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Chinatown bus lines
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This article is about intercity bus travel. For Chinese-owned intracity public transit, see Dollar vans in the New York metropolitan area § Chinatown vans.
Passengers waiting at the Fung Wah Lines ticket window on Canal Street and the Bowery in Manhattan's Chinatown.
Chinatown bus lines are discount intercity bus services, often run by Chinese Americans and Chinese Canadians, that have been established primarily in the Chinatown communities of the East Coast of the United States and Central Canada since 1998, although similar services have cropped up on the West Coast. They operate in 24 U.S. states and 3 Canadian provinces. The vast majority of Chinatown bus lines are based out of the Northeast U.S..
The buses have been subject to controversy because of safety issues, with several fatal incidents having happened over the years. Some companies have been shut down either temporarily or permanently by regulatory authorities, while others continue to operate subject to increased safety checks. The low-overhead, low-fare services have been popular, helping to drive down the prices of competing services such as Megabus and BoltBus.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Early history
1.2 Increasing scope
1.3 Organized crime ties
2 Vehicles
3 Service
4 Destinations and routes
5 Safety
5.1 Notable accidents
5.2 Shutdowns
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
History[edit]
Early history[edit]
Fung Wah Bus Van Hool C2045 coach on a stopover
By the late 20th century, intercity bus service in the United States had fallen from 140 million annual passengers in 1960 to 40 million in 1990.[1][2] The decline was such that by 1997, the year Chinatown buses started operating, intercity bus transportation accounted for only 3.6% of travel in the United States.[3]
Chinese-operated intercity bus service originated that year when the Chinese working class found a necessity to travel from New York City, Boston, and Atlantic City. The first companies to offer such intercity bus services offered minimal features, including unmarked curbside bus stops as well as no advertisements and no customer service,[4] which drastically reduced overhead for Chinatown bus lines.[5] In 1998, two intercity bus companies commenced routes: the Fung Wah Bus, between New York City and Boston, and the Eastern Shuttle and New Century Travel and Tours (now Focus Travel), between New York City and Philadelphia.[6] The bus services originally transported workers in Chinese restaurants to and from jobs in Boston, Atlantic City, Cherry Hill Mall, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C., among other cities.[7][8] Very few non-Chinese rode on the lines at first.[2][9]
As word of these services spread, they became more popular with non-Chinese travelers.[2][7][10] By 2003, the demographics of Chinatown bus riders and of larger-corporation bus riders were about the same.[11] Reasons cited for the increase in ridership included lower fares and more authentic Chinatown experiences.[2] Between 1997 and 2007, Chinatown buses took 60% of Greyhound Lines' market share in the Northeast United States;[12] Riders of Chinatown buses made up over half of the riders of Northeast intercity buses during that time, bringing total ridership of intercity buses in the area to more than 7 million annual riders.[2]
Competition from newly enriched companies, as well as the commencement of online ticket sales,[7] caused a severe reduction in fares by 2002.[8][13] In these "fare wars", fares were reduced fourfold in some cases,[8][9] and many bus operators advertised their $10 bus fares.[14] This led to gang violence in which rival bus operators would kill or injure each other.[8] In addition, because of the low bus fares, Chinatown bus lines often made very small profits, and some, like YO! Bus, went bankrupt and ceased all operations.[9] Still, the Chinatown bus sector made up an increasing number of trips within the Northeast United States.[5]
Since the late 2000s, competition has come from larger corporations, such as Megabus, BoltBus, Washington Deluxe, and Vamoose Bus.[2][15] Two of the operations—Eastern Shuttle and Today's Bus—were brought under Megabus operation.[4] Another one, BoltBus, was formed by Greyhound in order to compete with the less expensive Chinatown buses.[11]
Increasing scope[edit]
Eastern Shuttle MCI 102DL3 coach boarding customers in Chinatown, Manhattan.
Some bus lines are used to transport large groups of mainly Chinese and Vietnamese immigrants to and from casinos such as Foxwoods Resort Casino and Mohegan Sun, which are located in Connecticut. These gambling buses built upon the popularity of older bus routes to Atlantic City that also targeted Asian American customers. Similarly in Canada, several bus lines such as Safeway Tours operate between Toronto and the casinos of Niagara Falls, Ontario.[16]
Increasing popularity has also led to increasing regulatory interest. For example, in September 2004, the city of Boston required all regularly scheduled intercity bus services to operate exclusively to and from the South Station transportation terminal.[7][17][18] Steven Bailey of The Boston Globe suggested that the move was motivated by Peter Pan's and Greyhound's interest in maintaining their monopoly on the New York-Boston bus route, and Timothy Shevlin, executive director of the state Department of Telecommunications and Energy, said, "The big dog out there, Peter Pan, is dead set against Chinatown bus lines. They don't want that kind of competition." A complication with this arrangement was that the South Station bus terminal has only 25 gates (along with two departure gates), all of which were used at the time until other companies left.[17]
Organized crime ties[edit]
A 2000 Coach bus in New York City
The bus lines have drawn scrutiny from law enforcement authorities for possible connections to Chinese organized crime gangs. In 2003 and 2004, a number of bus arsons, driver assaults, murders, and other gang violence in New York City were linked to the possible infiltration of Asian organized crime gangs into the industry.[19][20]
Among the crimes believed to have been associated with gang activity was a deadly shooting in May 2003, on a busy street, which may have been in retaliation for a driver having backed his bus into a rival;[14] as revenge, two buses were set on fire in 2004.[10] There was a fatal stabbing in October 2003,[8][10] as well as another, unrelated stabbing in 2004.[10] In January 2004, the boyfriend of a bus worker was lethally shot in what appeared to be a bus feud,[8][14] and in March 2004, a Chinatown bus operator was killed in another fatal shooting.[14] In a June 2004 incident tied to criminal gangs, two people—a Chinatown bus driver and a bystander—were murdered in a bar in Flushing, Queens, and another was shot in the leg. The accused shooter was arrested in Toronto in 2011 and extradited to the United States.[10] After the 2004 shootings, the New York City Police Department started enforcing Chinatown bus rules more strictly.[14]
In 2008, the New York Post linked the "Banya Organization" gang with Chinatown buses. The gang allegedly inflicted brutal beatings to coerce private bus and van companies, who were not identified.[21] In 2013, police confiscated 254 guns and arrested 19 people in the largest gun-smuggling ring in New York City's history; the suspects were accused of shipping guns from North Carolina and South Carolina to the Northern United States via Chinatown buses.[22] On the most part, however, crime between bus operators and employees has mostly subsided.[23]
Vehicles[edit]
Double Happiness#222 at Herald Square.
