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The Goal (novel)
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The Goal: A Process of Ongoing Improvement
Front Cover
Author
Eliyahu M. Goldratt
Language
English
Publisher
North River Press
Publication date
1984 First Edition
1986 Revised First Edition
1992 Revised Second Edition
2004 Revised Third Edition
2014 Fourth Revised (30th Anniversary) Edition
Media type
Softcover
Pages
384
ISBN
978-0-88427-178-9
OCLC
56194659
Dewey Decimal
823/.914 22
LC Class
PR9510.9.G64 G6 2004
Followed by
It's Not Luck
The Goal is a management-oriented novel by Eliyahu M. Goldratt, a business consultant known for his Theory of Constraints, and Jeff Cox, a best selling author and co-author of multiple management-oriented novels.[1] The Goal was originally published in 1984 and has since been revised and republished. This book can be used for case studies in operations management, with a focus geared towards the Theory of Constraints, bottlenecks and how to alleviate them, and applications of these concepts in real life.[2] It is used in management colleges to teach students about the importance of strategic capacity planning and constraint management. Time Magazine listed the book as one of "The 25 Most Influential Business Management Books.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Setting
2 Bottlenecks
3 Socratic Method
4 Characters
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Setting[edit]
Like other books by Goldratt and by Cox, The Goal is written as a piece of fiction. The main character is Alex Rogo, who manages a production plant owned by UniCo Manufacturing, where everything is always behind schedule and things are looking dire.[4] At the beginning of the book, Bill Peach, a company executive, tells Alex that he has three months to turn operations at his plant around from being unprofitable and unreliable to being successful.[5] His distant acquaintance, Jonah (a physicist), whom many believe represents Goldratt himself, helps him solve the company's problems through a series of telephone calls and short meetings. A second story line is introduced involving Alex's marital life. Perhaps surprisingly, Jonah's concepts are also applied successfully in this alternative story line.
Bottlenecks[edit]
The book goes on to point out the role of bottlenecks (constraints) in a manufacturing process, and how identifying them not only makes it possible to reduce their impact, but also yields a useful tool for measuring and controlling the flow of materials. Alex and his team identify the bottlenecks in their process and immediately begin to implement changes to help increase capacity and speed up production. In response to questions about the logic of using outdated technology in modern manufacturing, Alex's team brought in an old machine they received for free (which had previously been used at their plant in conjunction with two other machines) in order to increase the capacity of the NCX-10 machine, which had been identified as one of the two bottlenecks. Further more, they identified processes at the heat treat, identified as their second bottleneck, that caused massive delays in their getting product through the heat-treat and which had also caused some products to be heat-treated multiple times (to make softer and then harder again) instead of just once or not at all.
Socratic Method[edit]
In the book, Jonah teaches Alex Rogo by using the Socratic method. Throughout the book, whenever a meeting or telephone call dialogue happens with Jonah he poses a question to Alex Rogo or a member of his crew which in turn causes them to talk amongst themselves to come up with a solution to their problem. When Alex Rogo is with his wife, he finds the Socratic method to be a way to fix his marriage which he then uses, with his crew, to come up with the five steps they should use to fix problems in the plant which ultimately leads him and Lou to think up the three things every division manager, the position Rogo is promoted to, should be able to do.
Characters[edit]
Alex Rogo - main character, manufacturing plant manager
Bill Peach - division vice-president
Fran - Alex's secretary
Jonah - advisor, helps Alex with almost all decisions
Lou - chief accountant
Stacey - the plant inventory manager
Julie Rogo - Alex Rogo's wife
Bob Donovan - Production Manager
Ralph Nakamura - Data Processing Manager
Herbie - the bottleneck and the solution
Dave - Alex Rogo's son
Sharon - Alex Rogo's daughter
Mike O'Donnel - Union Rep
Ethan Frost - Division Controller
Eddie - Second shift supervisor
johnny jones - the superior of Bill Peach, the guy that arrives in a helicopter
See also[edit]
Novels portal
The Goal (Movie)
Theory of Constraints
List of project management topics
List of management topics
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Jeff Cox". Simon & Schuster. Retrieved 2017-05-25.
Jump up ^ A summary of The Goal by Gower Publishing
Jump up ^ Rawlings, Nate (2011-08-09). "The 25 Most Influential Business Management Books". Time. Retrieved 2016-02-20.
Jump up ^ Stevenson, Seth (2012-06-08). "“Then Why Did We Buy the NCX-10?”". Slate. ISSN 1091-2339. Retrieved 2016-02-20.
Jump up ^ A chapter-by-chapter summary of The Goal
Goldratt, Eliyahu M.; Jeff Cox. The Goal: A Process of Ongoing Improvement. Great Barrington, MA.: North River Press. ISBN 0-88427-061-0.
