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Animal
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For other uses, see Animal (disambiguation).
"Animalia" redirects here. For other uses, see Animalia (disambiguation).
Animals
Temporal range: Cryogenian – Present, 670–0Ma
Had'n
Archean
Proterozoic
Pha.
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
(unranked): Unikonta
(unranked): Opisthokonta
(unranked): Holozoa
(unranked): Filozoa
Kingdom: Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758
Phyla
Porifera
Monoblastozoa
Ausia (incertae sedis) †
Chancelloriidae (incertae sedis) †
Cloudinidae (incertae sedis) †
Sinotubulites (incertae sedis) †
Trilobozoa (incertae sedis) †
Subkingdom Eumetazoa
Ctenophora
Placozoa
Cnidaria
Trilobozoa †
Bilateria (unranked)
Xenacoelomorpha
Kimberella †
Proarticulata †
Nephrozoa (unranked)
Superphylum Deuterostomia
Ambulacraria
Echinodermata
Hemichordata
Cambroernida †
Chordata
Cephalochordata
Leptocardii
Metaspriggina †
Pikaiidae †
Olfactores
Craniata
Tunicata
Burykhia†
Yarnemia†
Myllokunmingia†
Palaeospondylus†
Vetulicolia †
Zhongxiniscus †
Saccorhytida†
Protostomia (unranked)
Superphylum Ecdysozoa
Chaetognatha[1]
Cycloneuralia
Nematoida
Nematoda
Nematomorpha
Scalidophora
Kinorhyncha
Loricifera
Priapulida
Panarthropoda
Tactopoda
Arthropoda
Tardigrada
Onychophora
Spiralia (unranked)
Orthonectida
Superphylum Platyzoa
Gnathifera
Syndermata
Acanthocephala
Rotifera
Gnathostomulida
Micrognathozoa
Cycliophora
Rouphozoa
Gastrotricha
Platyhelminthes
Superphylum Lophotrochozoa
Dicyemida
Entoprocta
Lophophorata
Bryozoa
Brachiozoa
Brachiopoda
Phoronida
Tommotiid †
Hyolitha †
Nemertea
Neotrochozoa
Annelida
Sipuncula [2]
Mollusca
Halkieria†
Namacalathus†
Odontogriphus†
Orthrozanclus†
Wiwaxia†
Tullimonstrum†
Synonyms
Metazoa
Animals are eukaryotic, multicellular organisms that form the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals are motile (able to move), heterotrophic (consume organic material), reproduce sexually, and their embryonic development includes a blastula stage. The body plan of the animal derives from this blastula, differentiating specialized tissues and organs as it develops; this plan eventually becomes fixed, although some undergo metamorphosis at some stage in their lives.
Zoology is the study of animals. Currently there are over 66 thousand (less than 5% of all animals) vertebrate species, and over 1.3 million (over 95% of all animals) invertebrate species in existence. Classification of animals into groups (taxonomy) is accomplished using either the hierarchical Linnaean system; or cladistics, which displays diagrams (phylogenetic trees) called cladograms to show relationships based on the evolutionary principle of the most recent common ancestor. Some recent classifications based on modern cladistics have explicitly abandoned the term "kingdom", noting that the traditional kingdoms are not monophyletic, i.e., do not consist of all the descendants of a common ancestor.
Animals are divided by body plan into vertebrates and invertebrates. Vertebrates—fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals—have a vertebral column (spine); invertebrates do not. All vertebrates and most invertebrates are bilaterally symmetrical (Bilateria). Invertebrates include arthropods, molluscs, roundworms, ringed worms, flatworms, and other phyla in Ecdysozoa and Spiralia. Echinoderm larvae are initially bilaterally symmetrical, but later as adults develop radial symmetry; Cnidarians are radially symmetrical; ctenophores are biradially symmetrical; and sponges have no symmetry.
Animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. Animals emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the sister group to the choanoflagellates.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Characteristics
2.1 Structure
2.2 Reproduction
2.3 Embryonic development
2.4 Food and energy sourcing
3 Linnaean classification
4 Evolutionary origin
5 Number of living species
6 Basal clades
6.1 Animal genes
6.2 Non-bilaterian animals: Ctenophora, Porifera, Placozoa, Cnidaria
6.3 Bilaterian animals
6.3.1 Deuterostomes and protostomes
6.3.2 Ecdysozoa
6.3.3 Lophotrochozoa
7 History of classification
8 Research using model organisms
9 See also
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 External links
Etymology
The word "animal" comes from the Latin animalis, meaning having breath, having soul or living being.[3] The biological definition of the word refers to all members of the kingdom Animalia, encompassing creatures as diverse as sponges, jellyfish, insects, and humans.[4] In everyday non-scientific usage, the word often implies exclusion of humans – that is, "animal" is used to refer only to non-human members of the kingdom Animalia; sometimes, only closer relatives of humans such as mammals and other vertebrates, are meant.[5]
Characteristics
Animals have several characteristics that set them apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and multicellular,[6] which separates them from bacteria and most protists, which are prokaryotic and unicellular. They are heterotrophic,[7] generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae, which are autotrophs.[8] They lack rigid cell walls, which separates them from plants, algae, and fungi, all of which do have rigid cell walls.[9] All animals are motile,[10] if only at certain life stages. In most animals, embryos pass through a blastula stage,[11] which is a characteristic exclusive to animals, and which allows for differentiation into specialized tissues and organs.
Structure
All animals are composed of eukaryotic cells, surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of collagen and elastic glycoproteins.[12] This may be calcified to form structures like shells, bones, and spicules.[13] During development, it forms a relatively flexible framework[14] upon which cells can move about and be reorganized, making complex structures possible. In contrast, other multicellular organisms, like plants and fungi, have cells held in place by cell walls, and so develop by progressive growth.[15] Also, unique to animal cells are the following intercellular junctions: tight junctions, gap junctions, and desmosomes.[16]
