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Stations of the Cross
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The 12th Station of the Cross – Jesus dies on the Cross. St. Raphael's Cathedral, Dubuque, Iowa.
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The Stations of the Cross or the Way of the Cross, also known as the Way of Sorrows or the Via Crucis, refers to a series of images depicting Jesus Christ on the day of his crucifixion and accompanying prayers. The stations grew out of imitations of Via Dolorosa in Jerusalem which is believed to be the actual path Jesus walked to Mount Calvary. The object of the stations is to help the Christians faithful to make a spiritual pilgrimage through contemplation of the Passion of Christ. It has become one of the most popular devotions and the stations can be found in many Western Christian churches, including Anglican,[1] Lutheran,[2] Methodist,[3] and Roman Catholic ones.
Commonly, a series of 14 images will be arranged in numbered order along a path and the faithful travel from image to image, in order, stopping at each station to say the selected prayers and reflections. This will be done individually or in a procession most commonly during Lent, especially on Good Friday, in a spirit of reparation for the sufferings and insults that Jesus endured during his passion.[4][5]
The style, form, and placement of the stations vary widely. The typical stations are small plaques with reliefs or paintings placed around a church nave. Modern minimalist stations can be simple crosses with a numeral in the centre.[4][6] Occasionally the faithful might say the stations of the cross without there being any image, such as when the pope leads the stations of the cross around the Colosseum in Rome on Good Friday.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Stations
2.1 Scriptural form
3 Modern usage
4 Debates
4.1 Place of Christ's resurrection
5 Music
6 Literature
7 Via Dolorosa sites
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
Three chapels of Verkiai Calvary
Station of the Cross in the Shrine of Our Lady of Fátima, in Portugal
Outdoor station in Jiřetín pod Jedlovou
Typical indoor placement along the nave (Hong Kong Catholic Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception)
The Stations of the Cross originated in pilgrimages to Jerusalem and a desire to reproduce Via Dolorosa. Imitating holy places was not a new concept. For example, the religious complex of Santo Stefano in Bologna, Italy, replicated the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and other religious sites, including Mount of Olives and Valley of Josaphat.[8]
After the siege of 1187, Jerusalem fell to Muslims. Forty years later Franciscans were allowed back into the Holy Land. Their founder, Saint Francis of Assisi, held the Passion of Christ in special veneration and was the first person to receive stigmata.[9] In 1217, St. Francis also founded the Custody of the Holy Land to guard and promote the devotion to holy places. Their efforts were recognized when Franciscans were officially proclaimed custodians of holy places by Pope Clement VI in 1342.[9] Although several travelers who visited the Holy Land during the 12–14th centuries (e.g. Riccoldo da Monte di Croce, Burchard of Mount Sion, James of Verona), mention a "Via Sacra", i.e. a settled route that pilgrims followed, there is nothing in their accounts to identify this with the Way of the Cross, as we understand it.[10] The earliest use of the word "stations", as applied to the accustomed halting-places in the Via Sacra at Jerusalem, occurs in the narrative of an English pilgrim, William Wey, who visited the Holy Land in the mid-15th century, and described pilgrims following the footsteps of Christ to the cross. In 1521, a book called Geystlich Strass (German: "spiritual road") was printed with illustrations of the stations in the Holy Land.[10]
During the 15th and 16th centuries the Franciscans began to build a series of outdoor shrines in Europe to duplicate their counterparts in the Holy Land. The number of stations varied between seven and thirty; seven was common. These were usually placed, often in small buildings, along the approach to a church, as in a set of 1490 by Adam Kraft, leading to the Johanneskirche in Nuremberg.[11] A number of rural examples were established as attractions in their own right, usually on attractive wooded hills. These include the Sacro Monte di Domodossola (1657) and Sacro Monte di Belmonte (1712), and form part of the Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy World Heritage Site, together with other examples on different devotional themes. In these the sculptures are often approaching life-size and very elaborate. Remnants of these are often referred to as calvary hills.