External links[edit]
Chapter-wise summary of The Goal at the Theory of Constraints Institute website
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Goal_(novel)&oldid=802828548"
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text:
Bobby's Girl (song)
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"Bobby's Girl"
Single by Marcie Blane
B-side
"A Time To Dream"
Released
September 28, 1962
Genre
Pop Rock
Length
2:15
Label
Seville Records 45-120
Songwriter(s)
Gary Klein, Henry Hoffman
Marcie Blane singles chronology
"Bobby's Girl"
(1962) "What Does a Girl Do"
(1963)
"Bobby's Girl"
(1962) "What Does a Girl Do"
(1963)
"Bobby's Girl" is a song and single written by Gary Klein and Henry Hoffman and performed by American teenage singer, Marcie Blane.[1][2]
It was first released in 1962 in America. It has a spoken introduction and a backing refrain of "You're not a kid anymore" and was popular with the American teenage audience. It entered the charts in October and made the Top 10 within a month reaching 3 on the Billboard Hot 100 by December, where it stayed for four weeks only to be kept from the top of the charts by The Four Seasons' "Big Girls Don't Cry" and Elvis Presley's "Return to Sender".[3] It reached 2 on the Cash Box chart staying on the charts for nineteen weeks and made Blane the top selling female singer in the US.[4]
Susan Maughan version[edit]
"Bobby's Girl"
Single by Susan Maughan
B-side
"Come a Little Closer"
Released
1962
Genre
Pop Rock
Length
2:15
Label
Philips Records 326544 BF
Songwriter(s)
Gary Klein, Henry Hoffman
Susan Maughan singles chronology
"'Baby Doll Twist"
(1962) "Bobby's Girl"
(1962) "Mama Do The Twist"
(1962)
"Baby Doll Twist
(1962) "Bobby's Girl"
(1962) "Mama Do The Twist"
(1962)
The Susan Maughan cover version was also released in 1962, in the UK. It featured Wally Stott and his orchestra and chorus.[5] Maughan's version spent nineteen weeks on the UK's Record Retailer chart, peaking at No. 3.[6][7]
Tracey Ullman version[edit]
In 1983, Tracey Ullman released a version of "Bobby's Girl" on the album You Broke My Heart in 17 Places and as a single. Ullman's version reached No. 45 in Germany.[8]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Bobby's Girl". www.discogs.com. Retrieved 1 June 2013.
Jump up ^ "Bobby's Girl". BMI Repertoire. 2006. Archived from the original on 2012-07-14. Retrieved 2013-06-01.
Jump up ^ Yesteryear's Hits. Billboard. Retrieved 2013-06-01.
Jump up ^ "Marcie Blane". www.spectropop.com. Retrieved 2013-06-01.
Jump up ^ "Bobby's Girl - Susan Maughan". www.discogs.com. Retrieved 1 June 2013.
Jump up ^ "UK Official charts - Susan Maughan". www.officialscharts.com. Retrieved 2013-06-01.
Jump up ^ "Cover details". www.whosampled.com. Retrieved 2013-06-01.
Jump up ^ Tracey Ullman - Bobby's Girl, norwegiancharts.com. Accessed July 21, 2016.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bobby%27s_Girl_(song)&oldid=808085247"
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text:
Three-point field goal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Not to be confused with Field goal (American and Canadian football).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Sara Giauro shoots a three-point shot at the 2005 FIBA Europe Cup Women's Finals
Stephen Curry currently holds the record for most three-point field goals in an NBA regular season with 402.
A three-point field goal (also called a three-pointer) is a field goal in a basketball game made from beyond the three-point line, a designated arc surrounding the basket. A successful attempt is worth three points, in contrast to the two points awarded for field goals made within the three-point line and the one point for each made free throw.
The distance from the basket to the three-point line varies by competition level: in the National Basketball Association (NBA) the arc is 23 feet 9 inches (7.24 m) from the basket; in FIBA and the WNBA (the latter uses FIBA's three-point line standard) the arc is 6.75 metres or 22 feet 1 3⁄4 inches from the basket; and in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) the arc is 20 feet 9 inches (6.32 m) from the basket. In the NBA and FIBA/WNBA, the three-point line becomes parallel to each sideline at the points where the arc is 3 feet (0.91 m) from each sideline; as a result the distance from the basket gradually decreases to a minimum of 22 feet (6.71 m). In the NCAA the arc is continuous for 180° around the basket. There are more variations (see main article).
In 3x3, a FIBA-sanctioned variant of the half-court 3-on-3 game, the "three-point" line exists, but shots from behind the line are only worth 2 points. All other shots are worth 1 point.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Rule specifications
3 Related concepts
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
The three-point line was first tested at the collegiate level in a 1945 NCAA game between Columbia and Fordham but it was not kept as a rule. At the direction of Abe Saperstein, the American Basketball League became the first basketball league to institute the rule in 1961. Its three-point line was a radius of 25 feet (7.62 m) from the baskets, except along the sides.[2] The Eastern Professional Basketball League followed in its 1963–64 season.
The three-point shot later became popularized by the American Basketball Association after its introduction in the 1967–68 season. ABA commissioner George Mikan stated the three-pointer "would give the smaller player a chance to score and open up the defense to make the game more enjoyable for the fans."[3] During the 1970s, the ABA used the three-point shot, along with the slam dunk, as a marketing tool to compete with the National Basketball Association (NBA).
The official scorer's report showing the first made three-point field goal in NBA history.
In the 1979–80 season, after having tested it in the previous pre-season, the NBA adopted the three-point line despite the view of many that it was a gimmick.[4] Chris Ford of the Boston Celtics is widely credited with making the first three-point shot in NBA history on October 12, 1979. Kevin Grevey of the Washington Bullets also made one on the same day.
The sport's international governing body, FIBA, introduced the three-point line in 1984, at a distance of 6.25 m (20 ft 6 in).
