text:
Epithelium
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about epithelium in animal anatomy. For the fungal structure of the same name, see Pileipellis.
Epithelium
Types of epithelium
Pronunciation
epi- + thele + -ium
Identifiers
MeSH
D004848
TH
H2.00.02.0.00002
FMA
9639
Anatomical terms of microanatomy
[edit on Wikidata]
This article is one of a series on
Epithelia
Squamous epithelial cell
Simple
Stratified
Columnar epithelial cell
Simple
Stratified
Pseudostratified
Cuboidal epithelial cell
Simple
Stratified
Specialised epithelia
Olfactory
Respiratory
Intestinal
Transitional
Vaginal
Germinal
female
male
Other
Table of epithelia of human organs
v
t
e
Epithelium (/ˌɛpɪˈθiːliəm/)[1] is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. Epithelial tissues line the outer surfaces of organs and blood vessels throughout the body, as well as the inner surfaces of cavities in many internal organs. An example is the epidermis, the outermost layer of the skin.
There are three principal shapes of epithelial cell: squamous, columnar, and cuboidal. These can be arranged in a single layer of cells as simple epithelium, either squamous, columnar, cuboidal, pseudo-stratified columnar or in layers of two or more cells deep as stratified (layered), either squamous, columnar or cuboidal. All glands are made up of epithelial cells. Functions of epithelial cells include secretion, selective absorption, protection, transcellular transport, and sensing.
Epithelial layers contain no blood vessels, so they must receive nourishment via diffusion of substances from the underlying connective tissue, through the basement membrane.[2][3] Cell junctions are well-employed in epithelial tissues.
Contents
[hide]
1 Classification
1.1 Simple epithelium
1.2 Stratified epithelium
2 Cell types
3 Structure
3.1 Location
3.2 Basement membrane
3.3 Cell junctions
3.4 Development
4 Functions
4.1 Glandular tissue
4.2 Sensing the extracellular environment
5 Clinical significance
6 Etymology and pronunciation
7 Additional images
8 See also
9 References
9.1 Bibliography
10 Further reading
11 External links
Classification[edit]
Summary showing different epithelial cells/tissues and their characteristics.
In general, epithelial tissues are classified by the number of their layers and by the shape and function of the cells.[2][4][5]
The three principal shapes associated with epithelial cells are—squamous, cuboidal and columnar.
Squamous epithelium has cells that are wider than their height (flat and scale-like).
Cuboidal epithelium has cells whose height and width are approximately the same (cube shaped).
Columnar epithelium has cells taller than they are wide (column-shaped).
By layer, epithelium is classed as either simple epithelium, only one cell thick (unilayered) or stratified epithelium as stratified squamous epithelium, stratified cuboidal epithelium, and stratified columnar epithelium that are two or more cells thick (multi-layered),[6][7] and both types of layering can be made up of any of the cell shapes.[4] However, when taller simple columnar epithelial cells are viewed in cross section showing several nuclei appearing at different heights, they can be confused with stratified epithelia. This kind of epithelium is therefore described as pseudostratified columnar epithelium.[8]
Transitional epithelium has cells that can change from squamous to cuboidal, depending on the amount of tension on the epithelium.[9]
Simple epithelium[edit]
Simple epithelium is a single layer of cells with every cell in direct contact with the basement membrane that separates it from the underlying connective tissue. In general, it is found where absorption and filtration occur. The thinness of the epithelial barrier facilitates these processes.[4]
In general, simple epithelial tissues are classified by the shape of their cells. The four major classes of simple epithelium are: (1) simple squamous; (2) simple cuboidal; (3) simple columnar; (4) pseudostratified.[4]
(1) simple squamous; which is found lining areas where passive diffusion of gases occur. e.g. skin, walls of capillaries, linings of the pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal cavities, as well as the linings of the alveoli of the lungs.
(2) simple cuboidal: these cells may have secretory, absorptive, or excretory functions. examples include small collecting ducts of kidney, pancreas, and salivary gland.
(3) simple columnar; cells can be secretory, absorptive, or excretory; Simple columnar epithelium can be ciliated or non-ciliated; ciliated columnar is found in the female reproductive tract and uterus. Non-ciliated epithelium can also possess microvilli.
(4) pseudostratified columnar epithelium; can be ciliated or non-ciliated. The ciliated type is also called respiratory epithelium as it is almost exclusively confined to the larger respiratory airways of the nasal cavity, trachea and bronchi.
Stratified epithelium[edit]
Stratified epithelium differs from simple epithelium in that it is multilayered. It is therefore found where body linings have to withstand mechanical or chemical insult such that layers can be abraded and lost without exposing subepithelial layers. Cells flatten as the layers become more apical, though in their most basal layers the cells can be squamous, cuboidal or columnar.[10]
Stratified epithelia (of columnar, cuboidal or squamous type) can have the following specializations:[10]
Specialization
Description
Keratinized In this particular case, the most apical layers (exterior) of cells are dead and lose their nucleus and cytoplasm, instead contain a tough, resistant protein called keratin. This specialization makes the epithelium waterproof, so is found in the mammalian skin. The lining of the esophagus is an example of a non-keratinized or "moist" stratified epithelium.[10]
Parakeratinized In this case, the most apical layers of cells are filled with keratin, but they still retain their nuclei. These nuclei are pyknotic, meaning that they are highly condensed. Parakeratinized epithelium is sometimes found in the oral mucosa and in the upper regions of the esophagus.[11]
Transitional Transitional epithelia are found in tissues that stretch and it can appear to be stratified cuboidal when the tissue is relaxed, or stratified squamous when the organ is distended and the tissue stretches. It is sometimes called urothelium since it is almost exclusively found in the bladder, ureters and urethra.[10]
Cell types[edit]
The basic cell types are squamous, cuboidal, and columnar classed by their shape.
Type
Description
Squamous Squamous cells have the appearance of thin, flat plates that can look polygonal when viewed from above.[12] Their name comes from squāma, Latin for scale – as on fish or snake skin. The cells fit closely together in tissues; providing a smooth, low-friction surface over which fluids can move easily. The shape of the nucleus usually corresponds to the cell form and helps to identify the type of epithelium. Squamous cells tend to have horizontally flattened, nearly oval shaped nuclei because of the thin flattened form of the cell. Squamous epithelium is found lining surfaces such as the skin, and alveoli in the lung, enabling simple passive diffusion as also found in the alveolar epithelium in the lungs. Specialized squamous epithelium also forms the lining of cavities such as in blood vessels, as endothelium and in the pericardium, as mesothelium and in other body cavities.
Cuboidal Cuboidal epithelial cells have a cube-like shape and appear square in cross-section. The cell nucleus is large, spherical and is in the centre of the cell. Cuboidal epithelium is commonly found in secretive tissue such as the exocrine glands, or in absorptive tissue such as the pancreas, the lining of the kidney tubules as well as in the ducts of the glands. The germinal epithelium that covers the female ovary, and the germinal epithelium that lines the walls of the seminferous tubules in the testes are also of the cuboidal type. Cuboidal cells provide protection and may be active in pumping material in or out of the lumen, or passive depending on their location and specialisation. Simple cuboidal epithelium commonly differentiates to form the secretory and duct portions of glands.[13] Stratified cuboidal epithelium protects areas such as the ducts of sweat glands,[14] mammary glands, and salivary glands.
Columnar Columnar epithelial cells are elongated and column-shaped and have a height of at least four times their width. Their nuclei are elongated and are usually located near the base of the cells. Columnar epithelium forms the lining of the stomach and intestines. The cells here may possess microvilli for maximising the surface area for absorption and these microvilli may form a brush border. Other cells may be ciliated to move mucus in the function of mucociliary clearance. Other ciliated cells are found in the fallopian tubes, the uterus and central canal of the spinal cord. Some columnar cells are specialized for sensory reception such as in the nose, ears and the taste buds. Hair cells in the inner ears have stereocilia which are similar to microvilli. Goblet cells are modified columnar cells and are found between the columnar epithelial cells of the duodenum. They secrete mucus, which acts as a lubricant. Single-layered non-ciliated columnar epithelium tends to indicate an absorptive function. Stratified columnar epithelium is rare but is found in lobar ducts in the salivary glands, the eye, pharynx and sex organs. This consists of a layer of cells resting on at least one other layer of epithelial cells which can be squamous, cuboidal, or columnar.
Pseudostratified These are simple columnar epithelial cells whose nuclei appear at different heights, giving the misleading (hence "pseudo") impression that the epithelium is stratified when the cells are viewed in cross section. Ciliated pseudostratified epithelial cells have cilia. Cilia are capable of energy dependent pulsatile beating in a certain direction through interaction of cytoskeletal microtubules and connecting structural proteins and enzymes. In the respiratory tract the wafting effect produced causes mucus secreted locally by the goblet cells (to lubricate and to trap pathogens and particles) to flow in that direction (typically out of the body). Ciliated epithelium is found in the airways (nose, bronchi), but is also found in the uterus and Fallopian tubes, where the cilia propel the ovum to the uterus.
Structure[edit]
Cells of epithelial tissue are tightly packed and form a continuous sheet. They have almost no intercellular spaces. All epithelia is usually separated from underlying tissues by an extracellular fibrous basement membrane. The lining of the mouth, lung alveoli and kidney tubules all are made of epithelial tissue. The lining of the blood and lymphatic vessels are of a specialised form of epithelium called endothelium.
Location[edit]
See also: Table of epithelia of human organs
Epithelium lines both the outside (skin) and the inside cavities and lumina of bodies. The outermost layer of human skin is composed of dead stratified squamous, keratinized epithelial cells.[15]
Tissues that line the inside of the mouth, the oesophagus, the vagina, and part of the rectum are composed of nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium. Other surfaces that separate body cavities from the outside environment are lined by simple squamous, columnar, or pseudostratified epithelial cells. Other epithelial cells line the insides of the lungs, the gastrointestinal tract, the reproductive and urinary tracts, and make up the exocrine and endocrine glands. The outer surface of the cornea is covered with fast-growing, easily regenerated epithelial cells. A specialised form of epithelium – endothelium forms the inner lining of blood vessels and the heart, and is known as vascular endothelium, and lining lymphatic vessels as lymphatic endothelium. Another type, mesothelium, forms the walls of the pericardium, pleurae, and peritoneum.[citation needed]
In arthropods, the integument, or external "skin", consists of a single layer of epithelial ectoderm from which arises the cuticle,[16] an outer covering of chitin the rigidity of which varies as per its chemical composition.
Basement membrane[edit]
Epithelial tissue rests on a basement membrane, which acts as a scaffolding on which epithelium can grow and regenerate after injuries.[17] Epithelial tissue has a nerve supply, but no blood supply and must be nourished by substances diffusing from the blood vessels in the underlying tissue. The basement membrane acts as a selectively permeable membrane that determines which substances will be able to enter the epithelium.[3]
Cell junctions[edit]
Cell junctions are especially abundant in epithelial tissues. They consist of protein complexes and provide contact between neighbouring cells, between a cell and the extracellular matrix, or they build up the paracellular barrier of epithelia and control the paracellular transport.[18]