In 1686, in answer to their petition, Pope Innocent XI granted to the Franciscans the right to erect stations within their churches. In 1731, Pope Clement XII extended to all churches the right to have the stations, provided that a Franciscan father erected them, with the consent of the local bishop. At the same time the number was fixed at fourteen. In 1857, the bishops of England were allowed to erect the stations by themselves, without the intervention of a Franciscan priest, and in 1862 this right was extended to bishops throughout the church.[12]
Stations[edit]
A set of the traditional 14 scenes from Portuguese Church, Kolkata
A set of the traditional 14 scenes in Limoges enamel
Outdoor set at Camp Zimmerman, an ecumenical retreat center rooted in the Methodist and Moravian traditions (Gnadenhutten)
The 15th station (Resurrection of Jesus) in the Saint Mary Rawaseneng Prayer Garden, in the Monastery of Saint Mary Rawaseneng (id) complex, Temanggung, Indonesia
The early set of seven scenes was usually numbers 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 11 and 14 from the list below.[11] The standard set from the 17th to 20th centuries has consisted of 14 pictures or sculptures depicting the following scenes:
Pilate condemns Jesus to die
Jesus accepts his cross
Jesus falls for the first time
Jesus meets his mother, Mary
Simon of Cyrene helps carry the cross
Veronica wipes the face of Jesus
Jesus falls for the second time
Jesus meets the women of Jerusalem
Jesus falls for the third time
Jesus is stripped of his clothes
Jesus is nailed to the cross
Jesus dies on the cross
Jesus is taken down from the cross
Jesus is placed in the tomb
Although not traditionally part of the Stations, the Resurrection of Jesus is, in very rare instances, included as a fifteenth station.[13][14]
Scriptural form[edit]
Main article: Scriptural Way of the Cross
Out of the fourteen traditional Stations of the Cross, only eight have clear scriptural foundation. Stations 3, 4, 6, 7, and 9 are not specifically attested to in the gospels (in particular, no evidence exists of station 6 ever being known before medieval times) and Station 13 (representing Jesus's body being taken down off the cross and laid in the arms of his mother Mary) seems to embellish the gospels' record, which states that Joseph of Arimathea took Jesus down from the cross and buried him. To provide a version of this devotion more closely aligned with the biblical accounts, Pope John Paul II introduced a new form of devotion, called the Scriptural Way of the Cross on Good Friday 1991. He celebrated that form many times but not exclusively at the Colosseum in Rome.[15][16]
In 2007, Pope Benedict XVI approved an overlapping but distinct set of stations for meditation and public celebration; they follow this sequence:[17][better source needed]
Jesus in the Garden of Gethsemane;
Jesus is betrayed by Judas and arrested;
Jesus is condemned by the Sanhedrin;
Jesus is denied by Peter;
Jesus is judged by Pilate;
Jesus is scourged and crowned with thorns;
Jesus takes up his cross;
Jesus is helped by Simon of Cyrene to carry his cross;
Jesus meets the women of Jerusalem;
Jesus is crucified;
Jesus promises his kingdom to the repentant thief;
Jesus entrusts Mary and John to each other;
Jesus dies on the cross; and
Jesus is laid in the tomb.
Modern usage[edit]
Station 5: Simon of Cyrene helps Jesus carry the Cross, Good Friday procession 2011 at Ulm, Germany
In the Roman Catholic Church, the devotion may be conducted personally by the faithful, making their way from one station to another and saying the prayers, or by having an officiating celebrant move from cross to cross while the faithful make the responses. The stations themselves must consist of, at the very least, fourteen wooden crosses, pictures alone do not suffice, and they must be blessed by someone with the authority to erect stations.[18]
Pope John Paul II led an annual public prayer of the Stations of the Cross at the Roman Colosseum on Good Friday. Originally, the pope himself carried the cross from station to station, but in his last years when age and infirmity limited his strength, John Paul presided over the celebration from a stage on the Palatine Hill, while others carried the cross. Just days prior to his death in 2005, Pope John Paul II observed the Stations of the Cross from his private chapel. Each year a different person is invited to write the meditation texts for the Stations. Past composers of the Papal Stations include several non-Catholics. The pope himself wrote the texts for the Great Jubilee in 2000 and used the traditional Stations.
