
Tomelukast
Verlukast
Zafirlukast
ZD-3523
CysLT2
Agonists: Leukotriene C4
Leukotriene D4
Leukotriene E4
Antagonists: BAYu9773
BAYu9916
CysLTE
Agonists: Leukotriene E4
Enzyme
(inhibitors)
5-LOX
2-TEDC
Baicalein
BW-A4C
BW-B70C
Caffeic acid
CDC
CJ-13610
Curcumin
Fenleuton
Hyperforin
Hypericum perforatum (St. John's Wort)
Meclofenamic acid (meclofenamate)
Minocycline
N-Stearoyldopamine
Timegadine
Zileuton
FLAP inhibitors: AM-103
AM-679
BAYx1005
MK-591
MK-886
12-LOX
2-TEDC
3-Methoxytropolone
Baicalein
CDC
15-LOX
2-TEDC
CDC
Luteolin
PD-146176
LTA4H
Acebilustat
Captopril
DG-051
Fosinoprilat
JNJ-26993135
SA-6541
SC-57461A
Ubenimex (bestatin)
LTB4H
17-Octadecynoic acid
LTC4S
Azelastine
MK-886
LTC4H
Acivicin
Serine-borate complex
LTD4
Cilastatin
Ubenimex (bestatin)
Others
Precursors: Linoleic acid
γ-Linolenic acid (gamolenic acid)
Dihomo-γ-linolenic acid
Diacylglycerol
Arachidonic acid
5-HPETE (arachidonic acid 5-hydroperoxide)
Leukotriene A4
See also
Receptor/signaling modulators
Prostanoid signaling modulators
Nuclear receptor modulators
[show]
v
t
e
PPAR modulators
PPARα
Agonists: 15-HETE
15-HpETE
Aleglitazar
Aluminium clofibrate
Arachidonic acid
Bezafibrate
Clofibrate
CP-775146
Daidzein
DHEA (prasterone) (in rodents)
Elafibranor
Etomoxir
Fenofibrate
Genistein
Gemfibrozil
GW-7647
Lanifibranor
Leukotriene B4
LG-101506
LG-100754
Lobeglitazone
Muraglitazar
Oleylethanolamide
Palmitoylethanolamide
Pemafibrate
Perfluorononanoic acid
Perfluorooctanoic acid
Pioglitazone
Saroglitazar
Sodelglitazar
Tesaglitazar
Tetradecylthioacetic acid
Troglitazone
WY-14643
Antagonists: GW-6471
MK-886
PPARδ
Agonists: 15-HETE
15-HpETE
Arachidonic acid
Bezafibrate
Daidzein
Elafibranor
Fonadelpar
Genistein
GW-0742
GW-501516
L-165,041
Lanifibranor
LG-101506
Seladelpar
Sodelglitazar
Tetradecylthioacetic acid
Antagonists: FH-535
GSK-0660
GSK-3787
PPARγ
Agonists: 5-Oxo-ETE
5-Oxo-15-hydroxy-ETE
15-Deoxy-Δ12,14-prostaglandin J2
15-HETE
15-HpETE
Aleglitazar
Arachidonic acid
Balaglitazone
Berberine
Bezafibrate
Cevoglitazar
Ciglitazone
Daidzein
Darglitazone
Edaglitazone
Efatutazone
Englitazone
Etalocib
Farglitazar
Genistein
GW-1929
Ibuprofen
Imiglitazar
Indeglitazar
Lanifibranor
LG-100268
LG-100754
LG-101506
Lobeglitazone
Muraglitazar (muroglitazar)
nTZDpa
Naveglitazar
Netoglitazone
Oxeglitazar
Peliglitazar
Pemaglitazar
Perfluorononanoic acid
Pioglitazone
Prostaglandin J2
Ragaglitazar
Reglitazar
Rivoglitazone
Rosiglitazone
RS5444
Saroglitazar
Sipoglitazar
Sodelglitazar
Telmisartan
Tesaglitazar
Troglitazone
SPPARMs: BADGE
EPI-001
INT-131
MK-0533
S26948
Antagonists: FH-535
GW-9662
SR-202
T-0070907
Unknown: SR-1664
Non-selective
Agonists: Ciprofibrate
Clinofibrate
Clofibride
Englitazone
Etofibrate
Farglitazar
Netoglitazone
Ronifibrate
Rivoglitazone
Simfibrate
See also
Receptor/signaling modulators
Nuclear receptor modulators
[show]
v
t
e
Prostanoid signaling modulators
Receptor
(ligands)
DP (D2)
DP1
Agonists: Prostaglandin D2
Treprostinil
Antagonists: Asapiprant
Laropiprant
Vidupiprant
DP2
Agonists: Indometacin
Prostaglandin D2