With a few exceptions—most notably the two phyla consisting of sponges and placozoans—animals have bodies that are differentiated into tissues.[17]:362,365 These include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and nerve tissues, which send and process signals. Typically, there is also an internal digestive chamber, with one or two openings.[15] Animals with this sort of organization are called metazoans, or eumetazoans when the former is used for animals in general.[18]
Reproduction
See also: Sexual reproduction § Animals, and Asexual reproduction § Examples in animals
Some species of land snails use love darts as a form of sexual selection[19]
A newt lung cell stained with fluorescent dyes undergoing the early anaphase stage of mitosis
Nearly all animals undergo some form of sexual reproduction.[20] They produce haploid gametes by meiosis (see Origin and function of meiosis). The smaller, motile gametes are spermatozoa and the larger, non-motile gametes are ova.[21] These fuse to form zygotes, which develop via multiple successive mitoses and differentiation into new individuals[22] (see Allogamy).
Some animals are also capable of asexual reproduction.[23] This may take place through parthenogenesis, where fertile eggs are produced without mating, budding, or fragmentation.[24]
DNA analysis has shown that 60% of offspring in splendid fairywrens nests were sired through extra-pair copulations, rather than from resident males.[25]
During sexual reproduction, mating with a close relative (inbreeding) generally leads to inbreeding depression. For instance, inbreeding was found to increase juvenile mortality in 11 small animal species.[26] Inbreeding depression is considered to be largely due to expression of deleterious recessive mutations.[27] Mating with unrelated or distantly related members of the same species is generally thought to provide the advantage of masking deleterious recessive mutations in progeny.[28] (see Heterosis). Animals have evolved numerous diverse mechanisms for avoiding close inbreeding and promoting outcrossing[25] (see Inbreeding avoidance).
Chimpanzees have adopted dispersal as a way to separate close relatives and prevent inbreeding.[25] Their spersal route is known as natal dispersal, whereby individuals move away from the area of birth.
In various species, such as the splendid fairywren, females benefit by mating with multiple males, thus producing more offspring of higher genetic quality. Females that are pair bonded to a male of poor genetic quality, as is the case in inbreeding, are more likely to engage in extra-pair copulations in order to improve their reproductive success and the survivability of their offspring.[29]
Embryonic development
A zygote initially develops into a hollow sphere, called a blastula,[30] which undergoes rearrangement and differentiation. In sponges, blastula larvae swim to a new location and develop into a new sponge.[31] In most other groups, the blastula undergoes more complicated rearrangement.[32] It first invaginates to form a gastrula with a digestive chamber, and two separate germ layers—an external ectoderm and an internal endoderm.[33] In most cases, a mesoderm also develops between them.[34] These germ layers then differentiate to form tissues and organs.[35]
Food and energy sourcing
Main article: Animal nutrition
All animals are heterotrophs, meaning that they feed directly or indirectly on other living things.[36] They are often further subdivided into groups such as carnivores, herbivores, omnivores, and parasites.[37]
Predation is a biological interaction where a predator (a heterotroph that is hunting) feeds on its prey (the organism that is attacked).[38] Predators may or may not kill their prey prior to feeding on them, but the act of predation almost always results in the death of the prey.[39] The other main category of consumption is detritivory, the consumption of dead organic matter.[40] It can at times be difficult to separate the two feeding behaviours, for example, where parasitic species prey on a host organism and then lay their eggs on it for their offspring to feed on its decaying corpse. Selective pressures imposed on one another has led to an evolutionary arms race between prey and predator, resulting in various antipredator adaptations.[41]
Most animals indirectly use the energy of sunlight by eating plants or plant-eating animals. Most plants use light to convert inorganic molecules in their environment into carbohydrates, fats, proteins and other biomolecules, characteristically containing reduced carbon in the form of carbon-hydrogen bonds. Starting with carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), photosynthesis converts the energy of sunlight into chemical energy in the form of simple sugars (e.g., glucose), with the release of molecular oxygen. These sugars are then used as the building blocks for plant growth, including the production of other biomolecules.[15] When an animal eats plants (or eats other animals which have eaten plants), the reduced carbon compounds in the food become a source of energy and building materials for the animal.[42] They are either used directly to help the animal grow, or broken down, releasing stored solar energy, and giving the animal the energy required for motion.[43][44]
Animals living close to hydrothermal vents and cold seeps on the ocean floor are not dependent on the energy of sunlight.[45] Instead chemosynthetic archaea and bacteria form the base of the food chain.[46]
Linnaean classification
The levels of modern Linnaean classification applied to the red fox, Vulpes vulpes. Additional intermediate levels are used with some animals.[47]
Taxonomy classifies organisms into groups. There are two taxonomic approaches: the Linnaean system classifies life according to an eight level hierarchy based on features other than phylogenomics (cladistics).
