text:
HORSE
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For the basketball variant, see H-O-R-S-E. For the animal, see Horse. For other uses, see Horse (disambiguation).
H.O.R.S.E. is a multi-game form of poker commonly played at the high-stakes tables of casinos and in tournaments. It is most often played in a limit format, but can be played with other betting structures. The format consists of rounds of play cycling among:
Texas Hold 'em,
Omaha hi-low split-eight or better,
Razz,
Seven card Stud, and
Seven card stud hi-low split-Eight or better.
Variations[edit]
HOSE drops razz from the game mix.
C.H.O.R.S.E adds Chowaha or Crazy Pineapple to the mix. This is convenient at such team events as BARGE, when it helps to have as many flop games as stud games. C.H.O.R.S.E.L adds lowball.[1]
T.H.O.R.S.E.H.A. is another 8-Game Mix which includes more games than most other mixed poker games.[2] PokerStars started offering this game in 2008. It consists of limit 2-7 Triple Draw, limit Texas hold 'em, limit Omaha Hi-Lo, limit Razz, limit Seven-card Stud, limit Seven card Stud Hi-Lo, no limit Texas hold 'em and pot limit Omaha.[3]
World Series of Poker events[edit]
H.O.R.S.E. made its debut at the World Series of Poker in 2002 with a $2,000 buy-in. John Hennigan won the event, earning $117,320.
A record-setting $50,000 buy-in H.O.R.S.E. tournament made its debut at the 2006 World Series of Poker. Chip Reese won the event, earning $1,716,000 for first place. After Reese died at the end of 2007,[4] the Chip Reese Memorial Trophy was created in his honor. The trophy is awarded to the winner of the $50,000 championship event since the 2008 World Series of Poker.
The $50,000 buy-in tournament returned for the 2007 WSOP, along with seven satellite events with a $2,250 buy-in whose winners earned seats into the $50,000 buy-in event. The $50,000 event, which awarded $2,276,832 to first place, was won by professional player Freddy Deeb.[5] Separate H.O.R.S.E. events with $2,500 and $5,000 buy-ins were also on the 2007 WSOP program.
The 2008 $50,000 H.O.R.S.E event was won by Scotty Nguyen, who received $1,989,120 for his victory.[6] This was also the first time that the Chip Reese Memorial Trophy had been awarded to the winner of the competition.
The 2009 $50,000 H.O.R.S.E. event was won by David Bach, for $1,276,802.[7]
For 2010, the $50,000 H.O.R.S.E. World Championship event was replaced by The Poker Player's Championship, with an identical buy-in. The 2010 WSOP also featured a new $10,000 H.O.R.S.E. Championship, joining already-existing events with $1,500 and $3,000 buy-ins.[8]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Stop Spammers". www.poker1.com. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "H.O.R.S.E. Poker Strategy: In the Mix -- The Future of Mixed Games?". Retrieved 10 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "8-Game Mix Poker - Play Eight Game Mix Poker Games - PokerStars". www.pokerstars.com. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "Remembering Chip Reese - Poker News". www.cardplayer.com. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
Jump up ^ 2007 WSOP: Freddy Deeb H.O.R.S.E. champion, pokerlistings.com, 29 June 2007, accessed 16 March 2009
Jump up ^ Scotty Nguyen Wins $50K World Championship H.O.R.S.E., pokerplayernewspaper.com, 30 June 2008, accessed 16 March 2009
Jump up ^ "2009 WSOP: David Bach Wins $50K HORSE in Marathon Final". Retrieved 10 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "2010 WSOP Schedule Is Announced" (Press release). World Series of Poker. 2009-12-17. Retrieved 2009-12-31.
[hide]
v
t
e
Winners of the World Series of Poker $50,000 The Poker Players Championship (H.O.R.S.E. / 8-Game)
2006: Chip Reese
2007: Freddy Deeb
2008: Scotty Nguyen
2009: David Bach
2010: Michael Mizrachi
2011: Brian Rast
2012: Michael Mizrachi
2013: Matthew Ashton
2014: John Hennigan
2015: Mike Gorodinsky
2016: Brian Rast
2017: Elior Sion
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HORSE&oldid=809571446"
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Electromyography
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with other types of electrography.
Electromyography
EMG from gait termination, bottom left is the raw EMG, right is the rectified pattern
ICD-9-CM
93.08
MeSH
D004576
[edit on Wikidata]
Electromyography (EMG) is an electrodiagnostic medicine technique for evaluating and recording the electrical activity produced by skeletal muscles.[1] EMG is performed using an instrument called an electromyograph to produce a record called an electromyogram. An electromyograph detects the electric potential generated by muscle cells[2] when these cells are electrically or neurologically activated. The signals can be analyzed to detect medical abnormalities, activation level, or recruitment order, or to analyze the biomechanics of human or animal movement.
Contents
[hide]
1 Medical uses
2 Technique
2.1 Skin preparation and risks
2.2 Surface and intramuscular EMG recording electrodes
2.3 Maximal voluntary contraction
2.4 Other measurements
2.5 EMG signal decomposition
2.6 EMG signal processing
2.7 Limitations
2.8 Electrical characteristics
3 Procedure outcomes
3.1 Normal results
3.2 Abnormal results
4 History
5 Research
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Medical uses[edit]
EMG testing has a variety of clinical and biomedical applications. EMG is used as a diagnostics tool for identifying neuromuscular diseases, or as a research tool for studying kinesiology, and disorders of motor control. EMG signals are sometimes used to guide botulinum toxin or phenol injections into muscles. EMG signals are also used as a control signal for prosthetic devices such as prosthetic hands, arms, and lower limbs.