Antagonists: ADC-3680
AZD-1981
Bay U3405
Fevipiprant
MK-1029
MK-7246
QAV-680
Ramatroban
Setipiprant
Timapiprant
TM30089
Vidupiprant
EP (E2)
EP1
Agonists: Beraprost
Enprostil
Iloprost (ciloprost)
Latanoprost
Lubiprostone
Misoprostol
Prostaglandin E1 (alprostadil)
Prostaglandin E2 (dinoprostone)
Sulprostone
Antagonists: AH-6809
ONO-8130
SC-19220
SC-51089
SC-51322
EP2
Agonists: Butaprost
Misoprostol
Prostaglandin E1 (alprostadil)
Prostaglandin E2 (dinoprostone)
Treprostinil
Antagonists: AH-6809
PF-04418948
TG 4-155
EP3
Agonists: Beraprost
Carbacyclin
Cicaprost
Enprostil
Iloprost (ciloprost)
Isocarbacyclin
Latanoprost
Misoprostol
Prostaglandin D2
Prostaglandin E1 (alprostadil)
Prostaglandin E2 (dinoprostone)
Remiprostol
Sulprostone
Antagonists: L-798106
EP4
Agonists: Lubiprostone
Misoprostol
Prostaglandin E1 (alprostadil)
Prostaglandin E2 (dinoprostone)
TCS-2510
Antagonists: Grapiprant
GW-627368
L-161982
ONO-AE3-208
Unsorted
Agonists: 16,16-Dimethyl Prostaglandin E2
Aganepag
Carboprost
Evatanepag
Gemeprost
Nocloprost
Omidenepag
Prostaglandin F2α (dinoprost)
Simenepag
Taprenepag
FP (F2α)
Agonists: Alfaprostol
Bimatoprost
Carboprost
Cloprostenol
Enprostil
Fluprostenol
Latanoprost
Prostaglandin D2
Prostaglandin F2α (dinoprost)
Sulotroban
Tafluprost
Travoprost
Unoprostone
IP (I2)
Agonists: ACT-333679
AFP-07
Beraprost
BMY-45778
Carbacyclin
Cicaprost
Iloprost (ciloprost)
Isocarbacyclin
MRE-269
NS-304
Prostacyclin (prostaglandin I2, epoprostenol)
Prostaglandin E1 (alprostadil)
Ralinepag
Selexipag
Taprostene
TRA-418
Treprostinil
Antagonists: RO1138452
TP (TXA2)
Agonists: Carbocyclic thromboxane A2
I-BOP
Thromboxane A2
U-46619
Vapiprost
Antagonists: 12-HETE
13-APA
AA-2414
Argatroban
Bay U3405
BMS-180,291
Daltroban
Domitroban
EP-045
GR-32191
ICI-185282
ICI-192605
Ifetroban
Imitrodast
L-655240
L-670596
Linotroban
Mipitroban
ONO-3708
ONO-11120
Picotamide
Pinane thromboxane A2
Ramatroban
Ridogrel
S-145
Samixogrel
Seratrodast
SQ-28,668
SQ-29,548
Sulotroban
Terbogrel
Terutroban
TRA-418
Unsorted
Arbaprostil
Ataprost
Ciprostene
Clinprost
Cobiprostone
Delprostenate
Deprostil
Dimoxaprost
Doxaprost
Ecraprost
Eganoprost
Enisoprost
Eptaloprost
Esuberaprost
Etiproston
Fenprostalene
Flunoprost
Froxiprost
Lanproston
Limaprost
Luprostiol
Meteneprost
Mexiprostil
Naxaprostene
Nileprost
Nocloprost
Ornoprostil
Oxoprostol
Penprostene
Pimilprost
Piriprost
Posaraprost
Prostalene
Rioprostil
Rivenprost
Rosaprostol
Spiriprostil
Tiaprost
Tilsuprost
Tiprostanide
Trimoprostil
Viprostol
Enzyme
(inhibitors)
COX
(PTGS)
Salicylic acids: Aloxiprin
Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid)
Benorilate (benorylate)
Carbasalate calcium
Diflusinal
Dipyrocetyl
Ethenzamide
Guacetisal
Magnesium salicylate
Mesalazine (5-aminosalicylic acid)
Methyl salicylate
Salacetamide
Salicin
Salicylamide
Salicylate (salicylic acid)
Salsalate
Sodium salicylate
Triflusal; Acetic acids: Aceclofenac
Acemetacin
Aclofenac
Amfenac
Alclofenac
Bendazac
Bromfenac
Bufexamac
Bumadizone
Cinmetacin
Clometacin
Diclofenac
Difenpiramide
Etodolac
Felbinac
Fenclofenac