The three-domain system is an addition to the Linnaean system biological classification introduced by Carl Woese et al. in 1977[48][49] that divides cellular life forms into archaea, bacteria, and eukaryote domains. In particular, it emphasizes the separation of prokaryotes into two groups, originally called Eubacteria (now Bacteria) and Archaebacteria (now Archaea). Woese argued that, on the basis of differences in 16S rRNA genes, these two groups and the eukaryotes each arose separately from an ancestor with poorly developed genetic machinery, often called a progenote. To reflect these primary lines of descent, he treated each as a domain, divided into several different kingdoms. The term "domain" was adopted in 1990.[49]
Animals are thus classified under the domain Eukaryota. The Linnaean hierarchy below the kingdom Animalia consists of these groups: phyla, classes, orders, families, genera, and species. All the groups, from domain to species, are called taxa. There are occasional intermediate levels, such as superphyla and subphyla, in special situations. The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) determines what names are valid for any taxon in the family, genus, and species group. It has additional but more limited provisions on names in higher ranks.
Evolutionary origin
Further information: Urmetazoan
A phylogenetic tree based on rRNA data, emphasizing the separation of bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes, as proposed by Carl Woese in 1977: animals are under eukaryotes at the top right.
Animals are generally considered to have emerged within flagellated eukaryota.[50] Their closest known living relatives are the choanoflagellates, collared flagellates that have a morphology similar to the choanocytes of certain sponges.[51] Molecular studies place animals in a supergroup called the opisthokonts, which also include the choanoflagellates, fungi and a few small parasitic protists.[52] The name comes from the posterior location of the flagellum in motile cells, such as most animal spermatozoa, whereas other eukaryotes tend to have anterior flagella.[53]
The first fossils that might represent animals appear in the Trezona Formation at Trezona Bore, West Central Flinders, South Australia.[54] These fossils are interpreted as being early sponges. They were found in 665-million-year-old rock.[54]
The next oldest possible animal fossils are found towards the end of the Precambrian, around 610 million years ago, and are known as the Ediacaran or Vendian biota.[55] These are difficult to relate to later fossils, however. Some may represent precursors of modern phyla, but they may be separate groups, and it is possible they are not really animals at all.[56]
Aside from them, most known animal phyla make a more or less simultaneous appearance during the Cambrian period, about 542 million years ago.[57] It is still disputed whether this event, called the Cambrian explosion, is due to a rapid divergence between different groups or due to a change in conditions that made fossilization possible.
Dunkleosteus was a 10-metre-long (33 ft) fish that lived 358–382 million years ago.[58]
Some palaeontologists suggest that animals appeared much earlier than the Cambrian explosion, possibly as early as 1 billion years ago.[59] Trace fossils such as tracks and burrows found in the Tonian period indicate the presence of triploblastic worms, like metazoans, roughly as large (about 5 mm wide) and complex as earthworms.[60] During the beginning of the Tonian period around 1 billion years ago, there was a decrease in Stromatolite diversity, which may indicate the appearance of grazing animals, since stromatolite diversity increased when grazing animals became extinct at the End Permian and End Ordovician extinction events, and decreased shortly after the grazer populations recovered. However the discovery that tracks very similar to these early trace fossils are produced today by the giant single-celled protist Gromia sphaerica casts doubt on their interpretation as evidence of early animal evolution.[61][62]
Number of living species
Animals can be divided into two broad groups: vertebrates (animals with a backbone) and invertebrates (animals without a backbone). Half of all described vertebrate species are fishes and three-quarters of all described invertebrate species are insects. Over 95% of the described animal species in the world are invertebrates.
The following table lists the number of described living species for each major animal subgroup as estimated for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 2014.3.[63]
The relative number of species contributed to the total by each phylum of animals
Group
Image
Subgroup
Estimated number of
described species[63]
Vertebrates
Fishes 32,900
Amphibians 7,302
Reptiles 10,038
Birds 10,425
Mammals 5,513
Total vertebrate species: 66,178
Invertebrates
Insects 1,000,000
Molluscs 85,000
Crustaceans 47,000
Corals 2,000
Arachnids 102,248
Velvet worms 165
Horseshoe crabs 4
Others 68,658
Total invertebrate species: 1,305,075
Total for all animal species: 1,371,253
Basal clades
Main article: Lists of animals
Cladistics embraces the concept of the "most recent common ancestor", and assigning similar animals to groups called clades. Animals are thought to be a basal Apoikozoan clade as sister of the Choanoflagellata. The "bilaterian" animals (Bilateria), whose body display bilateral symmetry, are thought to form a monophyletic group. The Bilaterians are further classified based on a major division between Deuterostomes and Protostomes. More basal animals lack a bilaterally symmetric body plan (Ctenophora, Porifera, Cnidaria and Placozoa), with their relationships still disputed. In 2017, the Porifera are found as basalmost animals after "recoding" to reduce "compositional heterogeneity".[64][65][66][67][68][69] The remainder of the animals form a Diploblast/Eumetazoa group. An alternative scenario is the Ctenophora-sister hypothesis.[70][71][72][73] Some of the issues are the rapid evolutionary rate within Ctenophora, insufficient sampling, and the recent internal divergence date of Ctenophora. It is indicated approximately how many million years ago (Mya) the clades diverged into newer clades.[74][75]