Cell junctions are the contact points between plasma membrane and tissue cells. There are mainly 5 different types of cell junctions: tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, hemidesmosomes, and gap junctions. Tight junctions are a pair of trans-membrane protein fused on outer plasma membrane. Adherens junctions are a plaque (protein layer on the inside plasma membrane) which attaches both cells' microfilaments. Desmosomes attach to the microfilaments of cytoskeleton made up of keratin protein. Hemidesmosomes resemble desmosomes on a section. They are made up of the integrin (a transmembrane protein) instead of cadherin. They attach the epithelial cell to the basement membrane. Gap junctions connect the cytoplasm of two cells and are made up of proteins called connexins (six of which come together to make a connexion).[citation needed]
Development[edit]
Epithelial tissues are derived from all of the embryological germ layers:[citation needed]
from ectoderm (e.g., the epidermis);
from endoderm (e.g., the lining of the gastrointestinal tract);
from mesoderm (e.g., the inner linings of body cavities).
However, it is important to note that pathologists do not consider endothelium and mesothelium (both derived from mesoderm) to be true epithelium. This is because such tissues present very different pathology. For that reason, pathologists label cancers in endothelium and mesothelium sarcomas, whereas true epithelial cancers are called carcinomas. Also, the filaments that support these mesoderm-derived tissues are very distinct. Outside of the field of pathology, it is, in general, accepted that the epithelium arises from all three germ layers.[citation needed]
Functions[edit]
Forms of secretion in glandular tissue
Different characteristics of glands of the body
Epithelial tissues have as their primary functions:
to protect the tissues that lie beneath from radiation, desiccation, toxins, invasion by pathogens, and physical trauma
the regulation and exchange of chemicals between the underlying tissues and a body cavity
the secretion of hormones into the circulatory system, as well as the secretion of sweat, mucus, enzymes, and other products that are delivered by ducts[19]
to provide sensation[20]
Glandular tissue[edit]
Glandular tissue is the type of epithelium that forms the glands from the infolding of epithelium and subsequent growth in the underlying connective tissue. There are two major classifications of glands: endocrine glands and exocrine glands:
Endocrine glands secrete their product into the extracellular space where it is rapidly taken up by the circulatory system.
Exocrine glands secrete their products into a duct that then delivers the product to the lumen of an organ or onto the free surface of the epithelium.
Sensing the extracellular environment[edit]
"Some epithelial cells are ciliated, especially in respiratory epithelium, and they commonly exist as a sheet of polarised cells forming a tube or tubule with cilia projecting into the lumen." Primary cilia on epithelial cells provide chemosensation, thermoception, and mechanosensation of the extracellular environment by playing "a sensory role mediating specific signalling cues, including soluble factors in the external cell environment, a secretory role in which a soluble protein is released to have an effect downstream of the fluid flow, and mediation of fluid flow if the cilia are motile."[21]
Clinical significance[edit]
Epithelial cell infected with Chlamydia pneumoniae
The slide shows at (1) an epithelial cell infected by Chlamydia pneumonia; their inclusion bodies shown at (3); an uninfected cell shown at (2) and (4) showing the difference between an infected cell nucleus and an uninfected cell nucleus.
Epithelium grown in culture can be identified by examining its morphological characteristics. Epithelial cells tend to cluster together, and have a "characteristic tight pavement-like appearance". But this is not always the case, such as when the cells are derived from a tumor. In these cases, it is often necessary to use certain biochemical markers to make a positive identification. The intermediate filament proteins in the cytokeratin group are almost exclusively found in epithelial cells, and so are often used for this purpose.[22]
Carcinomas develop in epithelial tissues. Sarcomas develop in connective tissue.[23]
When epithelial cells or tissues are damaged from cystic fibrosis, sweat glands are also damaged, causing a frosty coating of the skin.
Etymology and pronunciation[edit]
The word epithelium uses the Greek roots ἐπί (epi), "on" or "upon", and θηλή (thēlē), "nipple". Epithelium is so called because the name was originally used to describe the translucent covering of small "nipples" of tissue on the lip.[24] The word has both mass and count senses; the plural form is epithelia.
Additional images[edit]
Squamous Epithelium 100x
Human cheek cells (Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium) 500x
Histology of female urethra showing transitional epithelium
Histology of sweat gland showing stratified cuboidal epithelium
See also[edit]
Blastula
Dark cell
Epithelial-mesenchymal transition
Epithelial polarity
Gastrulation
Glycocalyx
Neuroepithelial cell
Skin cancer
Sulcular epithelium
Triploblasty
References[edit]
Jump up ^ https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/epithelium
^ Jump up to: a b Eurell, Jo Ann C.; et al., eds. (2006). Dellmann's textbook of veterinary histology. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-7817-4148-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Freshney, 2002: p. 3
^ Jump up to: a b c d Marieb, Elaine M. (1995). Human Anatomy and Physiology (3rd ed.). Benjamin/Cummings. pp. 103–104. ISBN 0-8053-4281-8.
Jump up ^ Platzer, Werner (2008). Color atlas of human anatomy: Locomotor system. Thieme. p. 8. ISBN 978-3-13-533306-9.
Jump up ^ van Lommel, 2002: p. 97
Jump up ^ van Lommel, 2002: p. 94
Jump up ^ Melfi, Rudy C.; Alley, Keith E., eds. (2000). Permar's oral embryology and microscopic anatomy: a textbook for students in dental hygiene. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-683-30644-6.
Jump up ^ Pratt, Rebecca. "Epithelial Cells". AnatomyOne. Amirsys, Inc. Archived from the original on 2012-12-19. Retrieved 2012-09-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Jenkins, Gail W.; Tortora, Gerard J. (2013). Anatomy and Physiology from Science to Life (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 110–115. ISBN 978-1-118-12920-3.
Jump up ^ Ross, Michael H.; Pawlina, Wojciech (2015). Histology: A Text and Atlas: With Correlated Cell and Molecular Biology (7th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 528, 604. ISBN 978-1451187427.
Jump up ^ Kühnel, Wolfgang (2003). Color atlas of cytology, histology, and microscopic anatomy. Thieme. p. 102. ISBN 978-3-13-562404-4.
Jump up ^ Pratt, Rebecca. "Simple Cuboidal Epithelium". AnatomyOne. Amirsys, Inc. Retrieved 2012-09-28.
Jump up ^ Eroschenko, Victor P. (2008). "Integumentary System". DiFiore's Atlas of Histology with Functional Correlations. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 212–234. ISBN 9780781770576.
Jump up ^ Marieb, Elaine (2011). Anatomy & Physiology. Boston: Benjamin Cummings. p. 133. ISBN 0321616405.
Jump up ^ Kristensen, Niels P.; Georges, Chauvin (1 December 2003). "Integument". Lepidoptera, Moths and Butterflies: Morphology, Physiology, and Development : Teilband. Walter de Gruyter. p. 484. ISBN 978-3-11-016210-3. Retrieved 10 January 2013.
Jump up ^ McConnell, Thomas H. (2006). The nature of disease: pathology for the health professions. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-7817-5317-3.
Jump up ^ Alberts, Bruce (2002). Molecular biology of the cell (4. ed.). New York [u.a.]: Garland. p. 1067. ISBN 0-8153-4072-9.
Jump up ^ van Lommel, 2002: p. 91
Jump up ^ Alberts, Bruce (2002). Molecular biology of the cell (4 ed.). New York [u.a.]: Garland. p. 1267. ISBN 0-8153-4072-9.
Jump up ^ Adams, M.; Smith, U.M.; Logan, C.V.; Johnson, C.A. (2008). "Recent advances in the molecular pathology, cell biology and genetics of ciliopathies". Journal of Medical Genetics. 45 (5): 257–267. doi:10.1136/jmg.2007.054999. PMID 18178628.
Jump up ^ Freshney, 2002: p. 9
Jump up ^ "Types of cancer". Cancer Research UK. 28 October 2014. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Blerkom, edited by Jonathan Van; Gregory, Linda (2004). Essential IVF : basic research and clinical applications. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4020-7551-3. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Bibliography[edit]
Freshney, R.I. (2002). "Introduction". In Freshney, R. Ian; Freshney, Mary. Culture of epithelial cells. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-40121-6.
van Lommel, Alfons T.L. (2002). From cells to organs: a histology textbook and atlas. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-7257-4.
Further reading[edit]
Green H (September 2008). "The birth of therapy with cultured cells". BioEssays. 30 (9): 897–903. doi:10.1002/bies.20797. PMID 18693268.
Kefalides, Nicholas A.; Borel, Jacques P., eds. (2005). Basement membranes: cell and molecular biology. Gulf Professional Publishing. ISBN 978-0-12-153356-4.
Nagpal R; Patel A; Gibson MC (March 2008). "Epithelial topology". BioEssays. 30 (3): 260–6. doi:10.1002/bies.20722. PMID 18293365.
Yamaguchi Y; Brenner M; Hearing VJ (September 2007). "The regulation of skin pigmentation" (Review). J. Biol. Chem. 282 (38): 27557–61. doi:10.1074/jbc.R700026200. PMID 17635904.
External links[edit]
Look up epithelium in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Epithelium Photomicrographs
1Histology at KUMC epithel-epith02 Simple squamous epithelium of the glomerulus (kidney) 2 Diagrams of simple squamous epithelium 3Histology at KUMC epithel-epith12 Stratified squamous epithelium of the vagina 4Histology at KUMC epithel-epith14 Stratified squamous epithelium of the skin (thin skin) 5Histology at KUMC epithel-epith15 Stratified squamous epithelium of the skin (thick skin) 6 Stratified squamous epithelium of the esophagus
Microanatomy Web Atlas
[show]
v
t
e
Epithelial tissue
Cells
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
Types
Simple squamous epithelium
Endothelium
Mesothelium
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Simple columnar epithelium
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Respiratory epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelium
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
Stratified columnar epithelium
Transitional epithelium
Urothelium
Glands
Types
Mechanism
Merocrine
Eccrine
Apocrine
Holocrine
Sebaceous
Meibomian
Shape
Tubular gland
Alveolar gland
Secretion
Serous glands
Mucous glands
Components
Myoepithelial cell
Serous demilune
Ducts:
Interlobar
Interlobular
Intralobular
Striated
Intercalated
Acinus/Lobe
[show]
v
t
e
Biological tissues
Animals
Epithelial
Connective
Muscular
Nervous
Plants
Dermal tissue: Epidermis
Cuticle
Pavement cell
Guard cell
Subsidiary cell
Periderm
Phellem
Phelloderm
Vascular tissue: Phloem
Sieve tube
Companion cell
Phloem fiber
Phloem parenchyma
Xylem
Tracheid
Vessel element
Xylem fiber
Xylem parenchyma
Ground tissue: Parenchyma
Aerenchyma
Chlorenchyma
Mesophyll
Pith
Collenchyma
Sclerenchyma
Sclereid
Fiber
Meristematic tissue: Primary
Protoderm
Procambium
Ground meristem
Secondary
Cork cambium
Vascular cambium
Mixed: Cortex
Exodermis
Endodermis
Stele
Category
Histology
[show]
v
t
e
Proteins of epithelium
Lateral/cell-cell
Cell adhesion molecules: Adherens junction
Cadherin
Desmosome
Desmoglein
Ion channels: Gap junction/Connexon
Connexin
Cytoskeleton: Desmosome
Desmoplakin
Plakoglobin
Tonofibril
other membrane proteins: Tight junction
Claudin
Occludin
MARVELD2
Basal/cell-matrix
Basal lamina
Hemidesmosome/Tonofibril
Focal adhesion
Costamere
Apical
Cilia/Kinocilium
Microvilli/Stereocilia (STRC)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epithelium&oldid=838235499"
Categories:
Epithelium
Hidden categories:
Pages with unresolved properties
CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from March 2016
Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017
Articles with unsourced statements from January 2011
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Afrikaans
العربية
Asturianu
Беларуская
Български
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Gaeilge
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Ido
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kurdî
Latina
Latviešu
Lietuvių
Magyar
മലയാളം
Bahasa Melayu
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Scots
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Basa Sunda
Suomi
Svenska
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
Тоҷикӣ
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Tiếng Việt
粵語
中文
61 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 25 April 2018, at 19:20.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