Fentiazac
Glucametacin
Indometacin (indomethacin)
Indometacin farnesil
Ketorolac
Lonazolac
Mofezolac
Nabumetone
Oxametacin
Oxindanac
Proglumetacin
Sulindac
Sulindac sulfide
Tolmetin
Zidometacin
Zomepirac; Propionic acids: Alminoprofen
Benoxaprofen
Bucloxic acid (blucloxate)
Butibufen
Carprofen
Dexibuprofen
Dexindoprofen
Dexketoprofen
Fenbufen
Fenoprofen
Flunoxaprofen
Flurbiprofen
Ibuprofen
Ibuproxam
Indoprofen
Ketoprofen
Loxoprofen
Miroprofen
Naproxen
Naproxcinod
Oxaprozin
Pirprofen
Pranoprofen
Suprofen
Tarenflurbil
Tepoxalin
Tiaprofenic acid (tiaprofenate)
Vedaprofen; Anthranilic acids (fenamic acids): Etofenamic acid (etofenamate)
Floctafenic acid (floctafenate)
Flufenamic acid (flufenamate)
Meclofenamic acid (meclofenamate)
Mefenamic acid (mefenamate)
Morniflumic acid (morniflumate)
Niflumic acid (niflumate)
Talinflumic acid (talinflumate)
Tolfenamic acid (tolfenamate); Pyrazolones: Azapropazone
Dipyrone
Isopyrin
Oxyphenbutazone
Phenylbutazone; Enolic acids (oxicams): Ampiroxicam
Droxicam
Enolicam
Isoxicam
Lornoxicam
Meloxicam
Piroxicam
Tenoxicam; 4-Aminoquinolines: Antrafenine
Floctafenine
Glafenine; Quinazolines: Fluproquazone
Proquazone; Aminonicotinic acids: Clonixeril
Clonixin
Flunixin; Sulfonanilides: Flosulide
Nimesulide; Aminophenols (anilines): Acetanilide
AM-404 (N-arachidonoylaminophenol)
Bucetin
Paracetamol (acetaminophen)
Parapropamol
Phenacetin
Propacetamol; Selective COX-2 inhibitors (coxibs): Apricoxib
Celecoxib
Cimicoxib
Deracoxib
Etoricoxib
Firocoxib
Lumiracoxib
Mavacoxib
Parecoxib
Polmacoxib
Robenacoxib
Rofecoxib
Tilmacoxib
Valdecoxib; Others/unsorted: Anitrazafen
Clobuzarit
Curcumin
DuP-697
FK-3311
Flumizole
FR-122047
Glimepiride
Hyperforin
Itazigrel
L-655240
L-670596
Licofelone
Menatetrenone (vitamin K2)
NCX-466
NCX-4040
NS-398
Pamicogrel
Resveratrol
Romazarit
Rosmarinic acid
Rutecarpine
Satigrel
SC-236
SC-560
SC-58125
Tenidap
Tiflamizole
Timegadine
Trifenagrel
Tropesin
PGD2S
Retinoids
Selenium (selenium tetrachloride, sodium selenite, selenium disulfide)
PGES
HQL-79
PGFS
Bimatoprost
PGI2S
Tranylcypromine
TXAS
Camonagrel
Dazmegrel
Dazoxiben
Furegrelate
Isbogrel
Midazogrel
Nafagrel
Nicogrelate
Ozagrel
Picotamide
Pirmagrel
Ridogrel
Rolafagrel
Samixogrel
Terbogrel
U63557A
Others
Precursors: Linoleic acid
γ-Linolenic acid (gamolenic acid)
Dihomo-γ-linolenic acid
Diacylglycerol
Arachidonic acid
Prostaglandin G2
Prostaglandin H2
See also
Receptor/signaling modulators
Leukotriene signaling modulators
Nuclear receptor modulators
[show]
v
t
e
TRP channel modulators
TRPA
Activators
4-Hydroxynonenal
4-Oxo-2-nonenal
4,5-EET
12S-HpETE
15-Deoxy-Δ12,14-prostaglandin J2
α-Sanshool (ginger, Sichuan and melegueta peppers)
Acrolein
Allicin (garlic)
Allyl isothiocyanate (mustard, radish, horseradish, wasabi)
AM404
Bradykinin
Cannabichromene (cannabis)
Cannabidiol (cannabis)
Cannabigerol (cannabis)
Cinnamaldehyde (cinnamon)
CR gas (dibenzoxazepine; DBO)
CS gas (2-chlorobenzal malononitrile)
Curcumin (turmeric)
Dehydroligustilide (celery)
Diallyl disulfide
Dicentrine (Lindera spp.)
