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History of the Bahamas
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History of the Bahamas
Battle of Nassau
Colonial Governors
Eleutheran Adventurers
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The earliest arrival of humans in the islands now known as The Bahamas was in the first millennium AD. The first inhabitants of the islands were the Lucayans, an Arawakan-speaking Taino people, who arrived between about 500 and 800 AD from other islands of the Caribbean. Their ancestors came from mainland South America, where Arawakan-language peoples were present in most territories, and especially along the northeastern coast.
Recorded history began on 12 October 1492, when Christopher Columbus landed on the island of Guanahani, which he renamed San Salvador Island on his first voyage to the New World. The earliest permanent European settlement was in 1648 on Eleuthera. During the 18th century slave trade, many Africans were brought to the Bahamas as labourers. Their descendants now constitute 85% of the Bahamian population. The Bahamas gained independence from the United Kingdom on July 10, 1973.
Contents
[hide]
1 Pre-history
2 Early English settlement
3 Wreckers, privateers and pirates
4 Reclaiming Bahamas for the Crown
5 Mid-century
6 Loyalists, slaves and Black Seminoles
7 Post-emancipation
8 Late-colonial period
9 The Bahamas at War
9.1 Riot
9.2 Post-war period
10 Political developments
11 See also
12 Notes
13 References
14 Further reading
15 External links
Pre-history[edit]
Sometime between 500 and 800 AD, Taínos began crossing in dugout canoes from Hispaniola and/or Cuba to the Bahamas. Suggested routes for the earliest migrations have been from Hispaniola to the Caicos Islands, from Hispaniola or eastern Cuba to Great Inagua Island, and from central Cuba to Long Island (in the central Bahamas). William Keegan argues that the most likely route was from Hispaniola or Cuba to Great Inagua. Granberry and Vescelius argue for two migrations, from Hispaniola to the Turks and Caicos Islands, and from Cuba to Great Inagua.[1]
From the initial colonization(s), the Lucayan expanded throughout the Bahamas in some 800 years (c. 700 – c. 1500), growing to a population of about 40,000. Population density at the time of first European contact was highest in the south-central area of the Bahamas, declining towards the north, reflecting the migration pattern and progressively shorter time of occupation of the northern islands. Known Lucayan settlement sites are confined to the nineteen largest islands in the archipelago, or to smaller cays located less than one km. from those islands. Population density in the southern-most Bahamas remained lower, probably due to the drier climate there (less than 800 mm of rain a year on Great Inagua Island and the Turks and Caicos Islands and only slightly higher on Acklins and Crooked Islands and Mayaguana).[2]
In 1492 Christopher Columbus sailed from Spain on his first voyage with three ships, the Niña, the Pinta, and the flagship, Santa Maria, seeking a direct route to Asia. On 12 October 1492 Columbus reached an island in the Bahamas and claimed it for Spain, an event long regarded by Europeans as the 'discovery' of America. This island was called Guanahani by the Lucayan, and San Salvador by the Spanish. The identity of the first American landfall by Columbus remains controversial, but many authors accept Samuel E. Morison's identification of Columbus' San Salvador as what was later called Watling (or Watling's) Island. Its name has been officially changed to San Salvador. Columbus visited several other islands in the Bahamas before sailing to present-day Cuba and afterwards to Hispaniola.[3]
The Bahamas held little interest to the Spanish except as a source of slave labor. Nearly the entire population of Lucayan (almost 40,000 people total) were transported to other islands as laborers over the next 30 years. When the Spanish decided to remove the remaining Lucayans to Hispaniola in 1520, they could find only eleven. The islands remained abandoned and depopulated for 130 years afterwards. With no gold to be found, and the population removed, the Spanish effectively abandoned the Bahamas. They retained titular claims to them until the Treaty of Paris in 1783, when they ceded them to Britain in exchange for East Florida.[4][5]
When Europeans first landed on the islands, they reported the Bahamas were lushly forested. Cleared to develop the land for sugarcane plantations, the forests have not regrown and have not been replanted.