The fleet used by various Chinabus companies can vary greatly from new coaches to older, pre-owned coaches, and with a few notable exceptions such as Eastern Shuttle and routes to Boston, not all units are branded with the operator name other than required USDOT markings.
With the exception of Eastern Shuttle and services to Boston (all of which use clearly marked buses), many Chinatown bus companies use wet leases to provide overflow capacity during the weekend. Some smaller companies use wet leases to provide their core capacity.[24] Typically, a bus (and a driver) would be chartered from a tour bus operator, a practice also used by mainstream companies such as Greyhound Lines during peak service.
Service[edit]
Bus ticket saleswoman at the corner of East Broadway and Forsyth Street in the Little Fuzhou neighborhood within Manhattan's Chinatown.
Chinatown buses typically run nonstop express service between the departure and destination points. This typically results in shorter travel times. For instance, the trip from State College, Pennsylvania, to New York City takes about four hours on the Chinatown bus, compared to more than seven hours on Greyhound.[citation needed] However, although the Chinatown buses are often cheaper than alternative modes of transport like Amtrak and airplanes, they are also slower; for example, Amtrak and airplanes take about 2.75 to 3.5 hours to travel from New York City to Washington, D.C., while Chinatown buses take 4 to 5 hours.[2] These intercity buses run at least 2,500 weekly trips.[5]
Many competitors offer discount prices that undercut the major bus lines. Typical fares between East Coast cities range from $10 to $20, compared to major curbside bus lines (which typically cost between $1 and $25), terminal-operated bus lines (which cost between $14 and $35), and Amtrak (which costs about $100.)[2][25] The industry has become highly competitive with companies offering hourly service between major cities.[4][26] The Appalachian extensions of these lines tend to offer less of a price advantage; for example, in August 2006, one-way fares from New York to Pittsburgh on the Chinese-owned All State were $35 compared with $45 advance through Greyhound Lines, while tickets from State College, Pennsylvania, to New York were $35, compared to $46 for Greyhound.[6] Chinatown buses also charge flat fees, while other intercity buses may vary pricing based on demand.[11] Low prices led to high demand for many Chinatown bus routes, and although a single round trip can incur hundreds of dollars in expenses, a fully booked bus can net at least $340 in profits per round trip after these expenses are paid.[9][23]
Often, ticket booths are walk-up windows on the street, or are located inside restaurants and bakeries throughout a given Chinatown community, although it is not uncommon for tickets to be sold on the street directly.[4][23] Some lines even simply collect cash payment after passengers have boarded the bus. However, tickets are often sold online, either by the bus companies themselves or by portals and print-outs of confirmation emails are used as tickets.[citation needed] Except in Boston, the lines rarely use stations of their own. Passengers are usually directed to wait along a given curbside for the arrival of the bus, although many companies offer waiting areas at or near the pickup points. Several bus stops are also near major hotels and in the parking areas of major Chinese supermarkets.[citation needed] In New York, several bus lines pick up passengers on a stretch of Forsyth Street at the foot of the Manhattan Bridge in the Little Fuzhou neighborhood within Manhattan's Chinatown.[7] Since 1998, when the New York City Department of Transportation marked the strip a bus layover area, the sidewalk between Division Street and East Broadway has served as a de facto terminal for the Chinatown buses.[7][27]
Most operators of Chinatown bus lines have traditionally been Fujianese.[14] Often, buses do not follow their scheduled timetables,[7] and many buses are often unreliable, sometimes skipping scheduled stops altogether.[23] In addition, since there are no advertisements and often no websites for these bus lines, knowledge of such bus lines is often spread verbally.[4][23]
Destinations and routes[edit]
Schematic of the main Eastern US Chinatown Bus Lines as of 2010[update], centralized in New York City as the hub
In addition to in Boston and in the various Chinatowns in the New York metropolitan area within New York City and Long Island, several bus line companies also link to the Chinatowns of Edison, New Jersey; Cherry Hill Mall; Philadelphia; Washington, D.C.; Baltimore; Atlanta; and to the casinos of Atlantic City.[4][23] Buses also go to Ohio, Michigan, Rhode Island, Virginia, and Florida.[23] However, Chinatown buses also stop at smaller, predominately non-Chinese areas such as in North Carolina and South Carolina.[4] On the West Coast, buses link the Chinatowns of the San Francisco Bay Area; Los Angeles Chinatown and the San Gabriel Valley; and Las Vegas' Chinatown and casinos. In the I-5 corridor in California, similar services are found in the Hispanic community and provide transportation to/from Baja California in Mexico.[citation needed] Often, the Chinatown bus lines enable Chinese immigrants, mainly restaurant workers, to be transported cheaply along the coasts.[28] In total, the buses travel within 24 U.S. states and Canada.[4]
Many Chinatown buses have their base of operation in New York City, and it has been proposed to build a Chinatown bus hub there.[7] New York-to-Boston Chinatown buses generally use the Massachusetts Turnpike from Boston to I-84, and then follow I-84 to I-91 to I-95.[citation needed] As I-95 approaches New York, several routings are possible depending on the traffic situation. Some drivers use the Throgs Neck Bridge to reach the Long Island Expressway, then to the Brooklyn-Queens Expressway, and then Manhattan Bridge to Canal Street. Other drivers use the Whitestone Bridge.[citation needed] Most drivers use the Triborough Bridge when traffic is not congested, and reach the Brooklyn-Queens Expressway via Astoria Boulevard.[citation needed]
In Philadelphia, the Independence Transportation Center was built in part due on a 2007 survey by the Philadelphia Chinatown Development Corporation, which concluded that many tourists arrived by bus and that some Chinatown buses disruptively parked on the street. People living closer to Chinatown bus stops in Philadelphia's Chinatown were more likely to complain about the buses.[7][29] Similarly, in Washington, D.C., interim bus loading regulations were enacted in 2008 due to complaints about disruptive bus layovers.[7][30] In Boston in 2004, the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority required Chinatown buses to make stops inside South Station and to have permits. Although Fung Wah Bus Transportation was often ticketed for curbside parking offenses in Boston, they eventually became one of two Chinatown buses headquartered in South Station (besides Lucky Star Bus) because the fines for curbside parking were becoming higher than the South Station terminal fees.[7][18]
Besides the routes within the major North Eastern cities, several Chinatown buses have daily routes that run from New York City to Miami. The majority of the trip uses I-95, and the buses stop near major destinations in the Southern United States.[31] A couple of routes also go to Ohio.[32] In order to save time, the buses never go into the city, but instead stop at gas stations and rest stops along I-95.