The celebration of the Stations of the Cross is especially common on the Fridays of Lent, especially Good Friday. Community celebrations are usually accompanied by various songs and prayers. Particularly common as musical accompaniment is the Stabat Mater. At the end of each station the Adoramus Te is sometimes sung. The Alleluia is also sung, except during Lent.
Structurally, Mel Gibson's 2004 film, The Passion of the Christ, follows the Stations of the Cross.[19] The fourteenth and last station, the Burial, is not prominently depicted (compared to the other thirteen) but it is implied since the last shot before credit titles is Jesus resurrected and about to leave the tomb.
Debates[edit]
Place of Christ's resurrection[edit]
Some modern liturgists[20] say the traditional Stations of the Cross are incomplete without a final scene depicting the empty tomb and/or the resurrection of Jesus, because Jesus' rising from the dead was an integral part of his salvific work on Earth. Advocates of the traditional form of the Stations ending with the body of Jesus being placed in the tomb say the Stations are intended as a meditation on the atoning death of Jesus, and not as a complete picture of his life, death, and resurrection. Another point of contention, at least between some ranking liturgists vs. traditionalists, is (the use of) the "New Way of the Cross" being recited exclusively in the Philippines and by Filipinos abroad.
The Stations of the Resurrection (also known by the Latin name of Via Lucis, Way of Light) are used in some churches at Eastertide to meditate on the Resurrection and Ascension of Jesus Christ.
Music[edit]
Franz Liszt wrote a Via crucis for choir, soloists and piano or organ or harmonium in 1879. In 1931, French organist Marcel Dupré improvised and transcribed musical meditations based on fourteen poems by Paul Claudel, one for each station. Peter Maxwell Davies's Vesalii Icones (1969), for male dancer, solo cello and instrumental ensemble, brings together the Stations of the Cross and a series of drawings from the anatomical treatise De humani corporis fabrica (1543) by the Belgian physician Andreas van Wesel (Vesalius). In Davies's sequence, the final "station" represents the Resurrection, but of Antichrist, the composer's moral point being the need to distinguish what is false from what is real.[21] David Bowie regarded his 1976 song "Station to Station" as "very much concerned with the stations of the cross".[22] Michael Valenti (known primarily as a Broadway composer) wrote, with librettist Diane Seymour, an oratorio depicting the fourteen Stations of the Cross entitled "The Way". It was premiered in 1991. Paweł_Łukaszewski wrote Via Crucis in 2000 and it was premiered by the Wrocław_Opera on Good Friday March 30, 2018 and transmitted on TVP_Kultura. Stefano Vagnini's 2002 modular oratorio, Via Crucis,[23] a composition for organ, computer, choir, string orchestra and brass quartet, depicts the fourteen Stations of the Cross.
In 2009, U2 released Moment of Surrender, mentioning the Stations of the Cross.
As the Stations of the Cross are prayed during the season of Lent in Catholic churches, each station is traditionally followed by a verse of the Stabat Mater, composed in the 13th century by Franciscan Jacopone da Todi. James Matthew Wilson's poetic sequence, The Stations of the Cross, is written in the same meter as da Todi's poem.[24]
Literature[edit]
Dimitris Lyacos' third part of the Poena Damni trilogy, The First Death, is divided in fourteen sections in order to emphasise the "Via Dolorosa" of its marooned protagonist during his ascent on the mount of the island which constitutes the setting of the work.
Via Dolorosa sites[edit]
These fourteen sites along the Via Dolorosa are where the events of the Stations of the Cross happened, according to tradition. These 14 stops form a route ending at the Church of the Holy Sepulcher that pilgrims have walked for centuries and are the inspiration for the Stations of the Cross in many churches today.
1st Station, Jesus is condemned to death
2nd Station, Jesus carries his cross
3rd Station, Jesus falls for the first time
4th Station, Jesus meets his mother
5th Station, Simon of Cyrene helps Jesus carry the cross
6th Station, Veronica wipes the face of Jesus
7th Station, Jesus falls for the second time
8th Station, Jesus meets the women of Jerusalem
9th Station, Jesus falls for the third time
10th Station, Jesus is stripped of his garments
11th Station, Crucifixion: Jesus is nailed to the cross
12th Station, Jesus dies on the cross
13th Station, Jesus is taken down from the cross
14th Station, Jesus is laid in the tomb
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Stations of the Cross.
