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Tertiary education fees in Australia
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People attending a tertiary institution in Australia as a percentage of the local population at the 2011 census, geographically subdivided by statistical local area
Tertiary education fees in Australia are payable for courses at tertiary education institutions. The central government, also known as the Commonwealth government, provides loans and subsidies to relieve the cost of tertiary education for some students. Some students are supported by the government and are required to pay only part of the cost of tuition, called the "student contribution", and the government pays the balance. Some government supported students can defer payment of their contribution as a HECS-HELP loan. Other domestic students are full fee-paying (non-Commonwealth supported) and do not receive direct government contribution to the cost of their education. Some domestic students in full fee courses can obtain a FEE-HELP loan from the Australian government up to a lifetime limit of $112,134 for medicine, dentistry and veterinary science programs and $89,706 for all other programs.[1]
Australian citizens (and in some cases overseas professionals completing bridging studies in order to be accredited permanent residents[2]) are able to obtain interest free loans from the government under the Higher Education Loan Programme (HELP) which replaced the Higher Education Contribution Scheme (HECS). As of April 2016, the amount of money owed to the Australian government under the HECS scheme was AUD$60 billion and is expected to increase to $180 billion by 2026.[3]
HELP is jointly administered by the Australian Department of Education and Training and the Australian Taxation Office (ATO).[4] In addition, qualified students may be entitled to Youth Allowance or Austudy Payment to assist them financially while they are studying. These support payments are means and assets tested. Further assistance is available in the form of scholarships. Overseas students are charged fees for the full cost of their education and are ineligible for HELP loans, but may apply for international scholarships.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Abolition of university fees
1.2 Introduction of HECS
1.3 Howard government reforms - 1996-2012
1.4 2017 changes
2 University fees
3 Commonwealth supported students
3.1 Total Funding
4 Full fee-paying students
5 OS-HELP
6 HELP loans
6.1 HELP loan management
6.2 Repayments
7 See also
8 References
8.1 Notes
8.2 Sources
9 External links
History[edit]
In 1940, the Curtin Labor Government saw a need for the country to increase the number of university graduates and for more civil and military research. To do this, it dramatically increased the number of scholarships it offered to enter university and allowed women to apply for these scholarships (they were previously exclusive to men). The Menzies Liberal Government also supported and extended the ability of ordinary Australians to attend university.
In the 1960s, the Menzies Government encouraged and funded the establishment of new universities to cater for increasing demand. These universities were built in outlying suburbs and offered special research scholarships to encourage students to undertake postgraduate research studies. Many of the universities that were established under this scheme are members of Innovative Research Universities Australia.
In 1967, the Government created a category of non-university tertiary institution (called College of Advanced Education (CAE)) that would be funded by the Commonwealth. These CAEs were easier to access and cheaper to attend than the traditional university, while delivering many university-equivalent bachelor's degrees.
Abolition of university fees[edit]
During the early 1970s, there was a significant push to make tertiary education in Australia more accessible to working and middle class Australians. The Whitlam Labor Government abolished university fees on 1 January 1974. By the mid-1980s, however, there was consensus between both major parties that the concept of 'free' tertiary education in Australia was untenable due to the increasing participation rate.
Introduction of HECS[edit]
In 1989, the Hawke Labor Government began gradually re-introducing fees for university study. It set up the Higher Education Contributions Scheme (HECS),[5] which was first proposed by Professor Murray Wells [6] and subsequently developed by economist and lecturer at the Australian National University, Bruce Chapman and championed by Education Minister John Dawkins (see Dawkins Revolution). Under the original HECS, a $1,800 fee was charged to all university students, and the Commonwealth paid the balance. A student could defer payment of this HECS amount (in which case it was called a HECS debt) and repay the debt through the tax system, when the student's income exceeds a threshold level. As part of the reforms, Colleges of Advanced Education entered the University sector by various means. The HECS system was accepted by both federal political parties and has survived until today, though with a number of changes.
Howard government reforms - 1996-2012[edit]
In 1996, the new Howard Coalition Government, while otherwise retaining the HECS system, created a three-tier HECS fee structure. Fees were charged on the basis of the perceived value of courses. Courses considered to have most likelihood of generating higher income for students in the future (e.g. Law and Medicine) were the most expensive and those least likely to generate higher income (e.g. Nursing and Arts) were the least expensive. At the same time, HECS charges increased by an average of 40%.
From 2007, HECS places became known as Commonwealth supported places (CSP). A student in a CSP was only entitled to study for a maximum of 7 years full-time (16 years part-time) at CSP rates. This was known as a student learning entitlement (SLE). After that period the student had to take either a post-graduate FEE-HELP load (if available) or study at full-fee rates. SLE was abolished from 1 January 2012.
The HECS debt became a pre-2005 debt, while a post-2005 debt is called HECS-HELP, which operates on the same principles as HECS. If a student receives a HECS-HELP loan, the Commonwealth government pays the loan amount directly to the higher education provider on behalf of the student.
An alternative option is FEE-HELP (formerly PELS) which provides eligible fee-paying students with a loan to cover their postgraduate fees. This option is only available for post-graduate students attempting an eligible post-graduate course. In 2012, the FEE-HELP lifelong limit was $89,706, and $112,134 for students studying dentistry, medicine or veterinary science.[7]
Prior to 2012, when a student had used up SLE, he or she could enrol on a full-fee basis. Full-fee courses are relatively expensive because the student must pay the total cost or if eligible, defer the fee on FEE-HELP, resulting in a significantly larger debt than a HECS-HELP debt for the student contribution portion of a Commonwealth supported course. From 1 January 2012, SLE was abolished and students could continue to study for more than 7 years full-time or equivalent part-time in Commonwealth supported courses. FEE-HELP courses are available at a post-graduate level (and occasionally for some undergraduate full-fee places); however, they are not available at every institution or in every course. The only remaining option is a full-fee place paid upfront.