EMG then an acceleromyograph may be used for neuromuscular monitoring in general anesthesia with neuromuscular-blocking drugs, in order to avoid postoperative residual curarization (PORC).[3][4][5][6]
Except in the case of some purely primary myopathic conditions EMG is usually performed with another electrodiagnostic medicine test that measures the conducting function of nerves. This is called a nerve conduction studies (NCS). Needle EMG and NCSs are typically indicated when there is pain in the limbs, weakness from spinal nerve compression, or concern about some other neurologic injury or disorder.[7] Spinal nerve injury does not cause neck, mid back pain or low back pain, and for this reason, evidence has not shown EMG or NCS to be helpful in diagnosing causes of axial lumbar pain, thoracic pain, or cervical spine pain.[7] Needle EMG may aid with the diagnosis of nerve compression or injury (such as carpal tunnel syndrome), nerve root injury (such as sciatica), and with other problems of the muscles or nerves. Less common medical conditions include amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, myasthenia gravis, and muscular dystrophy.
Technique[edit]
Skin preparation and risks[edit]
The first step before insertion of the needle electrode is skin preparation. This typically involves simply cleaning the skin with an alcohol pad.
The actual placement of the needle electrode can be difficult and depends on a number of factors, such as specific muscle selection and the size of that muscle. Proper needle EMG placement is very important for accurate representation of the muscle of interest, although EMG is more effective on superficial muscles as it is unable to bypass the action potentials of superficial muscles and detect deeper muscles. Also, the more body fat an individual has, the weaker the EMG signal. When placing the EMG sensor, the ideal location is at the belly of the muscle: the longitudinal midline. The belly of the muscle can also be thought of as in-between the motor point (middle) of the muscle and the tendonus insertion point.[8]
Cardiac pacemakers and implanted cardiac defibrillators (ICDs) are used increasingly in clinical practice, and no evidence exists indicating that performing routine electrodiagnostic studies on patients with these devices pose a safety hazard. However, there are theoretical concerns that electrical impulses of nerve conduction studies (NCS) could be erroneously sensed by devices and result in unintended inhibition or triggering of output or reprogramming of the device. In general, the closer the stimulation site is to the pacemaker and pacing leads, the greater the chance for inducing a voltage of sufficient amplitude to inhibit the pacemaker. Despite such concerns, no immediate or delayed adverse effects have been reported with routine NCS.[9]
No known contraindications exist for performing needle EMG or NCS on pregnant patients. Additionally, no complications from these procedures have been reported in the literature. Evoked potential testing, likewise, has not been reported to cause any problems when it is performed during pregnancy.[9]
Patients with lymphedema or patients at risk for lymphedema are routinely cautioned to avoid percutaneous procedures in the affected extremity, namely venipuncture, to prevent development or worsening of lymphedema or cellulitis. Despite the potential risk, the evidence for such complications subsequent to venipuncture is limited. No published reports exist of cellulitis, infection, or other complications related to EMG performed in the setting of lymphedema or prior lymph node dissection. However, given the unknown risk of cellulitis in patients with lymphedema, reasonable caution should be exercised in performing needle examinations in lymphedematous regions to avoid complications. In patients with gross edema and taut skin, skin puncture by needle electrodes may result in chronic weeping of serous fluid. The potential bacterial media of such serous fluid and the violation of skin integrity may increase the risk of cellulitis. Before proceeding, the physician should weigh the potential risks of performing the study with the need to obtain the information gained.[9]
Surface and intramuscular EMG recording electrodes[edit]
There are two kinds of EMG: surface EMG and intramuscular EMG. Surface EMG assesses muscle function by recording muscle activity from the surface above the muscle on the skin. Surface electrodes are able to provide only a limited assessment of the muscle activity. Surface EMG can be recorded by a pair of electrodes or by a more complex array of multiple electrodes. More than one electrode is needed because EMG recordings display the potential difference (voltage difference) between two separate electrodes. Limitations of this approach are the fact that surface electrode recordings are restricted to superficial muscles, are influenced by the depth of the subcutaneous tissue at the site of the recording which can be highly variable depending of the weight of a patient, and cannot reliably discriminate between the discharges of adjacent muscles.
Intramuscular EMG can be performed using a variety of different types of recording electrodes. The simplest approach is a monopolar needle electrode. This can be a fine wire inserted into a muscle with a surface electrode as a reference; or two fine wires inserted into muscle referenced to each other. Most commonly fine wire recordings are for research or kinesiology studies. Diagnostic monopolar EMG electrodes are typically insulated and stiff enough to penetrate skin, with only the tip exposed using a surface electrode for reference. Needles for injecting therapeutic botulinum toxin or phenol are typically monopolar electrodes that use a surface reference, in this case, however, the metal shaft of a hypodermic needle, insulated so that only the tip is exposed, is used both to record signals and to inject. Slightly more complex in design is the concentric needle electrode. These needles have a fine wire, embedded in a layer of insulation that fills the barrel of a hypodermic needle, that has an exposed shaft, and the shaft serves as the reference electrode. The exposed tip of the fine wire serves as the active electrode. As a result of this configuration, signals tend to be smaller when recorded from a concentric electrode than when recorded from a monopolar electrode and they are more resistant to electrical artifacts from tissue and measurements tend to be somewhat more reliable. However, because the shaft is exposed throughout its length, superficial muscle activity can contaminate the recording of deeper muscles. Single fiber EMG needle electrodes are designed to have very tiny recording areas, and allow for the discharges of individual muscle fibers to be discriminated.
To perform intramuscular EMG, typically either a monopolar or concentric needle electrode is inserted through the skin into the muscle tissue. The needle is then moved to multiple spots within a relaxed muscle to evaluate both insertional activity and resting activity in the muscle. Normal muscles exhibit a brief burst of muscle fiber activation when stimulated by needle movement, but this rarely lasts more than 100ms. The two most common pathologic types of resting activity in muscle are fasciculation and fibrillation potentials. A fasciculation potential is an involuntary activation of a motor unit within the muscle, sometimes visible with the naked eye as a muscle twitch or by surface electrodes. Fibrillations, however, are only detected by needle EMG, and represent the isolated activation of individual muscle fibers, usually as the result of nerve or muscle disease. Often, fibrillations are triggered by needle movement (insertional activity) and persist for several seconds or more after the movement ceases.