Farnesyl thiosalicylic acid
Formalin
Gingerols (ginger)
Hepoxilin A3
Hepoxilin B3
Hydrogen peroxide
Icilin
Isothiocyanate
Ligustilide (celery, Angelica acutiloba)
Linalool (Sichuan pepper, thyme)
Methylglyoxal
Methyl salicylate (wintergreen)
N-Methylmaleimide
Nicotine (tobacco)
Oleocanthal (olive oil)
Paclitaxel (Pacific yew)
Paracetamol (acetaminophen)
PF-4840154
Phenacyl chloride
Polygodial (Dorrigo pepper)
Shogaols (ginger, Sichuan and melegueta peppers)
Tear gases
Tetrahydrocannabinol (cannabis)
Thiopropanal S-oxide (onion)
Umbellulone (Umbellularia californica)
WIN 55,212-2
Blockers
Dehydroligustilide (celery)
Nicotine (tobacco)
Ruthenium red
TRPC
Activators
Adhyperforin (St John's wort)
Diacyl glycerol
GSK1702934A
Hyperforin (St John's wort)
Substance P
Blockers
DCDPC
DHEA-S
Flufenamic acid
GSK417651A
GSK2293017A
Meclofenamic acid
N-(p-amylcinnamoyl)anthranilic acid
Niflumic acid
Pregnenolone sulfate
Progesterone
Pyr3
Tolfenamic acid
TRPM
Activators
ADP-ribose
BCTC
Calcium (intracellular)
Cold
Coolact P
Cooling Agent 10
CPS-369
Eucalyptol (eucalyptus)
Frescolat MGA
Frescolat ML
Geraniol
Hydroxycitronellal
Icilin
Linalool
Menthol (mint)
PMD 38
Pregnenolone sulfate
Rutamarin (Ruta graveolens)
Steviol glycosides (e.g., stevioside) (Stevia rebaudiana)
Sweet tastants (e.g., glucose, fructose, sucrose; indirectly)
Thio-BCTC
WS-3
WS-12
WS-23
Blockers
Capsazepine
Clotrimazole
DCDPC
Flufenamic acid
Meclofenamic acid
Mefenamic acid
N-(p-amylcinnamoyl)anthranilic acid
Nicotine (tobacco)
Niflumic acid
Ruthenium red
Rutamarin (Ruta graveolens)
Tolfenamic acid
TPPO
TRPML
Activators
MK6-83
PI(3,5)P2
SF-22
TRPP
Activators
Triptolide (Tripterygium wilfordii)
Blockers
Ruthenium red
TRPV
Activators
2-APB
5',6'-EET
9-HODE
9-oxoODE
12S-HETE
12S-HpETE
13-HODE
13-oxoODE
20-HETE
α-Sanshool (ginger, Sichuan and melegueta peppers)
Allicin (garlic)
AM404
Anandamide
Bisandrographolide (Andrographis paniculata)
Camphor (camphor laurel, rosemary, camphorweed, African blue basil, camphor basil)
Cannabidiol (cannabis)
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Capsaicin (chili pepper)
Carvacrol (oregano, thyme, pepperwort, wild bergamot, others)
DHEA
Diacyl glycerol
Dihydrocapsaicin (chili pepper)
Estradiol
Eugenol (basil, clove)
Evodiamine (Euodia ruticarpa)
Gingerols (ginger)
GSK1016790A
Heat
Hepoxilin A3
Hepoxilin B3
Homocapsaicin (chili pepper)
Homodihydrocapsaicin (chili pepper)
Incensole (incense)
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Low pH (acidic conditions)
Menthol (mint)
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N-Oleoyldopamine
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Nonivamide (PAVA) (PAVA spray)
Nordihydrocapsaicin (chili pepper)
Paclitaxel (Pacific yew)
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DCDPC
DHEA
DHEA-S
Flufenamic acid
GRC-6211
HC-067047
Lanthanum
Meclofenamic acid
N-(p-amylcinnamoyl)anthranilic acid
NGD-8243
Niflumic acid
Pregnenolone sulfate
RN-1734
RN-9893
Ruthenium red
SB-705498
Tivanisiran
Tolfenamic acid
See also: Receptor/signaling modulators • Ion channel modulators
Authority control
LCCN: sh85006365
GND: 4142846-8
NDL: 00575686
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arachidonic_acid&oldid=823592447"
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Structural formula of arachidonic acid

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text:
Chair of the Federal Reserve
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Chair of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
Seal of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors
Flag of the Federal Reserve System
Incumbent
Jerome Powell
since February 5, 2018
Appointer
the President of the United States (with Senate advice and consent)
Formation
August 10, 1914; 103 years ago (1914-08-10)
First holder
Charles Sumner Hamlin
Salary
$201,700 (2017)[1]
Website
Official bio
The Chair of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System is the head of the central banking system of the United States. The position is known colloquially as "Chair of the Fed" or "Fed Chair". The chair is the "active executive officer"[2] of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.