Apoikozoa (950)
Choanoflagellata
Animal (760)
Porifera
Diploblasts/Eumetazoa/
Ctenophora
ParaHoxozoa
Placozoa
Planulozoa (680)
Cnidaria
Bilateria/
Xenacoelomorpha
Nephrozoa (650)
Deuterostomes
Protostomes (610)
Ecdysozoa
Spiralia
Triploblasts
Epitheliozoa
Animal genes
The gene classes SINE, LIM, POU, NKL-ANTP and Q50-PRD are present in Porifera and Diploblasts but not in other organisms.[76]
Non-bilaterian animals: Ctenophora, Porifera, Placozoa, Cnidaria
Examples of non-bilaterian animals are sponges and coral: the orange animal in the midfield is an elephant ear sponge, Agelas clathrodes. In the background are two corals: (upper center) is a sea fan Iciligorgia schrammi, and (upper right corner) is a sea rod, Plexaurella nutans.
Several animal phyla are recognized for their lack of bilateral symmetry, and are thought to have diverged from other animals early in evolution. Among these, the sponges (Porifera) were long thought to have diverged first, representing the oldest animal phylum.[77] They lack the complex organization found in most other phyla.[78] Their cells are differentiated, but in most cases not organized into distinct tissues.[79] Sponges typically feed by drawing in water through pores.[80] However, a series of phylogenomic studies from 2008–2015 have found support for Ctenophora, or comb jellies, as the basal lineage of animals.[81][82][83][84] This result has been controversial, since it would imply that sponges may not be so primitive, but may instead be secondarily simplified.[81] Other researchers have argued that the placement of Ctenophora as the earliest-diverging animal phylum is a statistical anomaly caused by the high rate of evolution in ctenophore genomes.[85][86][87][88]
The Ctenophora and the sponges are unique among the animals in lacking true hox genes.[89] The presence of a Hox/Parahox gene in the Placozoa suggests that either the Porifera or the Ctenophora are the most basal animal clades.[90] Another DNA based study suggests that the Ctenophora are the earliest branching animals.[91] Another study also suggests that this group are a sister group to other animals.[92]
Among the other phyla, the Ctenophora and the Cnidaria, which includes sea anemones, corals, and jellyfish, are radially symmetric and have digestive chambers with a single opening, which serves as both the mouth and the anus.[93] Both have distinct tissues, but they are not organized into organs.[94] There are only two main germ layers, the ectoderm and endoderm, with only scattered cells between them. As such, these animals are sometimes called diploblastic.[95] The tiny placozoans are similar, but they do not have a permanent digestive chamber.
The Myxozoa, microscopic parasites that were originally considered Protozoa, are now believed to have evolved within Cnidaria.[96]
Bilaterian animals
The remaining animals form a monophyletic group called the Bilateria. For the most part, they are bilaterally symmetric, and often have a specialized head with feeding and sensory organs. The body is triploblastic, i.e. all three germ layers are well-developed, and tissues form distinct organs. The digestive chamber has two openings, a mouth and an anus, and there is also an internal body cavity called a coelom or pseudocoelom. There are exceptions to each of these characteristics, however—for instance adult echinoderms are radially symmetric, and certain parasitic worms have extremely simplified body structures.
Genetic studies have considerably changed our understanding of the relationships within the Bilateria. Most appear to belong to two major lineages: the deuterostomes and the protostomes, the latter of which includes the Ecdysozoa, and Lophotrochozoa. The Chaetognatha or arrow worms have been traditionally classified as deuterostomes, though recent molecular studies have identified this group as a basal protostome lineage.[97]
In addition, there are a few small groups of bilaterians with relatively cryptic morphology whose relationships with other animals are not well-established. For example, recent molecular studies have identified Acoelomorpha and Xenoturbella as forming a monophyletic group,[98][99][100] but studies disagree as to whether this group evolved from within deuterostomes,[99] or whether it represents the sister group to all other bilaterian animals (Nephrozoa).[101][102] Other groups of uncertain affinity include the Rhombozoa and Orthonectida. One phyla, the Monoblastozoa, was described by a scientist in 1892, but so far there have been no evidence of its existence.[103]
Deuterostomes and protostomes
Deuterostomes differ from protostomes in several ways. Animals from both groups possess a complete digestive tract. However, in protostomes, the first opening of the gut to appear in embryological development (the archenteron) develops into the mouth, with the anus forming secondarily. In deuterostomes the anus forms first, with the mouth developing secondarily.[104] In most protostomes, cells simply fill in the interior of the gastrula to form the mesoderm, called schizocoelous development, but in deuterostomes, it forms through invagination of the endoderm, called enterocoelic pouching.[105] Deuterostome embryos undergo radial cleavage during cell division, while protostomes undergo spiral cleavage.[106]
All this suggests the deuterostomes and protostomes are separate, monophyletic lineages. The main phyla of deuterostomes are the Echinodermata and Chordata.[107] The former are radially symmetric and exclusively marine, such as starfish, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers.[108] The latter are dominated by the vertebrates, animals with backbones.[109] These include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.[110]
In addition to these, the deuterostomes also include the Hemichordata, or acorn worms, which are thought to be closely related to Echinodermata forming a group known as Ambulacraria.[111][112] Although they are not especially prominent today, the important fossil graptolites may belong to this group.[113]
Ecdysozoa