Early English settlement[edit]
For many years, historians believed that The Bahamas was not colonized until the 17th century. However, recent studies show that there may have been attempts of colonization by groups from Spain, France, Britain, the Netherlands, and other Amerindians. The French settled in Abaco in 1565, and tried again in 1625. In 1648 a group from Bermuda called 'The Company of Adventurers for the Plantation of the Islands of Eleutheria,' which was led by William Sayle, sailed to the Bahamas to found a colony. These early settlers were Puritans and republicans. Bermuda was becoming overcrowded, and the Bahamas offered both religious and political freedom and economic opportunity. The larger of the company's two ships, the William, wrecked on the reef at the north end of what is now called Eleuthera Island, with the loss of all provisions. Despite the arrival of additional settlers, including Europeans, slaves and former African slaves from Bermuda and the receipt of relief supplies from Virginia and New England, the Eleuthera colony struggled for many years. It was hampered because of poor soil, fighting between settlers, and conflict with the Spanish. In the mid-1650s many of the settlers returned to Bermuda. The remaining settlers founded communities on Harbour Island and Saint George's Cay (Spanish Wells) at the north end of Eleuthera. In 1670 about 20 families lived in the Eleuthera communities.[6]
In 1666 other colonists from Bermuda settled on New Providence, which soon became the center of population and commerce in the Bahamas, with almost 500 people living on the island by 1670. Unlike the Eleutherians, who were primarily farmers, the first settlers on New Providence made their living from the sea, salvaging (mainly Spanish) wrecks, making salt, and taking fish, turtles, conchs and ambergris. Farmers from Bermuda soon followed the seamen to New Providence, where they found good, plentiful land. Neither the Eleutherian colony nor the settlement on New Providence had any legal standing under English law. In 1670 the Proprietors of Carolina were issued a patent for the Bahamas, but the governors sent by the Proprietors had difficulty imposing their authority on the independent-minded residents of New Providence.[7]
The early settlers continued to live much as they had in Bermuda, fishing, hunting turtles, whales, and seals, finding ambergris, making salt on the drier islands, cutting the abundant hardwoods of the islands for lumber, dyewood and medicinal bark; and wrecking, or salvaging wrecks. The Bahamas were close to the sailing routes between Europe and the Caribbean, so shipwrecks in the islands were common, and wrecking was the most lucrative occupation available to the Bahamians.[8]
Wreckers, privateers and pirates[edit]
The Bahamians soon came into conflict with the Spanish over the salvaging of wrecks. The Bahamian wreckers drove the Spanish away from their wrecked ships, and attacked Spanish salvagers, seizing goods the Spanish had already recovered from the wrecks. When the Spanish raided the Bahamas, the Bahamians in turn commissioned privateers against Spain, even though England and Spain were at peace. In 1684 the Spanish burned the settlements on New Providence and Eleuthera, after which they were largely abandoned. New Providence was settled a second time in 1686 by colonists from Jamaica.
In the 1690s English privateers (England was then at war with France) made a base in the Bahamas. In 1696 Henry Every (or Avery), using the assumed name Henry Bridgeman, brought his ship Fancy, loaded with pirates' loot, into Nassau harbor. Every bribed the governor, Nicholas Trott (uncle of the Nicholas Trott who presided at the trial of Stede Bonnet), with gold and silver, and by leaving him the Fancy, still loaded with 50 tons of elephant tusks an average haul for a slaver and 100 barrels of gunpowder exceedingly rare. Following peace with France in 1697, many of the privateers became pirates. From this time the pirates increasingly made Nassau, the Bahamian capital founded in 1694, their base. The governors appointed by the Proprietors usually made a show of suppressing the pirates, but most were accused of dealing with them. By 1701 England was at war with France and Spain. In 1703 and in 1706 combined French-Spanish fleets attacked and sacked Nassau, after which some settlers left, and the Proprietors gave up on trying to govern the islands.[9]
With no functioning government in the Bahamas, English privateers operated from Nassau as their base, in what has been called a "privateers' republic," which lasted for eleven years. The raiders attacked French and Spanish ships, while French and Spanish forces burned Nassau several times. The War of the Spanish Succession ended in 1714, but some privateers were slow to get the news, or reluctant to accept it, and slipped into piracy. One estimate puts at least 1,000 pirates in the Bahamas in 1713, outnumbering the 200 families of more permanent settlers.[10]
The "privateers' republic" in Nassau became a "pirates' republic". At least 20 pirate captains used Nassau or other places in the Bahamas as a home port during this period, including Henry Jennings, Edward Teach (Blackbeard), Benjamin Hornigold and Stede Bonnet. Many settler families moved from New Providence to Eleuthera or Abaco to escape harassment from the pirates. On the other hand, residents of Harbor Island were happy to serve as middlemen for the pirates, as merchants from New England and Virginia came there to exchange needed supplies for pirate plunder.[10] As mentioned above, the activities of pirates provoked frequent and brutal retaliatory attacks by the French and Spanish.
Reclaiming Bahamas for the Crown[edit]
Starting in 1713, Woodes Rogers had conceived the idea of leading an expedition to Madagascar to suppress the pirates there and establish it as a British colony. Rogers' friends Richard Steele and Joseph Addison eventually convinced him to tackle the pirates nest in the Bahamas, instead. Rogers and others formed a company to fund the venture. They persuaded the Proprietors of Carolina to surrender the government of the Bahamas to the king, while retaining title to the land. In 1717 King George appointed Rogers governor of the Bahamas and issued a proclamation granting a pardon to any pirate who surrendered to a British governor within one year.[11]
Word of the appointment of a new governor and of the offer of pardons reached Nassau ahead of Rogers and his forces. Some of the pirates were willing to accept a pardon and retire from piracy. Henry Jennings and Christopher Winter, sailed off to find British authorities to confirm their acceptance of the amnesty.