Acts of Reparation to Jesus Christ
Life of Jesus in the New Testament
Sayings of Jesus on the cross
Seven Sorrows of Mary
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Lent" (PDF). Church of England. 236. Retrieved 20 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Stations of the Cross". Holy Trinity Lutheran Church. Retrieved 20 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Stations of the Cross". Trinity UMC. 24 March 2013. Archived from the original on 17 April 2015. Retrieved 17 April 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Stations of the Cross". St. Michael's Episcopal Church. 2012. Retrieved 3 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Ann Ball, 2003 Encyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and Practices ISBN 0-87973-910-X
Jump up ^ Chryssides, George D.; Wilkins, Margaret Z. (11 September 2014). Christians in the Twenty-First Century. Taylor & Francis. p. 51. ISBN 978-1-317-54557-6.
Jump up ^ "Frommer's Events – Event Guide: Good Friday Procession in Rome (Palatine Hill, Italy)". Frommer's. Archived from the original on 7 January 2009. Retrieved 8 April 2008.
Jump up ^ Ousterhout, Robert G. (1981). "The Church of Santo Stefano: A "Jerusalem" in Bologna". Gesta. 2 (20): 311. doi:10.2307/766940. ISSN 0016-920X. JSTOR 766940.
^ Jump up to: a b Weitzel Gibbons, Mary (1995). Giambologna: Narrator of the Catholic Reformation. University of California Press. pp. 72–73. ISBN 9780520082137.
^ Jump up to: a b Thurston, Herbert (1914). The Stations of the Cross: an account of their history and devotional purpose. London: Burns & Oates. pp. 20–21, 46. OCLC 843213.
^ Jump up to: a b Schiller, Gertrud, Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. II, p. 82, 1972 (English trans from German), Lund Humphries, London, ISBN 0-85331-324-5
Jump up ^ The Catholic Encyclopedia (1907). s.v. "The Way of the Cross".
Jump up ^ "The Official Web Site for the Archdiocese of Detroit" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-12-23. Retrieved 2012-02-13. In some contemporary Stations of the Cross, a fifteenth station has been added to commemorate the Resurrection of the Lord.
Jump up ^ "Fr. William Saunders". Retrieved 2009-04-04. Because of the intrinsic relationship between the passion and death of our Lord with His resurrection, several of the devotional booklets now include a 15th station, which commemorates the Resurrection.
Jump up ^ Joseph M Champlin, The Stations of the Cross With Pope John Paul II Liguori Publications, 1994, ISBN 0-89243-679-4
Jump up ^ Pope John Paul II, Meditation and Prayers for the Stations of the Cross at the Colosseum, Good Friday, 2000
Jump up ^ Office for the Liturgical Celebrations of the Supreme Pontiff (April 6, 2007). "Way of the Cross at the Colosseum". Vatican.va. Archived from the original on July 7, 2013. Retrieved February 18, 2018.
Jump up ^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Way of the Cross". Newadvent.org. 1912-10-01. Retrieved 2014-07-03.
Jump up ^ Review Archived 2012-04-30 at the Wayback Machine., United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, 2004
Jump up ^ McBrien, Richard P.; Harold W. Attridge (1995). The HarperCollins encyclopedia of Catholicism. p. 1222. ISBN 978-0-06-065338-5.
Jump up ^ Composer's note in the published score (Boosey and Hawkes, B & H 20286).
Jump up ^ Cavanagh, David (February 1997). "ChangesFiftyBowie". Q magazine: 52–59.
Jump up ^ Falcon Valley Music Ed., Stefano Vagnini, Via Crucis, Rome, 2002.
Jump up ^ "The Stations of the Cross : Clarion Review". www.clarionreview.org. Retrieved 2017-12-16.
External links[edit]
"Way of the Cross" article from The Catholic Encyclopedia
A list of recent Via Crucis used by The Vatican on Good Fridays from the Official Vatican website.
Scriptural Stations of the Cross from the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops
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Lake Eyre
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the lake in South Australia. For the associated locality, see Lake Eyre, South Australia.
Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre
Composite Landsat 7 satellite image using shortwave infrared, near-infrared, and blue wavelengths
A map of the Lake Eyre basin, with the lake at bottom left
Location
Northern South Australia
Coordinates
28°22′S 137°22′E / 28.367°S 137.367°E / -28.367; 137.367Coordinates: 28°22′S 137°22′E / 28.367°S 137.367°E / -28.367; 137.367
Lake type
Endorheic
Primary inflows
Warburton River
Primary outflows
evaporation
Basin countries
Australia
Surface area
9,500 km2 (3,668 sq mi) (max)
Average depth
1.5 m (5 ft) (every 3 years), 4 m (13 ft) (every decade)
Surface elevation
−9 m (−30 ft) (shoreline when full);
−15 m (−49 ft) (lowest point when empty)
Lake Eyre (/ˈɛər/ AIR), officially known as Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre,[1] contains the lowest natural point in Australia, at approximately 15 m (49 ft) below sea level (AHD), and, on the rare occasions that it fills, is the largest lake in Australia covering 9,500 km2 (3,668 sq mi). The shallow endorheic lake is the depocentre of the vast Lake Eyre basin and is found in Northern South Australia, some 700 km (435 mi) north of Adelaide.
When the lake is full, it has the same salinity level as the sea, but as the lake dries up and the water evaporates, salinity increases.
The lake was named in honour of Edward John Eyre, who was the first European to see it, in 1840. The lake's official name was changed in December 2012 to combine the name "Lake Eyre" with the indigenous name, Kati Thanda.[1] The native title over the lake and surrounding region is held by the Arabana people.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Geography
2 Salinity
3 Floods
3.1 2009 to 2011
3.2 2015 to 2016
4 Yacht club
5 Land speed record attempts
6 Wildlife
6.1 Birds
7 Protected area status
7.1 Statutory
7.2 Non-statutory
7.2.1 Wetlands
7.2.2 Important bird area
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Geography[edit]
Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre salt crust
Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre seen from an aircraft, showing pink colouration from algae
Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre South
Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre is located in the deserts of central Australia, in northern South Australia. The Lake Eyre Basin is a large endorheic system surrounding the lakebed, the lowest part of which is filled with the characteristic salt pan caused by the seasonal expansion and subsequent evaporation of the trapped waters. Even in the dry season there is usually some water remaining in Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre, normally collecting in over 200 smaller sub-lakes within its margins. The lake was formed by aeolian processes after tectonic upwarping occurred to the south subsequent to the end of the Pleistocene epoch.[3]
During the rainy season the rivers from the north-east part of the Lake Eyre Basin (in outback (south-west and central) Queensland) flow towards the lake through the Channel Country. The amount of water from the monsoon determines whether water will reach the lake and if it does, how deep the lake will get. The average rainfall in the area of the lake is 100 to 150 millimetres (3.9 to 5.9 in) per year.[3]
The −15 m (−49 ft) altitude usually attributed to Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre refers to the deepest parts of the lake floor, in Belt Bay and the Madigan Gulf. The shoreline lies at −9 m (−30 ft).[4] The lake is the area of maximum deposition of sediment in the Lake Eyre Basin.[5]
Lake Eyre is divided into two sections which are joined by the Goyder Channel. These are known as Lake Eyre North, which is 144 kilometres (89 mi) in length and 65 kilometres (40 mi) wide, and Lake Eyre South, which measures 65 by 24 kilometres (40 by 15 mi).[6] The salt crusts are thickest (up to 50 cm (20 in)) in the southern Belt Bay, Jackboot Bay and Madigan Gulf sub-basins of Lake Eyre North.[7]
Since 1883, proposals have been made to flood Lake Eyre with seawater brought to the basin via a canal or pipeline. The purpose was, in part, to increase evaporation and thereby increase rainfall in the region downwind of an enlarged Lake Eyre.[8] The added rainfall has been modeled as small.[9] Due to the basin's low elevation below sea level and the region's high annual evaporation rate (between 2,500 and 3,500 millimetres (98 and 138 in)[10]), such schemes have generally been considered impractical as it is likely that accumulation of salt deposits would rapidly block the engineered channel.[11] At a rate of 1 cm (0.39 in) evaporation per day, a 3 m (9.8 ft) viaduct flowing a 0.5 m/s (1.6 ft/s) would supply enough water to create a 100 km2 (39 sq mi) sea. If brine water was not sent back to the ocean, it would precipitate 90,000 long tons (91,000 t) of salt every year.[citation needed]
Salinity[edit]
The salinity in the lake increases as the 450 mm (18 in) salt crust dissolves over a period of six months of a major flood resulting in a massive fish kill. When over 4 m (13 ft) deep the lake is no more salty than the sea, but salinity increases as the water evaporates, with saturation occurring at about a 500 mm (20 in) depth. The lake takes on a pink hue when saturated due to the presence of beta-carotene pigment caused by the algae Dunaliella salina.