The NCAA's Southern Conference became the first collegiate conference to use the three-point rule, adopting a 22-foot (6.71 m) line for the 1980–81 season.[5][6] Ronnie Carr of Western Carolina University was the first to score a three-point field goal in college basketball history on November 29, 1980.[6][7][8] Over the following five years, NCAA conferences differed in their use of the rule and distance required for a three-pointer. The line was as close as 17 ft 9 in (5.41 m) in the Atlantic Coast Conference, and as far away as 22 feet in the Big Sky Conference.[9] Used in conference play, it was adopted by the NCAA for the 1986–87 men's season at 19 ft 9 in (6.02 m), and was first used in the NCAA Tournament in 1987.[10] In the same 1986–87 season, the NCAA adopted the three-pointer in women's basketball on an experimental basis, using the same 19 ft 9 in distance, and made its use mandatory beginning in 1987–88.[11] In 2007, the NCAA lengthened the men's three-point distance to 20 ft 9 in (6.32 m), with the rule coming into effect at the beginning of the 2008–09 season.[12] The NCAA women's three-point distance was moved to match the men's distance in 2011–12.[11] American high schools, along with elementary and middle schools, adopted a 19 ft 9 in (6.02 m) line nationally in 1987, a year after the NCAA.[13]
During the 1994–95, 1995–96, and 1996–97 seasons, the NBA attempted to address decreased scoring by shortening the distance of the line from 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m) (22 ft (6.71 m) at the corners) to a uniform 22 ft (6.71 m) around the basket. From the 1997–98 season on, the NBA reverted the line to its original distance of 23 ft 9 in (22 ft at the corners, with a 3 inch differential). Ray Allen is currently the NBA all-time leader in career made three-pointers with 2,973.[14]
In 2008, FIBA announced that the distance would be increased by 50 cm (19.69 in) to 6.75 m (22 ft 1 3⁄4 in), with the change being phased in beginning in October 2010. In December 2012, the WNBA announced that it would be using FIBA's distance, too, as of the 2013 season. The NBA has discussed adding a four-point line, according to president Rod Thorn.[15]
In the NBA, three-point field goals have become increasingly more frequent along the years, with effectiveness increasing slightly. The 1979-80 season had an average 2.2 three-point goals per game and 6.6 attempts (28% effectiveness). The 1989-90 season had an average 4.8 three-point goals per game and 13.7 attempts (35% effectiveness). The 2009-10 season had an average 6.4 three-point goals per game and 18.1 attempts (36% effectiveness). The 2016-17 season had an average 9.7 three-point goals per game and 27.0 attempts (36% effectiveness).[16]
Rule specifications[edit]
A three-point line consists of an arc at a set radius measured from the point on the floor directly below the center of the basket, and two parallel lines equidistant from each sideline extending from the nearest end line to the point at which they intersect the arc. In the NBA and FIBA standard, the arc spans the width of the court until it is a specified minimum distance from each sideline. The three-point line then becomes parallel to the sidelines from those points to the baseline. The unusual formation of the three-point line at these levels allows players some space from which to attempt a three-point shot at the corners of the court; the arc would be less than 2 feet (0.61 m) from each sideline at the corners if it was a continuous arc. In the NCAA and American high school standards, the arc spans 180° around the basket, then becomes parallel to the sidelines from the plane of the basket center to the baseline (5 feet 3 inches or 1.60 metres). The distance of the three-point line to the center of the hoop varies by level:
Arc radius
Minimum distance from sidelines
National Basketball Association 23 feet 9 inches (7.24 m) 3 feet (0.91 m) [17]
FIBA (also used by WNBA) 6.75 meters (22 ft 2 in) 0.90 meters (2 ft 11 in) [18]
National Collegiate Athletic Association 20 feet 9 inches (6.32 m) 4 feet 3 inches (1.30 m) [19]
American High school basketball 19 feet 9 inches (6.02 m) 5 feet 3 inches (1.60 m) [20]
A player's feet must be completely behind the three-point line at the time of the shot or jump in order to make a three-point attempt; if the player's feet are on or in front of the line, it is a two-point attempt. A player is allowed to jump from outside the line and land inside the line to make a three-point attempt, as long as the ball is released in mid-air.
An official raises his/her arm with three fingers extended to signal the shot attempt. If the attempt is successful, he/she raises his/her other arm with all fingers fully extended in manner similar to a football official signifying successful field goal to indicate the three-point goal. The official must recognize it for it to count as three points. Instant replay has sometimes been used, depending on league rules. The NBA,[21] WNBA, FIBA and the NCAA specifically allow replay for this purpose. In NBA, FIBA, and WNBA games, video replay does not have to occur immediately following a shot; play can continue and the officials can adjust the scoring later in the game, after reviewing the video. However, in late game situations, play may be paused pending a review.
If a shooter is fouled while attempting a three-pointer and subsequently misses the shot, the shooter is awarded three free-throw attempts. If a player completes a three-pointer while being fouled, the player is awarded one free-throw for a possible 4-point play. Conceivably, if a player completed a three-pointer while being fouled, and that foul was ruled as either a Flagrant 1 or a Flagrant 2 foul, the player would be awarded two free throws for a possible 5-point play.
Related concepts[edit]
Major League Lacrosse features a two-point line which forms a 15-yard (14 m) arc around the front of the goal. Shots taken from behind this line count for two points, as opposed to the standard one point.
In gridiron football, a standard field goal is worth three points; various professional and semi-pro leagues have experimented with four-point field goals. NFL Europe and the Stars Football League adopted a rule similar to basketball's three-point line in which an additional point was awarded for longer field goals; in both leagues any field goal of 50 yards (46 m) or more was worth four points. The Arena Football League awards four points for any successful drop kicked field goal (like the three-point shot, the drop kick is more challenging than a standard place kick, as the bounce of the ball makes a kick less predictable, and arena football also uses narrower goal posts for all kicks than the outdoor game does).
During the existence of the World Hockey Association in the 1970s, there were proposals for two-point hockey goals for shots taken beyond an established distance (one proposal was a 44-foot (13.4m) arc, which would have intersected the faceoff circles), but this proposal gained little support and faded after the WHA merged with the NHL. It was widely believed that long-distance shots in hockey had little direct relation to skill (usually resulting more from goalies' vision being screened or obscured), plus with the lower scoring intrinsic to the sport a two-point goal was seen as disruptive of the structure of the game.
The Super Goal is a similar concept in Australian rules football, in which a 50-meter (55 yd) arc determines the value of a goal; within the arc, it is the usual 6 points, but 9 points are scored for a "super goal" scored from outside the arc. To date the super goal is only used in pre-season games and not in the season proper.[22]
The National Professional Soccer League II, which awarded two points for all goals except those on the power play, also used a three-point line, drawn 45 feet (14 m) from the goal. It has since been adopted by some other indoor soccer leagues.