Others were not ready to give up. Many of those were Jacobites, supporters of the House of Stuart, who identified as enemies of the Hanoverian King George. Still others simply identified as rebels, or thought they were better off as pirates than trying to earn an honest living. When a Royal Navy ship brought official word to Nassau of the pardon offer, many pirates planned to accept. Soon, however, the recalcitrant parties gained the upper hand, eventually forcing the Navy ship to leave.[12]
Blackbeard, Stede Bonnet, Nicholas Brown and Edmond Condent left the Bahamas for other territories. Charles Vane, with "Calico Jack" Rackham and Edward England in his crew, came to prominence at this time. Vane worked to organize resistance to the anticipated arrival of Royal authority, even appealing to the James Francis Edward Stuart, the Stuart pretender, for aid in holding the Bahamas and capturing Bermuda for the Stuarts. As aid from the Stuarts failed to materialize and the date for Rogers' arrival approached, Vane and his crew prepared to leave Nassau.[13]
Woodes Rogers arrived in Nassau in late July 1718, with his own 460-ton warship, three ships belonging to his company, and an escort of three ships of the Royal Navy. Vane's ship was trapped in Nassau harbor. His crew set that ship on fire, sending it towards Rogers' ships, and escaped in the ensuing confusion in a smaller ship they had seized from another pirate. The remaining population welcomed Rogers; they comprised about 200 settlers and 500 to 700 pirates who wanted to receive pardons, most prominently Benjamin Hornigold.[14] After the pirates' surrender, the Proprietors leased their land in the Bahamas to Rogers' company for 21 years.
Rogers controlled Nassau, but Charles Vane was loose and threatening to drive the governor and his forces out. Learning that the King of Spain wanted to expel English from the islands, Rogers worked to improve the defenses of Nassau. He lost nearly 100 men of the new forces due to an unidentified disease, and the Navy ships left for other assignments. Rogers sent four of his ships to Havana to assure the Spanish governor that he was suppressing piracy and to trade for supplies. The crews of ex-pirates and men who had come with Rogers all turned to piracy. The ex-pirate Benjamin Hornigold later caught ten men at Green Turtle Cay as part of Rogers' suppression effort. Eight were found guilty and hanged in front of the fort.[15]
Vane attacked several small settlements in the Bahamas but, after he refused to attack a stronger French frigate, he was deposed for cowardice and replaced as captain by "Calico Jack" Rackham. Vane never returned to the Bahamas; he was eventually caught, convicted and executed in Jamaica. After nearly being captured by Jamaican privateers, and hearing that the king had extended the deadline for pardons for piracy, Rackham and his crew returned to Nassau to surrender to Woodes Rogers.
In Nassau Rackham became involved with Anne Bonny; he tried to arrange an annulment of her marriage to another ex-pirate, James Bonny. Rogers blocked the annulment, and Rackham and Bonny left Nassau to be pirates again, taking a small crew and Bonny's friend Mary Read with them. Within months, Rackham, Bonny and Read were captured and taken to Jamaica. They were convicted of piracy, and Rackham was executed. Bonny and Read were sent to prison, as both were pregnant and therefore excluded from execution. Read died in prison, while Bonny's fate is unknown.[16]
When Britain and Spain went to war again in 1719, many of the ex-pirates were commissioned by the British government as privateers. A Spanish invasion fleet set out for the Bahamas, but was diverted to Pensacola, Florida when it was seized by the French. Rogers continued to improve the defenses of Nassau, spending his personal fortune and going heavily into debt to do so. A second Spanish invasion fleet in 1720 was deterred by the defenses (and the accidental presence of a Royal Navy ship in Nassau). Rogers returned to Britain in 1722 to plead for repayment of the money he had borrowed to build up Nassau, only to find he had been replaced as governor. He was sent to debtors' prison, although his creditors later absolved his debts, gaining him release.
After the publication in 1724 of A General History of the Robberies and Murders of the Most Notorious Pirates, which praised Rogers' efforts to suppress piracy in the Bahamas, his fortunes began to improve. The king awarded him a pension, retroactive to 1721. In 1728 Rogers was appointed Governor of the Bahamas for a second term. He dissolved the colony's assembly when it would not approve taxes to repair Nassau's defenses. He died in Nassau in 1732.[17]
Mid-century[edit]
In 1741, Governor John Tinker and Peter Henry Bruce constructed Fort Montague. Additionally, the Governor also reported a privateering boom in the Thirteen Colonies in North America. He also reported that over 2300 sumptuous houses were built and in 1768 Governor William Shirley filled in Mosquito breeding swamps and extended Nassau.
Loyalists, slaves and Black Seminoles[edit]
During the American War of Independence the Bahamas fell to Spanish forces under General Galvez in 1782. A British-American Loyalist expedition led by Colonel Andrew Deveaux, recaptured the islands in 1783. After the American Revolution, the British issued land grants to American Loyalists who went into exile. The sparse population of the Bahamas tripled within a few years. The Loyalists developed cotton as a commodity crop, but it dwindled from insect damage and soil exhaustion. In addition to slaves they brought with them, the planters' descendants imported more African slaves for labour.
Most of the current inhabitants in the islands are descended from the slaves brought to work on the Loyalist plantations. In addition, thousands of captive Africans, who were liberated from foreign slave ships by the British navy after the abolition of the slave trade in 1807, were resettled as free persons in the Bahamas.
In the early 1820s, hundreds of African slaves and Black Seminoles escaped from Florida, most settling on Andros Island in the Bahamas. Three hundred escaped in a mass flight in 1823.[18] While the flow was reduced by federal construction of a lighthouse at Cape Florida in 1825, slaves continued to find freedom in the Bahamas.[18]
In August 1834, the traditional plantation life ended with the British emancipation of slaves throughout most of its colonies. Freedmen chose to work on their own small plots of land when possible.
