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Rickettsia
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Rickettsia
Rickettsia rickettsii (red dots) in the cell of a deer tick
Scientific classification
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Proteobacteria
Class: Alphaproteobacteria
Subclass: Rickettsidae
Order: Rickettsiales
Family: Rickettsiaceae
Genus: Rickettsia
da Rocha-Lima, 1916
Species
Rickettsea aeschlimannii[1]
Rickettsiae africae[2]
Rickettsia akari[3]
Rickettsia asiatica[4]
Rickettsia australis[3]
Rickettsia canadensis[3][5]
Rickettsia conorii[3]
Rickettsia cooleyi[6]
Rickettsia felis[7]
Rickettsia heilongjiangensis
Rickettsia helvetica
Rickettsia honei
Rickettsia hulinii
Rickettsia japonica
Rickettsia massiliae
Rickettsia monacensis
Rickettsia montanensis
Rickettsia parkeri[3]
Rickettsia peacockii
Rickettsia prowazekii[3]
Rickettsia rhipicephali
Rickettsia rickettsii[3]
Rickettsia sibirica[3]
Rickettsia slovaca
Rickettsia tamurae
Rickettsia typhi[3]
etc.
Rickettsia is a genus of nonmotile, gram-negative, nonspore-forming, highly pleomorphic bacteria that can be present as cocci (0.1 μm in diameter), rods (1–4 μm long), or thread-like (10 μm long). The term rickettsia, named after Howard Taylor Ricketts, is often used interchangeably for any member of the Rickettsiales. Being obligate intracellular parasites, the Rickettsia survival depends on entry, growth, and replication within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic host cells (typically endothelial cells).[8] Rickettsia cannot live in artificial nutrient environments and is grown either in tissue or embryo cultures; typically, chicken embryos are used: a method developed by Ernest William Goodpasture and his colleagues at Vanderbilt University in the early 1930s.
Rickettsia species are transmitted by numerous types of arthropod, including chigger, ticks, fleas, and lice, and are associated with both human and plant disease. Most notably, Rickettsia species are the pathogens responsible for typhus, rickettsialpox, Boutonneuse fever, African tick bite fever, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Flinders Island spotted fever and Queensland tick typhus (Australian tick typhus).[9] Despite the similar name, Rickettsia bacteria do not cause rickets, which is a result of vitamin D deficiency. The majority of Rickettsia bacteria are susceptible to antibiotics of the tetracycline group.
Contents
[hide]
1 Classification
1.1 Spotted fever group
1.2 Typhus group
1.3 Scrub typhus group
2 Flora and fauna pathogenesis
3 Pathophysiology
4 Genomics
5 Naming
6 References
7 External links
Classification[edit]
The classification of Rickettsia into two groups (spotted fever, typhus, and scrub typhus) was initially based on serology. This grouping has since been confirmed by DNA sequencing. All three of these contain human pathogens. The scrub typhus group has been reclassified as a related new genus – Orientia – but many medical textbooks still list this group under the rickettsial diseases.
Rickettsia are more widespread than previously believed and are known to be associated with arthropods, leeches, and protists. Divisions have also been identified in the spotted fever group and this group likely should be divided into two clades.[10] Arthropod-inhabiting rickettsiae are generally associated with reproductive manipulation (such as parthenogenesis) to persist in host lineage [11]
In March 2010, Swedish researchers reported a case of bacterial meningitis in a woman caused by Rickettsia helvetica previously thought to be harmless.[12]
Schematic ribosomal RNA phylogeny of Alphaproteobacteria
Magnetococcidae
Magnetococcus marinus
Caulobacteridae
Rhodospirillales, Sphingomonadales,
Rhodobacteraceae, Rhizobiales, etc.
Holosporales
Rickettsidae
Pelagibacterales
Pelagibacteraceae
Pelagibacter
Subgroups Ib, II, IIIa, IIIb, IV and V
Proto-mitochondria
Anaplasmataceae
Ehrlichia
Anaplasma
Wolbachia
Neorickettsia
Midichloriaceae
Midichloria
Rickettsiaceae
Rickettsia
The cladogram of Rickettsidae has been inferred by Ferla et al. [13] from the comparison of 16S + 23S ribosomal RNA sequences.
Spotted fever group[edit]
Rickettsia rickettsii (Western Hemisphere)
Rocky Mountain spotted fever
Rickettsia akari (USA, former Soviet Union)
Rickettsialpox
Rickettsia conorii (Mediterranean countries, Africa, Southwest Asia, India)
Boutonneuse fever
Rickettsia sibirica (Siberia, Mongolia, northern China)
Siberian tick typhus or North Asian tick typhus
Rickettsia australis (Australia)
Australian tick typhus
Rickettsia felis (North and South America, Southern Europe, Australia)
Flea-borne spotted fever
Rickettsia japonica (Japan)
Oriental spotted fever
Rickettsia africae (South Africa)
African tick bite fever
Rickettsia hoogstraalii (Croatia, Spain and Georgia USA)[14]
Unknown pathogenicity
Typhus group[edit]
Rickettsia prowazekii (worldwide)
Epidemic typhus, recrudescent typhus, and sporadic typhus
Rickettsia typhi (worldwide)
Murine typhus (endemic typhus)
Scrub typhus group[edit]
The causative agent of scrub typhus formerly known as R. tsutsugamushi has been reclassified into the genus Orientia.
Flora and fauna pathogenesis[edit]
Plant diseases have been associated with these Rickettsia-like organisms (RLOs):[15]
Beet latent rosette RLO
Citrus greening bacterium possibly this citrus greening disease
Clover leaf RLO
Grapevine infectious necrosis RLO
Grapevine Pierce's RLO
Grapevine yellows RLO
Witch's broom disease on Larix spp.
Peach phony RLO
Papaya Bunchy Top Disease [16]
Infection occurs in nonhuman mammals; for example, species of Rickettsia have been found to afflict the South American guanaco, Lama guanacoe.[17]
Pathophysiology[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2013)
Main article: Typhus
Rickettsial organisms are obligate intracellular parasites and invade vascular endothelial cells in target organs, damaging them and producing increased vascular permeability with consequent oedema, hypotension, and hypoalbuminaemia. [18]
Genomics[edit]
Certain segments of rickettsial genomes resemble those of mitochondria.[19] The deciphered genome of R. prowazekii is 1,111,523 bp long and contains 834 genes.[20] Unlike free-living bacteria, it contains no genes for anaerobic glycolysis or genes involved in the biosynthesis and regulation of amino acids and nucleosides. In this regard, it is similar to mitochondrial genomes; in both cases, nuclear (host) resources are used.
ATP production in Rickettsia is the same as that in mitochondria. In fact, of all the microbes known, the Rickettsia is probably the closest relative (in a phylogenetic sense) to the mitochondria. Unlike the latter, the genome of R. prowazekii, however, contains a complete set of genes encoding for the tricarboxylic acid cycle and the respiratory chain complex. Still, the genomes of the Rickettsia, as well as the mitochondria, are frequently said to be "small, highly derived products of several types of reductive evolution".