The discount for voluntary repayments of a pre-2005 HECS debt was reduced from 15% to 10% from 1 January 2005.[8][9] On 1 January 2012, the voluntary repayment discount was reduced to 5%, and was removed completely from 1 January 2017.
2017 changes[edit]
Changes to funding of universities and the HECS scheme were made as part of the 2017 Australian federal budget. University funding is to be a reduced by 2.5%, and university fees are to go up by $2,000 to $3,600 for a four-year course, an increase of 1.8% in 2018, and 7.5% by 2022. From 1 July 2018, the income level at which HECS debt repayments start will be reduced, from $55,000 to $42,000.
University fees[edit]
In 1996, the Howard government permitted universities to create full-fee places on which they could charge full up-front fees to students who missed out on a HECS place (with the notable exception of medical degrees). In 2005, the Howard government permitted universities to increase fees by up to 25%.
During the term of the Abbott Government, Education Minister Christopher Pyne consistently sought to fully deregulate university fees.[10] Pyne's proposal would have allowed universities to set their own fees according to the student demand, and graduates who moved offshore to start paying through the tax system.[10] The proposed reforms were unsuccessful, being rejected by the Senate in 2015. University tuition fee and regulation reform remain part of the Liberal-National Coalition Government's policy.[11] The Government released the Driving Innovation Fairness and Excellence in Australian Higher Education consultation paper, in May 2016 proposing a new set of reforms (for consultation).
In the 2017 Australian federal budget, University funding will be a reduced by 2.5%. University fees will go up by $2,000 to $3,600 for a four-year course, an increase of 1.8% in 2018, and 7.5% by 2022. From 1 July 2018, the income level at which HECS debt repayments start will be reduced, from $55,000 to $42,000.[10]
Commonwealth supported students[edit]
In 2007, HECS places became known as Commonwealth supported places (CSP). The Commonwealth government determines the number and allocation of undergraduate Commonwealth supported places with each public higher education provider each year, through the Commonwealth Grant Scheme (CGS). A CSP is a higher education place for which the Commonwealth government makes a contribution to the higher education provider towards the cost of a student's education. The student makes a contribution towards the cost of education, known as the student contribution. Commonwealth supported places are available to citizens of Australia and New Zealand and Australian permanent residents.
The majority of CSPs are managed through the tertiary admissions centre in each state or territory (although universities make the selections, deciding which students they will make offers to):
Universities Admissions Centre (UAC) in NSW and ACT
Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre[12]
South Australian Tertiary Admissions Centre[13] in South Australia and the Northern Territory
University of Tasmania in Tasmania
Victorian Tertiary Admissions Centre (VTAC) in Victoria
Tertiary Institutions Service Centre[14] in Western Australia.
The allocation is usually based on secondary school results (through the ATAR or OP scores), TAFE qualifications and previous university results.
The student contribution varies between courses, and is based on the expected earnings following a students' graduation, not the cost of providing the course. Higher education providers can set the student contribution level for each unit of study, up to a maximum level set by the government. It is said that, due to government underfunding of universities, universities almost always charge the highest level allowable.[citation needed]
Student contribution[15]
Band
Curriculum areas
CSP students
HECS students
2010–[note 1]
2005–09
1997–2004
Pre-1997
National priority Mathematics,[note 2] Statistics,[note 2] Science[note 2] $0–$4,429 $0–$4,162 $0–$4,077 $0–$3,061
Band 1 Education,[note 3] Nursing,[note 3] Humanities, Behavioural science, Social studies, Foreign languages, Visual and Performing arts, Nursing,[note 2] Education,[note 2] Clinical Psychology $0–$5,310 $0–$5,201
Band 2 Computing, Built Environment, Health sciences, Engineering, Surveying, Agriculture $0–$7,567 $0–$7,412 $0–$5,807
Band 3 Law, Dentistry, Medicine, Pharmacy, Veterinary science, Accounting, Administration, Economics, Commerce $0–$8,859 $0–$8,677 $0–$6,798
Notes:
Jump up ^ Maximum contribution per EFTSL[16]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Added 2010 reform
^ Jump up to: a b Removed 2010 reform
Since 2012, an eligible student who pays the entire or a part of the student contribution upfront receives a 10% HECS discount on the amount paid (prior to 2012, the HECS discount was 20%) or defer payment of the balance of the contribution through a HECS-HELP loan.[17] Only Australian citizens and permanent humanitarian visa holders are eligible for the up-front 10% HECS discount and the HECS-HELP loan. Students who are New Zealand citizens or Australian permanent residents must pay the entire contribution upfront and are not eligible to receive the HECS discount.