After assessing resting and insertional activity, the electromyographer assess the activity of muscle during voluntary contraction. The shape, size, and frequency of the resulting electrical signals are judged. Then the electrode is retracted a few millimetres, and again the activity is analyzed. This is repeated, sometimes until data on 10–20 motor units have been collected in order to draw conclusions about motor unit function. Each electrode track gives only a very local picture of the activity of the whole muscle. Because skeletal muscles differ in the inner structure, the electrode has to be placed at various locations to obtain an accurate study.
Single fiber electromyography assesses the delay between the contractions of individual muscle fibers within a motor unit and is a sensitive test for dysfunction of the neuromuscular junction caused by drugs, poisons, or diseases such as myasthenia gravis. The technique is complicated and typically only performed by individuals with special advanced training.
Surface EMG is used in a number of settings; for example, in the physiotherapy clinic, muscle activation is monitored using surface EMG and patients have an auditory or visual stimulus to help them know when they are activating the muscle (biofeedback). A review of the literature on surface EMG published in 2008, concluded that surface EMG may be useful to detect the presence of neuromuscular disease (level C rating, class III data), but there are insufficient data to support its utility for distinguishing between neuropathic and myopathic conditions or for the diagnosis of specific neuromuscular diseases. EMGs may be useful for additional study of fatigue associated with post-poliomyelitis syndrome and electromechanical function in myotonic dystrophy (level C rating, class III data).[9]
Certain US states limit the performance of needle EMG by nonphysicians. New Jersey declared that it cannot be delegated to a physician's assistant.[10][11] Michigan has passed legislation saying needle EMG is the practice of medicine.[12] Special training in diagnosing medical diseases with EMG is required only in residency and fellowship programs in neurology, clinical neurophysiology, neuromuscular medicine, and physical medicine and rehabilitation. There are certain subspecialists in otolaryngology who have had selective training in performing EMG of the laryngeal muscles, and subspecialists in urology, obstetrics and gynecology who have had selective training in performing EMG of muscles controlling bowel and bladder function.
Maximal voluntary contraction[edit]
One basic function of EMG is to see how well a muscle can be activated. The most common way that can be determined is by performing a maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) of the muscle that is being tested.[13]
Muscle force, which is measured mechanically, typically correlates highly with measures of EMG activation of muscle. Most commonly this is assessed with surface electrodes, but it should be recognized that these typically only record from muscle fibers in close approximation to the surface.
Several analytical methods for determining muscle activation are commonly used depending on the application. The use of mean EMG activation or the peak contraction value is a debated topic. Most studies commonly use the maximal voluntary contraction as a means of analyzing peak force and force generated by target muscles. According to the article, Peak and average rectified EMG measures: Which method of data reduction should be used for assessing core training exercises?,[14] concluded that the “average rectified EMG data (ARV) is significantly less variable when measuring the muscle activity of the core musculature compared to the peak EMG variable.” Therefore, these researchers would suggest that “ARV EMG data should be recorded alongside the peak EMG measure when assessing core exercises.” Providing the reader with both sets of data would result in enhanced validity of the study and potentially eradicate the contradictions within the research.[15][16]
Other measurements[edit]
EMG can also be used for indicating the amount of fatigue in a muscle. The following changes in the EMG signal can signify muscle fatigue: an increase in the mean absolute value of the signal, increase in the amplitude and duration of the muscle action potential and an overall shift to lower frequencies. Monitoring the changes of different frequency changes the most common way of using EMG to determine levels of fatigue. The lower conduction velocities enable the slower motor neurons to remain active.[17]
A motor unit is defined as one motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates. When a motor unit fires, the impulse (called an action potential) is carried down the motor neuron to the muscle. The area where the nerve contacts the muscle is called the neuromuscular junction, or the motor end plate. After the action potential is transmitted across the neuromuscular junction, an action potential is elicited in all of the innervated muscle fibers of that particular motor unit. The sum of all this electrical activity is known as a motor unit action potential (MUAP). This electrophysiologic activity from multiple motor units is the signal typically evaluated during an EMG. The composition of the motor unit, the number of muscle fibres per motor unit, the metabolic type of muscle fibres and many other factors affect the shape of the motor unit potentials in the myogram.
Nerve conduction testing is also often done at the same time as an EMG to diagnose neurological diseases.
Some patients can find the procedure somewhat painful, whereas others experience only a small amount of discomfort when the needle is inserted. The muscle or muscles being tested may be slightly sore for a day or two after the procedure.
EMG signal decomposition[edit]
EMG signals are essentially made up of superimposed motor unit action potentials (MUAPs) from several motor units. For a thorough analysis, the measured EMG signals can be decomposed into their constituent MUAPs. MUAPs from different motor units tend to have different characteristic shapes, while MUAPs recorded by the same electrode from the same motor unit are typically similar. Notably MUAP size and shape depend on where the electrode is located with respect to the fibers and so can appear to be different if the electrode moves position. EMG decomposition is non-trivial, although many methods have been proposed.
EMG signal processing[edit]
Rectification is the translation of the raw EMG signal to a signal with a single polarity, usually positive. The purpose of rectifying the signal is to ensure the signal does not average to zero, due to the raw EMG signal having positive and negative components. Two types of rectification are used: full-wave and half-wave rectification.[18] Full-wave rectification adds the EMG signal below the baseline to the signal above the baseline to make a conditioned signal that is all positive. If the baseline is zero, this is equivalent to taking the absolute value of the signal.[19][20] This is the preferred method of rectification because it conserves all of the signal energy for analysis. Half-wave rectification discards the portion of the EMG signal that is below the baseline. In doing so, the average of the data is no longer zero therefore it can be used in statistical analyses.