See also[edit]
50–40–90 club, exclusive group of players who have made at least 50% of two-pointers, 40% of three-pointers, and 90% of free throws in a season.
List of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Article 5: Scoring" (PDF). 3x3 Official Rules of the Game. FIBA. January 2016. Retrieved 3 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Frazier, Walt; Sachare, Alex (1998). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Basketball. New York City: Penguin Group.
Jump up ^ "4-Point Play Gets Approval By ABA". Associated Press. July 11, 1967. Retrieved June 17, 2013.
Jump up ^ "The History of the 3-Pointer - iHoops". Web.archive.org. 16 December 2010. Archived from the original on 16 December 2010. Retrieved 15 November 2017. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ Sanders, Steve (February 9, 1981). "22 will get you 3". Spartanburg Herald. South Carolina. p. B1.
^ Jump up to: a b "Basketball". Southern Conference. Retrieved July 30, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Carr's shot makes cage Hall of Fame". Gadsden Times. Alabama. Associated Press. May 31, 1981. p. 36.
Jump up ^ "Three-pointer turns 25". Eugene Register-Guard. Associated Press. December 3, 2005. p. B3.
Jump up ^ "Debate over 3-pointer Continues". Web.archive.org. 26 July 2010. Archived from the original on 5 December 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2017. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ Butts, David (April 3, 1986). "NCAA adds three-point basket". Bryan Times Agency=UPI. p. 12.
^ Jump up to: a b "NCAA Women's Basketball Playing Rules History" (PDF). NCAA. Retrieved August 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Important Rules Changes by Year" (PDF). NCAA Men's Basketball Record Book. NCAA. Retrieved August 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ Lynch, John (27 March 1987). "High School Basketball Draws Line, Adopts 3-Point Rule". Los Angeles Times.
Jump up ^ "NBA & ABA Career Leaders and Records for 3-Pt Field Goals | Basketball-Reference.com". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved 2016-05-19.
Jump up ^ "NBA has discussed bigger court, 4-point shot". Espn.go.com. 2014-02-25. Retrieved 2017-03-05.
Jump up ^ NBA League Averages - Basketball Reference
Jump up ^ "Rule No. 1---Court Dimensions--Equipment". NBA Official Rules. Retrieved 19 October 2010.
Jump up ^ "Official Basketball Rules 2010" (PDF). FIBA. Retrieved 19 October 2010.
Jump up ^ "2009 Court Diagram" (PDF). NCAA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 June 2010. Retrieved 19 October 2010.
Jump up ^ "Basketball Court Diagram" (PDF). Nebraska School Activities Association. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
Jump up ^ "Description of the NBA's new instant replay rules". NBA.com. October 23, 2008. Retrieved 16 November 2008.
Jump up ^ Denham, Greg (February 14, 2012). "NAB Cup's ruck and holding rules may run season". The Australian. Archived from the original on March 6, 2012.
External links[edit]
NBA.com's Top 10 three-pointers from past 25 years
Article on Columbia's experimentation with the three-point field goal decades before its official introduction
"Long Live the Three" by Steve Shutt, Basketball Hall of Fame
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Cone cell
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Cone cell
Normalized responsivity spectra of human cone cells, S, M, and L types
Details
Function
Color vision
Identifiers
Code
TH H3.11.08.3.01046
NeuroLex ID
Cone Cell
TH
H3.11.08.3.01046
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
Cone cell structure
Cone cells, or cones, are one of three types of photoreceptor cells in the retina of mammalian eyes (e.g. the human eye). They are responsible for color vision and function best in relatively bright light, as opposed to rod cells, which work better in dim light. Cone cells are densely packed in the fovea centralis, a 0.3 mm diameter rod-free area with very thin, densely packed cones which quickly reduce in number towards the periphery of the retina. There are about six to seven million cones in a human eye and are most concentrated towards the macula.[1] The commonly cited figure of six million cone cells in the human eye was found by Osterberg in 1935.[2] Oyster's textbook (1999)[3] cites work by Curcio et al. (1990) indicating an average close to 4.5 million cone cells and 90 million rod cells in the human retina.[4]
Cones are less sensitive to light than the rod cells in the retina (which support vision at low light levels), but allow the perception of colour. They are also able to perceive finer detail and more rapid changes in images, because their response times to stimuli are faster than those of rods.[5] Cones are normally one of the three types, each with different pigment, namely: S-cones, M-cones and L-cones. Each cone is therefore sensitive to visible wavelengths of light that correspond to short-wavelength, medium-wavelength and long-wavelength light.[6] Because humans usually have three kinds of cones with different photopsins, which have different response curves and thus respond to variation in colour in different ways, we have trichromatic vision. Being colour blind can change this, and there have been some verified reports of people with four or more types of cones, giving them tetrachromatic vision.[7][8][9] The three pigments responsible for detecting light have been shown to vary in their exact chemical composition due to genetic mutation; different individuals will have cones with different color sensitivity. Destruction of the cone cells from disease would result in color blindness.
Contents
[hide]
1 Types
2 Structure
3 Diseases
4 Color afterimage
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Types[edit]
Humans normally have three types of cones. The first responds the most to light of long wavelengths, peaking at about 560 nm ; this type is sometimes designated L for long. The second type responds the most to light of medium-wavelength, peaking at 530 nm, and is abbreviated M for medium. The third type responds the most to short-wavelength light, peaking at 420 nm, and is designated S for short. The three types have peak wavelengths near 564–580 nm, 534–545 nm, and 420–440 nm, respectively, depending on the individual.[10][11] The difference in the signals received from the three cone types allows the brain to perceive a continuous range of colours, through the opponent process of colour vision. (Rod cells have a peak sensitivity at 498 nm, roughly halfway between the peak sensitivities of the S and M cones.)