Total Funding[edit]
The total funding available to institutions per equivalent full-time student is the combination of the student contribution (divided into 3 different amounts/bands) and the Commonwealth government contribution (divided into 8 different amounts/clusters).[18] For 2017 these are:
Total Funding
Commonwealth Funding
Student contribution
Discipline
Full fee
$
Commonwealth
contribution
$
Student
contribution
$
cluster 1
Band 3 Law, accounting, commerce, economics, administration 12685 2089 10596
cluster 2
Band 1 Humanities 12158 5809 6349
cluster 3
Band 1 Behavioural science or social studies 16627 10278 6349
cluster 3
Band 2 Mathematics, statistics, computing, built environment or other health 19328 10278 9050
cluster 4
Band 1 Education 17044 10695 6349
cluster 5
Band 1 Clinical psychology, foreign languages, or visual and performing arts 18990 12641 6349
cluster 5
Band 2 Allied health 21691 12641 9050
cluster 6
Band 1 Nursing 20462 14113 6349
cluster 7
Band 2 Engineering, science, surveying Engineering, science, surveying 27021 17971 9050
cluster 8
Band 2 Agriculture 31859 22809 9050
cluster 8
Band 3 Dentistry, medicine or veterinary science 33405 22809 10596
Full fee-paying students[edit]
Students who do not receive a Commonwealth supported place may obtain a full fee place (FFP), as long as their ATAR tertiary admissions rank or other qualifications exceed a certain minimum. Most postgraduate courses do not have Commonwealth supported places available and therefore, all these students are full fee-paying. Fee-paying students are charged the full cost of their course, with no Commonwealth contribution.
Some fee-paying students can obtain loans under the Higher Education Loan Programme, called FEE-HELP loans, to cover all or part of their fees. This is available to Australian citizens, New Zealand citizens and permanent humanitarian visa holders. Undergraduate students who obtain these loans are charged a 20% loan fee on top of the amount borrowed. This does not apply to post graduate courses.[19] Students are able to borrow a lifetime maximum FEE-HELP loan of $112,134 for medicine, dentistry and veterinary science programs and $89,706 for all other programs (adjusted for inflation). In 2005, FEE-HELP loans replaced the Open Learning Deferred Payment Scheme (OLDPS), the Postgraduate Education Loan Scheme (PELS) and the Bridging for Overseas-Trained Professionals Loan Scheme (BOTPLS).
OS-HELP[edit]
OS-HELP is a loan scheme to assist some undergraduate domestic students to undertake some, but not all, of their course of study overseas.[20] Students are able to obtain a loan up to $6,470 (if the student will not be studying in Asia) or $7764 (if the student will be studying in Asia) for every six months, but can only receive a total of two loans throughout their lifetime. Unlike other loans in the HELP, the loan amount is paid directly to the student and the terms for the loans are set out by the tertiary providers.
As in the FEE-HELP loan scheme, a 20% fee applies on the amount borrowed. This 20% "administration fee" was removed for OS-HELP loans received after 1 January 2010.
HELP loans[edit]
HELP loan management[edit]
HELP debts do not attract interest (in the normal sense), but are instead indexed to the Consumer Price Index (CPI) on 1 June each year, based on the annual CPI to March of that year. The indexation rate applied on 1 June 2006 was 2.8% and 3.4% on 1 June 2007. Indexation applies to the part of the debt that has been unpaid for 11 months or more. Thus, indexation is calculated on the opening HELP debt balance on 1 July of the previous year plus any debt incurred in the first half of the current year (usually for first semester courses) less any compulsory and voluntary repayments, with bonus. Any HELP debt incurred on second semester courses (usually determined in June) will not be subject to indexation until the next year. After indexation, the new balance is rounded down to a whole dollar amount.[21]
HELP account debtors can make voluntary repayments. These repayments attract a 5% bonus (reduced from 10% from January 2012) for repayments over $500. If the remaining debt is less than $500 the bonus still applies on repayment of their balance of the debt. As making voluntary repayments does not exempt the person from compulsory repayments, if the person intends to pay off the total debt voluntarily, it is financially advantageous for them to do it before lodging the tax return. This will attract the 5% bonus on the repayment, and there would be no balance on the debt to which the compulsory repayment provisions can apply. Better still, if the voluntary repayment is made before the indexation date of 1 June, the avoiding of the indexation adjustment is an additional bonus. Even factoring in the 5% bonus on voluntary repayments, many people elect not to pay off their debt in advance of the required repayments because it still works out to be one of the cheapest loans most people will ever receive. As of 1 January 2017 the Commonwealth Government removed the 5% voluntary repayment bonus on all HELP debt repayments.[22]
If a person with an accumulated HELP debt dies, any compulsory repayment included on their income tax notice of assessment relating to the period prior to their death must be paid from their estate, but the remainder of their debt is cancelled.
Repayments[edit]
HELP debts are administered by the Australian Taxation Office and will be repaid compulsorily over time through the taxation system. If the HELP Repayment Income (HRI) of a person with a HELP debt exceeds a certain threshold, which for the 2014/15 financial year is $53,345, a compulsory payments will be deducted from the person's tax for the year. To work out the HRI, the ATO will add back to the person's taxable income any net rental loss claimed against that taxable income and add fringe benefits and exempt foreign income received, which have not been included in the taxable income. Unlike marginal tax rates, the repayment rate applies on the full HRI, so that a person with a HRI of $39,500 in the 2007/08 tax year would not have to make any compulsory HELP repayment, but a person with a HRI of $40,000 would make a payment of $1,600. This is 4% of the HRI (not taxable income or the debt balance) of $40,000. The compulsory repayment amount cannot exceed the balance of the HELP debt.