Post-emancipation[edit]
Main article: Bahamas in the American Civil War
In the 1830s and 1840s, tensions rose between Britain and the United States after American merchant ships, part of the coastwise slave trade, put into Nassau or were wrecked on its reefs. These included the Hermosa (1840) and the Creole (1841), the latter brought in after a slave revolt on board. Britain had notified nations that slaves brought into Bahama and Bermuda waters would be forfeited and freed the slaves, refusing US efforts to recover them.[19] In 1853 Britain and the US signed a claims treaty and submitted to arbitration for claims dating to 1814; they paid each other in 1855.
During the American Civil War, the Bahamas prospered as a base for Confederate blockade-running, bringing in cotton to be shipped to the mills of England and running out arms and munitions. None of these provided any lasting prosperity to the islands, nor did attempts to grow different kinds of crops for export.
With emancipation, Caribbean societies inherited a rigid racial stratification that was reinforced by the unequal distribution of wealth and power. The three-tier race structure, of whites, mixed-race, and primarily blacks, who comprised the large majority, existed well into the 1940s and in some societies beyond. Like African Americans, many also have European and Native American ancestry. Caribbean societies continue to struggle with racial issues.
Late-colonial period[edit]
In 1911, there was a short-lived movement to make the Bahamas part of Canada. Although the movement enjoyed the support of many in Nassau and from the head of Sun Life, a Canadian insurance company, the movement failed. The failure of the movement was, in part, due to the British government's opposition to uniting a predominantly Black colony with a predominantly white country.[20]
The Bahamas at War[edit]
In World War I organizations such as the Imperial Order of the Daughters of Empire and the Bahamas Red Cross Guild, began collecting money, food and clothing for soldiers and civilians in Europe. "The Gallant Thirty" Bahamians set out to join the British West Indies Regiment as early as 1915 and as many as 1,800 served in the armed forces of Canada, Britain and the United States.
Riot[edit]
Oakes Field the Bahamas first airport was opened in Nassau in January 1940, named after Harry Oakes, a millionaire who made a large contribution to its creation. Prior to that aviation in the Bahamas was largely carried out by seaplanes.[21][22]
The Duke of Windsor was installed as Governor of the Bahamas, arriving at that post in August 1940 with his new Duchess. They were appalled at the condition of Government House, but they "tried to make the best of a bad situation."[23] He did not enjoy the position, and referred to the islands as "a third-class British colony".[24] He opened the small local parliament on October 29, 1940, and they visited the 'Out Islands' that November, which caused some controversy because of on whose yacht they were cruising.[25] The British Foreign Office strenuously objected when the Duke and Duchess planned to tour aboard a yacht belonging to a Swedish magnate, Axel Wenner-Gren, whom American intelligence wrongly believed to be a close friend of Luftwaffe commander Hermann Göring.[25][26] The Duke was praised, however, for his efforts to combat poverty on the islands, although he was as contemptuous of the Bahamians as he was of most non-white peoples of the Empire.[27] He was also praised for his resolution of civil unrest over low wages in Nassau in June 1942, when there was a "full-scale riot,"[28] even though he blamed the trouble on "mischief makers – communists" and "men of Central European Jewish descent, who had secured jobs as a pretext for obtaining a deferment of draft".[29] The Duke resigned the post on 16 March 1945.[30][31]
During World War II, the Allies centred their flight training and antisubmarine operations for the Caribbean in the Bahamas.
Canadian Garrison
In April 1942 the United Kingdom asked Canada to provide military support in Nassau, in part to provide protection services to H.R.H. the Duke of Windsor. No. 33 company of the Veterans Guard of Canada was raised and arrived in June. No 33 company were relieved in 1943 by a company of The Pictou Highlanders. The Canadian garrison left Nassau in 1946 [32]
Post-war period[edit]
The wartime airfield became Nassau's international airport in 1957 and helped spur the growth of mass tourism, which accelerated after Havana was closed to American tourists in 1961. Freeport, on the island of Grand Bahama, was established as a free trade zone in the 1950s and became the Bahama‘s second city. Bank secrecy combined with the lack of corporate and income taxes led to a rapid growth in the offshore financial sector during the postwar years.
The fourth James Bond film, Thunderball, was partly filmed in 1965 in Nassau.
By the early 1980s, the islands had become a major center for the drug trade, with 90% of all the cocaine entering the United States reportedly passing through the Bahamas. Diplomatic relations were established with Cuba in 1974. A decade later, as increased Cuban immigration to the islands strained the Bahamas’ resources, Cuba refused to sign a letter of repatriation.
In September 2004, Hurricane Frances swept through the Bahamas, leaving widespread damage in its wake. Just three weeks later, Hurricane Jeanne uprooted trees, blew out windows, and sent seawater flooding through neighborhoods on the islands of Abaco and Grand Bahama. Receding floodwaters left boats tossed on roads and homes battered.
The College of the Bahamas was founded in 1974 and provided the nation’s higher or tertiary education. The College was chartered in 2016 as the University of the Bahamas, offering baccalaureate, masters and associate degrees, on three campuses and teaching and research centres throughout the Bahamas.