Limitations[edit]
Needle EMG used in clinical settings has practical applications such as helping to discover disease. Needle EMG has limitations, however, in that it does involve voluntary activation of muscle, and as such is less informative in patients unwilling or unable to cooperate, children and infants, and in individuals with paralysis., Surface EMG can have limited applications due to inherent problems associated with surface EMG. Adipose tissue (fat) can affect EMG recordings. Studies show that as adipose tissue increased the active muscle directly below the surface decreased. As adipose tissue increased, the amplitude of the surface EMG signal directly above the center of the active muscle decreased. EMG signal recordings are typically more accurate with individuals who have lower body fat, and more compliant skin, such as young people when compared to old. Muscle cross talk occurs when the EMG signal from one muscle interferes with that of another limiting reliability of the signal of the muscle being tested. Surface EMG is limited due to lack of deep muscles reliability. Deep muscles require intramuscular wires that are intrusive and painful in order to achieve an EMG signal. Surface EMG can only measure superficial muscles and even then it is hard to narrow down the signal to a single muscle.[21]
Electrical characteristics[edit]
The electrical source is the muscle membrane potential of about –90 mV.[22] Measured EMG potentials range between less than 50 μV and up to 20 to 30 mV, depending on the muscle under observation.
Typical repetition rate of muscle motor unit firing is about 7–20 Hz, depending on the size of the muscle (eye muscles versus seat (gluteal) muscles), previous axonal damage and other factors. Damage to motor units can be expected at ranges between 450 and 780 mV[23].
Procedure outcomes[edit]
Normal results[edit]
Muscle tissue at rest is normally electrically inactive. After the electrical activity caused by the irritation of needle insertion subsides, the electromyograph should detect no abnormal spontaneous activity (i.e., a muscle at rest should be electrically silent, with the exception of the area of the neuromuscular junction, which is, under normal circumstances, very spontaneously active). When the muscle is voluntarily contracted, action potentials begin to appear. As the strength of the muscle contraction is increased, more and more muscle fibers produce action potentials. When the muscle is fully contracted, there should appear a disorderly group of action potentials of varying rates and amplitudes (a complete recruitment and interference pattern).
Abnormal results[edit]
EMG findings vary with the type of disorder, the duration of the problem, the age of the patient, the degree to which the patient can be cooperative, the type of needle electrode used to study the patient, and sampling error in terms of the number of areas studied within a single muscle and the number of muscles studied overall. Interpreting EMG findings is usually best done by an individual informed by a focused history and physical examination of the patient, and in conjunction with the results of other relevant diagnostic studies performed including most importantly, nerve conduction studies, but also, where appropriate, imaging studies such as MRI and ultrasound, muscle and nerve biopsy, muscle enzymes, and serologic studies.
Abnormal results may be caused by the following medical conditions (please note this is not an exhaustive list of conditions that can result in abnormal EMG studies):
Disorders of Muscle:
Inflammatory myopathies
Polymyositis
Dermatomyositis
Inclusion body myopathy
Myotonia Congenita
Muscular dystrophies:
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
Becker muscular dystrophy
Facioscapulohumeral dystrophy
Limb girdle muscular dystrophy
Centronuclear myopathy
Myotonic dystrophy
Mitochondrial myopathies
Disorders of the neuromuscular junction:
Myasthenia Gravis
Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome
Botulism poisoning
Organophosphate poisoning
Hypermagnesemia
Hypocalcemia
Disorders of Nerves:
Carpal tunnel syndrome
Ulnar neuropathy at the elbow
Radial nerve palsy (Saturday night palsy)
Peroneal (fibular) nerve palsy
Diabetic neuropathy
Alcohol related neuropathy
Nutritional neuropathy
Amyloid neuropathy
AIDP
CIDP
Bell’s palsy
Laryngeal neuropathy
Pudendal neuropathy
Femoral neuropathy
Sciatic Neuropathy
Tibial neuropathy
Tarsal tunnel syndrome
Charcot-Marie-Tooth syndrome
Zoster neuropathy
Oculomotor, Facial, vagal, trigeminal, glossopharyngeal, spinal accessory neuropathies
Hemifacial spasm
Multifocal motor neuropathy
Axillary neuropathy
Long thoracic neuropathy
Suprascapular neuropathy
Toxic neuropathies
Drug-induced neuropathies
Plexus disorders:
Neuralgic Amyotrophy (idiopathic brachial plexitis)
Traumatic brachial plexopathy
Lumbosacral radiculopathy
Hirayama disease
Root disorders:
Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral radiculopathy
Spinal stenosis
Arachnoiditis
Leptomeningeal disorders
Motor neuron disease
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
West Nile virus
Poliomyelitis
Kennedy’s syndrome (Spinobulbar muscular atrophy).
History[edit]
The first documented experiments dealing with EMG started with Francesco Redi’s works in 1666. Redi discovered a highly specialized muscle of the electric ray fish (Electric Eel) generated electricity. By 1773, Walsh had been able to demonstrate that the eel fish’s muscle tissue could generate a spark of electricity. In 1792, a publication entitled De Viribus Electricitatis in Motu Musculari Commentarius appeared, written by Luigi Galvani, in which the author demonstrated that electricity could initiate muscle contraction. Six decades later, in 1849, Emil du Bois-Reymond discovered that it was also possible to record electrical activity during a voluntary muscle contraction. The first actual recording of this activity was made by Marey in 1890, who also introduced the term electromyography. In 1922, Gasser and Erlanger used an oscilloscope to show the electrical signals from muscles. Because of the stochastic nature of the myoelectric signal, only rough information could be obtained from its observation. The capability of detecting electromyographic signals improved steadily from the 1930s through the 1950s, and researchers began to use improved electrodes more widely for the study of muscles. The AANEM was formed in 1953 as one of several currently active medical societies with a special interest in advancing the science and clinical use of the technique. Clinical use of surface EMG (sEMG) for the treatment of more specific disorders began in the 1960s. Hardyck and his researchers were the first (1966) practitioners to use sEMG. In the early 1980s, Cram and Steger introduced a clinical method for scanning a variety of muscles using an EMG sensing device.[24]
It was not until the middle of the 1980s that integration techniques in electrodes had sufficiently advanced to allow batch production of the required small and lightweight instrumentation and amplifiers. At present, a number of suitable amplifiers are commercially available. In the early 1980s, cables that produced signals in the desired microvolt range became available. Recent research has resulted in a better understanding of the properties of surface EMG recording. Surface electromyography is increasingly used for recording from superficial muscles in clinical or kinesiological protocols, where intramuscular electrodes are used for investigating deep muscles or localized muscle activity.