Chinatown buses often go from major cities to casinos.[33] Some 'Casino Buses' use I-395 to make an intermediate stop at Foxwoods Resort Casino between the Massachusetts Turnpike and I-95.[citation needed] An example of this can also be found in the Southern United States where tour companies offer bus services from Houston's Chinatown to Lake Charles area casinos. In Canada, 'Casino Buses' are offered between Toronto and Niagara Falls, Ontario.
Safety[edit]
Passengers waiting to board the Travel Pack bus in Manhattan, departing for Boston.
Chinatown buses have been involved in numerous accidents over the years, and there have been 34 intercity bus accidents across the United States in 2001–2011.[13] On a 2006 safety scale of 0 to 100, where 0 was the safest and 100 the most dangerous, Chinatown bus lines were ranked as between 71 and 99, while Greyhound Lines got a very safe rating of 0.[8] Often, "calculations of safety and risk are inverted," according to a 2013 City University of New York study.[2] Statistically, the curbside Chinatown buses are often more dangerous than buses that originate from terminals.[34] Still, many travelers were not discouraged.[35] However, intercity bus accidents are quite rare.[23]
After the murders in 2003–4, officials had begun randomly checking buses for operational problems.[25] In March 2011, two fatal crashes—the World Wide Tours bus crash on Interstate 95 in New York, and a New Jersey Turnpike crash—led officials to confiscate six buses for inadequate brake air pressure, steering violations, and lacking driver paperwork.[36]
In 2013, New York City started to give fines to bus operators without permits. This law was tightened in August 2014.[32]
Notable accidents[edit]
On March 18, 2005, a Boston-bound Chinatown bus operated by Lucky Star/Travel Pack stopped and evacuated its passengers on the Massachusetts Turnpike shortly before bursting into flames. No one was injured.[37]
On August 16, 2005, a New York-bound Fung Wah bus caught fire on Interstate 91 near Meriden, Connecticut. Though the passengers later criticized the driver for being unhelpful and untrained in evacuating the bus, all passengers were eventually evacuated and no injuries were reported.[38]
On January 20, 2006, a surprise inspection on Forsyth Street in Manhattan's Chinatown resulted in two Washington-bound buses being pulled temporarily out of service and a driver running away from authorities.[39]
On August 15, 2006, a Shun Fa bus travelling from New York to Pittsburgh crashed; 10 passengers were injured, with 5 requiring hospitalization. One person was in critical condition.[8][40][41]
On September 6, 2006, a Fung Wah bus rolled over in Auburn, Massachusetts, and caused minor injuries to 34 passengers.[8][42] Excessive speed was cited as a factor and the bus company was fined.[43]
On January 3, 2007, a Fung Wah bus lost its back two wheels in Framingham, Massachusetts, early on a trip to New York. No injuries were reported.[44]
On February 14, 2007, a Fung Wah bus en route to New York lost control and hit a guardrail on the Massachusetts Turnpike (I-90) in Allston, Massachusetts. No injuries were reported. State officials had advised Fung Wah to suspend operations because of the winter storms that day.[45] Fung Wah reached an agreement with regulators under which its buses will be subject to scheduled and unscheduled inspections and driver checks for 30 days. The company also agreed to improve safety, including ceasing to use buses that have not been maintained in a safe and sanitary condition.[46]
On February 18, 2007, a bus, owned by Tremblay Motorcoach and operated by Sunshine Travel, caught fire on the Massachusetts Turnpike near interchange 10A in Millbury, Massachusetts. All 50 passengers were evacuated and no injuries were reported. The cause of the fire is unknown. The bus was returning to the Chinatown in Boston from Mohegan Sun casino in Uncasville, Connecticut.[47]
On March 23, 2007, a New York-bound Fung Wah bus from Boston got stuck on a concrete barrier in front of a tollbooth on the Massachusetts Turnpike at Route 128 in Weston, Massachusetts, when the bus drove up on a cement lane divider. The driver had entered an automobile-only lane and tried to change lanes. No one was injured in the incident, but the bus was taken out of service and passengers boarded another Fung Wah bus that arrived later.[48]
On May 20, 2007, a New York-bound bus crashed in Pennsylvania, killing 2 riders and injuring 32 more.[8][49]
The Fung Wah Bus crash of June 23, 2008
On June 23, 2008, a bus loading passengers was struck by an out-of-control dump truck at the corner of Bowery and Canal Street in New York’s Chinatown. The force of the impact pushed the bus onto the sidewalk and into a bank. As the result of the accident, a sign attached to a light pole fell, injuring a 57-year-old woman; the woman later died as the result of a heart attack. Several people, including two police officers, were treated for minor injuries.[50][51][52] State Department of Transportation inspectors found that the dump truck, owned by CPQ Freight Systems, had eight mechanical issues including faulty brakes which led to the accident.[53]
On March 12, 2011, a bus operated by World Wide Tours crashed on the New England Thruway, killing 15 people.[54]
Also in March 2011, on the New Jersey Turnpike, a crash occurred in which the driver was killed and 40 injured, two critically.[55]
On September 21, 2014, a bus, operated by Manhattan-based bus company AM USA Express, rolled over in Delaware. Two people died and 48 were hurt.[56]
After the August 2005 incident, the Massachusetts Department of Telecommunications and Energy instituted a policy of holding three surprise inspections per month on all bus companies that leave South Station in Boston. Chuck Schumer, a New York state senator, proposed a four-point federal plan that includes surprise inspections and creating a national safety standard for bus operators. The city of New York may institute a similar policy; however, inspections would be difficult in New York City because the buses do not all leave the city from the same location.[57]
Shutdowns[edit]
In 2012, the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration began a crackdown on Chinatown bus lines.[12] In April 2013, the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration started a "Operation Quick Strike" squad that helped pinpoint wayward Chinatown bus drivers.[13]
Apex Bus, Inc.