Based on the twin pillars of tourism and offshore finance, the Bahamian economy has prospered since the 1950s. However, there remain significant challenges in areas such as education, health care, housing, international narcotics trafficking and illegal immigration from Haiti.
Political developments[edit]
Modern political development began after World War II. The first political parties were formed in the 1950s. The Progressive Liberal Party was formed in 1953, and the United Bahamian Party was formed in 1956.
Bahamians achieved self-government in 1964, with Sir Roland Symonette, of the United Bahamian Party, as the first Premier. The Bahamas achieved full independence as a Commonwealth realm within the Commonwealth of Nations on 10 July 1973. Sir Lynden O. Pindling, leader of the Progressive Liberal Party, became the first black Premier of the colony in 1967, and in 1968 the title was changed to Prime Minister. Sir Milo Butler was appointed the first Governor-General of the Bahamas (the official representative of Queen Elizabeth II) shortly after independence. Pindling was prime minister until 1992, during which the Bahamas benefited from tourism and foreign investment. He was succeeded by Hubert Ingraham, leader of the Free National Movement, who was prime minister until 2002.
See also[edit]
British colonization of the Americas
History of the Americas
History of the British West Indies
History of North America
History of the Caribbean
List of Prime Ministers of the Bahamas
Politics of the Bahamas
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Craton:17
Granberry and Vescelius:80-86
Keegan:48-62
Jump up ^ Keegan:25, 54-8, 86, 170-3
Jump up ^ Albury:21-33
Craton:28-37
Keegan:175-205
Jump up ^ Albury:34-7
Jump up ^ Albury:34-7
Craton. pp. 37-39
Johnson:3
Keegan:212, 220-3
Jump up ^ Albury:41-6
Johnson:3-4
Jump up ^ Albury:47-51
Johnson:4
Jump up ^ Johnson:4-5
Jump up ^ Albury:51-5
Craton:70-87
Johnson:6
Woodard:12-14, 23-24
^ Jump up to: a b Albury:58-68
Craton:89-90
Woodard:89-90, 140, 160
Jump up ^ Albury:69-74
Craton:93-6
Johnson:7-8
Woodard:117-121, 163-168
Jump up ^ Woodard:226-29
Jump up ^ Woodard:236-40, 245-47, 259-61
Jump up ^ Woodard:247-48, 262-67
Jump up ^ Woodard:268-72, 286, 301-04
Jump up ^ Woodard:304-10, 315-20
Jump up ^ Woodard:311-14, 325-28
^ Jump up to: a b "Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park", Network to Freedom, National Park Service, 2010, accessed 10 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Gerald Horne, Negro Comrades of the Crown: African Americans and the British Empire Fight the U.S. Before Emancipation, New York University (NYU) Press, 2012, pp. 107-108
Jump up ^ Smith, Andrew. 2009. "Thomas Bassett Macaulay and the Bahamas: Racism, Business and Canadian Sub-imperialism". The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History. 37, no. 1: 29-50.
Jump up ^ "The Origins of Bahamian Aviation - Bahama Pundit". bahamapundit.com. Retrieved 7 December 2014.
Jump up ^ Owen, J. (2008). A Serpent in Eden: 'The greatest murder mystery of all time'. Little, Brown Book Group. ISBN 9780748109739. Retrieved 7 December 2014.
Jump up ^ Higham, Charles (1988). The Dutchess of Windsor: The Secret Life. McGraw Hill. pp. 300–302.
Jump up ^ Bloch, Michael (1982). The Duke of Windsor's War. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-77947-8, p. 364.
^ Jump up to: a b Higham, Charles (1988). The Dutchess of Windsor: The Secret Life. McGraw Hill. pp. 307–309.
Jump up ^ Bloch, Michael (1982). The Duke of Windsor's War. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-77947-8, pp. 154–159, 230–233
Jump up ^ Ziegler, Philip (1991). King Edward VIII: The official biography. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-394-57730-2.
Jump up ^ Higham, Charles (1988). The Dutchess of Windsor: The Secret Life. McGraw Hill. pp. 331–332.
Jump up ^ Ziegler, pp. 471–472
Jump up ^ Matthew, H. C. G. (September 2004; online edition January 2008) "Edward VIII, later Prince Edward, duke of Windsor (1894–1972)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/31061, retrieved 1 May 2010 (Subscription required)
Jump up ^ Higham places the date of his resignation as 15 March, and that he left on 5 April. Higham, Charles (1988). The Dutchess of Windsor: The Secret Life. McGraw Hill. p. 359.
Jump up ^ STACEY, C. P. (1955). "Official History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War- Volume I -Six Years of War" (PDF). National Defence and the Canadian Forces. Government of Canada. Retrieved July 31, 2016. p. 181
References[edit]
Albury, Paul. (1975) The Story of the Bahamas. MacMillan Caribbean. ISBN 0-333-17131-4
Carr, J. Revell. (2008) Seeds of Discontent: The Deep Roots of the American Revolution 1659–1750. Walker & Company. ISBN 978-0-8027-1512-8
Craton, Michael. (1986) A History of the Bahamas. San Salvador Press. ISBN 0-9692568-0-9
Granberry, Julius and Gary S. Vescelius. (2004) Languages of the Pre-Columbian Antilles. The University of Alabama Press. ISBN 0-8173-5123-X
Johnson, Howard. (1996) The Bahamas from Slavery to Servitude, 1783–1933. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1858-7
Keegan, William F. (1992) The People Who Discovered Columbus: The Prehistory of the Bahamas. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1137-X
Woodard, Colin. (2007) The Republic of Pirates. Harcourt, Inc. ISBN 978-0-15-603462-3
State Dept Country Study - Includes information on the Bahamas including history.