The recent discovery of another parallel between Rickettsia and viruses may become a basis for fighting HIV infection.[21] Human immune response to the scrub typhus pathogen, Orientia tsutsugamushi, appears to provide a beneficial effect against HIV infection progress, negatively influencing the virus replication process. A probable reason for this actively studied phenomenon is a certain degree of homology between the rickettsiae and the virus – namely, common epitope(s) due to common genome fragment(s) in both pathogens. Surprisingly, the other infection reported to be likely to provide the same effect (decrease in viral load) is the virus-caused illness dengue fever.
Comparative analysis of genomic sequences have also identified five conserved signature indels in important proteins which are uniquely found in members of the genus Rickettsia. These indels consist of a four-amino-acid insertion in transcription repair coupling factor Mfd, a 10-amino-acid insertion in ribosomal protein L19, a one-amino-acid insertion in FtsZ, a one-amino-acid insertion in major sigma factor 70, and a one-amino-acid deletion in exonuclease VII. These indels are all characteristic of the genus and serve as molecular markers for Rickettsia.[22]
Bacterial small RNAs play critical roles in virulence and stress/adaptation responses. Although their specific functions have not been discovered in Rickettsia, few studies showed the expression of novel sRNA in human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC) infected with Rickettsia.[23][24]
Naming[edit]
The genus Rickettsia is named after Howard Taylor Ricketts (1871–1910), who studied Rocky Mountain spotted fever in the Bitterroot Valley of Montana, and eventually died of typhus after studying that disease in Mexico City.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Beati, L.; Meskini, M., et al. (1997), "Rickettsia aeschlimannii sp. nov., a new spotted fever group rickettsia associated with Hyalomma marginatum ticks", Int J Syst Bacteriol 47 (2): 548-55s4
Jump up ^ Kelly P.J.; Beati L.; et al. (1996). "Rickettsia africae sp. nov., the etiological agent of African tick bite fever". Int J Syst Bacteriol. 46 (2): 611–614. doi:10.1099/00207713-46-2-611.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Skerman, VBD; McGowan, V; Sneath, PHA, eds. (1989). Approved Lists of Bacterial Names (amended ed.). Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology
Jump up ^ Fujita, H.; Fournier, P.-E., et al. (2006), "Rickettsia asiatica sp. nov., isolated in Japan", Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 56 (Pt 10): 2365–2368
Jump up ^ Truper H.G.; De' Clari L. (1997). "Taxonomic note: Necessary correction of specific epithets formed as substantives (nouns) 'in apposition'". Int J Syst Bacteriol. 47 (3): 908–909. doi:10.1099/00207713-47-3-908.
Jump up ^ Billings A.N.; Teltow G.J.; et al. (1998). "Molecular characterization of a novel Rickettsia species from Ixodes scapularis in Texas" (PDF). Emerg Infect Dis. 4 (2): 305–309. doi:10.3201/eid0402.980221.
Jump up ^ La Scola, B.; Meconi, S., et al. (2002), "Emended description of Rickettsia felis (Bouyer et al. 2001), a temperature-dependent cultured bacterium", Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 52 (Pt 6): 2035–2041
Jump up ^ Walker DH (1996). Baron S; et al., eds. Rickettsiae. In: Barron's Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN 0-9631172-1-1. (via NCBI Bookshelf).
Jump up ^ Unsworth NB, Stenos J, Graves SR, et al. (April 2007). "Flinders Island spotted fever rickettsioses caused by "marmionii" strain of Rickettsia honei, Eastern Australia". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 13 (4): 566–73. doi:10.3201/eid1304.050087. PMC 2725950  . PMID 17553271.
Jump up ^ Gillespie J.J.; Beeir M.S.; Rahman M.S.; Ammerman N.C.; Shallom J.M.; Purkayastha A.; Sobral B.S.; Azad A.F. (2007). "Plasmids and rickettsial evolution: insight from 'Rickettsia felis'". PLoS ONE. 2 (3): e266. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000266. PMC 1800911  . PMID 17342200. .
Jump up ^ Perlman, S.J.; Hunter, M.S.; Zchori-Fein, E. (2006). "The emerging diversity of 'Rickettsia'". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 273 (1598): 2097–2106. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3541. PMC 1635513  . PMID 16901827.
Jump up ^ "Rickettsia helvetica in Patient with Meningitis, Sweden, 2006" Emerging Infectious Diseases, Volume 16, Number 3 - March 2010
Jump up ^ Ferla, M. P.; Thrash, J. C.; Giovannoni, S. J.; Patrick, W. M. (2013). "New rRNA gene-based phylogenies of the Alphaproteobacteria provide perspective on major groups, mitochondrial ancestry and phylogenetic instability". PLoS ONE. 8 (12): e83383. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0083383. PMC 3859672  . PMID 24349502.
Jump up ^ Duh, D., V. Punda-Polic, T. Avsic-Zupanc, D. Bouyer, D.H. Walker, V.L. Popov, M. Jelovsek, M. Gracner, T. Trilar, N. Bradaric, T.J. Kurtti and J. Strus. (2010) Rickettsia hoogstraalii sp. nov., isolated from hard- and soft-bodied ticks. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology, 60, 977-984; http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/60/4/977, accessed 16 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Smith IM, Dunez J, Lelliot RA, Phillips DH, Archer SA (1988). European Handbook of Plant Diseases. Blackwell Scientific Publications. ISBN 0-632-01222-6.
Jump up ^ Davis, M. J. 1996
Jump up ^ C. Michael Hogan. 2008. Guanaco: Lama guanicoe, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Strömberg Archived 4 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Rathore, Mobeen H (14 June 2016). "Rickettsial infection: Overview". Medscape. Retrieved 16 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Emelyanov VV (2003). "Mitochondrial connection to the origin of the eukaryotic cell". Eur J Biochem. 270 (8): 1599–618. doi:10.1046/j.1432-1033.2003.03499.x. PMID 12694174.
Jump up ^ Andersson SG, et al. (1998). "The genome sequence of Rickettsia prowazekii and the origin of mitochondria". Nature. 396 (6707): 133–40. doi:10.1038/24094. PMID 9823893.
Jump up ^ Kannangara S, DeSimone JA, Pomerantz RJ (2005). "Attenuation of HIV-1 infection by other microbial agents". J Infect Dis. 192 (6): 1003–9. doi:10.1086/432767. PMID 16107952.
Jump up ^ Gupta, Radhey S. (January 2005). "Protein Signatures Distinctive of Alpha Proteobacteria and Its Subgroups and a Model for α –Proteobacterial Evolution". Critical Reviews in Microbiology. 31 (2): 101–135. doi:10.1080/10408410590922393. PMID 15986834.
Jump up ^ Schroeder, Casey L. C.; Narra, Hema P.; Rojas, Mark; Sahni, Abha; Patel, Jignesh; Khanipov, Kamil; Wood, Thomas G.; Fofanov, Yuriy; Sahni, Sanjeev K. (2015-12-18). "Bacterial small RNAs in the Genus Rickettsia". BMC Genomics. 16: 1075. doi:10.1186/s12864-015-2293-7. ISSN 1471-2164. PMC 4683814  . PMID 26679185.