The chair is chosen by the President of the United States from among the members of the Board of Governors; and serves for four-year-terms after appointment. A chair may be appointed for several consecutive terms. William Martin was the longest serving chair, holding the position from 1951 to 1970.
The current Chairman is Jerome Powell, who was sworn in on February 5, 2018.[3][4][5][6] He was nominated to the position by President Donald Trump on November 2, 2017, and was later confirmed by the United States Senate.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 1935 reorganization
2 Appointment process
3 Conflict of interest law
4 List of Fed Chairs
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
1935 reorganization[edit]
Section 203 of the Banking Act of 1935 changed the name of the "Federal Reserve Board" to the "Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System."[8] The directors' salaries were significantly lower (at $12,000 when first appointed in 1914[9]) and their terms of office were much shorter prior to 1935. In effect, the Federal Reserve Board members in Washington, D.C., were significantly less powerful than the presidents of the regional Federal Reserve Banks prior to 1935.[10]
In the 1935 Act, the district heads had their titles changed to "President" (e.g., "President of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis").[citation needed]
Appointment process[edit]
As stipulated by the Banking Act of 1935, the President of the United States appoints the seven members of the Board of Governors; they must then be confirmed by the Senate and serve four year terms.[11][12]
The nominees for chair and vice-chair may be chosen by the President from among the sitting Governors for four-year terms; these appointments are also subject to Senate confirmation.[13] The Senate Committee responsible for vetting a Fed Reserve Chair nominee is the Senate Committee on Finance.
By law, the chair reports twice a year to Congress on the Federal Reserve's monetary policy objectives. He or she also testifies before Congress on numerous other issues and meets periodically with the Treasury Secretary.
Conflict of interest law[edit]
The law applicable to the Chair and all other members of the Board provides (in part):
No member of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System shall be an officer or director of any bank, banking institution, trust company, or Federal Reserve bank or hold stock in any bank, banking institution, or trust company; and before entering upon his duties as a member of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System he shall certify under oath that he has complied with this requirement, and such certification shall be filed with the secretary of the Board.[14]
List of Fed Chairs[edit]
The following is a list of past and present Chairs of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. A chair serves for a four-year term after appointment, but may be reappointed for several consecutive four-year terms. As of 2018, there have been a total of sixteen Fed Chairs.[15]
#
Photo
Name (chair)[16][17]
(Birth–Death)
Term of office
First Appointed by
(Term)
Start of term
End of term
1 Charles Sumner Hamlin
(1861–1938) August 10, 1914 August 10, 1916
Woodrow Wilson
(1913–1921)
2 William P. G. Harding
(1864–1930) August 10, 1916 August 9, 1922
3 Daniel R. Crissinger
(1860–1942) May 1, 1923 September 15, 1927
Warren G. Harding
(1921–1923)
4 Roy A. Young
(1882–1960) October 4, 1927 August 31, 1930
Calvin Coolidge
(1923–1929)
5 Eugene Meyer
(1875–1959) September 16, 1930 May 10, 1933
Herbert Hoover
(1929–1933)
6 Eugene Robert Black
(1873–1934) May 19, 1933 August 15, 1934
Franklin D. Roosevelt
(1933–1945)
7 Marriner S. Eccles
(1890–1977) November 15, 1934 February 3, 1948[18]
8 Thomas B. McCabe
(1893–1982) April 15, 1948 April 2, 1951
Harry S. Truman
(1945–1953)
9 William M. Martin
(1906–1998) April 2, 1951 February 1, 1970
10 Arthur F. Burns
(1904–1987) February 1, 1970 January 31, 1978
Richard Nixon
(1969–1974)
11 G. William Miller
(1925–2006) March 8, 1978 August 6, 1979
Jimmy Carter
(1977–1981)
12 Paul Volcker
(1927–) August 6, 1979 August 11, 1987
13 Alan Greenspan
(1926–) August 11, 1987 January 31, 2006[19]
Ronald Reagan
(1981–1989)
14 Ben Bernanke
(1953–) February 1, 2006 January 31, 2014
George W. Bush
(2001–2009)
15 Janet Yellen
(1946–) February 3, 2014[20] February 3, 2018
Barack Obama
(2009–2017)
16 Jerome Powell
(1953–) February 5, 2018 Incumbent
Donald Trump
(2017–)
See also[edit]
Government of the United States portal
History of central banking in the United States
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Johnston, Kevin (January 31, 2017). "What Is the Salary of the Federal Reserve Chairman?". Investopedia. Retrieved 2018-02-05.