Rulers.org — Bahamas List of rulers for Bahamas
Further reading[edit]
Jedidiah Morse (1797), "Bahama Islands", The American Gazetteer, Boston, Massachusetts: At the presses of S. Hall, and Thomas & Andrews
External links[edit]
The Bahamas History & Culture
The Bahamas Historical Society
Bahamian Loyalists history
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Since 1799 Turks and Caicos Islands
1818–1846 Columbia District/Oregon Country1
1833–1960 Windward Islands
1833–1960 Leeward Islands
1841–1867 Canada
1849–1866 Vancouver Island
1853–1863 Queen Charlotte Islands
1858–1866 British Columbia
1859–1870 North-Western Territory
1860–1981 *British Antigua and Barbuda
1862–1863 Stickeen
1866–1871 British Columbia
1867–1931 *Dominion of Canada2
1871–1964 Honduras
1882–1983 *Saint Kitts and Nevis
1889–1962 Trinidad and Tobago
1907–1949 Newfoundland3
1958–1962 West Indies Federation
1. Occupied jointly with the United States.
2. In 1931, Canada and other British dominions obtained self-government through the Statute of Westminster. See Name of Canada.
3. Gave up self-rule in 1934, but remained a de jure Dominion until it joined Canada in 1949.
[show]
South America
1631–1641 Providence Island
1651–1667 Willoughbyland
1670–1688 Saint Andrew and Providence Islands4
1831–1966 Guiana
Since 1833 Falkland Islands5
Since 1908 South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands5
4. Now a department of Colombia.
5. Occupied by Argentina during the Falklands War of April–June 1982.
[show]
Africa
17th and 18th centuries 19th century 20th century
Since 1658 Saint Helena14
1792–1961 Sierra Leone
1795–1803 Cape Colony
Since 1815 Ascension Island14
Since 1816 Tristan da Cunha14
1806–1910 Cape of Good Hope
1807–1808 Madeira
1810–1968 Mauritius
1816–1965 The Gambia
1856–1910 Natal
1862–1906 Lagos
1868–1966 Basutoland
1874–1957 Gold Coast
1882–1922 Egypt
1884–1900 Niger Coast
1884–1966 Bechuanaland
1884–1960 Somaliland
1887–1897 Zululand
1890–1962 Uganda
1890–1963 Zanzibar
1891–1964 Nyasaland
1891–1907 Central Africa
1893–1968 Swaziland
1895–1920 East Africa
1899–1956 Sudan
1900–1914 Northern Nigeria
1900–1914 Southern Nigeria
1900–1910 Orange River
1900–1910 Transvaal
1903–1976 Seychelles
1910–1931 South Africa
1914–1960 Nigeria
1915–1931 South-West Africa
1919–1961 Cameroons6
1920–1963 Kenya
1922–1961 Tanganyika6
1923–1965 and 1979–1980 Southern Rhodesia7
1924–1964 Northern Rhodesia
6. League of Nations mandate.
7. Self-governing Southern Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence in 1965 (as Rhodesia) and continued as an unrecognised state until the 1979 Lancaster House Agreement. After recognised independence in 1980, Zimbabwe was a member of the Commonwealth until it withdrew in 2003.
[show]
Asia
17th and 18th century 19th century 20th century
1685–1824 Bencoolen
1702–1705 Pulo Condore
1757–1947 Bengal
1762–1764 Manila and Cavite
1781–1784 and 1795–1819 Padang
1786–1946 Penang
1795–1948 Ceylon
1796–1965 Maldives
1811–1816 Java
1812–1824 Banka and Billiton
1819–1826 Malaya
1824–1948 Burma
1826–1946 Straits Settlements
1839–1967 Aden
1839–1842 Afghanistan
1841–1997 Hong Kong
1841–1946 Sarawak
1848–1946 Labuan
1858–1947 India
1874–1963 Borneo
1879–1919 Afghanistan (protectorate)
1882–1963 North Borneo
1885–1946 Unfederated Malay States
1888–1984 Brunei
1891–1971 Muscat and Oman
1892–1971 Trucial States
1895–1946 Federated Malay States
1898–1930 Weihai
1878–1960 Cyprus
1907–1949 Bhutan (protectorate)
1918–1961 Kuwait
1920–1932 Mesopotamia8
1921–1946 Transjordan8
1923–1948 Palestine8
1945–1946 South Vietnam
1946–1963 North Borneo
1946–1963 Sarawak
1946–1963 Singapore
1946–1948 Malayan Union
1948–1957 Federation of Malaya
Since 1960 Akrotiri and Dhekelia (before as part of Cyprus)
Since 1965 British Indian Ocean Territory (before as part of Mauritius and the Seychelles)
8 League of Nations mandate. Iraq's mandate was not enacted and replaced by the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty
[show]