value: mw-page-base noprint

value: mw-head-base noprint

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attr: role class

value:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

tag: th

attr: colspan style

tag: tr

tag: img

attr: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attr: href class

tag: td

attr: scope style

value:
/wiki/Squamous_epithelial_cell
mw-redirect
Squamous epithelial cell

value:
/wiki/Columnar_epithelial_cell
mw-redirect
Columnar epithelial cell

value:
/wiki/Cuboidal_epithelial_cell
mw-redirect
Cuboidal epithelial cell

value: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

value:
/wiki/Body_cavities
mw-redirect
Body cavities

attr: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

value:
/wiki/Type_1_pneumocyte
mw-redirect
Type 1 pneumocyte

value:
/wiki/Cuboidal_epithelia
mw-redirect
Cuboidal epithelia

value:
/wiki/Fallopian_tubes
mw-redirect
Fallopian tubes

value:
/wiki/Salivary_glands
mw-redirect
Salivary glands

value:
/wiki/Pseudostratified_epithelium
mw-redirect
Pseudostratified epithelium

value:
/wiki/Squamous_epithelium
mw-redirect
Squamous epithelium

value:
/wiki/Epidermis_(skin)
mw-redirect
Epidermis (skin)

value: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)

value:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

value:
/wiki/Cell_junctions
mw-redirect
Cell junctions

value: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2017)

value:
/wiki/Germ_layers
mw-redirect
Germ layers

value: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2011)

value:
/wiki/Human_gastrointestinal_tract
mw-redirect
Human gastrointestinal tract

value:
/wiki/Trauma_(medicine)
mw-redirect
Trauma (medicine)

value: Edit section: Sensing the extracellular environment

value:
/wiki/Chlamydia_pneumoniae
mw-redirect
Chlamydia pneumoniae

value: Edit section: Etymology and pronunciation

value:
/wiki/Epithelial-mesenchymal_transition
mw-redirect
Epithelial-mesenchymal transition