Jump up ^ Schroeder, Casey L. C.; Narra, Hema P.; Sahni, Abha; Rojas, Mark; Khanipov, Kamil; Patel, Jignesh; Shah, Riya; Fofanov, Yuriy; Sahni, Sanjeev K. (2016). "Identification and Characterization of Novel Small RNAs in Rickettsia prowazekii". Frontiers in Microbiology. 7: 859. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2016.00859. ISSN 1664-302X. PMC 4896933  . PMID 27375581.
External links[edit]
Rickettsia genomes and related information at PATRIC, a Bioinformatics Resource Center funded by NIAID
African Tick Bite Fever from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Raw Living Radio Interview 3 Show Series in HD 2014 from the EarthShiftProject.com an Educational and Informational Research Organization welcoming More participation
Authority control
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4G
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the mobile internet access standard. For other uses, see 4G (disambiguation).
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4G is the fourth generation of broadband cellular network technology, succeeding 3G. A 4G system must provide capabilities defined by ITU in IMT Advanced. Potential and current applications include amended mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming services, high-definition mobile TV, video conferencing, and 3D television.
The first-release Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard (a 4G candidate system) has been commercially deployed in Oslo, Norway, and Stockholm, Sweden since from 2009. It has, however, been debated whether first-release versions should be considered 4G, as discussed in the technical understanding section below.
Contents
[hide]
1 Technical understandings
2 Backgrounds of 4G
3 IMT-Advanced requirements
4 System standards
4.1 IMT-2000 compliant 4G standards
4.1.1 LTE Advanced
4.1.2 IEEE 802.16m or WirelessMAN-Advanced
4.2 Forerunner versions
4.2.1 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE)
4.2.2 Mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e)
4.2.3 TD-LTE for China market
4.3 Discontinued candidate systems
4.3.1 UMB (formerly EV-DO Rev. C)
4.3.2 Flash-OFDM
4.3.3 iBurst and MBWA (IEEE 802.20) systems
5 Principal technologies in all candidate systems
5.1 Key features
5.2 Multiplexing and access schemes
5.3 IPv6 support
5.4 Advanced antenna systems
5.5 Open-wireless Architecture and Software-defined radio (SDR)
6 History of 4G and pre-4G technologies
7 United Kingdom
8 Beyond 4G research
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 External links
Technical understandings[edit]
In March 2008, the International Telecommunications Union-Radio communications sector (ITU-R) specified a set of requirements for 4G standards, named the International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced (IMT-Advanced) specification, setting peak speed requirements for 4G service at 100 megabits per second (Mbit/s) for high mobility communication (such as from trains and cars) and 1 gigabit per second (Gbit/s) for low mobility communication (such as pedestrians and stationary users).[1]
Since the first-release versions of Mobile WiMAX and LTE support much less than 1 Gbit/s peak bit rate, they are not fully IMT-Advanced compliant, but are often branded 4G by service providers. According to operators, a generation of the network refers to the deployment of a new non-backward-compatible technology. On December 6, 2010, ITU-R recognized that these two technologies, as well as other beyond-3G technologies that do not fulfill the IMT-Advanced requirements, could nevertheless be considered "4G", provided they represent forerunners to IMT-Advanced compliant versions and "a substantial level of improvement in performance and capabilities with respect to the initial third generation systems now deployed".[2]
Mobile WiMAX Release 2 (also known as WirelessMAN-Advanced or IEEE 802.16m') and LTE Advanced (LTE-A) are IMT-Advanced compliant backwards compatible versions of the above two systems, standardized during the spring 2011,[citation needed] and promising speeds in the order of 1 Gbit/s. Services were expected in 2013.[needs update]
As opposed to earlier generations, a 4G system does not support traditional circuit-switched telephony service, but all-Internet Protocol (IP) based communication such as IP telephony. As seen below, the spread spectrum radio technology used in 3G systems is abandoned in all 4G candidate systems and replaced by OFDMA multi-carrier transmission and other frequency-domain equalization (FDE) schemes, making it possible to transfer very high bit rates despite extensive multi-path radio propagation (echoes). The peak bit rate is further improved by smart antenna arrays for multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) communications.
Backgrounds of 4G[edit]
In the field of mobile communications, a "generation" generally refers to a change in the fundamental nature of the service, non-backwards-compatible transmission technology, higher peak bit rates, new frequency bands, wider channel frequency bandwidth in Hertz, and higher capacity for many simultaneous data transfers (higher system spectral efficiency in bit/second/Hertz/site).
New mobile generations have appeared about every ten years since the first move from 1981 analog (1G) to digital (2G) transmission in 1992. This was followed, in 2001, by 3G multi-media support, spread spectrum transmission and, at least, 200 kbit/s peak bit rate, in 2011/2012 to be followed by "real" 4G, which refers to all-Internet Protocol (IP) packet-switched networks giving mobile ultra-broadband (gigabit speed) access.
While the ITU has adopted recommendations for technologies that would be used for future global communications, they do not actually perform the standardization or development work themselves, instead relying on the work of other standard bodies such as IEEE, The Wi MAX Forum, and 3GPP.
In the mid-1990s, the ITU-R standardization organization released the IMT-2000 requirements as a framework for what standards should be considered 3G systems, requiring 200 kbit/s peak bit rate. In 2008, ITU -R specified the IMT – Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced) requirements for 4G systems.
The fastest 3G-based standard in the UMTS family is the HSPA+ standard, which is commercially available since 2009 and offers 28 Mbit/s downstream (22 Mbit/s upstream) without MIMO, i.e. only with one antenna, and in 2011 accelerated up to 42 Mbit/s peak bit rate downstream using either DC-HSPA+ (simultaneous use of two 5 MHz UMTS carriers)[3] or 2x2 MIMO. In theory speeds up to 672 Mbit/s are possible, but have not been deployed yet. The fastest 3G-based standard in the CDMA2000 family is the EV-DO Rev. B, which is available since 2010 and offers 15.67 Mbit/s downstream.
IMT-Advanced requirements[edit]
This article refers to 4G using IMT-Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced), as defined by ITU-R. An IMT-Advanced cellular system must fulfill the following requirements:[4]