Oceania
18th and 19th centuries 20th century
1788–1901 New South Wales
1803–1901 Van Diemen's Land/Tasmania
1807–1863 Auckland Islands9
1824–1980 New Hebrides
1824–1901 Queensland
1829–1901 Swan River/Western Australia
1836–1901 South Australia
since 1838 Pitcairn Islands
1841–1907 New Zealand
1851–1901 Victoria
1874–1970 Fiji10
1877–1976 Western Pacific Territories
1884–1949 Papua
1888–1901 Rarotonga/Cook Islands9
1889–1948 Union Islands9
1892–1979 Gilbert and Ellice Islands11
1893–1978 Solomon Islands12
1900–1970 Tonga
1900–1974 Niue9
1901–1942 *Australia
1907–1947 *New Zealand
1919–1942 and 1945–1968 Nauru
1919–1949 New Guinea
1949–1975 Papua and New Guinea13
9. Now part of the *Realm of New Zealand.
10. Suspended member.
11. Now Kiribati and *Tuvalu.
12. Now the *Solomon Islands.
13. Now *Papua New Guinea.
[show]
Antarctica and South Atlantic
Since 1658 Saint Helena14
Since 1815 Ascension Island14
Since 1816 Tristan da Cunha14
Since 1908 British Antarctic Territory15
1841–1933 Australian Antarctic Territory (transferred to the Commonwealth of Australia)
1841–1947 Ross Dependency (transferred to the Realm of New Zealand)
14. Since 2009 part of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha; Ascension Island (1922–) and Tristan da Cunha (1938–) were previously dependencies of Saint Helena.
15. Both claimed in 1908; territories formed in 1962 (British Antarctic Territory) and 1985 (South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands).
[show]
v
t
e
History of North America
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Antigua and Barbuda
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Belize
Canada
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other territories
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Sint Eustatius
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text:
Climate of Egypt
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Satellite map
Egypt essentially has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh). The climate is generally extremely dry all over the country except on the northern Mediterranean coast which receives rainfall in winter. In addition to rarity of rain, extreme heat during summer months is also a general climate feature of Egypt although daytime temperatures are more moderated along the northern coast.
Contents
[hide]
1 Prevailing wind
2 Sand storms
3 Precipitation
4 Mountainous areas
5 General information
6 See also
7 References
Prevailing wind[edit]
The prevailing northwesterly wind from the Mediterranean Sea continuously blows over the northern coast without the interposition of an eventual mountain range and thus, greatly moderates temperatures throughout the year. Because of the effect, average low temperatures vary from 9.5 °C (49.1 °F) in wintertime to 23 °C (73.4 °F) in summertime and average high temperatures vary from 17 °C (62.6 °F) in wintertime to 32 °C (89.6 °F) in summertime. Though temperatures are moderated along the coasts, the situation changes in the interior, which are away from the moderating northerly winds. Thus, in the central and the southern parts, daytime temperatures are hotter, especially in summers where average high temperatures can exceed 40 °C (104 °F) like in Aswan, Luxor, Asyut or Sohag which are located in the deserts of Egypt.
Sand storms[edit]
Every year, sometime from March to May, an extremely hot, dry and dusty wind blows from the south or the southwest. This wind is called khamasīn. When the flow of dry air continuously blows over vast desert regions, it picks up fine sand and dust particles and finally results in a dusty wind which is generally felt in the periphery of the desert. When this wind blows over Egypt, it causes high temperatures to soar temporarily at dangerous levels, usually over 45 °C (113 °F), the relative humidity levels to drop under 5%. The khamasīn causes sudden, early heat waves and the absolute highest temperature records in Egypt.
Precipitation[edit]
Egypt receives between 20 mm (0.79 in) and 200 mm (7.87 in) of annual average precipitation along the narrow Mediterranean coast, but south to Cairo, the average drops to nearly 0 millimetres (0.00 inches) in the central and the southern part of the country. The cloudiest, rainiest places are in and around Alexandria and Rafah. The sunshine duration is high all over Egypt, ranging from a low of 3,300 hours along the northernmost part in places such as Alexandria to reach a high of over 4,000 hours farther in the interior, in most of the country.
Mountainous areas[edit]
Some mountainous locations in Sinai, such as Saint Catherine, have cooler night temperatures, due to their high elevations. It usually snows on the Sinai mountains, but it almost never snows in the cities of Giza, Cairo, and Alexandria. For example, in December 2013, Cairo received a single overnight snowfall for the first time since 1901.