Floods[edit]
Typically a 1.5 m (5 ft) flood occurs every three years, a 4 m (13 ft) flood every decade, and a fill or near fill a few times a century. The water in the lake soon evaporates with a minor or medium flood drying by the end of the following summer. Most of the water entering the lakes arrives via Warburton River.[3]
In strong La Niña years the lake can fill. Since 1885 this has occurred in 1886–1887, 1889–1890, 1916–1917, 1950, 1955, 1974–1977,[12] and 1999–2001,[13] with the highest flood of 6 m (20 ft) in 1974. Local rain can also fill Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre to 3–4 m (9.8–13.1 ft) as occurred in 1984 and 1989. Torrential rain in January 2007 took about six weeks to reach the lake but only placed a small amount of water into it.[14]
When recently flooded the lake is almost fresh and native freshwater fish, including bony bream (Nematolosa erebi), the Lake Eyre Basin sub-species of golden perch (Macquaria ambigua) and various small hardyhead species (Craterocephalus spp.) can survive in it.
2009 to 2011[edit]
Lake Eyre in 1990, as seen by STS-35
The 2009 Lake Eyre flood peaked at 1.5 m (5 ft) deep in late May, which is a quarter of its maximum recorded depth of 6 m (20 ft). 9 km3 (2 cu mi) of water crossed the Queensland–South Australian border with most of it coming from massive floods in the Georgina River. However, owing to the very low rainfall in the lower reaches of these rivers (contrasting with heavy rainfall in the upper catchments)[15] the greater proportion soaked into the desert or evaporated en route to the lake, leaving less than 4 km3 (0.96 cu mi) in the lake which covered an area of 800 km2 (309 sq mi) or 12% of the total. As the flood did not start filling the lake's deepest point (Belt Bay) until late March, little bird life appeared preferring instead to nest in the upper reaches of the Lake Eyre Basin, north of Birdsville, where large lakes appeared in January as a result of monsoonal rain.
The high rainfall in summer 2010 sent flood water into the Diamantina, Georgina and Cooper Creek catchments of the Lake Eyre basin, with the Cooper Creek reaching the lake for the first time since 1990. The higher rainfall has prompted many different birds to migrate back to the area for breeding.[16]
Heavy local rain in early March 2011 in the Stuart Creek and Warriner catchments filled Lake Eyre South, with Lake Eyre North about 75 per cent covered with water firstly from the Neales and Macumba Rivers, and later from the Warburton River.[17]
2015 to 2016[edit]
In late 2015, water began flowing into Lake Eyre following heavy rain in the north-east of the state.[18]
Yacht club[edit]
The Lake Eyre Yacht Club is a dedicated group of sailors who sail on the lake's floods, including recent trips in 1997, 2000, 2001, 2004, 2007 and 2009.[19] A number of 6 m (20 ft) trailer sailers sailed on Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre in 1975, 1976, and 1984 when the flood depth reached 3–6 m (9.8–19.7 ft). In July 2010 The Yacht Club held its first regatta since 1976[20] and its first on Lake Killamperpunna, a freshwater lake on Cooper Creek. The Cooper had reached Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre for the first time since 1990.[citation needed]
When the lake is full, a notable phenomenon is that around midday the surface can often become very flat. The surface then reflects the sky in a way that leaves both the horizon and water surface virtually impossible to see. The commodore of the Lake Eyre Yacht Club has stated that sailing during this time has the appearance of sailing in the sky.[21]
Land speed record attempts[edit]
Campbell plaque at Level Post Bay
Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre has been a site for various land speed record attempts on its salt flats, especially those by Donald Campbell with the Bluebird-Proteus CN7.[22]