On May 31, 2012, the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration announced that it had ordered the shutdown of Apex Bus, Inc., I-95 Coach Inc., New Century Travel Inc., and 23 other related entities due to safety violations.[58]
Fung Wah
On March 2, 2013, US Federal transportation officials shut down Fung Wah bus operations because it had broken a federal law by refusing to divulge safety records to the federal government.[13][59][60] In December 2014, the company was given permission to resume its bus operations under strict observation and limitations with service to restart in early 2015.[61][62] However, in July 2015, owner Peter Liang announced the service would end permanently.[63]
Lucky Star
On May 25, 2013, a bus was taken out of service due to a manhole cover being stuck on the undercarriage of one bus.[13] Less than two weeks later, on June 5, Lucky Star was shut down as well due to "Lucky Star’s flagrant disregard for motor coach passenger safety," said the letter from the Department of Transportation.[64] Lucky Star engaged in an extensive bus upgrade and driver program over the next five months, passed required inspections, and resumed operations in November 2013.[65]
One columnist for The Daily Beast criticized the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration's practices as overly harsh, stating that the it "targets" Chinatown bus companies because owners rarely speak much English. The columnist also alleged that the inspectors were also very strict in deciding which parts of the buses were defective, describing the inspectors as having confiscated several buses for minor issues.[13]
See also[edit]
Coach USA, operator of the Eastern Shuttle service
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Further reading[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chinatown bus lines.
Klein, Nicholas J. (2009). "Emergent Curbside Intercity Bus Industry" (PDF). Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board. 2111 (1): 83–89. Retrieved May 10, 2015. [permanent dead link]
Brief History of Chinatown Bus, Gotobus, updated in 2011.
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Right to Buy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Right to Buy scheme is a policy in the United Kingdom (with the exception of Scotland since August 1, 2016) which gives secure tenants of councils and some housing associations the legal right to buy, at a large discount, the council house they are living in. There is also a Right to Acquire for assured tenants of housing association homes built with public subsidy after 1997, at a smaller discount. About 1,500,000 homes in the UK have been sold in this manner since the introduction of the scheme in 1980.
Supporters claim that the programme has given millions of households a tangible asset, secured their families' finances and—by releasing cash to repay local authority debt—helped improve the public finances.[citation needed] Critics claim that the policy compounded a housing shortage for people of low income, initiated a national house price bubble, and led ultimately to what is commonly recognised as the displacement and social cleansing of traditional communities.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Thatcher policies
2 Right to Buy rules after 2005
3 Recent changes
4 Criticisms
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
History[edit]
Council-type housing stock in Weaverham, now mostly owner-occupied
Individual local authorities have always had the ability to sell council houses to their tenants, but until the early 1970s such sales were extremely rare.
The Labour Party initially proposed the idea of the right of tenants to own the house they live in, in their manifesto for the 1959 general election which they subsequently lost.[2] Later, the Conservative-controlled Greater London Council (GLC) of the late 1960s was persuaded by Horace Cutler, its Chairman of Housing, to create a general sales scheme. Cutler disagreed with the concept of local authorities as providers of housing, and supported a free-market approach. GLC housing sales were not allowed during the Labour administration of the mid-1970s, but picked up again once Cutler became Leader in 1977. They proved extremely popular. Cutler was close to Margaret Thatcher (MP for Finchley) who made the right to buy council housing a Conservative Party policy nationally. The policy was largely in place for the 1974 Conservative manifesto, but did not prove an asset in the two general elections that year because of high interest and mortgage repayment rates, as well as the growth of negative equity as house prices fell.[3]
In the meantime, council house sales to tenants began to increase. Some 7,000 were sold to their tenants during 1970; this soared to more than 45,000 in 1972.[4]
Thatcher policies[edit]
After Margaret Thatcher became Prime Minister in May 1979, the legislation to implement the Right to Buy was passed in the Housing Act 1980. Michael Heseltine, in his role as Secretary of State for the Environment, was in charge of implementing the legislation. Some 6,000,000 people were affected; about one in three actually purchased their housing unit. Heseltine noted that "no single piece of legislation has enabled the transfer of so much capital wealth from the state to the people". He said the right to buy had two main objectives: to give people what they wanted, and to reverse the trend of ever-increasing dominance of the state over the life of the individual.