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1136%2Fjmg.2007.054999

value:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18178628

value: Category:CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list

value: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Fbies.20797

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18693268

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Fbies.20722

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18293365

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.R700026200

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17635904

value: Template:Epithelium and epithelial tissue

value: Template talk:Epithelium and epithelial tissue

value:
/wiki/Eccrine_sweat_glands
mw-redirect
Eccrine sweat glands

value: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value:
/wiki/Companion_cell
mw-redirect
Companion cell

value:
/wiki/Ground_meristem
mw-redirect
Ground meristem

attr: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

value: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value: Category:Pages with unresolved properties

value: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

value: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from March 2016

value: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017

value: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2011

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value:
/wiki/Epithelium
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

value: Find background information on current events

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

value:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

value: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

value: Permanent link to this revision of the page

value: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

value: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

value: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

value: نسيج طلائي – Arabic

value:
https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiteliu
Epiteliu – Asturian
ast
ast
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

value: Епителна тъкан – Bulgarian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

value:
https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitel
Epitel – Bosnian
bs
bs
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

value:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiteli
Epiteli – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

value:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitel
Epitel – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

value:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epithel
Epithel – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

value: Επιθηλιακός ιστός – Greek

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

value:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitelio
Epitelio – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitelio
Epitelio – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

value:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitelio
Epitelio – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

value: بافت پوششی – Persian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

value:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitelio
Epitelio – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

value: Էպիթելային հյուսվածք – Armenian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

value: उपकला ऊतक – Hindi

value:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitel
Epitel – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

value:
https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitelio
Epitelio – Ido
io
io
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-io
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ia
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

value: אפיתל – Hebrew

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jv
display: none;

value: ეპითელიუმი – Georgian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

value: Эпителий ұлпасы – Kazakh

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ku
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

value: എപ്പിത്തീലിയം – Malayalam

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

value:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitelium
Epitelium – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitheel
Epitheel – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

value:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitel
Epitel – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

value:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitel
Epitel – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

value:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiteliy
Epiteliy – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

value:
https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epithel
Epithel – Low German
nds
nds
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nds
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

value: Эпителий – Russian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

value:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitel
Epitel – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb
display: none;

value: Епителско ткиво – Serbian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-su
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

value:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitel
Epitel – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

value: புறவணியிழையம் – Tamil

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

value: Эпителий – Tatar

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tt
display: none;

value: ఉపకళా కణజాలము – Telugu

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-te
display: none;

value: เนื้อเยื่อบุผิว – Thai

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

value: Бофтаи эпителӣ – Tajik

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tg
display: none;

value:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitel
Epitel – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

value: Епітелій – Ukrainian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

value: ظہارہ – Urdu

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

value: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Epithelium rootpage-Epithelium skin-vector action-view