Wildlife[edit]
Phytoplankton in the lake includes Nodularia spumigena and a number of species of Dunaliella.[3]
Birds[edit]
Birds such as pelicans and banded stilts are drawn to a filled lake from southern coastal regions of Australia, and from as far afield as Papua New Guinea. During the 1989–1990 flood it was estimated that 200,000 pelicans, 80% of Australia's total population, came to feed & roost at Lake Eyre.[23] Scientists are presently unable to determine how such birds appear able to detect the filling of the lake, even when hundreds or thousands of kilometres away from the basin.[24]
Protected area status[edit]
Statutory[edit]
The extent of the lake is covered by two protected areas declared by the Government of South Australia - the Kati Thanda-Lake Eyre National Park and the Elliot Price Conservation Park.[25]
Non-statutory[edit]
Wetlands[edit]
Lake Eyre is on the list of wetlands of national importance known as A Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia.[26]
Important bird area[edit]
Lake Eyre has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBA) known as the Lake Eyre Important Bird Area because, when flooded, it supports major breeding events of the Banded stilt and Australian pelican, as well as over 1% of the world populations of Red-necked avocets, Sharp-tailed sandpipers, Red-necked stints, Silver gulls and Caspian terns.[27]
See also[edit]
Australia portal
List of lakes of Australia
Pluvial lake
Eyre (disambiguation)
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "New name adopted for outback Lake Eyre". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 19 December 2012. Retrieved 19 December 2012.
Jump up ^ "Federal Court awards native title over Lake Eyre". ABC News. Australia. 23 May 2012. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d O'Sullivan, Patrick; C. S. Reynolds (2008). The Lakes Handbook: Lake Restoration and Rehabilitation, Volume 2. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 233–235. ISBN 1405141107. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Lake Eyre. International Lake Environment Committee. Retrieved 29 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Laity, Julie J. (2009). Deserts and Desert Environments. John Wiley & Sons. p. 112. ISBN 1444300741. Retrieved 20 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Rafferty, John P. (2007). Lakes and Wetland. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 186. ISBN 1615303200. Retrieved 20 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Dulhunty, J.A. (1990): Lake Eyre, In: M.J. Tyler, C.R. Twidale, M. Davis and C.B. Walker, Natural History of the North East Deserts. Royal Society of South Australia Inc. Pp. 101-4. ISBN 0-9596627-5-8
Jump up ^ Badescu, V., Cathcart, R.B., Bolonkin, A.A., Paulescu, M. and Gravila, P. (2013) Macro-engineering Australia's Lake Eyre with imported seawater. International Journal of Environment and Sustainable Development 12: 264-284.
Jump up ^ Hope, Pandora & Nicholls, Neville & L. McGregor, John. (2004). "The rainfall response to permanent inland water in Australia" Aust. Meteorol. Mag.
Jump up ^ Badman, F.J. (1991): Introduction. In: F.J. Badman, B.K. Arnold and S.L. Belt, A Natural History of the Lake Eyre Region. The South Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service's Northern Consultative Committee. P 1. ISBN 0 646 07183 1
Jump up ^ The Plan To Fill Lake Eyre TROVE: The Sydney Morning Herald, 27 May 1954. Retrieved 8 February 2016.
Jump up ^ Allen, Robert J.; The Australasian Summer Monsoon, Teleconnections, and Flooding in the Lake Eyre Basin; published 1985 by Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, S.A. Branch; ISBN 0-909112-09-6
Jump up ^ Australian Bureau of Meteorology; Annual Climate Summary (2000)
Jump up ^ "Lake Eyre flooding attracts yachting club interest". ABC News. Australia. 8 March 2007. Retrieved 8 March 2007.