Yellow-winged darter, Sympetrum flaveolum
The Ecdysozoa are protostomes, named after the common trait of growth by moulting or ecdysis.[114] The largest animal phylum belongs here, the Arthropoda, including insects, spiders, crabs, and their kin. All these organisms have a body divided into repeating segments, typically with paired appendages. Two smaller phyla, the Onychophora and Tardigrada, are close relatives of the arthropods and share these traits. The ecdysozoans also include the Nematoda or roundworms, perhaps the second largest animal phylum. Roundworms are typically microscopic, and occur in nearly every environment where there is water.[115] A number are important parasites.[116] Smaller phyla related to them are the Nematomorpha or horsehair worms, and the Kinorhyncha, Priapulida, and Loricifera. These groups have a reduced coelom, called a pseudocoelom.
Roman snail, Helix pomatia
Lophotrochozoa
The Lophotrochozoa, evolved within Protostomia, include two of the most successful animal phyla, the Mollusca and Annelida.[117][118] The former, which is the second-largest animal phylum by number of described species, includes animals such as snails, clams, and squids, and the latter comprises the segmented worms, such as earthworms and leeches. These two groups have long been considered close relatives because of the common presence of trochophore larvae, but the annelids were considered closer to the arthropods because they are both segmented.[119] Now, this is generally considered convergent evolution, owing to many morphological and genetic differences between the two phyla.[120] Lophotrochozoa also includes the Nemertea or ribbon worms, the Sipuncula, and several phyla that have a ring of ciliated tentacles around the mouth, called a lophophore.[121] These were traditionally grouped together as the lophophorates.[122] but it now appears that the lophophorate group may be paraphyletic,[123] with some closer to the nemerteans and some to the molluscs and annelids.[124][125] They include the Brachiopoda or lamp shells, which are prominent in the fossil record, the Entoprocta, the Phoronida, and possibly the Bryozoa or moss animals.[126]
The Platyzoa include the phylum Platyhelminthes, the flatworms.[127] These were originally considered some of the most primitive Bilateria, but it now appears they developed from more complex ancestors.[128] A number of parasites are included in this group, such as the flukes and tapeworms.[127] Flatworms are acoelomates, lacking a body cavity, as are their closest relatives, the microscopic Gastrotricha.[129] The other platyzoan phyla are mostly microscopic and pseudocoelomate. The most prominent are the Rotifera or rotifers, which are common in aqueous environments. They also include the Acanthocephala or spiny-headed worms, the Gnathostomulida, Micrognathozoa, and possibly the Cycliophora.[130] These groups share the presence of complex jaws, from which they are called the Gnathifera.
A relationship between the Brachiopoda and Nemertea has been suggested by molecular data.[131] A second study has also suggested this relationship.[132] This latter study also suggested that Annelida and Mollusca may be sister clades. Another study has suggested that Annelida and Mollusca are sister clades.[133] This clade has been termed the Neotrochozoa.
History of classification
Main articles: History of zoology (through 1859) and History of zoology since 1859
Carl Linnaeus is known as the father of modern taxonomy.[134]
Aristotle divided the living world between animals and plants, and this was followed by Carl Linnaeus, in the first hierarchical classification.[135] In Linnaeus's original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes, Insecta, Pisces, Amphibia, Aves, and Mammalia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, the Chordata, whereas the various other forms have been separated out.
In 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into two subkingdoms: Metazoa (multicellular animals) and Protozoa (single-celled animals).[136] The protozoa were later moved to the kingdom Protista, leaving only the metazoa. Thus Metazoa is now considered a synonym of Animalia.[137]
Research using model organisms
Main articles: Model organism and Animal testing
Escherichia coli is a gram-negative prokaryotic model organism.
Drosophila melanogaster, one of the most famous subjects for genetics experiments
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, one of the most intensively studied eukaryotic model organisms in molecular and cell biology
A model organism is a non-human species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in the organism model will provide insight into the workings of other organisms.[138] Model organisms are in vivo models and are widely used to research human disease when human experimentation would be unfeasible or unethical.[139] This strategy is made possible by the common descent of all living organisms, and the conservation of metabolic and developmental pathways and genetic material over the course of evolution.[140] Studying model organisms can be informative, but care must be taken when extrapolating from one organism to another.[141]
In researching human disease, model organisms allow for better understanding the disease process without the added risk of harming a human. The species chosen will usually meet a determined taxonomic equivalency to humans, so as to react to disease or its treatment in a way that resembles human physiology as needed. Although biological activity in a model organism does not ensure an effect in humans, many drugs, treatments and cures for human diseases are developed in part with the guidance of animal models.[142][143] There are three main types of disease models: homologous, isomorphic and predictive. Homologous animals have the same causes, symptoms and treatment options as would humans who have the same disease. Isomorphic animals share the same symptoms and treatments. Predictive models are similar to a particular human disease in only a couple of aspects, but are useful in isolating and making predictions about mechanisms of a set of disease features.[144]