text:
Expenditures in the United States federal budget
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is part of a series on the
Budget and debt in the
United States of America
Major dimensions[hide]
Economy
Expenditures
Federal budget
Financial position
Military budget
Public debt
Taxation
Unemployment
Programs[show]
Medicare
Social programs
Social Security
Contemporary issues[show]
Bowles–Simpson Commission
Bush tax cuts
Debt ceiling (history)
Deficit reduction
Fiscal cliff
Healthcare reform
Political debates
Social Security debate
"Starve the beast"
Subprime mortgage crisis
In specific years
Budget sequestration in 2013
Debt-ceiling crisis of 2011
2013
Financial crisis of 2007–08
Government shutdowns: 1980
1990
1995–1996
2013
2018
Terminology[show]
Cumulative deficit + Interest ≈ Debt
Balance of payments
Inflation
Continuing resolution
v
t
e
Main article: United States federal budget
U.S. Federal spending and revenue components for fiscal year 2016
The United States federal budget consists of mandatory expenditures (which include entitlement programs such as Medicare and Social Security), discretionary spending for defense, Cabinet Departments (e.g., United States Department of Justice) and agencies (e.g., Securities & Exchange Commission), and interest payments on debt.
During FY2016, the federal government spent $3.27 trillion on a budget or cash basis, up $18 billion or 1% vs. FY2015 spending of $3.25 trillion. Major categories of FY 2016 spending included:
Healthcare such as Medicare and Medicaid ($1,060B or 28% of spending),
Social Security ($910B or 24%),
Non-defense discretionary spending used to run federal Departments and Agencies ($600B or 16%),
Defense Department ($585B or 15%),
Interest ($240B or 6%).[1]
Expenditures are classified as mandatory, with payments required by specific laws, or discretionary, with payment amounts renewed annually as part of the budget process. Expenditures averaged 20.3% GDP over the 1967-2016 period, generally ranging +/-2% GDP from that level. The 2016 spend was 20.9% GDP, versus 2015 spend of 20.6% GDP and a recent 2009 peak of 24.4% GDP.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Discretionary vs. mandatory spending
1.1 Growth of mandatory spending
2 Mandatory spending and entitlements
2.1 Medicare and Medicaid
2.1.1 Growth in medical spending
2.2 Social Security
3 Military spending
3.1 Debate about military spending
3.2 Budgetary treatment of Iraq & Afghanistan war expenses
4 Discretionary spending
5 Interest expense
6 Analytical perspectives
6.1 Federal spending per capita
7 References
8 External links
Discretionary vs. mandatory spending[edit]
The share of Federal spending for mandatory programs (e.g., Social Security and Medicare) is increasing over time as the country ages and healthcare costs grow faster than inflation.
Discretionary spending requires an annual appropriation bill, which is a piece of legislation. Discretionary spending is typically set by the House and Senate Appropriations Committees and their various subcommittees. Since the spending is typically for a fixed period (usually a year), it is said to be under the discretion of the Congress. Some appropriations last for more than one year (see Appropriation bill for details). In particular, multi-year appropriations are often used for housing programs and military procurement programs.
Direct spending, also known as mandatory spending, refers to spending enacted by law, but not dependent on an annual or periodic appropriation bill. Most mandatory spending consists of entitlement programs such as Social Security benefits, Medicare, and Medicaid. These programs are called "entitlements" because individuals satisfying given eligibility requirements set by past legislation are entitled to Federal government benefits or services. Many other expenses, such as salaries of Federal judges, are mandatory, but account for a relatively small share of federal spending.
The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) reports the costs of mandatory spending programs in a variety of annual and special topic publications.[2] Congress can affect spending on entitlement programs by changing eligibility requirements or the structure of programs. Certain entitlement programs, because the language authorizing them are included in appropriation bills, are termed "appropriated entitlements." This is a convention rather than a substantive distinction, since the programs, such as Food Stamps, would continue to be funded even if the appropriation bill were to be vetoed or otherwise not enacted.
The share of Federal spending for mandatory programs has been increasing as the U.S. population ages, while the discretionary spending share has fallen.[3]
Growth of mandatory spending[edit]
CBO projects that spending for Social Security, Healthcare programs and interest costs will rise relative to GDP over the 2017-2027 period, while defense and other discretionary spending will decline relative to GDP.[1]
Over the past 40 years, mandatory spending for programs such as Medicare and Social Security has grown as a share of the budget and relative to GDP, while other discretionary categories have declined. Medicare, Medicaid and Social Security grew from 4.3% of GDP in 1971 to 10.7% of GDP in 2016.[1]
In the long-run, expenditures related to Social Security, Medicare and Medicaid are growing considerably faster than the economy overall as the population matures.[4][5] The Congressional Budget Office estimates that Social Security spending will rise from 4.8% of GDP in 2009 to 6.2% of GDP by 2035, where it will stabilize. However, CBO expects Medicare and Medicaid to continue growing, rising from 5.3% GDP in 2009 to 10.0% in 2035 and 19.0% by 2082. CBO has indicated healthcare spending per beneficiary is the primary long-term fiscal challenge.[6][7] Further, multiple government and private sources have indicated the overall expenditure path is unsustainable.[8][9][10]
Mandatory spending and entitlements[edit]
Further information: Social programs in the United States
Table compares US federal spending and revenue in 2016 vs. 2015 using CBO historical data.[11]
Entitlement Spending Risks.
Medicare & Social Security.
Social Security and Medicare expenditures are funded by permanent appropriations and so are considered mandatory spending according to the 1997 Budget Enforcement Act (BEA). Social Security and Medicare are sometimes called "entitlements," because people meeting relevant eligibility requirements are legally entitled to benefits, although most pay taxes into these programs throughout their working lives.
Some programs, such as Food Stamps, are appropriated entitlements. Some mandatory spending, such as Congressional salaries, is not part of any entitlement program. Funds to make federal interest payments have been automatically appropriated since 1847.
Major categories of FY 2014 mandatory spending included:
Social Security ($845B or 24% of spending),
Healthcare such as Medicare and Medicaid ($831B or 24%),
other mandatory programs such as food stamps and unemployment compensation ($420B or 12%) and interest ($229B or 6.5%).[1]
As a share of federal budget, mandatory spending has increased over time.[12] Mandatory spending accounted for 53% of total federal outlays in FY2008, with net interest payments accounting for an additional 8.5%.[13] In 2011, mandatory spending had increased to 56% of federal outlays.[12]
From 1991 to 2011, mandatory spending grew from 10.1 percent to 13.6 percent of GDP, according to figures from the Congressional Budget Office.[14] This spending is expected to continue to increase as a share of GDP. According to the conservative Heritage Foundation, spending on Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid will rise from 8.7% of GDP in 2010, to 11.0% by 2020 and to 18.1% by 2050.[15]
Since the federal government has historically collected about 18.4% of GDP in tax revenues, this means these three mandatory programs may absorb all federal revenues sometime around 2050.[16] Unless these long-term fiscal imbalances are addressed by reforms to these programs, raising taxes or drastic cuts in discretionary programs, the federal government will at some point be unable to pay its obligations without significant risk to the value of the dollar (inflation).[17][18]
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, in 2011 49.1% of the U.S. population lived in a household where at least one household member received a government benefit including Social Security and Medicare.[19][not in citation given] This figure represented an increase from 30% in the early 1980s and 44.4% in 2008.[20] While federal outlay for welfare was reduced by half since 1996, programs such as food stamps have seen increases in spending.[21] In 2012, 35% of the U.S. population lived in a household that received government benefits, counting only means-tested programs such as food stamps, housing assistance and Medicaid.[22]
Mandatory programs are affected by demographic trends. The number of workers continues declining relative to those receiving benefits. For example, the number of workers per retiree was 5.1 in 1960; this declined to 3.3 in 2007 and is projected to decline to 2.1 by 2040.[23] According to census data for 2011, 16% of the population lived in a household where at least one individual received Social Security and 15% lived in a household where at least one individual received Medicare.[20] From 2012 to 2027, approximately 78 million individuals will retire and begin receiving Social Security and Medicare.[21]
These programs are also affected by per-person costs, which are also expected to increase at a rate significantly higher than the economy. The unfavorable combination of demographics and per-capita rate increases is expected to drive both Social Security and Medicare into large deficits during the 21st century. Multiple government sources have argued these programs are fiscally unsustainable as presently structured due to the extent of future borrowing and related interest required to fund them; here is a 2009 summary from the Social Security and Medicare Trustees:
The financial condition of the Social Security and Medicare programs remains challenging. Projected long run program costs are not sustainable under current program parameters. Social Security's annual surpluses of tax income over expenditures are expected to fall sharply this year and to stay about constant in 2010 because of the economic recession, and to rise only briefly before declining and turning to cash flow deficits beginning in 2016 that grow as the baby boom generation retires. The deficits will be made up by redeeming trust fund assets until reserves are exhausted in 2037, at which point tax income would be sufficient to pay about three fourths of scheduled benefits through 2083. Medicare's financial status is much worse. As was true in 2008, Medicare's Hospital Insurance (HI) Trust Fund is expected to pay out more in hospital benefits and other expenditures this year than it receives in taxes and other dedicated revenues. The difference will be made up by redeeming trust fund assets. Growing annual deficits are projected to exhaust HI reserves in 2017, after which the percentage of scheduled benefits payable from tax income would decline from 81 percent in 2017 to about 50 percent in 2035 and 30 percent in 2080. In addition, the Medicare Supplementary Medical Insurance (SMI) Trust Fund that pays for physician services and the prescription drug benefit will continue to require general revenue financing and charges on beneficiaries that grow substantially faster than the economy and beneficiary incomes over time.[8]
Since the government borrowed and spent the trust funds' assets, there is no "lockbox" or marketable investment portfolio of $2.4 trillion for Social Security or $380 billion for Medicare. The trust funds contain non-marketable "IOU's" that the government is legally obligated to pay. In the absence of significant budget surpluses, the government will be required to convert these non-marketable securities to marketable securities by borrowing in the future, as trust fund claims are redeemed.[24][25]
Medicare and Medicaid[edit]
Main articles: Health care finance in the United States, Medicare (United States), and Medicaid
Medicare and Medicaid Spending as % GDP.
The Medicare Trustees have reduced their forecast for Medicare costs as %GDP, mainly due to a lower rate of healthcare cost increases.
Medicare was established in 1965 and expanded thereafter. In 2009, the program covered an estimated 45 million persons (38 million aged and 7 million disabled). It consists of four distinct parts which are funded differently:
Part A (Hospital Insurance, or HI) covers inpatient hospital services, skilled nursing care, and home health and hospice care. The HI trust fund is mainly funded by a dedicated payroll tax of 2.9% of earnings, shared equally between employers and workers.
Part B (Supplementary Medical Insurance, or SMI) covers physician services, outpatient services, and home health and preventive services. The SMI trust fund is funded through beneficiary premiums (set at 25% of estimated program costs for the aged) and general revenues (the remaining amount, approximately 75%).
Part C (Medicare Advantage, or MA) is a private plan option for beneficiaries that covers all Part A and B services, except hospice. Individuals choosing to enroll in Part C must also enroll in Part B. Part C is funded through the HI and SMI trust funds.