All of the receptors contain the protein photopsin, with variations in its conformation causing differences in the optimum wavelengths absorbed.
The colour yellow, for example, is perceived when the L cones are stimulated slightly more than the M cones, and the colour red is perceived when the L cones are stimulated significantly more than the M cones. Similarly, blue and violet hues are perceived when the S receptor is stimulated more. Cones are most sensitive to light at wavelengths around 420 nm. However, the lens and cornea of the human eye are increasingly absorptive to shorter wavelengths, and this sets the short wavelength limit of human-visible light to approximately 380 nm, which is therefore called 'ultraviolet' light. People with aphakia, a condition where the eye lacks a lens, sometimes report the ability to see into the ultraviolet range.[12] At moderate to bright light levels where the cones function, the eye is more sensitive to yellowish-green light than other colors because this stimulates the two most common (M and L) of the three kinds of cones almost equally. At lower light levels, where only the rod cells function, the sensitivity is greatest at a blueish-green wavelength.
Cones also tend to possess a significantly elevated visual acuity because each cone cell has a lone connection to the optic nerve, therefore, the cones have an easier time telling that two stimuli are isolated. Separate connectivity is established in the inner plexiform layer so that each connection is parallel.[13]
While it has been discovered that there exists a mixed type of bipolar cells that bind to both rod and cone cells, bipolar cells still predominantly receive their input from cone cells.[13]
Structure[edit]
Bird, reptilian, and monotreme cone cells.
Cone cells are somewhat shorter than rods, but wider and tapered, and are much less numerous than rods in most parts of the retina, but greatly outnumber rods in the fovea. Structurally, cone cells have a cone-like shape at one end where a pigment filters incoming light, giving them their different response curves. They are typically 40–50 µm long, and their diameter varies from 0.5 to 4.0 µm, being smallest and most tightly packed at the center of the eye at the fovea. The S cone spacing is slightly larger than the others.[14]
Photobleaching can be used to determine cone arrangement. This is done by exposing dark-adapted retina to a certain wavelength of light that paralyzes the particular type of cone sensitive to that wavelength for up to thirty minutes from being able to dark-adapt making it appear white in contrast to the grey dark-adapted cones when a picture of the retina is taken. The results illustrate that S cones are randomly placed and appear much less frequently than the M and L cones. The ratio of M and L cones varies greatly among different people with regular vision (e.g. values of 75.8% L with 20.0% M versus 50.6% L with 44.2% M in two male subjects).[15]
Like rods, each cone cell has a synaptic terminal, an inner segment, and an outer segment as well as an interior nucleus and various mitochondria. The synaptic terminal forms a synapse with a neuron such as a bipolar cell. The inner and outer segments are connected by a cilium.[5] The inner segment contains organelles and the cell's nucleus, while the outer segment, which is pointed toward the back of the eye, contains the light-absorbing materials.[5]
Like rods, the outer segments of cones have invaginations of their cell membranes that create stacks of membranous disks. Photopigments exist as transmembrane proteins within these disks, which provide more surface area for light to affect the pigments. In cones, these disks are attached to the outer membrane, whereas they are pinched off and exist separately in rods. Neither rods nor cones divide, but their membranous disks wear out and are worn off at the end of the outer segment, to be consumed and recycled by phagocytic cells.
The response of cone cells to light is also directionally nonuniform, peaking at a direction that receives light from the center of the pupil; this effect is known as the Stiles–Crawford effect.
Diseases[edit]
One of the diseases related to cone cells present in retina is retinoblastoma. Retinoblastoma is a rare cancer of the retina, caused by the mutation of both copies of retinoblastoma genes (RB1). Most cases of retinoblastoma occur during early childhood.[16] One or both eyes may be affected. The protein encoded by RB1 regulates a signal transduction pathway while controlling the cell cycle progression as normally. Retinoblastoma seems to originate in cone precursor cells present in the retina that consist of natural signalling networks which restrict cell death and promote cell survival after losing the RB1, or having both the RB1 copies mutated. It has been found that TRβ2 which is a transcription factor specifically affiliated with cones is essential for rapid reproduction and existence of the retinoblastoma cell.[16] A drug that can be useful in the treatment of this disease is MDM2 (murine double minute 2) gene. Knockdown studies have shown that the MDM2 gene silences ARF-induced apoptosis in retinoblastoma cells and that MDM2 is necessary for the survival of cone cells.[16] It is unclear at this point why the retinoblastoma in humans is sensitive to RB1 inactivation.
The pupil may appear white or have white spots. A white glow in the eye is often seen in photographs taken with a flash, instead of the typical "red eye" from the flash, and the pupil may appear white or distorted. Other symptoms can include crossed eyes, double vision, eyes that do not align, eye pain and redness, poor vision or differing iris colours in each eye. If the cancer has spread, bone pain and other symptoms may occur.[16][17]
Color afterimage[edit]
Sensitivity to a prolonged stimulation tends to decline over time, leading to neural adaptation. An interesting effect occurs when staring at a particular color for a minute or so. Such action leads to an exhaustion of the cone cells that respond to that color - resulting in the afterimage. This vivid color aftereffect can last for a minute or more.[18]
See also[edit]
Cone dystrophy
Disc shedding
Double cones
RG color space
Tetrachromacy
Melanopsin
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Rods and Cones of the Human Eye".
Jump up ^ Osterberg, G. (1935). "Topography of the layer of rods and cones in the human retina". Acta Ophthalmol. Suppl. 13 (6): 1–102.
Jump up ^ Oyster, C. W. (1999). The human eye: structure and function. Sinauer Associates.