The rates for compulsory repayment for the 2015/16 financial year, also compared with previous years, are:
HELP Repayment Income (HRI) compulsory repayment 2006-2012
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10[23]
2010–11[23]
2011–12[23]
Repayment rate
Below $38,149 Below $39,825 Below $41,595 Below $43,151 Below $44,912 Below $47,196 Nil
$38,149–$42,494 $39,825–$44,360 $41,595–$46,333 $43,151–$48,066 $44,912–$50,028 $47,196–$52,572 4% of HRI
$42,495–$46,938 $44,360–$48,896 $46,334–$51,070 $48,067–$52,980 $50,029–$55,143 $52,573–$57,947 4.5% of HRI
$46,839–$49,300 $48,897–$51,466 $51,071–$53,754 $52,981–$55,764 $55,144–$58,041 $57,948–$60,993 5% of HRI
$49,301–$52,994 $51,466–$55,322 $53,755–$57,782 $55,765–$59,943 $58,042–$62,390 $60,994–$65,563 5.5% of HRI
$52,995–$57,394 $55,323–$59,915 $57,783–$62,579 $59,944–$64,919 $62,391–$67,570 $65,564–$71,006 6% of HRI
$57,395–$60,414 $59,916–$63,068 $62,580–$65,873 $64,920–$68,336 $67,571–$71,126 $71,007–$74,743 6.5% of HRI
$60,415–$66,485 $63,069–$69,405 $65,874–$72,492 $68,337–$75,203 $71,127–$78,273 $74,744–$82,253 7% of HRI
$66,486–$70,846 $69,406–$73,959 $72,493–$77,247 $75,204–$80,136 $78,274–$83,407 $82,254–$87,649 7.5% of HRI
$70,847 and above $73,960 and above $77,248 and above $80,137 and above $83,408 and above $87,650 and above 8% of HRI
HELP Repayment Income (HRI) compulsory repayment 2012-2016
2012–13[23]
2013–14[23]
2014–15[23]
2015-16[23]
Repayment rate
Below $49,096 Below $51,309 Below $53,345 Below $54,126 Nil
$49,096–$54,688 $51,309–$57,153 $53,345–$59,421 $54,126–$60,292 4% of HRI
$54,689–$60,279 $57,154–$62,997 $59,422–$65,497 $60,293–$66,456 4.5% of HRI
$60,280–$63,448 $62,998–$66,308 $65,498–$68,939 $66,457–$69,949 5% of HRI
$63,449–$68,202 $66,309–$71,277 $68,940–$74,105 $69,950–$75,190 5.5% of HRI
$68,203–$73,864 $71,278–$77,194 $74,106–$80,257 $75,191–$81,432 6% of HRI
$73,865–$77,751 $77,195–$81,256 $80,258–$84,481 $81,433 - $85,718 6.5% of HRI
$77,752–$85,564 $81,257–$89,421 $84,482–$92,970 $85,719–$94,331 7% of HRI
$85,565–$91,177 $89,422–$95,287 $92,971–$99,069 $94,332–$100,519 7.5% of HRI
$91,178 and above $95,288 and above $99,070 and above $100,520 and above 8% of HRI
It is also possible to make voluntary payments to further reduce the debt. Until 31 December 2004 voluntary payments over $500 earned a 15% bonus, from 1 January 2005 this was reduced to 10% and from 1 January 2012 this was reduced to 5%.[24][25] From 1 January 2017 the Government removed the 5% repayment bonus.
See also[edit]
Tertiary education in Australia
Education in Australia
Taxation in Australia
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ How much can I borrow? accessed 12 Jan 2012
Jump up ^ "Holder of a permanent visa (other than a permanent humanitarian visa)". Information for pre-2005 HECS students. Government of Australia Department of Education, Science and Training. Archived from the original on 7 January 2006.
Jump up ^ Federal budget 2016: $180 billion HECS bombshell paves way for major education shakeup
Jump up ^ Higher Education Support Act 2003 (HESA)
Jump up ^ "Higher Education Funding Act 1988". Austlii.edu.au. 1 January 2005. Retrieved 2010-08-27.
Jump up ^ The Australian, 15 April 1987, page 15)
Jump up ^ "details HECS-HELP". Goingtouni.gov.au. Archived from the original on 28 December 2010. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "HECS voluntary repayment changes". Ato.gov.au. Archived from the original on 14 April 2010. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 May 2009. Retrieved 27 February 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Federal Budget 2015: The Abbott government is still banking on its controversial education changes getting passed". Retrieved 2015-06-02.
Jump up ^ Government, Australian. "Driving Innovation, Fairness and Excellence in Australian Higher Education". Retrieved 7 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre". Qtac.edu.au. Retrieved 2010-08-27.
Jump up ^ "South Australian Tertiary Admissions Centre". Satac.edu.au. Retrieved 2010-08-27.
Jump up ^ "Tertiary Institutions Service Centre". Tisc.edu.au. Retrieved 2010-08-27.
Jump up ^ "What you pay". Goingtouni.gov.au. 1 January 2009. Archived from the original on 20 February 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-27. (This content removed and replaced with a message, "The Website you requested is no longer available.", viewed on 2014-06-01.)
Jump up ^ EFTSL stands for Equivalent Full-Time Student Load. It is a measure of the study load, for a year, of a student undertaking a course of study on a full-time basis.
Jump up ^ "Fee-HELP booklet" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-02-27.
Jump up ^ https://docs.education.gov.au/system/files/doc/other/2017_indexed_rates.pdf
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 9 July 2009. Retrieved 11 July 2009. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 9 July 2009. Retrieved 11 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "OS-HELP loans and overseas study".
Jump up ^ ATO (May 2006) Understanding your 2006 HELP information statement, Australian Taxation Office, Australian Government
Jump up ^ "Changes to the HECS-HELP discount and voluntary repayment bonus". Study Assist. Australian Government. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "HELP and HECS repayment thresholds and rates". Ato.gov.au. Retrieved 2017-05-10.