He said: "There is in this country a deeply ingrained desire for home ownership. The Government believe that this spirit should be fostered. It reflects the wishes of the people, ensures the wide spread of wealth through society, encourages a personal desire to improve and modernise one's own home, enables parents to accrue wealth for their children and stimulates the attitudes of independence and self-reliance that are the bedrock of a free society."[5]
The sale price of a council house was based on its market valuation but also included a discount of between 33% and 50%, to reflect the rents paid by tenants and also to encourage take-up. According to a government survey in 1988, the average discount that had been offered was 44%.[6] Mortgages involved no down payments. The legislation gave council tenants the right to buy their council house at a discounted value, depending on how long they had been living in the house, with the proviso that if they sold their house before a minimum period had expired they would have to pay back a proportion of the discount. The sales were an attractive deal for tenants; hundreds of thousands of homes were sold. The policy became one of the major points of Thatcherism.[7]
The policy proved immediately popular. Some local Labour-controlled councils were opposed, but the legislation prevented them from blocking purchases, and gave them half the proceeds.[8] Sales were much higher in the south and east of England than in inner London and northern England.[9]
Half the proceeds of the sales were paid to the local authorities, but the government restricted authorities' use of most of the money to reducing their debt until it was cleared, rather than spending it on building more homes. The effect was to reduce the council housing stock, especially in areas where property prices were high, such as London and the south-east of England.[10]
200,000 council houses were sold to their tenants in 1982. By 1987, more than 1,000,000 council houses in the UK had been sold to their tenants, although the number of council houses purchased by tenants declined during the 1990s.[11]
The Labour Party was initially against the sales, and pledged to oppose them at the 1983 general election, but then dropped its official opposition to the scheme in 1985.[12] However, at the 1987 general election, the Conservative government warned voters that a Labour government would still abolish the scheme.[13]
When Labour returned to power at the 1997 general election, it reduced the discount available to tenants in local authorities which had severe pressure on their housing stock; this included almost the whole of London.[14]
Right to Buy rules after 2005[edit]
The Right to Buy rules were changed in 2005. Five years' tenancy was now required for new tenants to qualify, and properties purchased after January 2005 could no longer immediately be placed on the open market should the owner decide to sell. Such owners now had to approach their previous landlord (council or housing association) and offer them "first right of refusal". If the previous landlord was no longer in existence, for example in cases where the former landlord was a registered social landlord that has ceased business, then the property had to first be offered to the local housing authority.
The time in which a Right to Buy conveyance should take place was reduced from 12 months to 3 months. The Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) now governed and regulated most types of mortgage-selling.
The FCA's governance of Right to Buy purchases was partly to solve the widespread problem of Right to Buy mis-selling from brokers and solicitors alike. Each had their own agenda and many were actively charging excessive fees which were then taken out of their client's discount. Fortunately, the above actions that have been taken coupled with the end of the boom period seem to have brought this problem under control.
In 2009, the Localis think tank suggested, as part of a review of principles for social housing reform, that the right to buy should be extended into equity slivers, which could be part-earned through being a good tenant.[15]
The qualifying period changed from 5 years to 3 years (edited rbcdd3117 in 2018)
Recent changes[edit]
At the 2011 Conservative Party Conference, David Cameron proposed to increase Right to Buy discounts in order to revitalise the housing market and generate receipts which could be spent on new housing. Social housing professionals expressed concerns over the proposal.[16]
As of 2 April 2012, the Right to Buy discount was increased to a maximum of £75,000 or 60% of the house value (70% for a flat) depending on which is lower. In March 2013, the maximum discount in London was increased to £100,000.[17]
The maximum amount of discount changes annually wef April 2017 it changed to £78,600.00 (edited 2018 rbc dd3117)
The maximum right to buy discount increases each financial year in line with CPI as at the previous September (see separate document from the Right to Buy Team, Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government.
As the CPI in September 2017 was 3% the new maximum discounts for Redditch in respect of the financial year 2018/19 will be £80,900 and applies to all applications made by the tenant on or after 6 April 2018. Any applications made before then are processed using the current discounts (£78,600). In summary discount is a maximum of £80,900.00 from April 2018 (rbcdd3117)
The aim of the scheme is, for every additional home sold, a new home will be built for 'affordable rent'[18] at up to 80% of market rent, aimed at maintaining the level of affordable housing while also increasing the number of properties available for those on the waiting list. The five year tenancy criterion will remain, and should the property be sold within the first five years of the original sale, part or all of the discount will be required to be paid back.
The Housing and Planning Bill 2016 will if enacted extend right-to-buy to housing association tenants.[19]
In July 2013, the Scottish Government confirmed that Right to Buy would be abolished in Scotland from 2017.[20] It was in the end abolished as a part of the Housing (Scotland) Act 2014 from 1 August 2016.[21][22]
In the summer of 2017, the Welsh Government proposed a law to abolish Right to Buy in Wales. This law was passed by the Welsh Assembly in December 2017.