Because they are easy to keep and breed, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster and the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans have long been the most intensively studied metazoan model organisms, and were among the first life-forms to be genetically sequenced. This was facilitated by the severely reduced state of their genomes, but as many genes, introns, and linkages lost, these ecdysozoans can teach us little about the origins of animals in general. The extent of this type of evolution within the superphylum will be revealed by the crustacean, annelid, and molluscan genome projects currently in progress. Analysis of the starlet sea anemone genome has emphasized the importance of sponges, placozoans, and choanoflagellates, also being sequenced, in explaining the arrival of 1500 ancestral genes unique to the Eumetazoa.[145] An analysis of the homoscleromorph sponge Oscarella carmela also suggests that the last common ancestor of sponges and the eumetazoan animals was more complex than previously assumed.[146] Other model organisms belonging to the animal kingdom include the house mouse (Mus musculus), laboratory rat (Rattus norvegicus) and zebrafish (Danio rerio).
See also
Book: Animal
Animal attacks
Animal coloration
Ethology
Fauna
List of animal names
Lists of animals
Lists of organisms by population
Taxonomy (biology)
References
Jump up ^ Harzsch, S.; Müller, C. H. (18 May 2007). "A new look at the ventral nerve centre of Sagitta: implications for the phylogenetic position of Chaetognatha (arrow worms) and the evolution of the bilaterian nervous system". Frontiers in Zoology. 4: 14. doi:10.1186/1742-9994-4-14. PMC 1885248  . PMID 17511857.
Jump up ^ Annelid phylogeny and status of Sipuncula and Echiura
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Jump up ^ Kim, Chang Bae; Moon, Seung Yeo; Gelder, Stuart R.; Kim, Won (September 1996). "Phylogenetic Relationships of Annelids, Molluscs, and Arthropods Evidenced from Molecules and Morphology". Journal of Molecular Evolution. New York: Springer. 43 (3): 207–215. doi:10.1007/PL00006079. PMID 8703086.
Jump up ^ Collins, Allen G. (1995). The Lophophore. University of California Museum of Paleontology. Retrieved 2015-03-23.
Jump up ^ Adoutte, André; Balavoine, Guillaume; Lartillot, Nicolas; Lespinet, Olivier; Prud'Homme, Benjamin; De Rosa, Renaud (25 April 2000). "The new animal phylogeny: Reliability and implications". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 97 (9): 4453–4456. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.4453A. doi:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4453. PMC 34321  . PMID 10781043.
Jump up ^ Passamaneck, Yale J. (2003). "Molecular Phylogenetics of the Metazoan Clade Lophotrochozoa" (PDF). Massachusetts Institute of Technology / Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. p. 124. Retrieved 2015-03-23.
Jump up ^ Sundberg, Per; Turbeville, J. M.; Lindh, Susanne (September 2001). "Phylogenetic relationships among higher nemertean (Nemertea) taxa inferred from 18S rDNA sequences". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 20 (3): 327–334. doi:10.1006/mpev.2001.0982. PMID 11527461.
Jump up ^ Boore, Jeffrey L.; Staton, Joseph L. (February 2002). "The mitochondrial genome of the Sipunculid Phascolopsis gouldii supports its association with Annelida rather than Mollusca" (PDF). Molecular Biology and Evolution. 19 (2): 127–137. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a004065. PMID 11801741. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 November 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-19.
Jump up ^ Nielsen, Claus (2001). "Bryozoa (Ectoprocta: 'Moss' Animals)". Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. doi:10.1038/npg.els.0001613. ISBN 0-470-01617-5. Retrieved 2008-01-19.
^ Jump up to: a b Gilson, Étienne (2004). El espíritu de la filosofía medieval. Ediciones Rialp. p. 384. ISBN 978-84-321-3492-0.
Jump up ^ Ruiz-Trillo, Iñaki; Riutort, Marta; Littlewood, D. Timothy J.; Herniou, Elisabeth A.; Baguña, Jaume (19 March 1999). "Acoel Flatworms: Earliest Extant Bilaterian Metazoans, Not Members of Platyhelminthes". Science. 283 (5409): 1919–1923. Bibcode:1999Sci...283.1919R. doi:10.1126/science.283.5409.1919. PMID 10082465.
Jump up ^ Todaro, Antonio. "Gastrotricha: Overview". Gastrotricha: World Portal. University of Modena & Reggio Emilia. Retrieved 2008-01-26.
Jump up ^ Kristensen, Reinhardt Møbjerg (July 2002). "An Introduction to Loricifera, Cycliophora, and Micrognathozoa". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 42 (3): 641–651. doi:10.1093/icb/42.3.641. PMID 21708760.
Jump up ^ Bourlat, SJ; Nielsen, C; Economou, AD; Telford, MJ (2008). "Testing the new animal phylogeny: a phylum level molecular analysis of the animal kingdom". Mol Phylogenet Evol. 49 (1): 23–31. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2008.07.008. PMID 18692145.
Jump up ^ Helmkampf, M; Bruchhaus, I; Hausdorf, B (2008). "Phylogenomic analyses of lophophorates (brachiopods, phoronids and bryozoans) confirm the Lophotrochozoa concept". Proc Biol Sci. 275 (1645): 1927–1933. doi:10.1098/rspb.2008.0372. PMC 2593926  . PMID 18495619.
Jump up ^ Giribet, G; Distel, DL; Polz, M; Sterrer, W; Wheeler, WC (2000). "Triploblastic relationships with emphasis on the acoelomates and the position of Gnathostomulida, Cycliophora, Plathelminthes, and Chaetognatha: a combined approach of 18S rDNA sequences and morphology". Syst Biol. 49 (3): 539–562. doi:10.1080/10635159950127385. PMID 12116426.
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Jump up ^ Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin) (10th ed.). Holmiae (Laurentii Salvii). Archived from the original on 10 October 2008. Retrieved 22 September 2008.
Jump up ^ Haeckel, Ernst (1874). Anthropogenie oder Entwickelungsgeschichte des menschen (in German). Leipzig. p. 202.
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Jump up ^ Fox, Michael Allen (1986). The Case for Animal Experimention: An Evolutionary and Ethical Perspective. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-05501-2. OCLC 11754940 – via Google Books.