Jump up ^ ATO website HECS voluntary repayment changes Retrieved on 10 May 2017
Jump up ^ Going to Uni website [1] Archived 6 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 3 August 2011
Sources[edit]
StudyAssist website
Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations website (previously Department of Education, Science and Training)
ATO Higher education loan schemes essentials site
"International student funding comparisons: Australia and New Zealand" by Professor Nicholas Barr. The Guardian, 9 October 2001.
External links[edit]
StudyAssist website
Department of Education and Training website
ATO Higher education loan schemes essentials site
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Peromyscus maniculatus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Peromyscus maniculatus
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Cricetidae
Subfamily: Neotominae
Genus: Peromyscus
Species: P. maniculatus
Binomial name
Peromyscus maniculatus
(Wagner, 1845)
North American deer mouse range
Peromyscus maniculatus is a rodent native to North America. It is most commonly called the deer mouse, although that name is common to most species of Peromyscus, and thus is often called the North American deermouse[2] and is fairly widespread across the continent, with the major exception being the southeast United States and the far north.
Like other Peromyscus species, it is a vector and carrier of emerging infectious diseases such as hantaviruses and Lyme disease.[3][4]
It is closely related to Peromyscus leucopus, the white-footed mouse.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Physical description
3 Behavior
4 Reproduction and life span
4.1 Breeding season
4.2 Nesting
4.3 Gestation, litter size and productivity
4.4 Development of young
4.5 Dispersal
4.6 Longevity and mortality
5 Habitat
6 Cover requirements
7 Predators
8 Diet
9 References
10 External links
Overview[edit]
The species has 56 subspecies.[5] They are all tiny mammals that are plentiful in number.[6] The deer mouse is a small rodent that lives in the Americas and is closely related to the white-footed mouse, Peromyscus leucopus.[7] Because the two species are extremely similar in appearance, they are best distinguished through red blood cell agglutination tests or karyotype techniques. The deer mouse can also be distinguished physically by its long and multicolored tail.[8] Deer mice are very often used for laboratory experimentation due to their self cleanliness and easy care.[7]
Physical description[edit]
The deer mouse is small in size, only 3 to 4 inches (8 to 10 cm) long, not including the tail. They have large beady eyes and large ears giving them good sight and hearing. Their soft fur can vary in color, from white to black, but all deer mice have a distinguishable white underside and white feet.[7]
Behavior[edit]
Deer mice are nocturnal creatures who spend the day time in areas such as trees or burrows where they have nests made of plant material.[7] The pups within litters of deer mice are kept by the mother within an individual home range. The deer mice do not mingle in groups with their litters. During the development stages, the mice within one litter interact much more than mice of two different litters. Although deer mice live in individual home ranges, these ranges do tend to overlap. When overlapping occurs, it is more likely to be with opposite sexes rather than with the same sex. Deer mice that live within overlapping home ranges tend to recognize one another and interact a lot.[9]
Reproduction and life span[edit]
Breeding season[edit]
Deer mice can reproduce throughout the year, though in most parts of their range, they breed from March to October.[10] Deer mouse breeding tends to be determined more by food availability rather than by season. In Plumas County, California, deer mice bred through December in good mast (both soft and hard masts) years but ceased breeding in June of a poor mast year.[11] Deer mice breed throughout the year in the Willamette Valley, but in other areas on the Oregon coast there is usually a lull during the wettest and coldest weather.[12] In southeastern Arizona at least one-third of captured deer mice were in breeding condition in winter.[13] In Virginia breeding peaks occur from April to June and from September to October.[14]
Nesting[edit]
Female deer mice construct nests using a variety of materials including grasses, roots, mosses, wool, thistledown, and various artificial fibers.[12] The male deer mice are allowed by the female to help nest the litter and keep them together and warm for survival.[5]
In a study, less than half of both male and female deer mice left their original home range to reproduce. This means that there is intrafamilial mating and that the gene flow among deer mice as a whole is limited.[15]
Gestation, litter size and productivity[edit]
Deer mice reproduce profusely and are highest in numbers among their species compared to other local mammals. Peromyscus species' gestation periods range from 22 to 26 days.[16] Typical litters are composed of three to five young;[7] litter size ranges from one to nine young. Most female deer mice have more than one litter per year.[12] Three or four litters per year is probably typical; captive deer mice have borne as many as 14 litters in one year. Males usually live with the family and help care for the young.[10]
Development of young[edit]
Deer mice pups are altricial, i.e. born blind, naked and helpless; development is rapid. Young deer mice have full coats by the end of the second week; their eyes open between 13 and 19 days and they are fully furred and independent in only a few weeks.[12] Females lactate for 27 to 34 days after giving birth; most young are weaned at about 18 to 24 days. The young reach adult size at about 6 weeks and continue to gain weight slowly thereafter.[16]
Age of first estrus averages about 48 days; the earliest recorded was 23 days. The youngest wild female to produce a litter was 55 days old; it was estimated that conception had occurred when she was about 32 days old.[16]
Dispersal[edit]
Deer mouse pups usually disperse after weaning and before the birth of the next litter, when they are reaching sexual maturity. Occasionally juveniles remain in the natal area, particularly when breeding space is limited.[17] Most deer mice travel less than 152 m (499 ft) from the natal area to establish their own home range.[18]
Longevity and mortality[edit]