Jump up ^ Curcio, CA.; Sloan, KR.; Kalina, RE.; Hendrickson, AE. (Feb 1990). "Human photoreceptor topography". J Comp Neurol. 292 (4): 497–523. doi:10.1002/cne.902920402. PMID 2324310.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kandel, E.R.; Schwartz, J.H; Jessell, T. M. (2000). Principles of Neural Science (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 507–513.
Jump up ^ Schacter, Gilbert, Wegner, "Psychology", New York: Worth Publishers,2009.
Jump up ^ Jameson, K. A.; Highnote, S. M. & Wasserman, L. M. (2001). "Richer colour experience in observers with multiple photopigment opsin genes" (PDF). Psychonomic Bulletin and Review. 8 (2): 244–261. doi:10.3758/BF03196159. PMID 11495112.
Jump up ^ "You won't believe your eyes: The mysteries of sight revealed". The Independent. 7 March 2007.
Jump up ^ Mark Roth (September 13, 2006). "Some women may see 100,000,000 colours, thanks to their genes". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette.
Jump up ^ Wyszecki, Günther; Stiles, W.S. (1981). Colour Science: Concepts and Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulae (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley Series in Pure and Applied Optics. ISBN 0-471-02106-7.
Jump up ^ R. W. G. Hunt (2004). The Reproduction of Colour (6th ed.). Chichester UK: Wiley–IS&T Series in Imaging Science and Technology. pp. 11–12. ISBN 0-470-02425-9.
Jump up ^ Let the light shine in: You don't have to come from another planet to see ultraviolet light EducationGuardian.co.uk, David Hambling (May 30, 2002)
^ Jump up to: a b Strettoi, E; Novelli, E; Mazzoni, F; Barone, I; Damiani, D (Jul 2010). "Complexity of retinal cone bipolar cells". Progress in retinal and eye research. 29 (4): 272–83. doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2010.03.005. PMC 2878852  . PMID 20362067.
Jump up ^ Brian A. Wandel (1995). "Foundations of Vision".
Jump up ^ Roorda A.; Williams D.R. (1999). "The arrangement of the three cone classes in the living human eye". Nature. 397 (6719): 520–522. doi:10.1038/17383. PMID 10028967.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Skinner, Mhairi (2009). "Tumorigenesis: Cone cells set the stage". Nature Reviews Cancer. 9: 534. doi:10.1038/nrc2710.
Jump up ^ "Retinoblastoma". A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia. Missing or empty |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Schacter, Daniel L. Psychology: the second edition. Chapter 4.9.
External links[edit]
Cell Centered Database – Cone cell
Webvision's Photoreceptors
NIF Search – Cone Cell via the Neuroscience Information Framework
Model and image of cone cell
[hide]
v
t
e
Anatomy of the globe of the eye
Fibrous tunic (outer)
Sclera
Episcleral layer
Schlemm's canal
Trabecular meshwork
Cornea
Limbus
layers
Epithelium
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Stroma
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Nerve fiber layer
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Inner plexiform layer
Inner nuclear layer
Outer plexiform layer
Outer nuclear layer
External limiting membrane
Layer of rods and cones
Retinal pigment epithelium
Cells
Photoreceptor cells (Cone cell, Rod cell) → (Horizontal cell) → Bipolar cell → (Amacrine cell) → Retina ganglion cell (Midget cell, Parasol cell, Bistratified cell, Giant retina ganglion cells, Photosensitive ganglion cell) → Diencephalon: P cell, M cell, K cell, Muller glia
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Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority
Agency overview
Formed
May 2, 1941; 76 years ago (1941-05-02)
Headquarters
San Juan, Puerto Rico
Agency executives
Noel Zamot, Interim Emergency Administrator
Ricardo Ramos, Executive Director
Key document
Act No. 83 of 1941
Website
www.aeepr.com
The Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA) —Spanish: Autoridad de Energía Eléctrica (AEE)— is an electric power company and the government-owned corporation of Puerto Rico responsible for electricity generation, power distribution, and power transmission on the island.[1] PREPA is the only entity authorized to conduct such business in Puerto Rico, making it a government monopoly. The authority is ruled by a board of directors appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the Senate. Since 2014, PREPA is subject to the Puerto Rico Energy Commission, another government agency whose board of directors is also appointed by the governor.
Hurricane Maria in September 2017 destroyed PREPAs distribution network, creating a blackout in all parts of the island. [2]
On October 25, 2017, amidst allegations of improper contracting, the fiscal oversight board established by PROMESA appointed Noel Zamot as interim emergency administrator of the authority. In this role, Zamot will administer the public corporation in its maintenance and expenses.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Hurricane Maria
2 Structure
2.1 Board of directors
2.2 Power plants
2.3 Subsidiaries
2.4 Labor unions
3 Finances
4 Gallery
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
PREPA was originally named the Puerto Rico Water Resources Authority (PRWRA) —Spanish: Autoridad de las Fuentes Fluviales (AFF)— which was created by Law No. 83 of May 2, 1941[3] during the governorship of Rexford G. Tugwell. Government-owned, PRWRA unified diverse regional and local electric power companies into one unified electric grid.
Hurricane Maria[edit]
This section should include a summary of Whitefish Energy. See Wikipedia:Summary style for information on how to incorporate it into this article's main text. (October 2017)
When the eye of Hurricane Irma passed north of the island, winds were sufficient to leave 1 million citizens without power. Power had been restored to 980,000 people, when Hurricane Maria struck, leaving nearly the entire island without power. Two weeks later, power had been restored to about 10% of customers.[4]Full restoration was expected to take months, and many Puerto Ricans bought private generators.[5]
Structure[edit]
Board of directors[edit]
The board of directors is the governing body of the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority. Its membership usually consists of private citizens who are supposed to represent the public interest and may or may not include exofficio political officeholders (typically the Secretary of Economic Development and Commerce). This inconsistency happens as the board's structure changes whenever a political party gains power, usually every four or eight years. When both the governor and the legislature of Puerto Rico belong to the same party, one of the earliest laws amended by the legislature is the one governing PREPA in order to change its board's composition. Once a new board is settled in, one of its first resolutions is to appoint a new executive director. These frequent changes effectively make the authority a partisan tool rather than a mere electric utility and, consequently, change the vision, strategy, and plans of the authority every four or eight years according to the political party in power.