Part D covers prescription drug benefits. Funding is included in the SMI trust fund and is financed through beneficiary premiums (about 25%) and general revenues (about 75%).[26]
Various reform strategies were proposed for healthcare, including Medicare and Medicaid. Examples include: comparative effectiveness research; independent review panels; modifying doctor incentives to focus on better care rather than fee for service; addressing a shortage of doctors and nurses; taxing healthcare benefits paid for by employers; addressing tort reform and defensive medicine; preventing obesity and related expensive conditions; addressing fraud; streamlining redundant payment systems; and improved healthcare technology.[27]
Growth in medical spending[edit]
Spending on Medicare and Medicaid is projected to grow dramatically in coming decades. The number of persons enrolled in Medicare is expected to increase from 47 million in 2010 to 80 million by 2030.[28] While the same demographic trends that affect Social Security also affect Medicare, rapidly rising medical prices appear to be a more important cause of projected spending increases.
The CBO has indicated that: "Future growth in spending per beneficiary for Medicare and Medicaid—the federal government’s major health care programs—will be the most important determinant of long-term trends in federal spending. Changing those programs in ways that reduce the growth of costs—which will be difficult, in part because of the complexity of health policy choices—is ultimately the nation’s central long-term challenge in setting federal fiscal policy." Further, the CBO also projects that "total federal Medicare and Medicaid outlays will rise from 4 percent of GDP in 2007 to 12 percent in 2050 and 19 percent in 2082—which, as a share of the economy, is roughly equivalent to the total amount that the federal government spends today. The bulk of that projected increase in health care spending reflects higher costs per beneficiary rather than an increase in the number of beneficiaries associated with an aging population."[29]
President Obama stated in May 2009: "But we know that our families, our economy, and our nation itself will not succeed in the 21st century if we continue to be held down by the weight of rapidly rising health care costs and a broken health care system...Our businesses will not be able to compete; our families will not be able to save or spend; our budgets will remain unsustainable unless we get health care costs under control."[30]
The present value of unfunded obligations under all parts of Medicare during FY 2007 is approximately $34.1 trillion. In other words, this amount would have to be set aside today such that the principal and interest would cover the shortfall over the next 75 years. This is over six times as large as the Social Security unfunded obligation of $5.3 trillion, discussed below.[31]
Social Security[edit]
Main article: Social Security (United States)
OASDI Income and Cost Rates Under Intermediate Assumptions. Source: 2009 OASDI Trustees Report.
Note: CBO estimates that policy changes with a 0.6% of GDP annual impact are sufficient to address the 75-year program shortfall. Abbreviations are explained in the chart page. Source: CBO Report – July 2010.
Social Security is a social insurance program officially called "Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance" (OASDI), in reference to its three components. It is primarily funded through a dedicated payroll tax. During 2009, total benefits of $686 billion were paid out versus income (taxes and interest) of $807 billion, a $121 billion annual surplus. An estimated 156 million people paid into the program and 53 million received benefits, roughly 2.94 workers per beneficiary.[32] During 2008, total benefits of $625 billion were paid out versus income (taxes and interest) of $805 billion, a $180 billion annual surplus. An estimated 162 million people paid into the program and 51 million received benefits, roughly 3.2 workers per beneficiary.[33]
There is significant confusion about the program, due in part to the accounting for surplus payroll tax receipts and the agendas of various political constituencies. A few key points to understand under current law, if no reforms are implemented:
Social Security is funded by a dedicated payroll tax of 12.4%. This means that Social Security will be paid at least to the extent of payroll tax collections. Program payroll tax collections were roughly equal to payouts in 2010 and are estimated to fall to about 75% of payouts by the mid-2030s and continue around that level through the early 2080s. Claims that the program is "bankrupt" or "going bankrupt" can be evaluated in this context.
Since the Greenspan Commission in the early 1980s, Social Security has cumulatively collected far more in payroll taxes dedicated to the program than it has paid out to recipients—nearly $2.4 trillion by 2008. This surplus amount is commonly referred to as the "Social Security Trust Fund." This surplus amount has not added to the public debt; rather it is the spending of surplus funds dedicated to the program for other purposes that has added to the debt.
The Trust Fund represents a legal claim by Social Security recipients, enabling them to compel the government to borrow or otherwise fund 100% of program obligations as long as Trust Fund amounts remain. As sources of funds (other than the dedicated payroll taxes) are diverted to the program, the Trust Fund balance is reduced. Once the Trust Fund is liquidated in the mid-2030s under various estimates, program payouts will fall to about 75% of currently scheduled benefits. Social Security then becomes a true "pay as you go" program, without Trust Fund amounts to cover shortfalls.
Redemption of Trust Fund claims means that the government will have to borrow an additional $2.4 trillion in total (based on the 2008 Trust Fund balance) over approximately 20 years, from the time the program payouts begin to exceed tax collections around 2015 to the time the Trust Fund is exhausted in the mid-2030s. This is a funding challenge for the government overall, not just Social Security.[34][35]
Social Security spending will increase sharply over the next decades, largely due to the retirement of the baby boom generation. The number of program recipients is expected to increase from 44 million in 2010 to 73 million in 2030.[28] Program spending is projected to rise from 4.8% of GDP in 2010 to 5.9% of GDP by 2030, where it will stabilize.[36]
The CBO projected in 2010 that an increase in payroll taxes ranging from 1.6–2.1% of the payroll tax base, equivalent to 0.6%-0.8% of GDP, would be necessary to put the Social Security program in fiscal balance for the next 75 years.[37] In other words, raising the payroll tax rate to about 14.4% during 2009 (from the current 12.4%) or cutting benefits by 13.3% would address the program's budgetary concerns indefinitely; these amounts increase to around 16% and 24% if no changes are made until 2037. Projections of Social Security's solvency are sensitive to assumptions about rates of economic growth and demographic changes.[38]
Since recommendations of the Greenspan Commission were adopted in the early 1980s, Social Security payroll taxes have exceeded benefit payments. In FY2008, Social Security received $180 billion more in payroll taxes and accrued interest than it paid out in benefits. This annual surplus is credited to Social Security trust funds that hold special non-marketable Treasury securities. The Social Security surplus reduces the amount of U.S. Treasury borrowing from the public, as the surplus funds may be used for other government purposes. The total balance of the trust funds was $2.4 trillion in 2008 and is estimated to reach $3.7 trillion by 2016. At that point, payments will exceed payroll tax revenues, resulting in the gradual reduction of the trust funds balance as the securities are redeemed against other types of government revenues. By 2037, according to some estimates, the trust funds will be exhausted. Under current law, Social Security payouts would be reduced by 24% at that time, as only payroll taxes are authorized to cover benefits.[39]
The present value of unfunded obligations under Social Security as of January 1, 2009 has been estimated at approximately $5.3 trillion over a 75-year horizon. In other words, this amount would have to be set aside today such that the principal and interest would cover the shortfall over the next 75 years. The estimated annual shortfall averages 1.9% of the payroll tax base or 0.7% of gross domestic product. For a GDP of approximately $14 trillion in 2009, this 0.7% gap is roughly $100 billion per year or 5% of tax revenue. Over an infinite time horizon, these shortfalls average 3.4% of the payroll tax base and 1.2% of GDP.[40]
Various reforms have been debated for Social Security. Examples include reducing future annual cost of living adjustments (COLA) provided to recipients, raising the retirement age, and raising the income limit subject to the payroll tax ($106,800 in 2009).[41][42] The Urban Institute estimated the effects of solution alternatives during May 2010, including an estimated program deficit reduction for each:[43]
Reducing the COLA by one percentage point: 75%
Indexing the COLA to prices rather than wages, except for bottom one-third of income earners: 65%
Raising the payroll tax rate by one percentage point: 50%.
Raising the payroll tax cap (currently at $106,800) to cover 90% instead of 84% of earnings: 35%
Increasing the full retirement age to 68: 30%
The CBO reported in July 2010 the effects of a series of policy options on the "actuarial balance" shortfall, which over the 75 year horizon is approximately 0.6% of GDP. This is slightly different from the 0.7% estimated by the Social Security Trustees, as indicated above. For example, CBO estimates that raising the payroll tax by two percentage points (from 12.4% to 14.4%) over 20 years would increase annual program revenues by 0.6% of GDP, solving the 75-year shortfall. The various impacts are summarized in the CBO chart at right.[34]
CBO estimated in January 2012 that raising the full retirement age for Social Security from 67 to 70 would reduce outlays by about 13%. Raising the early retirement age from 62 to 64 has little impact, as those who wait longer to begin receiving benefits get a higher amount. Raising the retirement age increases the size of the workforce and the size of the economy by about 1%.[44]
Military spending[edit]
Main article: Military budget of the United States
Defense Spending as % Outlays FY 1950–2007.
Defense Spending 2000–2011.
During FY 2009, the GAO reported that the U.S. government incurred approximately $683 billion in expenses for the Department of Defense (DoD) and $54 billion for Homeland Security, a total of $737 billion. The GAO financial statements present data on an accrual basis, meaning as expenses are incurred rather than actual cash payments.[45]
President Obama's 2010 budget proposal includes a total of $663.8 billion, including $533.8 billion for the DOD and $130 billion for overseas contingencies, primarily the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. The proposed DoD base budget represents an increase of $20.5 billion over the $513.3 billion enacted for fiscal 2009. This is an increase of 4%, or 2.1% percent real growth after adjusting for inflation. The fiscal 2010 budget proposal brought the overseas contingency supplemental requests into the budget process, adding the $130 billion amount to the deficit.[46]
The U.S. defense budget (excluding spending for the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, Homeland Security, and Veteran's Affairs) is around 4% of GDP.[47] Adding these other costs places defense and homeland security spending between 5% and 6% of GDP.
The DoD baseline budget, excluding supplemental funding for the wars, has grown from $297 billion in FY2001 to a budgeted $534 billion for FY2010, an 81% increase.[48] According to the CBO, defense spending grew 9% annually on average from fiscal year 2000–2009.[49]
Debate about military spending[edit]
Democratic Congressman Barney Frank called for a significant reduction in the defense budget during February 2009: "The math is compelling: if we do not make reductions approximating 25 percent of the military budget starting fairly soon, it will be impossible to continue to fund an adequate level of domestic activity even with a repeal of Bush's tax cuts for the very wealthy. I am working with a variety of thoughtful analysts to show how we can make very substantial cuts in the military budget without in any way diminishing the security we need...[American] well-being is far more endangered by a proposal for substantial reductions in Medicare, Social Security or other important domestic areas than it would be by canceling weapons systems that have no justification from any threat we are likely to face."[50]
U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates wrote in January 2009 that the U.S. should adjust its priorities and spending to address the changing nature of threats in the world: "What all these potential adversaries—from terrorist cells to rogue nations to rising powers—have in common is that they have learned that it is unwise to confront the United States directly on conventional military terms. The United States cannot take its current dominance for granted and needs to invest in the programs, platforms, and personnel that will ensure that dominance's persistence. But it is also important to keep some perspective. As much as the U.S. Navy has shrunk since the end of the Cold War, for example, in terms of tonnage, its battle fleet is still larger than the next 13 navies combined—and 11 of those 13 navies are U.S. allies or partners."[51]