Criticisms[edit]
The Right to Buy scheme has been criticised for the following reasons:
Speculating investors were able to buy up council properties through deferred transaction agreements, hastening the rise in property costs;[23][not in citation given]
Commercially and socially valuable council assets being sold at below their market value or replacement cost;
The remaining stock of council housing was concentrated in undesirable areas with little employment opportunity, further isolating and stigmatising the tenants.[24]
A report published in January 2013 by London Assembly member Tom Copley, From Right to Buy to Buy to Let,[25] showed that 36% of homes sold under Right to Buy in London (52,000 homes) were being rented by councils from private landlords, leading to criticisms that the scheme "represents incredibly poor value for money to taxpayers" since it "helped to fuel the increase in the housing benefit bill, heaped more pressure on local authority waiting lists and led to more Londoners being forced into the under-regulated private rented sector".[26] A survey in 2013 showed around one third of Right to Buy houses were now owned by private landlords, while the son of the late Ian Gow (Thatcher's sometime housing minister) owned some 40 houses.[27]
As of recent changes in 2015, Alan Murie concluded that "the proposed extension of right-to-buy could not easily be reconciled with the independence and charitable status of housing associations", and that "extending the right-to-buy to housing association tenants revived a previous Parliamentary debate and raised questions about the legal position of charities and the risks faced by housing associations and their funders".[28]
A 2017 BBC survey of council areas where waiting lists were rising showed the councils had bought back houses they had been forced to sell, sometimes at many times the original price. Housing charities criticised the lack of investment in affordable housing.[29]
See also[edit]
Help to Buy
References[edit]
Jump up ^ MKoore, Thatcher p 471
Jump up ^ Housing, 1959 Labour Party manifesto. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
Jump up ^ Murie, Alan (11 November 2015). "The Right to Buy: History and Prospect". History & Policy. History & Policy. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "What future for social housing?". BBC News. 4 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "Housing Bill - Provisions and Enactment" in Keesing's Contemporary Archives v. 27, January, 1981 p. 30644
Jump up ^ Beckett, Andy (26 August 2015). "The right to buy: the housing crisis that Thatcher built". The Guardian. Retrieved 27 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Polly Toynbee, "It's on the house," The Guardian, 11 October 2002
Jump up ^ Charles Moore, Margaret Thatcher: From Grantham to the Falklands (2013)
Jump up ^ Murrie (1989) p 221
Jump up ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-22077190 BBC article: Right-to-buy: Margaret Thatcher's controversial gift
Jump up ^ Slide 4, Thatcher years in graphics, BBC News, 18 November 2005. Retrieved 13 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "1979: Council tenants will have 'right to buy'". BBC News. 20 December 1979.
Jump up ^ Newspaper advert for Conservative Party by Saatchi & Saatchi, 1987. Getty Images. Retrieved 13 January 2012.
Jump up ^ http://www.jrf.org.uk/sites/files/jrf/HRD28.pdf
Jump up ^ Principles for Social Housing Reform, Localis, 2009. Retrieved 13 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "SALE! (while stocks last)". Inside Housing. 13 January 2012. Retrieved 13 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "Reforming the Right to Buy in 2012 & 2013". Commons Library Standard Note. UK Parliament. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
Jump up ^ "Affordable Rent". DCLG.
Jump up ^ https://www.theguardian.com/housing-network/2016/jan/05/expert-views-housing-bill-end-affordable-housing
Jump up ^ "'Right to buy' to be scrapped in Scotland". BBC News. 3 July 2013. Retrieved 3 July 2013.
Jump up ^ The Right to Buy Notice Period. The Scottish Government's guide for tenants of social housing. November 2014. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Housing bodies welcome end of Right to Buy in Scotland". BBC News. 31 July 2016. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Nick, Sommerlad (5 March 2013). "Great Tory housing shame: Third of ex-council homes now owned by rich landlords". The Daily Mirror.
Jump up ^ Grant, Carol (1992). Built to Last?: Reflections on British Housing Policy. ROOF Magazine. p. 214. ISBN 978-1870767583.
Jump up ^ From Right to Buy to Buy to Let From Right to Buy to Buy to Let
Jump up ^ "Councils are renting sold Right to Buy homes, says report". BBC London News. 13 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Patrick Collinson (28 June 2013). "Meet the new class of landlords profiting from Generation Rent". Guardian Newspapers. Retrieved 3 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Murie, Alan (11 November 2015). "The Right to Buy: History and Prospect". History & Policy. History & Policy. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Alex Homer (3 May 2017). "Town halls buy back Right-to-Buy homes". BBC news. Retrieved 3 May 2017.
Further reading[edit]
Murie, Alan. "Housing and the Environment," in Dennis Kavanagh and Anthony Seldon, eds., The Thatcher Effect (1989) pp 213–25
Jones, Colin & Murie, Alan. The Right to Buy: Analysis & Evaluation of a Housing Policy (Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2006).
Forrest R and Murie A (1990) Selling the Welfare State second edition London, Routledge.
Wilson W and Bate A (2015) Extending the Right to Buy (England), Briefing Paper No 07224, 9 June 2015 House of Commons Library
Blow E (2015) Comparing the Right to Buy in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland Briefing Paper Number 07174, 12 June 2015, House of Commons Library
External links[edit]
Right to Buy: buying your council home at the GOV.UK website
Right to Buy Co-op: the non-profit helpline for tenants looking to buy their home at the RighttoBuy.coop website
Right to Buy at the Wayback Machine (archived November 21, 2005) (Office of the Deputy Prime Minister)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Right_to_Buy&oldid=833993994"
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Card security code
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The card security code is located on the back of MasterCard, Visa, Discover, Diners Club, and JCB credit or debit cards and is typically a separate group of three digits to the right of the signature strip.
On American Express cards, the card security code is a printed, not embossed, group of four digits on the front towards the right.
A card security code (CSC; also called card verification data [CVD], card verification number, card verification value [CVV], card verification value code, card verification code [CVC], verification code [V-code or V code], or signature panel code [SPC][1]) is a security feature for "card not present" payment card transactions instituted to reduce the incidence of credit card fraud.
The CSC is in addition to the bank card number which is embossed or printed on the card. The CSC is used as a security feature, in situations where a PIN cannot be used. The PIN is not printed or embedded on the card but is manually entered by the cardholder during point-of-sale (card present) transactions. Contactless card and chip cards may electronically generate their own code, such as iCVV or a dynamic CVV.
CSC was originally developed in the UK as an 11 character alphanumeric code by Equifax employee Michael Stone in 1995. After testing with the Littlewoods Home Shopping group and NatWest bank, the concept was adopted by APACS (the UK Association of Payment Clearing Services) and streamlined to the three-digit code known today. MasterCard started issuing CVC2 numbers in 1997 and Visa in the United States issued them by 2001. American Express started to use the CSC in 1999, in response to growing internet transactions and card member complaints of spending interruptions when the security of a card has been brought into question.