There are many applications for the use of EMG. EMG is used clinically for the diagnosis of neurological and neuromuscular problems. It is used diagnostically by gait laboratories and by clinicians trained in the use of biofeedback or ergonomic assessment. EMG is also used in many types of research laboratories, including those involved in biomechanics, motor control, neuromuscular physiology, movement disorders, postural control, and physical therapy.
Research[edit]
EMG can be used to sense isometric muscular activity where no movement is produced. This enables definition of a class of subtle motionless gestures to control interfaces without being noticed and without disrupting the surrounding environment. These signals can be used to control a prosthesis or as a control signal for an electronic device such as a mobile phone or PDA[citation needed].
EMG signals have been targeted as control for flight systems. The Human Senses Group at the NASA Ames Research Center at Moffett Field, CA seeks to advance man-machine interfaces by directly connecting a person to a computer. In this project, an EMG signal is used to substitute for mechanical joysticks and keyboards. EMG has also been used in research towards a "wearable cockpit," which employs EMG-based gestures to manipulate switches and control sticks necessary for flight in conjunction with a goggle-based display.
Unvoiced speech recognition recognizes speech by observing the EMG activity of muscles associated with speech. It is targeted for use in noisy environments, and may be helpful for people without vocal cords and people with aphasia.
EMG has also been used as a control signal for computers and other devices. An interface device based on EMG could be used to control moving objects, such as mobile robots or an electric wheelchair.[25] This may be helpful for individuals that cannot operate a joystick-controlled wheelchair. Surface EMG recordings may also be a suitable control signal for some interactive video games.[26]
In 1999 an EMG program called Echidna was used to enable a man with locked in syndrome to send a message to a computer. That program, now called NeuroSwitch, developed by Control Bionics enables people with severe disabilities to communicate by text, email, SMS, computer-generated voice and to control computer games and programs, and - through the internet - Anybots telepresence robots.
A joint project involving Microsoft, the University of Washington in Seattle, and the University of Toronto in Canada has explored using muscle signals from hand gestures as an interface device.[27] A patent based on this research was submitted on June 26, 2008.[28]
See also[edit]
Chronaxie
Compound muscle action potential
Electrical muscle stimulation
Electrodiagnostic medicine
Electromyoneurography
Magnetomyography
Nerve conduction study
Neuromuscular ultrasound
Phonomyography
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Kamen, Gary. Electromyographic Kinesiology. In Robertson, DGE et al. Research Methods in Biomechanics. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publ., 2004.
Jump up ^ Electromyography at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
Jump up ^ Harvey AM, Masland RL: Actions of durarizing preparations in the human. Journal of Pharmacology And Experimental Therapeutics, Vol. 73, Issue 3, 304-311, 1941
Jump up ^ Botelho SY: Comparison of simultaneously recorded electrical and mechanical activity in myasthenia gravis patients and in partially curarized normal humans. Am J Med. 1955 Nov;19(5):693-6. PMID 13268466
Jump up ^ Christie TH, Churchill-Davidson HC: The St. Thomas's Hospital nerve stimulator in the diagnosis of prolonged apnoea. Lancet. 1958 Apr 12;1(7024):776. PMID 13526270
Jump up ^ Engbaek J, Ostergaard D, Viby-Mogensen J: Double burst stimulation (DBS): a new pattern of nerve stimulation to identify residual neuromuscular block. Br J Anaesth. 1989 Mar;62(3):274-8. PMID 2522790
^ Jump up to: a b North American Spine Society (February 2013), "Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question", Choosing Wisely: an initiative of the ABIM Foundation, North American Spine Society, retrieved 25 March 2013 , which cites
Sandoval, AE (Nov 2010). "Electrodiagnostics for low back pain". Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clincs of North America. 21 (4): 767–76. doi:10.1016/j.pmr.2010.06.007. PMID 20977959.
North American Spine Society (2011). "Diagnosis and treatment of degenerative lumbar spinal stenosis". Burr Ridge, Illinois: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality: 104.
Jump up ^ https://www.delsys.com/Attachments_pdf/TN101%20-%20EMG%20Sensor%20Placement-web.pdf
^ Jump up to: a b c d http://www.aanem.org/getmedia/2034191e-583b-4c55-b725-fc38ea8262e2/risksinEDX.pdf.aspx.
Jump up ^ Arthur C. Rothman, MD, v. Selective Insurance Company of America, Supreme Court of New Jersey, Jan. 19
Jump up ^ Texas Court of Appeals, Third District, at Austin, Cause No. 03-10-673-CV. April 5, 2012
Jump up ^ Section 333.17018 Michigan Compiled Laws http://legislature.mi.gov/doc.aspx?mcl-333-17018
Jump up ^ Behm, D.G., Whittle, J., Button, D., & Power, K. (2002). Intermuscle differences in activation. Muscle and Nerve. 25(2); 236-243.
Jump up ^ Hibbs, A.E., Thompson, K.G., French, D.N., Hodgson, D., Spears, I.R. Peak and average rectified EMG measures: Which method of data reduction should be used for assessing core training exercises? Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology. 21(1), 102 – 111. 2011.