Jump up ^ see 12 U.S.C. § 242
Jump up ^ "Jerome H. Powell sworn in as Chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System". Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. Retrieved 2018-02-05.
Jump up ^ Appelbaum, Binyamin (2018-02-04). "Powell Takes Over as Fed Chief as Economy Starts to Show Strain". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2018-02-05.
Jump up ^ NPR. "Senate Confirms Jerome Powell As New Federal Reserve Chair". Retrieved February 3, 2018.
Jump up ^ Cox, Jeff (January 31, 2018). "Yellen leaving Fed Saturday, Powell to be sworn in Monday". CNBC. Retrieved February 3, 2018.
Jump up ^ Gensler, Lauren (November 2, 2017). "Trump Taps Jerome Powell As Next Fed Chair In Call For Continuity". Forbes.
Jump up ^ Sec. 203, Banking Act of 1935, Public Law no. 305, 49 Stat. 684, 704 (Aug. 23, 1935).
Jump up ^ "The Reserve Board Nominations". The Independent. July 20, 1914. Retrieved August 21, 2012.
Jump up ^ Meltzer, Allan H. (2003). A history of the Federal Reserve: Volume 1, 1913-1951. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Jump up ^ "Federal Reserve Chair Janet Yellen Makes Less Than 113 Other Staffers At The Fed". The Huffington Post. December 16, 2014. Retrieved April 24, 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Structure of the Federal Reserve System". Federalreserve.gov. Retrieved April 24, 2015.
Jump up ^ Federal Reserve (January 16, 2009). "Board of Governors FAQ". Federal Reserve. Archived from the original on January 17, 2009. Retrieved January 16, 2009.
Jump up ^ 12 U.S.C. § 244
Jump up ^ "Federal Reserve Bank Presidents". The Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. Retrieved December 8, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Chairs". Membership of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, 1914–present. The Federal Reserve Board. February 3, 2014. Retrieved February 10, 2014.
Jump up ^ Chairs were designated Governors before August 23, 1935, and were then designated Chairmen until approximately 2014, when Yellen became the first female chair.
Jump up ^ Served as Chair pro tempore from February 3, 1948 to April 15, 1948.
Jump up ^ Served as Chair pro tempore from March 3, 1996 to June 20, 1996.
Jump up ^ "Janet L. Yellen, Chair". federalreserve.gov. October 19, 2017. Retrieved January 26, 2018.
References[edit]
Beckhart, Benjamin Haggott. 1972. Federal Reserve System. [New York]: American Institute of Banking.
Shull, Bernard. 2005. The fourth branch: the Federal Reserve's unlikely rise to power and influence. Westport, Conn.: Praeger.
Andrews, Edmund L. (November 5, 2005). "All for a more open Fed". New Straits Times. p. 21.
"Executive Order 11110 - Amendment of Executive Order No. 10289 as Amended, Relating to the Performance of Certain Functions Affecting the Department of the Treasury". The American Presidency Project. , via UCSB.edu
External links[edit]
Official website
Public Statements of the Chairs of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, via the St. Louis Federal Reserve Bank
Nomination hearings, conducted in the Senate, for Chairs and Members of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
Timeline of Federal Reserve Chairs with related resources
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