In 2009, the US Department of Defense's annual report to Congress on China's military strength offered several estimates of actual 2008 Chinese military spending. In terms of the prevailing exchange rate, Pentagon estimates range between US$105 and US$150 billion,[52] the second highest in the world after the US.
Budgetary treatment of Iraq & Afghanistan war expenses[edit]
CBO estimated in January 2010 that approximately $1.1 trillion was authorized for spending on the Iraq and Afghanistan Wars between 2001 and 2010. Spending peaked in 2008 at $187 billion and declined to $130 billion by 2010.[53]
Much of the costs for the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan have not been funded through regular appropriations bills, but through emergency supplemental appropriations bills. As such, most of these expenses were not included in the budget deficit calculation prior to FY2010. Some budget experts argue that emergency supplemental appropriations bills do not receive the same level of legislative care as regular appropriations bills.[54] In addition, emergency supplemental appropriations are not subject to the same budget enforcement mechanisms imposed on regular appropriations. Funding for the first stages of the Vietnam War was provided by supplemental appropriations, although President Johnson eventually acceded to Congressional demands to fund that war through the regular appropriations process.
Budget authority is legal authority to obligate the federal government. For many war-related activities there may be a long lag between the time when budget authority is granted and when payments (outlays) are made by the U.S. Treasury. In particular, spending on reconstruction activities in Iraq and Afghanistan has lagged behind available budget authority. In other cases, the military uses contracts that are payable upon completion, which can create long lags between appropriations and outlays.
In principle, the Department of Defense (DoD) separates war funding from base funding. In most cases, however, funds for operations in Iraq and Afghanistan use the same accounts as other DoD accounts. This raises challenges to attempts to achieve a precise separation of expenditures on operations in Iraq and Afghanistan from the base defense operations.
Discretionary spending[edit]
FY 2013 Estimated Federal Spending per 2012 Budget
Federal funding of science and technology research by year. The spike in 2009 is due to the American Reinvestment and Recovery Act.[55]
Discretionary spending is spending that is not mandated on a multi-year basis by existing legislation, and thus must be determined anew in each year's budget. Discretionary spending is used to fund the Cabinet Departments (e.g., the Department of Education) and Agencies (e.g., the Environmental Protection Agency), although these are often the recipients of some mandatory funding as well. Discretionary budget authority is established annually by Congress, as opposed to mandatory spending that is required by laws that span multiple years, such as Social Security or Medicare.
The Federal government spent approximately $600 billion during 2016 on the Cabinet Departments and Agencies, excluding the Department of Defense, representing 16% of budgeted expenditures[1] or about 3.3% of GDP. The 2011 budget included estimated spending for 2010, shown in the graph at right for selected Departments and Agencies with over $10 billion in budget authority.
Funding for the Department of Defense is mostly discretionary, but is excluded from this total and analyzed separately in this article. However, certain defense-related spending is included in other Departments, such as Homeland Security and Veteran's Affairs. The U.S. Constitution (Article I, Section 8) grants the Congress the authority to "To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years."[56]
Funding for science research and development is mainly funded through discretionary funding through agencies such as the National Institutes of Health, Department of Energy Office of Science, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and National Science Foundation. Slightly more than half of federal research and development funds go to the Department of Defense and thus overlaps with military spending.[55]
Several politicians and think tanks have proposed freezing non-defense discretionary spending at particular levels and holding this spending constant for various periods of time. President Obama proposed freezing discretionary spending representing approximately 12% of the budget in his 2011 State of the Union address.[57]
Interest expense[edit]
Components of interest on the debt.
Budgeted net interest on the public debt was approximately $245 billion in FY2012 (7% of spending). During FY2012, the government also accrued a non-cash interest expense of $187 billion for intra-governmental debt, primarily the Social Security Trust Fund, for a total interest expense of $432 billion. This accrued interest is added to the Social Security Trust Fund and therefore the national debt each year and will be paid to Social Security recipients in the future. However, since it is a non-cash expense it is excluded from the budget deficit calculation.[58]
Net interest costs paid on the public debt declined from $203 billion in 2011 to $187 billion in 2012 because of lower interest rates. Should these rates return to historical averages, the interest cost would increase dramatically.[58]
During 2013, the U.S. Federal Reserve is expected to purchase about $45 billion of U.S. treasury securities per month in addition to the $40 billion in mortgage debt it’s purchasing, effectively absorbing about 90 percent of net new dollar-denominated fixed-income assets.[clarify] This reduces the supply of bonds available for sale to investors, raising bond prices and lowering interest rates, which helps boost the U.S. economy. During 2012, global demand for U.S. debt was strong and interest rates were near record lows.[59]
U.S. spending per person from 1980 to 2011. Blue line indicates nominal spending per person, while the cyan line is adjusted for inflation based on the Consumer Price Index (CPI) excluding food and energy.
Analytical perspectives[edit]
Federal spending per capita[edit]
Federal spending per capita (that is, per person in the U.S.) was approximately $11,551 during 2011, versus $6,338 in 2000. Adjusted for inflation, these amounts were $5,133 in 2011 and $3,496 in 2000. Adjusted for inflation, federal spending per person remained around $3,500 throughout the 1990s. It then began to rise steadily after 2000, then jumped in 2008 and 2009 due to the subprime mortgage crisis.[60]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f CBO-Budget and Economic Outlook 2017-2027-January 2015
Jump up ^ CBO – The Budget and Economic Outlook: Fiscal Years 2013 to 2023 – February 2013
Jump up ^ CBO Historical Tables-Retrieved November 2015
Jump up ^ Charlie Rose Show-Senators Bayh, Gregg and Roger Altman-February 1, 2010 Archived July 8, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Center on Budget and Policy Priorities-The Right Target: Stabilize the Federal Debt January 2010
Jump up ^ CBO Long Term Budget Outlook – June and August 2010
Jump up ^ CBO Testimony – June 2008
^ Jump up to: a b Social Security Trustees Report – 2009 Summary
Jump up ^ GAO Briefing – January 2008
Jump up ^ Peter G. Peterson Foundation – Citizen's Guide 2010
Jump up ^ CBO Historical Data June 2017
^ Jump up to: a b D. Andrew Austin; Mindy R. Levit (March 23, 2012). "Mandatory Spending Since 1962" (PDF). fas.org. Congressional Research Service. Retrieved November 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ U.S. Congressional Budget Office, An Analysis of the President's Budgetary Proposals for Fiscal Year 2010, June 2009.
Jump up ^ "A Closer Look at Mandatory Spending" (PDF). cbo.gov. Congressional Budget Office. 2012. Retrieved October 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ Heritage Foundation – Book of Charts – Retrieved March 18, 2010
Jump up ^ Heritage Foundation – Book of Charts – Retrieve March 18, 2010
Jump up ^ GAO Citizens Guide
Jump up ^ Huffington Post-Lynn Parramore-Nine Deficit Myths We Cannot Afford-April 2010
Jump up ^ CNN Wire Staff (August 30, 2012). "CNN Fact Check: Santorum misleads on 'dependence'". CNN. Retrieved November 26, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Phil Izzo (May 23, 2012). "Number of the Week: Half of U.S. Lives in Household Getting Benefits". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved November 27, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Matthew Spalding (September 21, 2012). "Why the U.S. has a culture of dependency". CNN. Retrieved November 26, 2012.
Jump up ^ Brian Palmer (September 18, 2012). "Exactly How Many Americans Are Dependent on the Government?". Slate. Retrieved November 26, 2012.
Jump up ^ Concord Slides
Jump up ^ Sloan-Fortune-Social Security: The Next Great Bailout-July 2009
Jump up ^ Bruce Bartlett-Forbes-The 81% Tax Increase-May 2009
Jump up ^ Congressional Research Service – Medicare Primer – March 2009
Jump up ^ Atul Gawande-The New Yorker-The Cost Conundrum-June 2009
^ Jump up to: a b The Economist – As Boomers Wrinkle – December 2010
Jump up ^ CBO Testimony
Jump up ^ President Obama – Weekly Radio Address – May 16 2009
Jump up ^ GAO Fiscal Briefing Page 17
Jump up ^ 2010 Social Security Trustees Report Summary Press Release
Jump up ^ 2008 Social Security – Trustees Report Summary Press Release
^ Jump up to: a b Congressional Budget Office-Social Security Policy Options-July 2010
Jump up ^ Center on Budget and Policy Priorities-Bowles-Simpson Social Security Proposal Evaluation-February 2011
Jump up ^ Heritage Foundation-Book of Charts-As of November 2010
Jump up ^ CBO Long-Term Outlook-June 2010-Page 50
Jump up ^ 2009 OASDI Trustees Report Pages 3 and 19
Jump up ^ 2009 OASDI Trustees Report – Page 9 and 19
Jump up ^ Trustees Report Long Range Estimates – Section 5a Table IV.B6
Jump up ^ AARP Public Policy Institute-Reform Options for Social Security
Jump up ^ U.S. News and World Report-12 Ways to Fix Social Security-May 2010
Jump up ^ Urban Institute-Distributional Effects of Alternative Social Security Reforms-Details Matter-May 2010
Jump up ^ CBO – Raising the Ages of Eligibility for Social Security and Medicare-January 2012
Jump up ^ GAO-2009 Financial Statements of the U.S. Government – Page 45
Jump up ^ DoD News Release-Fiscal 2010 Budget Proposal-May 7, 2009
Jump up ^ Eaglen, Mackenzie; Eric Sayers (March 23, 2009). "USA: A 21st Century Maritime Posture for an Uncertain Future". Defense Industry Daily. Retrieved June 21, 2009.
Jump up ^ DOD – Defense Trend Spending Chart - May 7, 2009 Archived February 28, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ CBO-Monthly Budget Review-Sept 09
Jump up ^ Barney Frank – The Nation
Jump up ^ Gates-A Balanced Strategy
Jump up ^ Office of the Secretary of Defense – Annual Report to Congress: Military Power of the People's Republic of China 2009 (PDF)[1]
Jump up ^ CBO (January 2010). "The Budget and Economic Outlook: Fiscal Years 2010 to 2020". CBO. Retrieved February 2013. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ Anthony Cordesman and Erin Fitzgerald, September, 2009 Resourcing for Defeat, Center for Strategic and International Studies
^ Jump up to: a b "Investing in the Building Blocks of American Innovation: Federal R&D, Technology, and STEM Education in the 2011 Budget" (PDF). Office of Science and Technology Policy. Retrieved February 11, 2011.
Jump up ^ The Constitution of the United States
Jump up ^ State of the Union Speech-January 2011 Archived February 23, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b "GAO Audit Report on Treasury Debt – FY2012" (PDF). November 2012. p. 13. Retrieved November 2012. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ Bloomberg-Treasury Scarcity to Grow as Fed Buys 90% of New Bonds-November 2012
Jump up ^ FRED Database-Spending, Population, and Inflation Index Graph-October 2013
External links[edit]
Cogan, John F. (2002). "Federal Budget". In David R. Henderson (ed.). Concise Encyclopedia of Economics (1st ed.). Library of Economics and Liberty. CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link) OCLC 317650570, 50016270, 163149563
Kotlikoff, Laurence J. (2002). "Federal Deficit". In David R. Henderson (ed.). Concise Encyclopedia of Economics (1st ed.). Library of Economics and Liberty. CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link) OCLC 317650570, 50016270, 163149563
The New York Times: Obama’s 2012 Budget Proposal—A visualization of the Obama administration's FY2012 budget proposal.
CBPP-Policy Basics-Where Do Our Federal Tax Dollars Go? April 2013
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Expenditures_in_the_United_States_federal_budget&oldid=828547686"
Categories:
United States federal budgets
Expenditure
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
CS1 errors: dates
Use mdy dates from April 2013
All articles with failed verification
Articles with failed verification from October 2015
All Wikipedia articles needing clarification
Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2013
CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Add links
This page was last edited on 3 March 2018, at 07:01.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