Jump up ^ Buchanan, T. S., Lloyd, D. G., Manal, K., & Besier, T. F. (2004). Neuromusculoskeletal modeling: estimation of muscle forces and joint moments and movements from measurements of neural command. Journal of applied biomechanics, 20(4), 367.
Jump up ^ Halperin, I., Aboodarda, S. J., Button, D. C., Andersen, L. L., & Behm, D. G. (2014). ROLLER MASSAGER IMPROVES RANGE OF MOTION OF PLANTAR FLEXOR MUSCLES WITHOUT SUBSEQUENT DECREASES IN FORCE PARAMETERS. International journal of sports physical therapy, 9(1), 92.
Jump up ^ Cifrek, M., Medved, V., Tonković, S., & Ostojić, S. (2009). Surface EMG based muscle fatigue evaluation in biomechanics. Clinical Biomechanics, 24(4), 327-340.
Jump up ^ Raez, M.B.I.; Hussain, M.S.; Mohd-Yasin, F. (Mar 23, 2006). "Techniques of EMG signal analysis: detection, processing, classification and applications". Biol. Proced. Online (8): 11–35. doi:10.1251/bpo115. PMC 1455479  . PMID 16799694.
Jump up ^ Weir, JP; Wagner, LL; Housh, TJ (1992). "Linearity and reliability of the IEMG v. torque relationship for the forearm flexors and leg extensors". American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation. 71 (5): 283–287.
Jump up ^ Vrendenbregt, J; Rau, G; Housh (1973). "Surface eletromyography in relation to force, muscle length and endurance". New developments in electromyography and clinical neurophysiology: 607–622.
Jump up ^ Kuiken, TA; Lowery, Stoykob (April 2003). "The Effect of Subcutaneous Fat on myoelectric signal amplitude and cross talk". Prosthetics and Orthodontics International. 27 (1): 48–54.
Jump up ^ Nigg B.M., & Herzog W., 1999. Biomechanics of the Musculo-Skeletal system. Wiley. Page:349.
Jump up ^ Patterson, John R. "Fitwise". Castillo. Brian T. Retrieved 24 June 2009.
Jump up ^ Cram, JR.; Steger, JC. (Jun 1983). "EMG scanning in the diagnosis of chronic pain". Biofeedback Self Regul. 8 (2): 229–41. PMID 6227339.
Jump up ^ Andreasen, DS.; Gabbert DG,: EMG Switch Navigation of Power Wheelchairs, RESNA 2006. [1]
Jump up ^ Park, DG.; Kim, HC. Muscleman: Wireless input device for a fighting action game based on the EMG signal and acceleration of the human forearm. [2]
Jump up ^ Hsu, Jeremy (2009-10-29). "The Future of Video Game Input: Muscle Sensors". Live Science. Retrieved 2010-01-16.
Jump up ^ "Recognizing Gestures from Forearm EMG Signals". United States Patent and Trademark Office. 2008-06-26. Archived from the original on 2017-01-12. Retrieved 2010-01-16.
Further reading[edit]
Piper, H.: Elektrophysiologie menschlicher Muskeln. Berlin, J. Springer, 1912.
External links[edit]
Association of Electromyography Technologists of Canada (AETC)
MedlinePlus entry on EMG describes EMG
Neuromuscular.edu
American Association of Neuromuscular & Electrodiagnostic Medicine
EmedicineHealth page on EMG
Risks in Electrodiagnostic Medicine
Interactively design an EMG signal processing RMS envelope measurement application with the ASN Filter Designer (ASN-AN024)
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Autumn
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Autumn (disambiguation).
"Fall" redirects here. For other uses, see Fall (disambiguation).
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Autumn, also known as fall in American and Canadian English,[1] is one of the four temperate seasons. Autumn marks the transition from summer to winter, in September (Northern Hemisphere) or March (Southern Hemisphere), when the duration of daylight becomes noticeably shorter and the temperature cools down considerably. One of its main features is the shedding of leaves from deciduous trees.
Some cultures regard the autumnal equinox as "mid-autumn", while others with a longer temperature lag treat it as the start of autumn.[2] Meteorologists (and most of the temperate countries in the southern hemisphere)[3] use a definition based on Gregorian calendar months, with autumn being September, October, and November in the northern hemisphere,[4] and March, April, and May in the southern hemisphere.
In North America, autumn is usually considered to start with the September equinox (21 to 24 September)[5] and end with the winter solstice (21 or 22 December).[6] Popular culture in North America associates Labor Day, the first Monday in September, as the end of summer and the start of autumn; certain summer traditions, such as wearing white, are discouraged after that date.[7] As daytime and nighttime temperatures decrease, trees shed their leaves.[8] In traditional East Asian solar term, autumn starts on or around 8 August and ends on or about 7 November. In Ireland, the autumn months according to the national meteorological service, Met Éireann, are September, October and November.[9] However, according to the Irish Calendar, which is based on ancient Gaelic traditions, autumn lasts throughout the months of August, September and October, or possibly a few days later, depending on tradition[citation needed]. In Australia and New Zealand, autumn officially begins on 1 March and ends on 31 May.[10]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Associations
2.1 Harvest
2.2 Melancholia
2.3 Halloween
2.4 Other associations
3 Tourism
4 Paintings
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Etymology[edit]
Autumnal scene with yellow, orange and red leaves on trees and fallen on the ground
Leaves of a maple tree in autumn
The word autumn comes from the ancient Etruscan root autu- and has within it connotations of the passing of the year.[11] It was borrowed by the neighbouring Romans, and became the Latin word autumnus.[12] After the Roman era, the word continued to be used as the Old French word autompne (automne in modern French) or autumpne in Middle English,[13] and was later normalised to the original Latin. In the Medieval period, there are rare examples of its use as early as the 12th century, but by the 16th century, it was in common use.