Be based on an all-IP packet switched network.
Have peak data rates of up to approximately 100 Mbit/s for high mobility such as mobile access and up to approximately 1 Gbit/s for low mobility such as nomadic/local wireless access.[1]
Be able to dynamically share and use the network resources to support more simultaneous users per cell.
Use scalable channel bandwidths of 5–20 MHz, optionally up to 40 MHz.[1] Rumney, Moray (September 2008). "IMT-Advanced: 4G Wireless Takes Shape in an Olympic Year" (PDF). Agilent Measurement Journal. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 17, 2016.
Have peak link spectral efficiency of 15-bit/s/Hz in the downlink, and 6.75-bit/s/Hz in the up link (meaning that 1 Gbit/s in the downlink should be possible over less than 67 MHz bandwidth).
System spectral efficiency is, in indoor cases, 3-bit/s/Hz/cell for downlink and 2.25-bit/s/Hz/cell for up link.[1]
Smooth handovers across heterogeneous networks.
In September 2009, the technology proposals were submitted to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) as 4G candidates.[5] Basically all proposals are based on two technologies.:
LTE Advanced standardized by the 3GPP
802.16m standardized by the IEEE
Implementations of Mobile WiMAX and first-release LTE are largely considered a stopgap solution that will offer a considerable boost until WiMAX 2 (based on the 802.16m spec) and LTE Advanced are deployed. The latter's standard versions were ratified in spring 2011, but are still far from being implemented.[4]
The first set of 3GPP requirements on LTE Advanced was approved in June 2008.[6] LTE Advanced was to be standardized in 2010 as part of Release 10 of the 3GPP specification. LTE Advanced will be based on the existing LTE specification Release 10 and will not be defined as a new specification series. A summary of the technologies that have been studied as the basis for LTE Advanced is included in a technical report.[7]
Some sources consider first-release LTE and Mobile WiMAX implementations as pre-4G or near-4G, as they do not fully comply with the planned requirements of 1 Gbit/s for stationary reception and 100 Mbit/s for mobile.
Confusion has been caused by some mobile carriers who have launched products advertised as 4G but which according to some sources are pre-4G versions, commonly referred to as '3.9G', which do not follow the ITU-R defined principles for 4G standards, but today can be called 4G according to ITU-R. Vodafone NL for example, advertised LTE as '4G', while advertising now LTE Advanced as their '4G+' service which actually is (True) 4G. A common argument for branding 3.9G systems as new-generation is that they use different frequency bands from 3G technologies ; that they are based on a new radio-interface paradigm ; and that the standards are not backwards compatible with 3G, whilst some of the standards are forwards compatible with IMT-2000 compliant versions of the same standards.
System standards[edit]
IMT-2000 compliant 4G standards[edit]
As of October 2010, ITU-R Working Party 5D approved two industry-developed technologies (LTE Advanced and WirelessMAN-Advanced)[8] for inclusion in the ITU's International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced program (IMT-Advanced program), which is focused on global communication systems that will be available several years from now.
LTE Advanced[edit]
See also: 4GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) below
LTE Advanced (Long Term Evolution Advanced) is a candidate for IMT-Advanced standard, formally submitted by the 4GPP organization to ITU-T in the fall 2009, and expected to be released in 2013. The target of 3GPP LTE Advanced is to reach and surpass the ITU requirements.[9] LTE Advanced is essentially an enhancement to LTE. It is not a new technology, but rather an improvement on the existing LTE network. This upgrade path makes it more cost effective for vendors to offer LTE and then upgrade to LTE Advanced which is similar to the upgrade from WCDMA to HSPA. LTE and LTE Advanced will also make use of additional spectrums and multiplexing to allow it to achieve higher data speeds. Coordinated Multi-point Transmission will also allow more system capacity to help handle the enhanced data speeds. Release 10 of LTE is expected to achieve the IMT Advanced speeds. Release 8 currently supports up to 300 Mbit/s of download speeds which is still short of the IMT-Advanced standards.[10]
Data speeds of LTE-Advanced
LTE Advanced
Peak download 1000 Mbit/s
Peak upload 0500 Mbit/s
IEEE 802.16m or WirelessMAN-Advanced[edit]
The IEEE 802.16m or WirelessMAN-Advanced evolution of 802.16e is under development, with the objective to fulfill the IMT-Advanced criteria of 1 Gbit/s for stationary reception and 100 Mbit/s for mobile reception.[11]
Forerunner versions[edit]
3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE)[edit]
See also: LTE Advanced above
Telia-branded Samsung LTE modem
The pre-4G 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) technology is often branded "4G – LTE", but the first LTE release does not fully comply with the IMT-Advanced requirements. LTE has a theoretical net bit rate capacity of up to 100 Mbit/s in the downlink and 50 Mbit/s in the uplink if a 20 MHz channel is used — and more if multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO), i.e. antenna arrays, are used.
The physical radio interface was at an early stage named High Speed OFDM Packet Access (HSOPA), now named Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA). The first LTE USB dongles do not support any other radio interface.
The world's first publicly available LTE service was opened in the two Scandinavian capitals, Stockholm (Ericsson and Nokia Siemens Networks systems) and Oslo (a Huawei system) on December 14, 2009, and branded 4G. The user terminals were manufactured by Samsung.[12] As of November 2012, the five publicly available LTE services in the United States are provided by MetroPCS,[13] Verizon Wireless,[14] AT&T Mobility, U.S. Cellular,[15] Sprint,[16] and T-Mobile US.[17]
T-Mobile Hungary launched a public beta test (called friendly user test) on 7 October 2011, and has offered commercial 4G LTE services since 1 January 2012.[citation needed]
In South Korea, SK Telecom and LG U+ have enabled access to LTE service since 1 July 2011 for data devices, slated to go nationwide by 2012.[18] KT Telecom closed its 2G service by March 2012, and complete the nationwide LTE service in the same frequency around 1.8 GHz by June 2012.
In the United Kingdom, LTE services were launched by EE in October 2012,[19] and by O2 and Vodafone in August 2013.[20]
Data speeds of LTE
LTE
Peak download 0100 Mbit/s
Peak upload 0050 Mbit/s
Mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e)[edit]
The Mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e-2005) mobile wireless broadband access (MWBA) standard (also known as WiBro in South Korea) is sometimes branded 4G, and offers peak data rates of 128 Mbit/s downlink and 56 Mbit/s uplink over 20 MHz wide channels.[citation needed]
In June 2006, the world's first commercial mobile WiMAX service was opened by KT in Seoul, South Korea.[21]
Sprint has begun using Mobile WiMAX, as of 29 September 2008, branding it as a "4G" network even though the current version does not fulfill the IMT Advanced requirements on 4G systems.[22]
In Russia, Belarus and Nicaragua WiMax broadband internet access was offered by a Russian company Scartel, and was also branded 4G, Yota.[23]
Data speeds of WiMAX
WiMAX
Peak download 0128 Mbit/s
Peak upload 0056 Mbit/s
In the latest version of the standard, WiMax 2.1, the standard have been updated to be not compatible with earlier WiMax standard, and is instead interchangeable with LTE-TDD system, effectively merging WiMax standard with LTE.
TD-LTE for China market[edit]
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Just as Long-Term Evolution (LTE) and WiMAX are being vigorously promoted in the global telecommunications industry, the former (LTE) is also the most powerful 4G mobile communications leading technology and has quickly occupied the Chinese market. TD-LTE, one of the two variants of the LTE air interface technologies, is not yet mature, but many domestic and international wireless carriers are, one after the other turning to TD-LTE.
IBM's data shows that 67% of the operators are considering LTE because this is the main source of their future market. The above news also confirms IBM's statement that while only 8% of the operators are considering the use of WiMAX, WiMAX can provide the fastest network transmission to its customers on the market and could challenge LTE.
TD-LTE is not the first 4G wireless mobile broadband network data standard, but it is China's 4G standard that was amended and published by China's largest telecom operator – China Mobile. After a series of field trials, is expected to be released into the commercial phase in the next two years. Ulf Ewaldsson, Ericsson's vice president said: "the Chinese Ministry of Industry and China Mobile in the fourth quarter of this year will hold a large-scale field test, by then, Ericsson will help the hand." But viewing from the current development trend, whether this standard advocated by China Mobile will be widely recognized by the international market is still debatable.
Discontinued candidate systems[edit]
UMB (formerly EV-DO Rev. C)[edit]
Main article: Ultra Mobile Broadband
UMB (Ultra Mobile Broadband) was the brand name for a discontinued 4G project within the 3GPP2 standardization group to improve the CDMA2000 mobile phone standard for next generation applications and requirements. In November 2008, Qualcomm, UMB's lead sponsor, announced it was ending development of the technology, favouring LTE instead.[24] The objective was to achieve data speeds over 275 Mbit/s downstream and over 75 Mbit/s upstream.
Flash-OFDM[edit]
At an early stage the Flash-OFDM system was expected to be further developed into a 4G standard.
iBurst and MBWA (IEEE 802.20) systems[edit]
The iBurst system (or HC-SDMA, High Capacity Spatial Division Multiple Access) was at an early stage considered to be a 4G predecessor. It was later further developed into the Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA) system, also known as IEEE 802.20.
Principal technologies in all candidate systems[edit]
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Key features[edit]
The following key features can be observed in all suggested 4G technologies:
Physical layer transmission techniques are as follows:[25]
MIMO: To attain ultra high spectral efficiency by means of spatial processing including multi-antenna and multi-user MIMO
Frequency-domain-equalization, for example multi-carrier modulation (OFDM) in the downlink or single-carrier frequency-domain-equalization (SC-FDE) in the uplink: To exploit the frequency selective channel property without complex equalization
Frequency-domain statistical multiplexing, for example (OFDMA) or (single-carrier FDMA) (SC-FDMA, a.k.a. linearly precoded OFDMA, LP-OFDMA) in the uplink: Variable bit rate by assigning different sub-channels to different users based on the channel conditions
Turbo principle error-correcting codes: To minimize the required SNR at the reception side
Channel-dependent scheduling: To use the time-varying channel
Link adaptation: Adaptive modulation and error-correcting codes
Mobile IP utilized for mobility
IP-based femtocells (home nodes connected to fixed Internet broadband infrastructure)
As opposed to earlier generations, 4G systems do not support circuit switched telephony. IEEE 802.20, UMB and OFDM standards[26] lack soft-handover support, also known as cooperative relaying.
Multiplexing and access schemes[edit]
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Recently, new access schemes like Orthogonal FDMA (OFDMA), Single Carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA), Interleaved FDMA, and Multi-carrier CDMA (MC-CDMA) are gaining more importance for the next generation systems. These are based on efficient FFT algorithms and frequency domain equalization, resulting in a lower number of multiplications per second. They also make it possible to control the bandwidth and form the spectrum in a flexible way. However, they require advanced dynamic channel allocation and adaptive traffic scheduling.
WiMax is using OFDMA in the downlink and in the uplink. For the LTE (telecommunication), OFDMA is used for the downlink; by contrast, Single-carrier FDMA is used for the uplink since OFDMA contributes more to the PAPR related issues and results in nonlinear operation of amplifiers. IFDMA provides less power fluctuation and thus requires energy-inefficient linear amplifiers. Similarly, MC-CDMA is in the proposal for the IEEE 802.20 standard. These access schemes offer the same efficiencies as older technologies like CDMA. Apart from this, scalability and higher data rates can be achieved.
The other important advantage of the above-mentioned access techniques is that they require less complexity for equalization at the receiver. This is an added advantage especially in the MIMO environments since the spatial multiplexing transmission of MIMO systems inherently require high complexity equalization at the receiver.
In addition to improvements in these multiplexing systems, improved modulation techniques are being used. Whereas earlier standards largely used Phase-shift keying, more efficient systems such as 64QAM are being proposed for use with the 3GPP Long Term Evolution standards.
IPv6 support[edit]
Main articles: Network layer, Internet protocol, and IPv6
Unlike 3G, which is based on two parallel infrastructures consisting of circuit switched and packet switched network nodes, 4G is based on packet switching only. This requires low-latency data transmission.