tag: div

attr: id class

value: mw-page-base noprint

key: html

type: local

value: mw-head-base noprint

tag: a

attr: id class lang

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

tag: span

attr: href title

tag: b

tag: small

tag: br

attr: class style

value: padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;background:#002868; border: 1px double #8C959A;

value: Seal of the United States Department of the Treasury.svg

value:
NavToggle
NavToggle1
#
color: rgb(255, 255, 255);

value: font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;text-align:center; background:#bf0a30; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;

value:
NavToggle
NavToggle2
#
color: rgb(255, 255, 255);

value: font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 0px 0.4em; text-align: center; display: none;

value:
NavToggle
NavToggle3
#
color: rgb(255, 255, 255);

value: National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform

value: Political debates about the United States federal budget

value: Social Security debate in the United States

value: United States budget sequestration in 2013

value: United States debt-ceiling crisis of 2011

value: United States debt-ceiling crisis of 2013

value: Government shutdowns in the United States

value: United States federal government shutdown of 1980

value: United States federal government shutdown of 1990

value: United States federal government shutdowns of 1995–1996

value: United States federal government shutdown of 2013

value: United States federal government shutdowns of 2018

value:
NavToggle
NavToggle4
#
color: rgb(255, 255, 255);

value: Template talk:U.S. deficit and debt topics

value: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;width:22.0em; border: 4px double #d69d36; background:#FFFFFF;

value: Edit section: Discretionary vs. mandatory spending

value: United States House Committee on Appropriations

value: United States Senate Committee on Appropriations

value:
/wiki/U.S._Congressional_subcommittee
mw-redirect
U.S. Congressional subcommittee

value: Edit section: Growth of mandatory spending

value: Edit section: Mandatory spending and entitlements

value:
/wiki/Heritage_Foundation
mw-redirect
Heritage Foundation

value: Given article says 49% of americans, not 49% of households. (October 2015)

value: Health care finance in the United States

value: Health care reforms proposed during the Obama administration

value: Edit section: Growth in medical spending

value: Edit section: Debate about military spending

value: Edit section: Budgetary treatment of Iraq & Afghanistan war expenses

value: United States federal executive departments

value: Independent agencies of the United States government

value: padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:#595959; border:1px solid #DDD;

value: This passage needs to be better explained. (February 2013)

value: Edit section: Federal spending per capita

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.cbo.gov/publication/52370

value:
nofollow
external text
http://cbo.gov/publication/43907

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.cbo.gov/publication/45653

value:
nofollow
external text
http://www.gao.gov/cghome/d08446cg.pdf

value:
nofollow
external text
http://www.economist.com/node/17800237

value:
nofollow
external text
http://www.cbo.gov/doc.cfm?index=12531

value:
nofollow
external text
http://cbo.gov/publication/25025

value: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

value:
/wiki/Concise_Encyclopedia_of_Economics
mw-redirect
Concise Encyclopedia of Economics

value:
/wiki/Library_of_Economics_and_Liberty
mw-redirect
Library of Economics and Liberty

value: Category:CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/317650570

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50016270

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/163149563

value: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

value: Category:All articles with failed verification

value: Category:Articles with failed verification from October 2015

value: Category:All Wikipedia articles needing clarification

value: Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2013

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

value:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

value: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

value: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

value:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

value:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

value:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Find background information on current events

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

value:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

value: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

value: Permanent link to this revision of the page

value: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

value: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

value: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

value: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

value:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Expenditures_in_the_United_States_federal_budget rootpage-Expenditures_in_the_United_States_federal_budget skin-vector action-view