Before the 16th century, harvest was the term usually used to refer to the season, as it is common in other West Germanic languages to this day (cf. Dutch herfst, German Herbst and Scots hairst). However, as more people gradually moved from working the land to living in towns, the word harvest lost its reference to the time of year and came to refer only to the actual activity of reaping, and autumn, as well as fall, began to replace it as a reference to the season.[14][15]
The alternative word fall for the season traces its origins to old Germanic languages. The exact derivation is unclear, with the Old English fiæll or feallan and the Old Norse fall all being possible candidates. However, these words all have the meaning "to fall from a height" and are clearly derived either from a common root or from each other. The term came to denote the season in 16th-century England, a contraction of Middle English expressions like "fall of the leaf" and "fall of the year".[16]
During the 17th century, English emigration to the British colonies in North America was at its peak, and the new settlers took the English language with them. While the term fall gradually became obsolete in Britain, it became the more common term in North America.
The name backend, a once common name for the season in Northern England, has today been largely replaced by the name autumn.[17]
Associations[edit]
Harvest[edit]
Harvest straw bales in a field of Schleswig-Holstein, Germany
Association with the transition from warm to cold weather, and its related status as the season of the primary harvest, has dominated its themes and popular images. In Western cultures, personifications of autumn are usually pretty, well-fed females adorned with fruits, vegetables and grains that ripen at this time. Many cultures feature autumnal harvest festivals, often the most important on their calendars. Still extant echoes of these celebrations are found in the autumn Thanksgiving holiday of the United States and Canada, and the Jewish Sukkot holiday with its roots as a full-moon harvest festival of "tabernacles" (living in outdoor huts around the time of harvest).[citation needed] There are also the many North American Indian festivals tied to harvest of ripe foods gathered in the wild, the Chinese Mid-Autumn or Moon festival, and many others. The predominant mood of these autumnal celebrations is a gladness for the fruits of the earth mixed with a certain melancholy linked to the imminent arrival of harsh weather.
This view is presented in English poet John Keats' poem To Autumn, where he describes the season as a time of bounteous fecundity, a time of 'mellow fruitfulness'.
While most foods are harvested during the autumn, foods particularly associated with the season include pumpkins (which are integral parts of both Thanksgiving and Halloween) and apples, which are used to make the seasonal beverage apple cider.
Melancholia[edit]
Maple tree with red leaves in the morning mist. Western Estonia
Autumn, especially in poetry, has often been associated with melancholia. The possibilities of summer are gone, and the chill of winter is on the horizon. Skies turn grey, the amount of usable daylight drops rapidly, and many people turn inward, both physically and mentally.[18] It has been referred to as an unhealthy season.[19]
Similar examples may be found in Irish poet William Butler Yeats' poem The Wild Swans at Coole where the maturing season that the poet observes symbolically represents his own ageing self. Like the natural world that he observes, he too has reached his prime and now must look forward to the inevitability of old age and death. French poet Paul Verlaine's "Chanson d'automne" ("Autumn Song") is likewise characterised by strong, painful feelings of sorrow. Keats' To Autumn, written in September 1819, echoes this sense of melancholic reflection, but also emphasises the lush abundance of the season.
Halloween[edit]
Halloween pumpkins
Autumn is associated with Halloween (influenced by Samhain, a Celtic autumn festival),[20] and with it a widespread marketing campaign that promotes it. Halloween is in autumn in the northern hemisphere. The television, film, book, costume, home decoration, and confectionery industries use this time of year to promote products closely associated with such a holiday, with promotions going from early September to 31 October, since their themes rapidly lose strength once the holiday ends, and advertising starts concentrating on Christmas.
Other associations[edit]
Pumpkin pie is commonly served on and around Thanksgiving in North America
All Saints' Day at a cemetery in Sanok – flowers and lit candles are placed to honor the memory of deceased relatives. Poland, 1 November 2011
Misty November evening, Germany
Autumn rain in London
Back to school sale at a Walmart
Autumn also has a strong association with the end of summer holiday and the start of a new school year, particularly for children in primary and secondary education. "Back to School" advertising and preparations usually occurs in the weeks leading to the beginning of autumn.
Easter is in autumn in the southern hemisphere.
Thanksgiving Day is a national holiday celebrated in Canada, in the United States, in some of the Caribbean islands and in Liberia. Thanksgiving is celebrated on the second Monday of October in Canada and on the fourth Thursday of November in the United States, and around the same part of the year in other places. Similarly named festival holidays occur in Germany and Japan.
Television stations and networks, particularly in North America, traditionally begin their regular seasons in autumn, with new series and new episodes of existing series debuting mostly during late September or early October (series that debut outside the fall season are usually known as mid-season replacements). A sweeps period takes place in November to measure Nielsen Ratings.
American football is played almost exclusively in the autumn months; at the high school level, seasons run through September and October, with some playoff games and holiday rivalry contests being played as late as Thanksgiving. College football's regular season runs from September through November, while the main professional circuit, the National Football League, plays from September through December. Summer sports, such as stock car racing and Major League Baseball, wrap up their seasons in early autumn; MLB's championship World Series is known popularly as the "Fall Classic".[21] (Amateur baseball is usually finished by August.) Likewise, professional winter sports, such as professional ice hockey, basketball and most leagues of soccer football in Europe, are in the early stages of their seasons during autumn; American college basketball and college ice hockey play teams outside their athletic conferences during the late autumn before their in-conference schedules begin in winter.
The Christian religious holidays of All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day are observed in autumn in the Northern hemisphere.
Since 1997, Autumn has been one of the top 100 names for girls in the United States.[22]
In Indian mythology, autumn is considered to be the preferred season for the goddess of learning Saraswati, who is also known by the name of "goddess of autumn" (Sharada).
In Asian mysticism, Autumn is associated with the element of metal, and subsequently with the colour white, the White Tiger of the West, and death and mourning.
In the United States, Labor Day is a public holiday celebrated on the first Monday in September.