In 2016, a new e-commerce technology called Motioncode was introduced, designed to automatically refresh the CVV code to a new one every hour or so.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 Types of codes
3 Location of code
4 Security benefits
5 Limitations
6 Generation of CSC
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
Description[edit]
The codes have different names:
"CID": "Card Id", "Card Identification Number", or "Card Identification Code" – Discover, American Express (four digits on front of card)[a][3]
"CSC" or "Card Security Code" – debit cards,[which?] American Express (three digits on back of card)[3]
"CVC2" or "Card Validation Code" – MasterCard
"CVD" or "Card Verification Data" – Discover, sometimes used as the common acronym for this kind of code
"CVE" or "Elo Verification Code" – Elo in Brazil
"CVN2" or "Card Validation Number 2" – China UnionPay
"CVV2" or "Card Verification Value 2" – Visa
Types of codes[edit]
There are several types of security codes:
The first code, called CVC1 or CVV1, is encoded on track two of the magnetic stripe of the card and used for card present transactions. The purpose of the code is to verify that a payment card is actually in the hand of the merchant. This code is automatically retrieved when the magnetic stripe of a card is swiped on a point-of-sale (card present) device and is verified by the issuer. A limitation is that if the entire card has been duplicated and the magnetic stripe copied, then the code is still valid. (See credit card fraud § skimming.)
The second code, and the most cited, is CVV2 or CVC2. This code is often sought by merchants for card not present transactions occurring by mail, fax, telephone or Internet. In some countries in Western Europe, card issuers require a merchant to obtain the code when the cardholder is not present in person.[citation needed]
Contactless cards and chip cards may supply their own electronically generated codes, such as iCVV or a dynamic CVV.
Location of code[edit]
The card security code is typically the last three or four digits printed, not embossed like the card number, on the signature strip on the back of the card. On American Express cards, the card security code is the four digits printed (not embossed) on the front towards the right. The card security code is not encoded on the magnetic stripe but is printed flat.
American Express cards have a four-digit code printed on the front side of the card above the number.
Diners Club, Discover, JCB, MasterCard, and Visa credit and debit cards have a three-digit card security code. The code is the final group of numbers printed on the back signature panel of the card.
New North American MasterCard and Visa cards feature the code in a separate panel to the right of the signature strip.[4] This has been done to prevent overwriting of the numbers by signing the card.
Security benefits[edit]
As a security measure, merchants who require the CVV2 for "card not present" payment card transactions are required by the card issuer not to store the CVV2 once the individual transaction is authorized.[5] This way, if a database of transactions is compromised, the CVV2 is not included, and the stolen card numbers are less useful. Virtual terminals and payment gateways do not store the CVV2 code, therefore employees and customer service representatives with access to these web-based payment interfaces who otherwise have access to complete card numbers, expiration dates, and other information still lack the CVV2 code.
The Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) also prohibits the storage of CSC (and other sensitive authorisation data) post transaction authorisation. This applies globally to anyone who stores, processes or transmits card holder data.[6] Since the CSC is not contained on the magnetic stripe of the card, it is not typically included in the transaction when the card is used face to face at a merchant. However, some merchants in North America, such as Sears and Staples, require the code. For American Express cards, this has been an invariable practice (for "card not present" transactions) in European Union (EU) countries like Ireland and the United Kingdom since the start of 2005. This provides a level of protection to the bank/cardholder, in that a fraudulent merchant or employee cannot simply capture the magnetic stripe details of a card and use them later for "card not present" purchases over the phone, mail order or Internet. To do this, a merchant or its employee would also have to note the CVV2 visually and record it, which is more likely to arouse the cardholder's suspicion.
Supplying the CSC code in a transaction is intended to verify that the customer has the card in their possession. Knowledge of the code proves that the customer has seen the card, or has seen a record made by somebody who saw the card.
Limitations[edit]
The use of the CSC cannot protect against phishing scams, where the cardholder is tricked into entering the CSC among other card details via a fraudulent website. The growth in phishing has reduced the real-world effectiveness of the CSC as an anti-fraud device. There is now also a scam where a phisher has already obtained the card account number (perhaps by hacking a merchant database or from a poorly designed receipt) and gives this information to the victims (lulling them into a false sense of security) before asking for the CSC (which is all that the phisher needs).[7]
Since the CSC may not be stored by the merchant for any length of time[5] (after the original transaction in which the CSC was quoted and then authorized), a merchant who needs to regularly bill a card for a regular subscription would not be able to provide the code after the initial transaction. Payment gateways, however, have responded by adding "periodic bill" features as part of the authorization process.
Some card issuers do not use the CSC. However, transactions without CSC are possibly subjected to higher card processing cost to the merchants,[citation needed] and fraudulent transactions without CSC are more likely to be resolved in favour of the cardholder.[citation needed]
It is not mandatory for a merchant to require the security code for making a transaction[citation needed], hence the card may still be prone to fraud even if only its number is known to phishers.
It is possible for a fraudster to guess the CSC by using a distributed attack.[8]
Generation of CSC[edit]
The CSC for each card (form 1 and 2) is generated by the card issuer when the card is issued. It is calculated by encrypting the bank card number and expiration date (two fields printed on the card) with encryption keys known only to the card issuer, and decimalising the result.[9][10]
See also[edit]
Credit card fraud
ISO 8583 (data element #44 carries the Security Code response)
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ American Express usually uses the four-digit code on the front of the card, referred to as the Card Identification Code (CID), but also has a three-digit code on the back of the card, referred to as the Card Security Code (CSC). American Express also sometimes refers to a "Unique Card Code".
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "CIBC MasterCard - MasterCard SecureCode". Archived from the original on 24 April 2014. Retrieved 2012-07-12.