Of the different members of the board, the governor is usually required to appoint four members with the advice and consent of the Senate. It is through these members, along with the incumbent political officeholders which serve as ex officio, thus the governor and the political party in power effectively control the authority. Three additional members of the board are directly elected by consumers by plurality-at-large; two of them by residential consumers and one by commercial ones.
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (October 2017)
The last structural change to the board occurred on June 25, 2013 after governor Alejandro García Padilla enacted Act 29 of 2013 together with the 17th Legislative Assembly.[6] The act effectively replaced the incumbent board with an entirely new board, as follows:
2013 PREPA Board of Directors[7]
Role
Representation
Name
Appointed by García Padilla
Remarks
Chairman Public interest Harry Rodríguez García Yes Chemical engineer, Vice President and General Manager of Abbott Laboratories Puerto Rico
Vice Chairman Elected by consumers Agustín Irizarry Rivera No Professor of electrical engineering at the University of Puerto Rico
Secretary Exofficio Miguel Torres Díaz Yes Secretary of Transportation and Public Works
At-large Exofficio Alberto Bacó Bagué Yes Secretary of Economic Development and Commerce
At-large Public interest Andrés Salas Soler Yes former judge and attorney-at-law
At-large Public interest Javier Quintana Méndez Yes Dean of the school of engineering of the Interamerican University of Puerto Rico
At-large Elected by consumers Juan Rosario No environmental activist
At-large Elected by consumers vacant No
At-large Public interest vacant Yes
Power plants[edit]
PREPA serves close to 1.5 million customers through several power plants:[8][9]
Power plant
Capacity
Energy source
Ownership
Owner
Operator
Location
AES Ilumina[10] 24 MW solar power private AES Corporation AES Corporation Guayama
AES Puerto Rico[11] 454 MW coal private AES Corporation AES Corporation Guayama
Aguirre Combined Cycle[12] 592 MW heavy fuel oil publicly owned PREPA PREPA Salinas
Aguirre Thermoelectric[12] 900 MW diesel oil publicly owned PREPA PREPA Salinas
Cambalache 247 MW diesel oil publicly owned PREPA PREPA Arecibo
Costa Sur 990 MW heavy fuel oil publicly owned PREPA PREPA Guayanilla
EcoEléctrica[13] 510 MW natural gas private Gas Natural Fenosa, International Power Gas Natural Fenosa Peñuelas
Oriana Solar Farm[14] 45 MW (58MW(DC)) solar power private Sonnedix Sonnedix Isabela
Palo Seco 602 MW heavy fuel oil publicly owned PREPA PREPA Cataño
Punta Lima 26 MW wind power private Sovereign Bank[15] Gestamp Wind Naguabo
San Juan Combined Cycle[16] 464 MW diesel oil publicly owned PREPA PREPA San Juan
San Juan Thermoelectric[16] 400 MW heavy fuel oil publicly owned PREPA PREPA San Juan
San Fermin Solar Farm[17] 26 MW solar power private Uriel Renewables and Coqui Power Uriel Renewables and Coqui Power Loiza
Santa Isabel Wind Farm[18] 75 MW wind power private Pattern Energy[19] Pattern Energy Santa Isabel
Windmar Ponce[20] 4.5 MW solar power private Windmar Renewable Energy Windmar Renewable Energy Ponce
Puerto Rico has 21 hydroelectric plants rated at a combined 156MW.[21][17]
Subsidiaries[edit]
The public corporation also provides fiber optic broadband to private carriers through one of its subsidiary, PREPA Networks. PREPA is also studying the possibility of selling energy to the United States Virgin Islands with the installation of an underwater power cable between Fajardo and the island of St. Thomas—similar to the power cable with which it services its clients in Vieques and Culebra, which are also islands.[22]
Labor unions[edit]
There are four labor unions that represent the workers from the authority exclusively UTIER, UITICE, UEPI, and UPAEE.[23][24]
Finances[edit]
PREPA's operating expenses for FY2013 denote how fuel purchases take over 58% of the authority's operating expenses.
As of 2014 the authority carries liabilities of $10.1 billion USD against assets of $6 billion.[25] It also operates with a deficit of about $354 million against revenues of $4.8 billion.[26][27] In terms of costs, $2.6 billion or about 58% of PREPA's expenses are attributed to fuel purchases alone while salaries and collective bargains represent less than 13% of the authority's expenses.[27]
On May 23, 2014, Citigroup severely curtailed PREPA's line of credit for fuel purchase, forcing PREPA to run out of cash to pay Petrobras, its main oil supplier. Petrobras, in turn, threatened to cut off further shipments to the authority. This forced the authority to take $100 million out of its Capital Improvements Fund in order to pay its debt to Petrobras. PREPA argues that the different agencies of the government of Puerto Rico owe them more than $290 million in debt, while an additional $375 million of revenue is lost through subsidies enacted by the Puerto Rican legislature.[28][29][30][31][32] An additional $600 million is owed to the authority by residential and commercial consumers, some of them by consumers living in public housing.[33][34] The authority argues that it wouldn't have a problem being self-sufficient if it were paid the aforementioned debt and if it weren't forced to give out subsidies. On June 3, 2014, senator Ramón Luis Nieves admitted publicly that, "part of the financial problem at PREPA was provoked by the government and the Puerto Rican legislature."[32]
On June 11, 2014, Fitch Ratings downgraded its rating on the authority's to speculative non-investment grade ("junk status") from BB+ to BB while putting the authority on negative rating watch.[35] PREPA filed for bankruptcy in July 2017.[36]
Gallery[edit]
Palo Seco Power Plant, 1973. Photo by John Vachon.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Ley de la Autoridadf de Energia Electrica de Puerto Rico" (PDF). Presupuesto.gobierno.pr. Retrieved 2015-03-03.