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Jump up ^ "Pinel Chapter 6 - Human Brain Damage & Animal Models". Academic.uprm.edu. Retrieved 2014-01-10.
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Bibliography
Nielsen, Claus (2012). Animal Evolution: Interrelationships of the Living Phyla (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-960602-3.
Schmidt-Nielsen, Knut (1997). Animal Physiology: Adaptation and Environment (5th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57098-0.
Magloire, Kim (2004). Cracking the AP Biology Exam, 2004–2005 Edition. The Princeton Review. ISBN 978-0-375-76393-9.
Sangwal, Keshra (2007). Additives and crystallization processes: from fundamentals to applications. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-06153-4.
Hutchins, Michael (2003). Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia (2nd ed.). Detroit: Gale. ISBN 0-7876-5777-8.
Holmes, Thom (2008). The First Vertebrates. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-5958-4.
External links
Find more aboutAnimaliaat Wikipedia's sister projects
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Learning resources from Wikiversity
Data related to Animalia at Wikispecies
Animal at the Encyclopedia of Life
Tree of Life Project
Animal Diversity Web – University of Michigan's database of animals, showing taxonomic classification, images, and other information
ARKive – multimedia database of worldwide endangered/protected species and common species of the UK
The Animal Kingdom
"Getting a Leg Up on Land" – Scientific American (December 2005 issue) – about the evolution of four-limbed animals from fish doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1205-100
[show]
v
t
e
Extant Animal phyla
Domain
Archaea
Bacteria
Eukaryota
(Supergroup
Plant
Hacrobia
Heterokont
Alveolata
Rhizaria
Excavata
Amoebozoa
Opisthokonta
Animal
Fungi)
A
n
i
m
a
l
i
a
Porifera (sponges)
Diploblasts
(Eumetazoa)
Ctenophora (comb jellies)
ParaHoxozoa
Placozoa (Trichoplax)
Planulozoa
Cnidaria (jellyfish and relatives)
Bilateria
(Triploblasts)
(see below↓)
[hide]
Bilateria
Xenacoelomorpha
Xenoturbellida (Xenoturbella)
Acoelomorpha
acoels
nemertodermatids
N
e
p
h
r
o
z
o
a
Deuterostomia
Chordata
lancelets
tunicates
craniates / vertebrates
Ambulacraria
Echinodermata (starfish and relatives)
Hemichordata
acorn worms
pterobranchs
P
r
o
t
o
s
t
o
m
i
a
Ecdysozoa
Scalidophora
Kinorhyncha (mud dragons)
Priapulida (penis worms)
N+L+P
Nematoida
Nematoda (roundworms)
Nematomorpha (horsehair worms)
L+P
Loricifera
Panarthropoda
Arthropoda (arthropods)
Tardigrada (waterbears)
Onychophora (velvet worms)
S
p
i
r
a
l
i
a
Gnathifera¹
Chaetognatha (arrow worms)
Gnathostomulida (jaw worms)
Micrognathozoa (Limnognathia)
Syndermata
Rotifera
Acanthocephala
Platytrochozoa
R+M
Mesozoa
Orthonectida
Dicyemida or Rhombozoa
Rouphozoa¹
Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
Gastrotricha (hairybacks)
Lophotrochozoa
Cycliophora (Symbion)
Mollusca (molluscs)
A+N
Annelida (ringed worms)
Nemertea (ribbon worms)
Lophophorata
Bryozoa
Entoprocta or Kamptozoa
Ectoprocta (moss animals)
Brachiozoa
Brachiopoda (lamp shells)
Phoronida (horseshoe worms)
Major groups
within phyla
Sponges
Calcareous
Hexactinellid
Demosponge
Homoscleromorpha
Cnidarians
Anthozoa inc. corals
Medusozoa inc. jellyfish
Myxozoa
Vertebrates
Jawless fish
Cartilaginous fish
Bony fish
Amphibians
Reptiles/Birds
Mammals
Echinoderms
Sea lilies
Asterozoa inc. starfish
Echinozoa
Nematodes
Chromadorea
Enoplea
Secernentea
Arthropods
Chelicerates/Arachnids
Myriapods
Crustaceans
Hexapods/Insects
Platyhelminths
Turbellaria
Trematoda
Monogenea
Cestoda
Bryozoans
Phylactolaemata
Stenolaemata
Gymnolaemata
Annelids
Polychaetes
Clitellata
Echiura
Molluscs
Gastropods
Cephalopods
Bivalves
Chitons
Tusk shells
Phyla with ≥5000 extant species bolded
See also
Diploblasts
Monoblastozoa (nomen dubium)
¹Platyzoa
[show]
v
t
e
Eukaryota
Domain
Archaea
Bacteria
Eukaryota
(Supergroup
Plant
Hacrobia
Heterokont
Alveolata
Rhizaria
Excavata
Amoebozoa
Opisthokonta
Animal
Fungi)
Diaphoretickes
Archaeplastida
Glaucophyta
Rhodophyta
Viridiplantae
Plantae s.s.
Chlorophyta
Streptophyta
Cryptista
Corbihelia
Cryptophyta
Haptista
Centroheliozoa
Haptophyta
SAR
Halvaria
Alveolata
Ciliates
Miozoa
Acavomonadia
Colponemidia
Myzozoa
Stramenopiles
(heterokonts)
Bicosoecea
Developea
Hyphochytrea
Ochrophyta
Peronosporomycota
Pirsoniomycota
Placidozoa
Platysulcea
Sagenista
Rhizaria
Filosa
Phytomyxea
Retaria
Ectoreta
Marimyxia
Vampyrellidea
Incertae sedis
Kamera lens
Excavata
Ancyromonadida
Malawimonadea
Metamonada (Anaeromonada, Trichozoa)
Discoba
Jakobea
Tsukubea
Discicristata
Euglenozoa
Percolozoa
Podiata
Amorphea
Amoebozoa
Conosa (Archamoebae, Semiconosia)
Lobosa (Cutosea, Discosea, Tubulinea)
Obazoa
Apusomonadida
Breviatea
Opisthokonta
Holomycota
Cristidiscoidea
Opisthosporidia
Aphelida
Cryptomycota
Microsporidia
True fungi
Holozoa
Choanoflagellates
Filasterea
Metazoa or Animals
Teretosporea
Mesomycetozoea
Corallochytrea
Varisulca
(paraphyletic)
Diphyllatea
Discocelida
Mantamonadida
Micronucleariida
Rigifilida
Incertae sedis
Ancoracysta twista
Parakaryon myojinensis
†Acritarcha
†Charnia
†Gakarusia
†Galaxiopsis
†Grypania
†Leptoteichos
Major kingdoms are underlined. See also: protist. Sources and alternative views: Wikispecies.
[show]
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Elements of nature
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Change
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Category:Nature
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Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q729
ADW: Animalia
EoL: 1
Fauna Europaea: 1
Fossilworks: 325038
GBIF: 1
iNaturalist: 1
ITIS: 202423
WoRMS: 2
ZooBank: 0EA9A33B-6B31-4551-B4E2-A772AAF96231
Authority control
LCCN: sh85005249
GND: 4060087-7
BNF: cb119328694 (data)
NDL: 00561523
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animal&oldid=817986285"
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interlanguage-link-target