While their maximum life span is 96 months, the mean life expectancy is 45.5 months for females and 47.5 for males.[19] In many areas deer mice live less than 1 year.[12] O'Farrell reported that a population of deer mice in big sagebrush/grasslands had completely turned over (e.g., there were no surviving adults of the initial population) over the course of one summer.[20] One captive male deer mouse lived 32 months,[12] and there is a report of a forest deer mouse that lived 8 years in captivity (another mouse was fertile until almost 6 years of age).[21]
Habitat[edit]
Peromyscus maniculatus are found in places including Alaska, Canada, and parts of South America.[7] The majority of deer mice nest high up, in large hollow trees. The deer mouse nests alone for the most part but will sometimes nest with a deer mouse of the opposite sex.[15] They are populous in the western mountains and live in wooded areas and areas that were previously wooded. The deer mouse is generally a nocturnal creature.[6] Deer mice can be found active on top of snow or beneath logs during the winter seasons.[5]
Deer mice inhabit a wide variety of plant communities including grasslands, brushy areas, woodlands, and forests.[22] In a survey of small mammals on 29 sites in subalpine forests in Colorado and Wyoming, the deer mouse had the highest frequency of occurrence; however, it was not always the most abundant small mammal.[23] Deer mice were trapped in four of six forest communities in eastern Washington and northern Idaho, and they were the only rodent in ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) savanna.[24] In northern New England deer mice are present in both coniferous and deciduous forests.[25] Deer mice are often the only Peromyscus species in northern boreal forest.[11] Subspecies differ in their use of plant communities and vegetation structures. There are two main groups of deer mouse: the prairie deer mouse and the woodland or forest deer mouse group.[22]
Cover requirements[edit]
Deer mice are often active in open habitat; most subspecies do not develop hidden runways the way many voles (Microtus and Clethrionomys spp.) do.[11][26] In open habitat within forests deer mice have a tendency to visit the nearest timber.[27] In central Ontario deer mice used downed wood for runways.[28]
Deer mice nest in burrows dug in the ground or construct nests in raised areas such as brush piles, logs, rocks, stumps, under bark, and in hollows in trees.[12][22][28] Nests are also constructed in various structures and artifacts including old boards and abandoned vehicles. Nests have been found up to 24 m (79 ft) above the ground in Douglas-fir trees.[12]
Predators[edit]
Deer mice are important prey for snakes (Viperidae), owls (Strigidae), mink (Neovison vison), marten (Martes americana) and other weasels (Mustelidae), skunks (Mephites and Spilogale spp.), bobcat (Lynx rufus), domestic cat (Felis catus), coyote (Canis latrans), foxes (Vulpes and Urocyon spp.), and ringtail (Bassariscus astutus).[12]
Diet[edit]
Deer mice are omnivorous; the main dietary items usually include seeds, fruits, arthropods, leaves, and fungi; fungi have the least amount of intake. Throughout the year, the deer mouse will change its eating habits to reflect on what is available to eat during that season. During winter months, the arthropods compose of one-fifth of the deer mouse's food. These include spiders, caterpillars, and heteropterans. During the spring months, seeds become available to eat, along with insects, which are consumed in large quantities. Leaves are also found in the stomachs of deer mice in the spring seasons. During summer months, the mouse consumes seeds and fruits. During the fall season, the deer mouse will slowly change its eating habits to resemble the winter's diet.[6]
References[edit]
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Department of Agriculture document "Peromyscus maniculatus".
Jump up ^ Linzey, A.V. (2008). "Peromyscus maniculatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 5 February 2010.
Jump up ^ Bowers, Nora; Rick Bowers; and Kenn Kaufman (2004). Kaufman Guide to North American Mammals. NY: Houghton-Mifflin Co. p.176.
Jump up ^ Netski, Dale; Brandonlyn Thran & Stephen St. Jeor (1999). "Sin Nombre Virus Pathogenesis in Peromyscus maniculatus". Journal of Virology (1): 585–591.
Jump up ^ Crossland, J. & Lewandowski, A. (2006). "Peromyscus – A fascinating laboratory animal model" (PDF). Techtalk. 11 (1–2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 November 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hanney, Peter W. Rodents: Their Lives and Habits. New York: Taplinger Publishing Company, 1975.
^ Jump up to: a b c Jameson, E W (1952). "Food of Deer Mice, Peromyscus maniculatus and P. boylei, in the Northern Sierra Nevada, California". Journal of Mammalogy. 33 (1): 50–60. doi:10.2307/1375640. JSTOR 1375640.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f The New Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. (Vol. 12, p. 631). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica.
Jump up ^ Tessier, Nathalie; Sarah Noel & Francois Lapointe (2004). "A new method to discriminate the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) from the white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) using species-specific primers in multiplex PCR". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 82 (11): 1832–35. doi:10.1139/z04-173.
Jump up ^ Dewsbury, Donald (1988). "Kinship, Familiarity, Aggression, and Dominance in Deer Mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) in Seminatural Enclosures". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 102 (2): 124–8. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.102.2.124. PMID 3165063.
^ Jump up to: a b Nowak, Ronald M.; Paradiso, John L. (1983). Walker's mammals of the world. 4th edition. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press
^ Jump up to: a b c Baker, Rollin H. (1968). Habitats and distribution. In: King, John Arthur, ed. Biology of Peromyscus (Rodentia). Special Publication No. 2. Stillwater, OK: The American Society of Mammalogists 98–126.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Maser, Chris; Mate, Bruce R.; Franklin, Jerry F.; Dyrness, C. T. (1981). Natural history of Oregon Coast mammals. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-133. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station.