Jump up ^ "Why Hurricane Maria left Puerto Rico completely without power". The Verge. Retrieved 2017-09-28.
Jump up ^ "Welcome to PREPA". Prepa.com. Retrieved 2015-03-03.
Jump up ^ "Special Report: The bankrupt utility behind Puerto Rico’s power crisis". Reuters. 2017-10-05. Retrieved 2017-10-06.
Jump up ^ Fausset, Richard; Robles, Frances; Acosta, Deborah (2017-10-07). "Minus Electrical Grid, Puerto Rico Becomes Generator Island". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2017-10-11.
Jump up ^ Act No. 29 of 2013 (in Spanish)
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20140626024817/http://www.aeepr.com/jg/membersjg.asp. Archived from the original on June 26, 2014. Retrieved May 31, 2014. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ "Proponen suspender subsidios de la AEE por seis meses | El Nuevo Día". Elnuevodia.com. 2014-06-25. Retrieved 2015-03-03.
Jump up ^ "Welcome to PREPA". Prepa.com. Retrieved 2015-03-03.
Jump up ^ "Press Release". AES Solar. September 30, 2011. Retrieved September 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ "AES : Homepage". Aespuertorico.com. Retrieved 2015-03-03.
^ Jump up to: a b "Central Aguirre" (in Spanish). Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority. Retrieved September 2, 2013.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20090416233535/http://ecoelectrica.com/ourfacilities/ourpowerplant.html. Archived from the original on April 16, 2009. Retrieved July 28, 2011. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ Oriana and Yarotek connect Caribbean's largest solar project to grid, pv-tech, Tom Kenning Sep 15, 2016
Jump up ^ Kantrow, Michelle (March 12, 2013). "Punta Lima wind farm sold to Sovereign Bank for $88M". News Is My Business. Retrieved September 7, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Central San Juan" (in Spanish). Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority. Retrieved September 2, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b PUERTO RICO Puerto Rico Profile, Territory Profile and Energy Estimates, U.S. Energy Information Administratrion, December 18, 2013
Jump up ^ Alvarado León, Gerardo (August 29, 2013). "Funcionando a máxima capacidad el parque eólico de Santa Isabel". El Nuevo Día (in Spanish). Retrieved August 29, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Finca de Viento Santa Isabel". Pattern Energy. Retrieved August 29, 2013.
Jump up ^ "En Ponce la finca fotovoltaica más grande". La Perla del Sur (in Spanish). Retrieved September 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ Puerto Rico, Renewable Facts
Jump up ^ (PDF) https://web.archive.org/web/20130510150017/http://www.edinenergy.org/pdfs/51294.pdf. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 10, 2013. Retrieved May 31, 2014. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ "La AEE es" (in Spanish). Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority. Retrieved August 6, 2013.
Jump up ^ Unión de Trabajadores de la Industria Eléctrica y Riego vs. Héctor Medina Torres , 2011 CD 01 (November 7, 2011).
Jump up ^ "Edición 14 de Abril 2014 by El Vocero de Puerto Rico". ISSUU. Retrieved 2015-03-03.
Jump up ^ "Gobernador y Junta Gobierno discuten finanzas AEE | El Vocero de Puerto Rico". Elvocero.com. Retrieved 2015-03-03.
^ Jump up to: a b "Financial Statements, Required Supplementary Information and supplemental Schedules" (PDF). Pr.gov. Retrieved 2015-03-03.
Jump up ^ "AEE solicita al gobierno que suelte dinero para que agencias puedan pagar la luz – Metro". Metro.pr. Retrieved 2015-03-03.
Jump up ^ "Revisarán subsidios AEE y deudas de gobierno – Metro". Metro.pr. Retrieved 2015-03-03.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20140531101326/http://www.elnuevodia.com/subsidiospor1millonaldia-1623521.html. Archived from the original on May 31, 2014. Retrieved May 31, 2014. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ "Propuesta #4". Bajemos la factura. Retrieved 2015-03-03.
^ Jump up to: a b Alvarado León, Gerardo (June 3, 2014). "Legislatura evaluará los subsidios energéticos". El Nuevo Día (in Spanish). printed version.
Jump up ^ "Propuesta #3". Bajemos la factura. Retrieved 2015-03-03.
Jump up ^ "Sube como la espuma la deuda millonaria que tiene los abonados de residenciales públicos con AEE -NotiUno 630 | Primeros Con La Noticia". Notiuno.com. 2014-06-20. Retrieved 2015-03-03.
Jump up ^ "UPDATE 1-Fitch cuts Puerto Rico electricity authority's rating again". Reuters. 2014-06-11. Retrieved 2015-03-03.
Jump up ^ https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/02/business/puerto-ricos-electric-power-authority-effectively-files-for-bankruptcy.html
External links[edit]
www.aeepr.com - official site (in Spanish)
[show]
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t
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Energy in Puerto Rico
Companies
AES Corporation
EcoEléctrica
Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA)
Power plants
Aguirre
Cambalache
Costa Sur
Palo Seco
San Juan
Labor unions
UEPI
UITICE
UPAEE
UTIER
Agencies
Commission on Energy
Energy Affairs Administration
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Tourism Company
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Education
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