Jump up ^ Australian Annual Climate Summary 2009
Jump up ^ Lake Eyre floods again, Australian Geographic, 15 July 2010
Jump up ^ "Flooding and storms fill outback lake". ABC News. Australia. 9 March 2011. Retrieved 29 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Lake Eyre begins filling with water after soaking rains". ABC News. Retrieved 2016-01-04.
Jump up ^ Welcome to the Lake Eyre Yacht Club. Retrieved 29 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Lake Eyre - 9,690 km2 - Facts, Map, Activities". www.lakepedia.com. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Tinson, Sam (May 2011). "Dry country". Sails Magazine (7). Retrieved 30 March 2017. “Often you get becalmed in the middle of the lake at midday, and the surface is like a mirror, the water and the sky become one. You get a light sea fog and it’s almost like you’re floating in a cloud. It’s a very beautiful thing."
Jump up ^ John Pearson (author). Bluebird and the Dead Lake.
Jump up ^ TCR, White (2005). Why Does the World Stay Green?: Nutrition and Survival of Plant-eaters. Csiro Publishing. p. 88. ISBN 0643099816. Retrieved 20 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Birds set to return to Lake Eyre to breed as inland lakes fill with water ABC News, 6 January 2016. Accessed 6 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "Kati Thanda-Lake Eyre National Park Map" (PDF). Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources. Retrieved 5 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Eyles, Kathy (2001). A Directory of important wetlands in Australia (PDF) (3 ed.). Environment Australia. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-642-54721-7. Retrieved 4 February 2015.
Jump up ^ "Important Bird Areas factsheet: Lake Eyre". Birdata. Birdlife International. Retrieved 5 February 2015.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lake Eyre.
NASA Earth Observatory pages on Lake Eyre:
Fluctuations of Lake Eyre, South Australia - 5 December 2002 Accessed 5 February 2014.
Lake Eyre, South Australia - 24 March 2003 Accessed 5 February 2014.
Lake Eyre Filling Peaks - 21 June 2009 Accessed 5 February 2014.
Lake Eyre Yacht Club website Accessed 5 February 2014.
Samela Harris: Lake Eyre pelican mystery Accessed 5 February 2014.
Dr Vincent Kotwicki: Floods of Lake Eyre Accessed 5 February 2014.
Salt, an award-winning documentary about Lake Eyre by filmmaker Murray Fredericks
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Area code 808
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The 808 telephone area code covers the inhabited, developed and uninhabited areas of the Hawaiian Islands out to Midway Island and Wake Island. 808 was issued as Hawaii's area code shortly after its statehood in 1959.
Slightly over 1.3 million people live in Hawaii. Despite the state's rapid growth and the proliferation of cell phones (particularly in Honolulu and Oahu), a single area code is projected to be enough to serve the state until at least the third quarter of 2029.[1]
Marcus Mariota, quarterback for the Tennessee Titans football team and 2014 Heisman Trophy winner, had a special facemask honoring the 808 area code while playing with the University of Oregon.[2]
See also[edit]
List of NANP area codes
North American Numbering Plan
References[edit]
Jump up ^ North American Numbering Plan (October 2013). 2013-2 NRUF and NPA Exhaust Analysis, viewed November 2, 2013.
Jump up ^ Tilson, Skye (December 12, 2014). "Marcus Mariota's Facemask". Uniform Critics. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
External links[edit]
NANPA Area Code Map of Hawaii
List of exchanges from AreaCodeDownload.com, 808 Area Code
Hawaii area codes: 808
North: 907, Pacific Ocean
West: 670, 671, Pacific Ocean area code 808 East: Pacific Ocean, 310/424, 415/628, 619, 650, 657/714, 805, 831, 858, 949
South: 684, Pacific Ocean
Alaska area codes: 907
California area codes: 209, 213/323, 310/424, 408/669, 415/628, 442/760, 510, 530, 559, 562, 619, 626, 650, 657/714, 661, 707, 747/818, 805, 831, 858, 909, 916, 925, 949, 951
Guam area codes: 671
Northern Mariana Islands area codes: 670
American Samoa area codes: 684
[show]
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This article related to a telephone area code is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Area_code_808&oldid=804606635"
Categories:
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Area codes in Hawaii
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