Jump up ^ Brown, J. H.; Zeng, Z. (1989). "Comparative Population Ecology of Eleven Species of Rodents in the Chihuahuan Desert". Ecology. 70 (5): 1507–1525. doi:10.2307/1938209. JSTOR 1938209.
Jump up ^ Wolff, Jerry O. (1994). "Reproductive success of solitarily and communally nesting white-footed mice and deer mice". Behavioral Ecology. 5 (2): 206–209. doi:10.1093/beheco/5.2.206.
^ Jump up to: a b Wolff, Jerry & Deborah Durr (1986). "Winter Nesting Behavior of Peromyscus leucopus and Peromyscus maniculatus". Journal of Mammalogy. 67 (2): 409–12. JSTOR 1380900.
^ Jump up to: a b c Layne, JN (1966). "Postnatal development and growth of Peromyscus floridanus". Growth. 30 (1): 23–45. PMID 5959707.
Jump up ^ Walters, Bradley B (1991). "Small mammals in a subalpine old-growth forest and clearcuts". Northwest Science. 65 (1): 27–31.
Jump up ^ Stickel, Lucille F. (1968). Home range and travels. In: King, John Arthur, ed. Biology of Peromyscus (Rodentia). Special Publication No. 2. Stillwater, OK: The American Society of Mammalogists: 373–411
Jump up ^ Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources (U.S.). Committee on Animal Models for Research on Aging; National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Animal Models for Research on Aging (1981). Mammalian models for research on aging. National Academies. ISBN 978-0-309-03094-6. Retrieved 11 May 2011.
Jump up ^ O'Farrell, Michael J (1978). "Home range dynamics of rodents in a sagebrush community". Journal of Mammalogy. 59 (4): 657–668. doi:10.2307/1380131. JSTOR 1380131.
Jump up ^ Dice, Lee R. 1933. Longevity in Peromyscus maniculatus gracilis. Journal of Mammalogy. 14: 147–148
^ Jump up to: a b c Whitaker, John O., Jr. (1980). National Audubon Society field guide to North American mammals. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.
Jump up ^ Raphael, Martin G. (1987). Nongame wildlife research in subalpine forests of the central Rocky Mountains. In: Management of subalpine forests: building on 50 years of research: Proceedings of a technical conference; 1987 July 6–9; Silver Creek, CO. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-149. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 113–122
Jump up ^ Hoffman, G. R. (1960). "The Small Mammal Components of Six Climax Plant Associations in Eastern Washington and Northern Idaho". Ecology. 41 (3): 571–572. doi:10.2307/1933338. JSTOR 1933338.
Jump up ^ Degraaf, Richard M.; Snyder, Dana P.; Hill, Barbara J. (1991). "Small mammal habitat associations in poletimber and sawtimber stands of four forest cover types". Forest Ecology and Management. 46 (3–4): 227–242. doi:10.1016/0378-1127(91)90234-M.
Jump up ^ Wagg, J. W. Bruce. (1964). White spruce regeneration on the Peace and Slave River lowlands. Publ. No. 1069. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Department of Forestry, Forest Research Branch
Jump up ^ Gashwiler, Jay S. (1959). "Small mammal study in west-central Oregon". Journal of Mammalogy. 40 (1): 128–139. doi:10.2307/1376123. JSTOR 1376123.
^ Jump up to: a b Naylor, Brian J. (1994). "Managing wildlife habitat in red pine and white pine forests of central Ontario". Forestry Chronicle. 70 (4): 411–419. doi:10.5558/tfc70411-4.
External links[edit]
Data related to Peromyscus maniculatus at Wikispecies
Description of species
Additional description of species with photos
Additional information on species
Information on hantaviruses, which can be carried by this species
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Peromyscus maniculatus.
[show]
v
t
e
Extant species of subfamily Neotominae
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Infraclass: Eutheria
Superorder: Euarchontoglires
Order: Rodentia
Family: Cricetidae
Baiomyini
Baiomys
(Pygmy mice)
Southern pygmy mouse (B. musculus)
Northern pygmy mouse (B. taylori)
Scotinomys
(Brown mice)
Alston's brown mouse (S. teguina)
Chiriqui brown mouse (S. xerampelinus)
Neotomini
Neotoma
(Pack rats)
Subgenus Neotoma: White-throated woodrat (N. albigula)
Tamaulipan woodrat (N. angustapalata)
Bryant's woodrat (N. bryanti)
Nicaraguan woodrat (N. chrysomelas)
Arizona woodrat (N. devia)
Eastern woodrat (N. floridana )
Goldman's woodrat (N. goldmani)
Desert woodrat (N. lepida )
White-toothed woodrat (N. leucodon)
Big-eared woodrat (N. macrotis)
Allegheny woodrat (N. magister)
Neotoma melanura
Mexican woodrat (N. mexicana)
Southern Plains woodrat (N. micropus)
Nelson's woodrat (N. nelsoni)
Bolaños woodrat(N. palatina)
Stephens' woodrat (N. stephensi)
Subgenus Teanopus: Sonoran woodrat (N. phenax)