General information[edit]
[hide]Climate data for Cairo
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Record high °C (°F)
31
(88) 34.2
(93.6) 37.9
(100.2) 43.2
(109.8) 47.8
(118) 46.4
(115.5) 42.6
(108.7) 43.4
(110.1) 43.7
(110.7) 41
(106) 37.4
(99.3) 30.2
(86.4) 47.8
(118)
Average high °C (°F)
18.9
(66) 20.4
(68.7) 23.5
(74.3) 28.3
(82.9) 32
(90) 33.9
(93) 34.7
(94.5) 34.2
(93.6) 32.6
(90.7) 29.2
(84.6) 24.8
(76.6) 20.3
(68.5) 27.7
(81.9)
Daily mean °C (°F)
14.0
(57.2) 15.1
(59.2) 17.6
(63.7) 21.5
(70.7) 24.9
(76.8) 27.0
(80.6) 28.4
(83.1) 28.2
(82.8) 26.6
(79.9) 23.3
(73.9) 19.5
(67.1) 15.4
(59.7) 21.8
(71.2)
Average low °C (°F)
9
(48) 9.7
(49.5) 11.6
(52.9) 14.6
(58.3) 17.7
(63.9) 20.1
(68.2) 22
(72) 22.1
(71.8) 20.5
(68.9) 17.4
(63.3) 14.1
(57.4) 10.4
(50.7) 15.8
(60.4)
Record low °C (°F)
1.2
(34.2) 3.6
(38.5) 5
(41) 7.6
(45.7) 12.3
(54.1) 16
(61) 18.2
(64.8) 19
(66) 14.5
(58.1) 12.3
(54.1) 5.2
(41.4) 3
(37) 1.2
(34.2)
Average precipitation mm (inches)
5
(0.2) 3.8
(0.15) 3.8
(0.15) 1.1
(0.043) 0.5
(0.02) 0.1
(0.004) 0
(0) 0
(0) 0
(0) 0.7
(0.028) 3.8
(0.15) 5.9
(0.232) 24.7
(0.972)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 mm)
3.5 2.7 1.9 0.9 0.5 0.1 0 0 0 0.5 1.3 2.8 14.2
Average relative humidity (%)
59 54 53 47 46 49 58 61 60 60 61 61 56
Mean monthly sunshine hours
213 234 269 291 324 357 363 351 311 292 248 198 3,451
Source #1: World Meteorological Organization (UN) (1971–2000),[1] NOAA for mean, record high and low and humidity[2]
Source #2: Danish Meteorological Institute for sunshine (1931–1960)[3]
Alexandria
Climate chart (explanation)
J F M A M J J A S O N D
53
18
9
29
19
9
14
21
11
3.6
24
13
1.3
27
17
0
29
20
0
30
23
0.1
30
23
0.8
30
21
9.4
28
18
32
24
14
53
20
11
Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
Precipitation totals in mm
Source: World Meteorological Organization[4]
[show]Imperial conversion
J F M A M J J A S O N D
2.1
65
48
1.1
67
49
0.6
70
51
0.1
75
56
0.1
80
62
0
83
69
0
85
73
0
87
74
0
85
70
0.4
82
64
1.2
75
58
2.1
68
51
Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
Precipitation totals in inches
Luxor
Climate chart (explanation)
J F M A M J J A S O N D
0
23
5
0
25
7
0
27
10
0
35
16
0
39
20
0
41
23
0
41
24
0
40
23
0
39
21
1
35
17
0
29
12
0
24
7
Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
Precipitation totals in mm
Source: Climate Charts[5]
[show]Imperial conversion
J F M A M J J A S O N D
0
73
42
0
78
45
0
81
51
0
95
61
0
103
68
0
107
73
0
106
74
0
105
74
0
102
70
0
96
63
0
84
53
0
76
45
Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
Precipitation totals in inches
Saint Catherine
Climate chart (explanation)
J F M A M J J A S O N D
3
14
2
2
15
2
4
19
6
4
24
10
0
28
14
0
31
16
0
32
18
0
32
18
0
31
16
1
26
12
3
20
7
4
16
4
Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
Precipitation totals in mm
Source: Climate Charts[6]
[show]Imperial conversion
J F M A M J J A S O N D
0.1
57
35
0.1
58
36
0.2
65
42
0.2
75
50
0
82
57
0
88
61
0
90
64
0
90
64
0
87
61
0
78
54
0.1
68
45
0.2
60
39
Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
Precipitation totals in inches
Topography map
Snow in Saint Catherine, Sinai Peninsula (1 March 2009)
Notable climatic features
[7]
Rafah and Alexandria are the wettest places
Asyut is the driest city
Aswan and Luxor are the cities with the hottest summer days
Saint Catherine has the coldest nights and coldest winters
Cities or resorts with coolest summer days
Mersa Matruh
Port Said
Places with least temperature fluctuation
Port Said
Kosseir
Ras El Bar
Baltim
Damietta
Alexandria
Wettest places
Rafah
Alexandria
Abu Qir
Rosetta
Baltim
Kafr El Dawwar
Mersa Matruh
Cities or resorts with warmest winter nights
Marsa Alam
El Qoseir
Sharm El Sheikh
Cities with most temperature fluctuation between days and nights
Luxor
Minya
Sohag
Qena
Asyut
See also[edit]
Geography of Egypt
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Weather Information for Cairo". World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved April 14, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Cairo (A) Climate Normals 1961–1990". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved April 14, 2014.
Jump up ^ Cappelen, John; Jensen, Jens. "Egypten - Cairo" (PDF). Climate Data for Selected Stations (1931-1960) (in Danish). Danish Meteorological Institute. p. 82. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 27, 2013. Retrieved April 14, 2014.
Jump up ^ "World Weather Information Service - Alexandria". World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Luxor, Egypt: Climate, Global Warming, and Daylight Charts and Data". Climate Charts. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "St. Katrine, Egypt: Climate, Global Warming, and Daylight Charts and Data". Climate Charts. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Egypt Climate Index". Climate Charts. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
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