Tourism[edit]
See also: Leaf peeping
Autumn in Tennessee
Although colour change in leaves occurs wherever deciduous trees are found, coloured autumn foliage is noted in various regions of the world: most of North America, Eastern Asia (including China, Korea, and Japan), Europe, the forest of Patagonia, eastern Australia and New Zealand's South Island.
Eastern Canada and New England are famous for their autumnal foliage,[23][24] and this attracts major tourism (worth billions of US dollars) for the regions.[25][26]
Paintings[edit]
Otoño, Frederic Edwin Church, 1875. Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza[27]
John Everett Millais, "Autumn Leaves"
Early Autumn, Qian Xuan, 13th century, depiction of decaying lotus leaves and dragonflies hovering over stagnant water
Autumn, Giuseppe Arcimboldo, 1573
Herbst (Autumn), Meinolf Wewel
Autumn (1896) by Art Nouveau artist Alphonse Mucha
The personification of Autumn from an 1871 Currier and Ives print
Autumn landscape in Rybiniszki, Latvia, watercolor by Stanisław Masłowski, 1902 (National Museum in Warsaw, Poland)
This 1905 print by Maxfield Frederick Parrish illustrated Keats' poem 'Autumn'
See also[edit]
Autumn portal
Autumn in New England
Diwali
References[edit]
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). "article name needed". Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (first ed.). James and John Knapton, et al.
Jump up ^ "Oxford Dictionary on the North American usage of Fall". oxforddictionaries.com.
Jump up ^ "NOAA's National Weather Service - Glossary". Crh.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
Jump up ^ "New Zealand Weather and Climate, New Zealand Weather, Temperatures and Climate in New Zealand". Tourism.net.nz. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
Jump up ^ "Weather Centre - Features - Understanding Weather - Autumn Forecasting". BBC. Archived from the original on 4 September 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
Jump up ^ Kanalley, Craig (22 September 2010). "First Day Of Fall 2010: Autumn Equinox Photos". The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 24 September 2010. Retrieved 2010-09-22.
Jump up ^ http://www.almanac.com/content/first-day-winter-winter-solstice
Jump up ^ Laura FitzPatrick (September 8, 2009). "Why We Can't Wear White After Labor Day". Time. Retrieved February 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ Arnold, Kathy (11 October 2010). "Travel". Fall in North America: autumn colour in New England and beyond. Retrieved 15 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Weather of Autumn 2007 (September, October & November summary)" (PDF). Met Éireann - The Irish Meteorological Service Online. 3 December 2007. Retrieved 10 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "So when do we actually start the seasons?". Museumvictoria.com.au. Archived from the original on 2010-09-03. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
Jump up ^ Breyer, Gertraud (1993). Etruskisches Sprachgut im Lateinischen unter Ausschluss des spezifisch onomastischen Bereiches (in German). Peeters Publishers. pp. 412–413. ISBN 9068313355.
Jump up ^ Etymology of 'autumn' - New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 1997 Edition
Jump up ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, entry at automn.
Jump up ^ Harper, Douglas. "harvest". Online Etymology Dictionary.
Jump up ^ Harper, Douglas. "autumn". Online Etymology Dictionary.
Jump up ^ Harper, Douglas. "fall". Online Etymology Dictionary.
Jump up ^ "Revealed: How London accents have killed off local dialects across England". The Telegraph. Retrieved 27 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Cyclical Regenerative Time - (c) Autumn (from 'Symbolism of Place', symbolism.org website)
Jump up ^ D'Alembert, Jean Le Rond (2013) [1751]. Holtrop, Ellen, ed. "Autumn". The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Michigan Publishing. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "Halloween". Encarta. Microsoft. Archived from the original on 31 October 2009.
Jump up ^ Enders, Eric (2007). The Fall Classic: The Definitive History of the World Series. Sterling Publishing Company. ISBN 9781402747700. , et al.
Jump up ^ Popular Baby Names, Social Security Online.
Jump up ^ "Nova Scotia Capitalizes on Fall Tourism | Government of Nova Scotia". Gov.ns.ca. 21 September 1999. Retrieved 2010-03-06.
Jump up ^ Ross, Ben (14 September 2002). "The Complete Guide to Leaf-Peeping & Advice, Travel". The Independent. London. Retrieved 2010-03-06.
Jump up ^ Shir Haberman. "Leaf peepers storm N.H., Maine". SeacoastOnline.com. Retrieved 2010-03-06.
Jump up ^ "Record New England Rains Make Foliage `a Dud,' Hurt Tourism". Bloomberg L.P. 4 November 2005. Retrieved 2010-03-06.
Jump up ^ CM; Paloma. Alarcó. "Autumn - Frederic Edwin Church | Museo Thyssen". Madrid, Spain: museothyssen.org. Retrieved 10 October 2012.
External links[edit]
Look up autumn or fall in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Media related to Autumn at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to Fall at Wikiquote
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https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haust
Haust – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arryire
Arryire – Norman
nrm
nrm
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automne
Automne – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuz
Kuz – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outono
Outono – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbst
Herbst – Colognian
ksh
ksh
interlanguage-link-target

value: Күһүн – Sakha

value:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autumn
Autumn – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vjeshta
Vjeshta – Albanian
sq
sq
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autunnu
Autunnu – Sicilian
scn
scn
interlanguage-link-target

value: සරත් ඍතුව – Sinhala

value:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesen
Jesen – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayr
Dayr – Somali
so
so
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesen
Jesen – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syksy
Syksy – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B6st
Höst – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taglagas
Taglagas – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

value: இலையுதிர்காலம் – Tamil

value: ฤดูใบไม้ร่วง – Thai

value: Тирамоҳ – Tajik

value:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonbahar
Sonbahar – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utuno
Utuno – Venetian
vec
vec
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herfst
Herfst – West Flemish
vls
vls
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katlaya
Katlaya – Waray
war
war
interlanguage-link-target

value: הארבסט – Yiddish

value: शरद ऋतु – Doteli

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