Subgenus Teonoma: Bushy-tailed woodrat (N. cinerea)
Dusky-footed woodrat (N. fuscipes)
Xenomys
Magdalena rat (X. nelsoni)
Hodomys
Allen's woodrat (H. alleni)
Nelsonia
(Diminutive woodrats)
Goldman's diminutive woodrat (N. goldmani)
Diminutive woodrat (N. neotomodon)
Ochrotomyini
Ochrotomys
Golden mouse (O. nuttalli)
Reithrodontomyini
Peromyscus
(Deer mice)
californicus group: California mouse (P. californicus)
eremicus group: Cactus mouse (P. eremicus)
Angel Island mouse (P. guardia)
San Lorenzo mouse (P. interparietalis)
Dickey's deer mouse (P. dickeyi)
False canyon mouse (P. pseudocrinitus)
Northern Baja deer mouse (P. fraterculus)
Eva's desert mouse (P. eva)
Burt's deer mouse (P. caniceps)
Mesquite mouse (P. merriami)
hooperi group: Hooper's mouse (P. hooperi)
crinitus group: Canyon mouse (P. crinitus)
maniculatus group: Deer mouse (P. maniculatus)
Oldfield mouse (P. polionotus)
Santa Cruz mouse (P. sejugis)
Northwestern deer mouse (P. keeni)
Black-eared mouse (P. melanotis)
Slevin's mouse (P. slevini)
leucopus group: White-footed mouse (P. leucopus)
Cotton mouse (P. gossypinus)
aztecus group: Aztec mouse (P. aztecus)
Gleaning mouse (P. spicilegus)
Winkelmann's mouse (P. winkelmanni)
boylii group: Brush mouse (P. boylii)
Nimble-footed mouse (P. levipes)
Schmidly's deer mouse (P. schmidlyi)
San Esteban Island mouse (P. stephani)
Texas mouse (P. attwateri)
Nayarit mouse (P. simulus)
Tres Marias Island mouse (P. madrensis)
White-ankled mouse (P. pectoralis)
Chihuahuan mouse (P. polius)
truei group: Pinyon mouse (P. truei)
Osgood's mouse (P. gratus)
Perote mouse (P. bullatus)
Zacatecan deer mouse (P. difficilis)
Northern rock mouse (P. nasutus)
melanophrys group: Plateau mouse (P. melanophrys)
Marsh mouse (P. perfulvus)
Puebla deer mouse (P. mekisturus)
furvus group: Blackish deer mouse (P. furvus)
El Carrizo deer mouse (P. ochraventer)
Maya mouse (P. mayensis)
megalops group: Brown deer mouse (P. megalops)
Black-tailed mouse (P. melanurus)
Zempoaltepec (P. melanocarpus)
mexicanus group: Mexican deer mouse (P. mexicanus)
Naked-eared deer mouse (P. gymnotis)
Guatemalan deer mouse (P. guatemalensis)
Chiapan deer mouse (P. zarhynchus)
Big deer mouse (P. grandis)
Yucatan deer mouse (P. yucatanicus)
Stirton's deer mouse (P. stirtoni)
Reithrodontomys
(New World
harvest mice)
Guerrero harvest mouse (R. bakeri)
Short-nosed harvest mouse (R. brevirostris)
Sonoran harvest mouse (R. burti)
Volcano harvest mouse (R. chrysopsis)
Chiriqui harvest mouse (R. creper)
Darien harvest mouse (R. darienensis)
Fulvous harvest mouse (R. fulvescens)
Slender harvest mouse (R. gracilis)
Hairy harvest mouse (R. hirsutus)
Eastern harvest mouse (R. humulis)
Western harvest mouse (R. megalotis)
Mexican harvest mouse (R. mexicanus)
Small-toothed harvest mouse (R. microdon)
Plains harvest mouse (R. montanus)
R. musseri
Nicaraguan harvest mouse (R. paradoxus)
Salt marsh harvest mouse (R. raviventris)
Rodriguez's harvest mouse (R. rodriguezi)
Cozumel harvest mouse (R. spectabilis)
Sumichrast's harvest mouse (R. sumichrasti)
Narrow-nosed harvest mouse (R. tenuirostris)
Zacatecas harvest mouse (R. zacatecae)
Onychomys
(Grasshopper mice)
Chihuahuan grasshopper mouse (O. arenicola)
Northern grasshopper mouse (O. leucogaster)
Southern grasshopper mouse (O. torridus)
Neotomodon
Mexican volcano mouse (N. alstoni)
Podomys
Florida mouse (P. floridanus)
Isthmomys
(Isthmus rats)
Yellow isthmus rat (I. flavidus)
Mount Pirri isthmus rat (I. pirrensis)
Megadontomys
(Giant deer mice)
Oaxaca giant deer mouse (M. cryophilus)
Nelson's giant deer mouse (M. nelsoni)
Thomas's giant deer mouse (M. thomasi)
Habromys
(Deer mice)
Chinanteco deer mouse (H. chinanteco)
Delicate deer mouse (H. delicatulus)
Ixtlán deer mouse (H. ixtlani)
Zempoaltepec deer mouse (H. lepturus)
Crested-tailed deer mouse (H. lophurus)
H. schmidlyi
Jico deer mouse (H. simulatus)
Osgoodomys
Michoacan deer mouse (O. banderanus)
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q649836
ADW: Peromyscus_maniculatus
EoL: 311573
EPPO: PERMMA
Fossilworks: 50256
GBIF: 2437967
iNaturalist: 44396
ITIS: 180276
IUCN: 16672
MSW: 13000464
NCBI: 10042
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peromyscus_maniculatus&oldid=831208642"
Categories:
IUCN Red List least concern species
Peromyscus
Rodents of North America
Mammals of Canada
Mammals of Mexico
Mammals of the United States
Least concern biota of North America
Least concern biota of Mexico
Least concern biota of the United States
Mammals described in 1845
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