As IPv4 addresses are (nearly) exhausted,[Note 1][27] IPv6 is essential to support the large number of wireless-enabled devices that communicate using IP. By increasing the number of IP addresses available, IPv6 removes the need for network address translation (NAT), a method of sharing a limited number of addresses among a larger group of devices, which has a number of problems and limitations. When using IPv6, some kind of NAT is still required for communication with legacy IPv4 devices that are not also IPv6-connected.
As of June 2009[update], Verizon has posted Specifications[2] that require any 4G devices on its network to support IPv6.[28]
Advanced antenna systems[edit]
Main articles: MIMO and MU-MIMO
The performance of radio communications depends on an antenna system, termed smart or intelligent antenna. Recently, multiple antenna technologies are emerging to achieve the goal of 4G systems such as high rate, high reliability, and long range communications. In the early 1990s, to cater for the growing data rate needs of data communication, many transmission schemes were proposed. One technology, spatial multiplexing, gained importance for its bandwidth conservation and power efficiency. Spatial multiplexing involves deploying multiple antennas at the transmitter and at the receiver. Independent streams can then be transmitted simultaneously from all the antennas. This technology, called MIMO (as a branch of intelligent antenna), multiplies the base data rate by (the smaller of) the number of transmit antennas or the number of receive antennas. Apart from this, the reliability in transmitting high speed data in the fading channel can be improved by using more antennas at the transmitter or at the receiver. This is called transmit or receive diversity. Both transmit/receive diversity and transmit spatial multiplexing are categorized into the space-time coding techniques, which does not necessarily require the channel knowledge at the transmitter. The other category is closed-loop multiple antenna technologies, which require channel knowledge at the transmitter.
Open-wireless Architecture and Software-defined radio (SDR)[edit]
One of the key technologies for 4G and beyond is called Open Wireless Architecture (OWA), supporting multiple wireless air interfaces in an open architecture platform.
SDR is one form of open wireless architecture (OWA). Since 4G is a collection of wireless standards, the final form of a 4G device will constitute various standards. This can be efficiently realized using SDR technology, which is categorized to the area of the radio convergence.
History of 4G and pre-4G technologies[edit]
The 4G system was originally envisioned by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA).[citation needed] The DARPA selected the distributed architecture and end-to-end Internet protocol (IP), and believed at an early stage in peer-to-peer networking in which every mobile device would be both a transceiver and a router for other devices in the network, eliminating the spoke-and-hub weakness of 2G and 3G cellular systems.[29][page needed] Since the 2.5G GPRS system, cellular systems have provided dual infrastructures: packet switched nodes for data services, and circuit switched nodes for voice calls. In 4G systems, the circuit-switched infrastructure is abandoned and only a packet-switched network is provided, while 2.5G and 3G systems require both packet-switched and circuit-switched network nodes, i.e. two infrastructures in parallel. This means that in 4G, traditional voice calls are replaced by IP telephony.
In 2002, the strategic vision for 4G — which ITU designated as IMT Advanced— was laid out.
In 2004, LTE was first proposed by NTT DoCoMo of Japan.[30]
In 2005, OFDMA transmission technology is chosen as candidate for the HSOPA downlink, later renamed 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) air interface E-UTRA.
In November 2005, KT Corporation demonstrated mobile WiMAX service in Busan, South Korea.[31]
In April 2006, KT Corporation started the world's first commercial mobile WiMAX service in Seoul, South Korea.[32]
In mid-2006, Sprint announced that it would invest about US$5 billion in a WiMAX technology buildout over the next few years[33] ($6.07 billion in real terms[34]). Since that time Sprint has faced many setbacks that have resulted in steep quarterly losses. On 7 May 2008, Sprint, Imagine, Google, Intel, Comcast, Bright House, and Time Warner announced a pooling of an average of 120 MHz of spectrum; Sprint merged its Xohm WiMAX division with Clearwire to form a company which will take the name "Clear".
In February 2007, the Japanese company NTT DoCoMo tested a 4G communication system prototype with 4×4 MIMO called VSF-OFCDM at 100 Mbit/s while moving, and 1 Gbit/s while stationary. NTT DoCoMo completed a trial in which they reached a maximum packet transmission rate of approximately 5 Gbit/s in the downlink with 12×12 MIMO using a 100 MHz frequency bandwidth while moving at 10 km/h,[35] and is planning on releasing the first commercial network in 2010.
In September 2007, NTT Docomo demonstrated e-UTRA data rates of 200 Mbit/s with power consumption below 100 mW during the test.[36]
In January 2008, a U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) spectrum auction for the 700 MHz former analog TV frequencies began. As a result, the biggest share of the spectrum went to Verizon Wireless and the next biggest to AT&T.[37] Both of these companies have stated their intention of supporting LTE.
In January 2008, EU commissioner Viviane Reding suggested re-allocation of 500–800 MHz spectrum for wireless communication, including WiMAX.[38]
On 15 February 2008, Skyworks Solutions released a front-end module for e-UTRAN.[39][40][41]
In November 2008, ITU-R established the detailed performance requirements of IMT-Advanced, by issuing a Circular Letter calling for candidate Radio Access Technologies (RATs) for IMT-Advanced.[42]
In April 2008, just after receiving the circular letter, the 3GPP organized a workshop on IMT-Advanced where it was decided that LTE Advanced, an evolution of current LTE standard, will meet or even exceed IMT-Advanced requirements following the ITU-R agenda.
In April 2008, LG and Nortel demonstrated e-UTRA data rates of 50 Mbit/s while travelling at 110 km/h.[43]
On 12 November 2008, HTC announced the first WiMAX-enabled mobile phone, the Max 4G[44]
On 15 December 2008, San Miguel Corporation, the largest food and beverage conglomerate in southeast Asia, has signed a memorandum of understanding with Qatar Telecom QSC (Qtel) to build wireless broadband and mobile communications projects in the Philippines. The joint-venture formed wi-tribe Philippines, which offers 4G in the country.[45] Around the same time Globe Telecom rolled out the first WiMAX service in the Philippines.
On 3 March 2009, Lithuania's LRTC announcing the first operational "4G" mobile WiMAX network in Baltic states.[46]