value: בעלי חיים – Hebrew

value: ಪ್ರಾಣಿ – Kannada

value:
https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal
Animal – Pampanga
pam
pam
interlanguage-link-target

value: ცხოველები – Georgian

value: Жануарлар – Kazakh

value:
https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enyval
Enyval – Cornish
kw
kw
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inyamaswa
Inyamaswa – Kinyarwanda
rw
rw
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnyama
Mnyama – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibulu
Kibulu – Kongo
kg
kg
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zannimo
Zannimo – Haitian Creole
ht
ht
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heywan
Heywan – Kurdish
ku
ku
interlanguage-link-target

value: Жаныбарлар – Kyrgyz

value: ХӀайван – Lak

value: Гьайванар – Lezghian

value:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia
Animalia – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia
Animalia – Ligurian
lij
lij
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bieste
Bieste – Limburgish
li
li
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyama
Nyama – Lingala
ln
ln
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/danlu
danlu – Lojban
jbo
jbo
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bestia
Bestia – Lombard
lmo
lmo
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biby
Biby – Malagasy
mg
mg
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annimal
Annimal – Maltese
mt
mt
interlanguage-link-target

value: प्राणी – Marathi

value: ჩხოლარეფი – Mingrelian

value:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiwan
Haiwan – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binatang
Binatang – Minangkabau
min
min
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal
Animal – Mirandese
mwl
mwl
interlanguage-link-target

value: တိရစ္ဆာန် – Burmese

value:
https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yolcatl
Yolcatl – Nāhuatl
nah
nah
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manumanu
Manumanu – Fijian
fj
fj
interlanguage-link-target

value: ᐱᓯᐢᑭᐤ – Cree

value: जनावर – Nepali

value:
https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animale
Animale – Neapolitan
nap
nap
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarten
Diarten – Northern Frisian
frr
frr
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyr
Dyr – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyr
Dyr – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia
Animalia – Novial
nov
nov
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia
Animalia – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayvonlar
Hayvonlar – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal
Animal – Jamaican Creole English
jam
jam
interlanguage-link-target

value: សត្វ – Khmer

value:
https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia
Animalia – Piedmontese
pms
pms
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abus
Abus – Tok Pisin
tpi
tpi
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deerter
Deerter – Low German
nds
nds
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia
Animalia – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dier
Dier – Colognian
ksh
ksh
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasho
Vasho – Romani
rmy
rmy
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uywa
Uywa – Quechua
qu
qu
interlanguage-link-target

value: Быдла – Rusyn

value: Животные – Russian

value: Харамай – Sakha

value:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainimal
Ainimal – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dierte
Dierte – Saterland Frisian
stq
stq
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kafsha
Kafsha – Albanian
sq
sq
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armali
Armali – Sicilian
scn
scn
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xayawaan
Xayawaan – Somali
so
so
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meti
Meti – Sranan Tongo
srn
srn
interlanguage-link-target

value: Животиње – Serbian

value:
https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sato
Sato – Sundanese
su
su
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djur
Djur – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayop
Hayop – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

value: விலங்கு – Tamil

value: Хайваннар – Tatar

value: జంతువు – Telugu

value: สัตว์ – Thai

value: Ҳайвон – Tajik

value:
https://to.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monumanu
Monumanu – Tongan
to
to
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://chy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hova
Hova – Cheyenne
chy
chy
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://ve.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phukha
Phukha – Venda
ve
ve
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayvanlar
Hayvanlar – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

value: جانور – Urdu

value: ھايۋانات – Uyghur

value:
https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doenghduz
Doenghduz – Zhuang
za
za
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biesse
Biesse – Walloon
wa
wa
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayop
Hayop – Waray
war
war
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rab
Rab – Wolof
wo
wo
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiharhi
Swiharhi – Tsonga
ts
ts
interlanguage-link-target

value: בעלי חיים – Yiddish

value:
https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heywan
Heywan – Zazaki
diq
diq
interlanguage-link-target

value: प्राणी – Doteli

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value:
suggestions
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