Jump up ^ "This card is being rolled out by French banks to eliminate fraud". thememo.com. 27 September 2016. Retrieved 10 April 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Do I need to do anything before using my Gift Card or Business Gift Card?, "four digit Card Identification Code (CID) located on the front of the Card, three digit Card Security Code (CSC) on the back of the Card"
Jump up ^ "Card Security Features" (PDF). Visa. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-02-16.
^ Jump up to: a b "Rules for Visa Merchants" (doc). p. 1.
Jump up ^ "Official Source of PCI DSS Data Security Standards Documents and Payment Card Compliance Guidelines". Pcisecuritystandards.org. Retrieved 2011-12-25.
Jump up ^ "Urban Legends Reference Pages: Visa Fraud Investigation Scam". Snopes.com. Retrieved 2011-12-25.
Jump up ^ Ducklin, Paul (5 December 2016). "How to guess credit card security codes". naked security by SOPHOS. Retrieved 8 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "z/OS Integrated Cryptographic Service Facility Application Programmer's Guide". IBM. March 2002. p. 209.
Jump up ^ "z/OS Integrated Cryptographic Service Facility Application Programmer's Guide". IBM. March 2002. p. 258.
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Barry & the Tamerlanes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Barry & the Tamerlanes were a doo wop trio from California. Their 1963 single for Valiant Records, "I Wonder What She's Doing Tonight", spent 10 weeks on the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at #21,[1] while reaching #23 on Billboard's "Hot R&B Singles".[2] "Barry" was Barry De Vorzon, who went on to considerable success as a film music composer; the group's other members were Terry Smith and Bodie Chandler.[3]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Barry & the Tamerlanes - Chart History - The Hot 100, Billboard.com. Accessed September 27, 2015
Jump up ^ "Hot R&B Singles", Billboard, November 23, 1963. p. 22
Jump up ^ Biography, Allmusic.com
External links[edit]
Barry & The Tamerlanes at Doo Wop Heaven
Authority control
MusicBrainz: 9e3dbed0-953e-4c94-a009-18a3a8441aff
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Barry_%26_the_Tamerlanes&oldid=713811650"
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Intramural sports
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Intramural sports or intramurals are recreational sports organized within a particular institution, usually an educational institution,[1][2] or a set geographic area.[citation needed] The term, which is chiefly North American,[2] derives from the Latin words intramuros meaning "within walls",[3][4][5] and was used to describe sports matches and contests that took place among teams from "within the walls" of an institution or area. The term dates to the 1840s.[4][5] It is contrasted with extramural, varsity or intercollegiate sports, which are played between teams from different educational institutions.[6] The word intermural, which also correctly means "between institutions",[7] is a common error for "intramural".[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Intramural sports in the United States
3 Intramural sports in Canada
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
History[edit]
Elmer D. Mitchell, University of Michigan Director of Intramural Athletics, 1919
The first intramural sports departments were established at Ohio State University and the University of Michigan in 1913.[9] Elmer Mitchell, a graduate student, at the time, was named the first Director of Intramural Sports at the University of Michigan in 1919 and the first recreational sports facility in the country opened at the University of Michigan.[10] Mitchell is considered the "father of intramural sports" and taught a class in intramural sports taken by William Wasson, founder of the National Intramural Association (NIA), the forerunner to the National Intramural and Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA).[11]
Mitchell later authored Intramural Athletics (ED Mitchell - AS Barnes, 1928), and Intramural Sports.[12] He co-authored Intramural Sports with Pat Mueller.[13]
Today, "intramural" tournaments are still organized within a specific community or municipal area, between teams of equivalent age or athletic ability. For example, intramural sports programs are often organized on college campuses to promote competition and fun among the students and teachers sometimes.
For most schools and campuses, intramural sports are used to promote wellness and allow students who do not compete on a national (NCAA) level an opportunity to be active.
Intramural sports in the United States[edit]
NIRSA: Leaders in Collegiate Recreation, formerly known as the National Intramural Recreational Sports Association, a professional organization based in Corvallis, Oregon, provides a network of more than 4,500 highly trained professionals, students and Associate Members in the recreational sports field throughout the United States, Canada and other countries. In most of the world outside North America, sports scholarships and college sports on the North American model do not exist so the distinction between college and intramural sports has no relevance and is not made.
Intramural sports in Canada[edit]
The Canadian Intramural Recreation Association (CIRA) organized intramurals within Canada from 1976-2002. CIRA Ontario has been the major intramural organization in the Canadian province of Ontario since 1969. CIRA Ontario is an incorporated, non-profit organization whose mission is to encourage, promote, and develop active living, healthy lifestyles and personal growth through intramural and recreation programs within the education and recreation communities. They fulfill their mandate through resources, workshops, conferences, newsletters, awards, and other means.[14]
See also[edit]
Physical education class
Team sport
References[edit]
Jump up ^ macmillandictionary.com
^ Jump up to: a b oxforddictionaries.com
Jump up ^ intra muros - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary[permanent dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b "Definition of 'intramural'". dictionary.com. Retrieved 7 February 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Definition of 'intramural'". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved 7 February 2014.
Jump up ^ macmillandictionary.com
Jump up ^ http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/intermural
Jump up ^ Common Errors in English Usage, Paul Brians
Jump up ^ University of Michigan
Jump up ^ Department of Recreational Sports Archived 2010-06-04 at the Wayback Machine. University of Michigan, retrieved May 24, 2010
Jump up ^ Dr. William N. Wasson, NIRSA, retrieved May 25, 2010
Jump up ^ New York, A.S. Barnes and company, 1939
Jump up ^ New York, Ronald Press Co. 1960
Jump up ^ CIRA Ontario
Further reading[edit]
C. Jensen & S. Overman. Administration and Management of Physical Education and Athletic Programs. 4th edition. Waveland Press, 2003 (Chapter 14, "Intramural Recreation").
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intramural_sports&oldid=810528584"
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