In December 2009, Sprint began advertising "4G" service in selected cities in the United States, despite average download speeds of only 3–6 Mbit/s with peak speeds of 10 Mbit/s (not available in all markets).[47]
On 14 December 2009, the first commercial LTE deployment was in the Scandinavian capitals Stockholm and Oslo by the Swedish-Finnish network operator TeliaSonera and its Norwegian brandname NetCom (Norway). TeliaSonera branded the network "4G". The modem devices on offer were manufactured by Samsung (dongle GT-B3710), and the network infrastructure created by Huawei (in Oslo) and Ericsson (in Stockholm). TeliaSonera plans to roll out nationwide LTE across Sweden, Norway and Finland.[48][49] TeliaSonera used spectral bandwidth of 10 MHz, and single-in-single-out, which should provide physical layer net bitrates of up to 50 Mbit/s downlink and 25 Mbit/s in the uplink. Introductory tests showed a TCP throughput of 42.8 Mbit/s downlink and 5.3 Mbit/s uplink in Stockholm.[50]
On 4 June 2010, Sprint released the first WiMAX smartphone in the US, the HTC Evo 4G.[51]
On November 4, 2010, the Samsung Craft offered by MetroPCS is the first commercially available LTE smartphone[52]
On 6 December 2010, at the ITU World Radiocommunication Seminar 2010, the ITU stated that LTE, WiMax and similar "evolved 3G technologies" could be considered "4G".[2]
In 2011, Argentina's Claro launched a pre-4G HSPA+ network in the country.
In 2011, Thailand's Truemove-H launched a pre-4G HSPA+ network with nationwide availability.
On March 17, 2011, the HTC Thunderbolt offered by Verizon in the U.S. was the second LTE smartphone to be sold commercially.[53][54]
In February 2012, Ericsson demonstrated mobile-TV over LTE, utilizing the new eMBMS service (enhanced Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Service).[55]
Since 2009 the LTE-Standard has strongly evolved over the years, resulting in many deployments by various operators across the globe. For an overview of commercial LTE networks and their respective historic development see: List of LTE networks. Among the vast range of deployments many operators are considering the deployment and operation of LTE networks. A compilation of planned LTE deployments can be found at: List of planned LTE networks.
United Kingdom[edit]
On 5 April 2018, the UK telecoms regulator, Ofcom, announced the results of a spectrum auction of the 2.3 GHz band (for improved 4G capacity) and the 3.4 GHz band for future 5G mobile services.[56]
Beyond 4G research[edit]
Main article: 5G
A major issue in 4G systems is to make the high bit rates available in a larger portion of the cell, especially to users in an exposed position in between several base stations. In current research, this issue is addressed by macro-diversity techniques, also known as group cooperative relay, and also by Beam-Division Multiple Access (BDMA).[57]
Pervasive networks are an amorphous and at present entirely hypothetical concept where the user can be simultaneously connected to several wireless access technologies and can seamlessly move between them (See vertical handoff, IEEE 802.21). These access technologies can be Wi-Fi, UMTS, EDGE, or any other future access technology. Included in this concept is also smart-radio (also known as cognitive radio) technology to efficiently manage spectrum use and transmission power as well as the use of mesh routing protocols to create a pervasive network.
See also[edit]
4G-LTE filter
Comparison of mobile phone standards
Comparison of wireless data standards
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The exact exhaustion status is difficult to determine, as it is unknown how many unused addresses exist at ISPs, and how many of the addresses that are permanently unused by their owners can still be freed and transferred to others.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d ITU-R, Report M.2134, Requirements related to technical performance for IMT-Advanced radio interface(s), Approved in November 2008
^ Jump up to: a b "ITU World Radiocommunication Seminar highlights future communication technologies". International Telecommunication Union.
Jump up ^ 62 commercial networks support DC-HSPA+, drives HSPA investments LteWorld February 7, 2012
^ Jump up to: a b Vilches, J. (April 29, 2010). "Everything You Need To Know About 4G Wireless Technology". TechSpot. Retrieved January 11, 2016.
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Jump up ^ "3GPP specification: Requirements for further advancements for E-UTRA (LTE Advanced)". 3GPP. Retrieved August 21, 2013.
Jump up ^ "3GPP Technical Report: Feasibility study for Further Advancements for E-UTRA (LTE Advanced)". 3GPP. Retrieved August 21, 2013.
Jump up ^ "ITU paves way for next-generation 4G mobile technologies" (press release). ITU. 21 October 2010
Jump up ^ Parkvall, Stefan; Dahlman, Erik; Furuskär, Anders; Jading, Ylva; Olsson, Magnus; Wänstedt, Stefan; Zangi, Kambiz (21–24 September 2008). LTE Advanced – Evolving LTE towards IMT-Advanced (PDF). Vehicular Technology Conference Fall 2008. Ericsson Research. Stockholm. Retrieved November 26, 2010.
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Jump up ^ "The Draft IEEE 802.16m System Description Document" (PDF). ieee802.org. April 4, 2008.
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Jump up ^ "SK Telecom and LG U+ launch LTE in Seoul, fellow South Koreans seethe with envy". 5 July 2011. Retrieved July 13, 2011.
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Jump up ^ Miller, Joe (August 29, 2013). "Vodafone and O2 begin limited roll-out of 4G networks". BBC News. Retrieved August 29, 2013.
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Jump up ^ "UPDATE 1-Russia's Yota drops WiMax in favour of LTE". May 21, 2010 – via Reuters.
Jump up ^ Qualcomm halts UMB project, Reuters, November 13th, 2008
Jump up ^ G. Fettweis; E. Zimmermann; H. Bonneville; W. Schott; K. Gosse; M. de Courville (2004). "High Throughput WLAN/WPAN" (PDF). WWRF. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-02-16.
Jump up ^ "4G standards that lack cooperative relaying".
Jump up ^ For details, see the article on IPv4 address exhaustion
Jump up ^ Morr, Derek (June 9, 2009). "Verizon mandates IPv6 support for next-gen cell phones". Retrieved June 10, 2009.
Jump up ^ Zheng, P; Peterson, L; Davie, B; Farrel, A (2009). "Wireless Networking Complete". Morgan Kaufmann
Jump up ^ Alabaster, Jay (20 August 2012). "Japan's NTT DoCoMo signs up 1 million LTE users in a month, hits 5 million total". Network World. IDG. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013. Retrieved 29 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "KT Launches Commercial WiBro Services in South Korea". WiMAX Forum. November 15, 2005. Archived from the original on May 29, 2010. Retrieved June 23, 2010.
Jump up ^ "KT's Experience In Development Projects". March 2011.
Jump up ^ "4G Mobile Broadband". Sprint. Archived from the original on February 22, 2008. Retrieved March 12, 2008.
Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Community Development Project. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ "DoCoMo Achieves 5 Gbit/s Data Speed". NTT DoCoMo Press. February 9, 2007.
Jump up ^ Reynolds, Melanie (September 14, 2007). "NTT DoCoMo develops low power chip for 3G LTE handsets". Electronics Weekly. Archived from the original on September 27, 2011. Retrieved April 8, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Auctions Schedule". FCC. Archived from the original on January 24, 2008. Retrieved January 8, 2008.
Jump up ^ "European Commission proposes TV spectrum for WiMax". zdnetasia.com. Archived from the original on December 14, 2007. Retrieved January 8, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Skyworks Rolls Out Front-End Module for 3.9G Wireless Applications. (Skyworks Solutions Inc.)" (free registration required). Wireless News. February 14, 2008. Retrieved September 14, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Wireless News Briefs — February 15, 2008". WirelessWeek. February 15, 2008. Archived from the original on August 19, 2015. Retrieved September 14, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Skyworks Introduces Industry's First Front-End Module for 3.9G Wireless Applications". Skyworks press release. 11 February 2008. Retrieved September 14, 2008.
Jump up ^ ITU-R Report M.2134, “Requirements related to technical performance for IMT-Advanced radio interface(s),” November 2008.
Jump up ^ "Nortel and LG Electronics Demo LTE at CTIA and with High Vehicle Speeds :: Wireless-Watch Community". Archived from the original on 2008-06-06.
Jump up ^ "Scartel and HTC Launch World's First Integrated GSM/WiMAX Handset" (Press release). HTC Corporation. 12 November 2008. Archived from the original on 2008-11-22. Retrieved March 1, 2011.
Jump up ^ "San Miguel and Qatar Telecom Sign MOU". Archived from the original on February 18, 2009. Retrieved 2009-02-18. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) San Miguel Corporation, December 15, 2008
Jump up ^ "LRTC to Launch Lithuania's First Mobile WiMAX 4G Internet Service" (Press release). WiMAX Forum. 3 March 2009. Archived from the original on 2010-06-12. Retrieved November 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ "4G Coverage and Speeds". Sprint. Archived from the original on April 5, 2010. Retrieved November 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Teliasonera First To Offer 4G Mobile Services". The Wall Street Journal. December 14, 2009. Archived from the original on 2010-01-14.
Jump up ^ NetCom.no – NetCom 4G (in English)
Jump up ^ "TeliaSonera´s 4G Speed Test – looking good". Daily Mobile. Retrieved January 11, 2016.
Jump up ^ Anand Lal Shimpi (June 28, 2010). "The Sprint HTC EVO 4G Review". AnandTech. Retrieved March 19, 2011.
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Jump up ^ "Verizon launches its first LTE handset". Telegeography.com. March 16, 2011. Retrieved July 31, 2012.
Jump up ^ "HTC ThunderBolt is officially Verizon's first LTE handset, come March 17th". Phonearena.com. 2011. Retrieved July 31, 2012.
Jump up ^ "demonstrates Broadcast Video/TV over LTE". Ericsson. Retrieved July 31, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Results of principal stage of auction for mobile airwaves". Ofcom. Retrieved 5 April 2018.
Jump up ^ IT R&D program of MKE/IITA: 2008-F-004-01 “5G mobile communication systems based on beam-division multiple access and relays with group cooperation”.
External links[edit]
3GPP LTE Encyclopedia
Nomor Research: White Paper on LTE Advance the new 4G standard
Brian Woerner (June 20–22, 2001). "Research Directions for Fourth Generation Wireless" (PDF). Proceedings of the 10th International Workshops on Enabling Technologies: Infrastructure for Collaborative Enterprises (WET ICE 01). Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 6, 2006. (118kb)
Information on 4G mobile services in the UK – Ofcom
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https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G
4G – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

value:
https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G
4G – Mingrelian
xmf
xmf
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mn
display: none;

value:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G
4G – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

value: फोरजी – Nepali

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ne
display: none;

value: 第4世代移動通信システム – Japanese

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

value:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G
4G – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

value:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G
4G – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

value:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G
4G – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

value:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G
4G – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

value:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G
4G – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G
4G – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

value:
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G
4G – Russian
ru
ru
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G
4G – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

value:
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G
4G – Simple English
simple
simple
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

value:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G
4G – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

value:
https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/4%D0%93
4Г – Serbian
sr
sr
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

value:
https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G
4G – Sundanese
su
su
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-su
display: none;

value:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G
4G – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

value:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G
4G – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-te
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

value:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G
4G – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

value:
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G
4G – Ukrainian
uk
uk
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

value:
https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G
4G – Vietnamese
vi
vi
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

value:
https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G
4G – Chinese
zh
zh
interlanguage-link-target

value: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-4G rootpage-4G skin-vector action-view