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The Catcher in the Rye
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For other uses, see The Catcher in the Rye (disambiguation).
The Catcher in the Rye
First edition cover
Author
J. D. Salinger
Cover artist
E. Michael Mitchell[1][2]
Country
United States
Language
English
Genre
Realistic fiction
Coming-of-age fiction
Published
July 16, 1951
Publisher
Little, Brown and Company
Media type
Print
Pages
214
OCLC
287628
Dewey Decimal
813.54
The Catcher in the Rye is a story by J. D. Salinger, first published in serial form in 1945-6 and as a novel in 1951.[3] A classic novel originally published for adults, it has since become popular with adolescent readers for its themes of teenage angst and alienation.[4][5] It has been translated into almost all of the world's major languages.[6] Around 1 million copies are sold each year with total sales of more than 65 million books.[7] The novel's protagonist Holden Caulfield has become an icon for teenage rebellion.[8] The novel also deals with complex issues of innocence, identity, belonging, loss, and connection.
The novel was included on Time's 2005 list of the 100 best English-language novels written since 1923[9] and it was named by Modern Library and its readers as one of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century.[10][11][12] In 2003, it was listed at #15 on the BBC's survey The Big Read.[13]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 History
3 Writing style
4 Interpretations
5 Reception
6 Censorship and use in schools
7 Shooters citing the book as an influence
8 Attempted adaptations
8.1 In film
8.2 Banned fan fiction
9 Cultural influence
10 See also
11 References
11.1 Notes
11.2 Bibliography
11.3 Further reading
12 External links
Plot[edit]
Holden Caulfield, a teenager, is living in an unspecified institution in Southern California near Hollywood in 1951. Caulfield intends to live with his brother D.B, an author and World War II veteran whom Holden resents for becoming a screenwriter, after his release in one month. As he waits, Holden recalls the events of the previous Christmas.
Holden begins his story at Pencey Preparatory Academy, an exclusive boarding school in Agerstown, Pennsylvania, on the Saturday afternoon of the traditional football game with a rival school. Holden has been expelled from Pencey due to poor work and is not to return after Christmas break, which begins the following Wednesday. He plans to return home on that day so that he will not be present when his parents receive notice of his expulsion. After forfeiting a fencing match in New York by forgetting the equipment aboard the subway, he is invited to the home of his history teacher, Mr. Spencer. Spencer is a well-meaning but long-winded old man. Spencer greets him and offers him advice, but embarrasses Holden by further criticizing Holden's work in his subject in a rude manner.
Holden returns to his dorm wearing the new red hunting cap he bought in New York. His dorm neighbor Robert Ackley is one of the few students also missing the game. Ackley, unpopular among his peers, disturbs Holden with his impolite questioning and mannerisms. Holden, who feels sorry for Ackley, tolerates his presence. Later, Holden agrees to write an English composition for his roommate, Ward Stradlater, who is leaving for a date. However, Holden is distressed to learn that Stradlater's date is an old friend, Jane Gallagher, whom Holden had romantic feelings for and feels protective of. That night, Holden decides to go to a Cary Grant comedy with his best friend Mal Brossard and Ackley. Since Ackley and Mal had already seen the film, they end up just playing pinball and returning to Pencey. When Stradlater returns hours later, he fails to appreciate the deeply personal composition Holden wrote for him about the baseball glove of Holden's late brother Allie, and refuses to reveal whether he slept with Jane. Enraged, Holden punches him, and Stradlater easily wins the ensuing fight. When Holden continues insulting him after the fight, Stradlater knocks him unconscious and leaves him with a bloody nose. After leaving for Ackley's room, Holden is disappointed when he treats him rudely. Fed up with the so-called "phonies" at Pencey Prep, Holden impulsively decides to leave Pencey early, sells his typewriter to earn money, and catches a train to Penn Station in New York. Holden intends to stay away from his home in a hotel until Wednesday, when his parents would have received news of his expulsion. Aboard the train, Holden meets the mother of a wealthy, obnoxious Pencey student named Ernest Morrow, and lies to her about himself and her son.
In a taxicab, Holden inquires with the driver about whether the ducks in the Central Park lagoon migrate during winter, a subject he brings up often, but the man barely responds. Holden checks into the dilapidated Edmont Hotel. He spends an evening dancing with three tourist women from Seattle in the hotel lounge and enjoys dancing with one, though is disappointed that he is unable to hold a conversation with them. Following an unpromising visit to Ernie's Nightclub in Greenwich Village, Holden becomes preoccupied with his internal angst and agrees to have a prostitute named Sunny visit his room. His attitude toward the girl changes the minute she enters the room; she seems about the same age as him. Holden becomes uncomfortable with the situation, and when he tells her all he wants to do is talk, she becomes annoyed and leaves. Even though he still paid her the right amount for her time, she returns with her pimp Maurice and demands more money. Holden insults Maurice, and after Sunny takes the money from Holden's wallet, Maurice punches him in the stomach and leaves with Sunny. Afterwards, Holden imagines that he has been shot by Maurice, and pictures murdering him with an automatic weapon.
The next morning, Holden, becoming increasingly depressed and in need of personal connection, calls Sally Hayes, a familiar date. Although Holden claims that she is "the queen of all phonies", they agree to meet that afternoon to attend a play at the Biltmore Theater. Holden shops for a special record, "Little Shirley Beans", for his 10-year-old sister Phoebe. He spots a small boy singing "If a body catch a body coming through the rye", which lifts his mood. Although Holden's date initially goes well, it soon sours after Sally introduces her friend George. After the play, Holden and Sally go ice skating at Rockefeller Center, where Holden suddenly begins ranting against society and frightens Sally. He impulsively invites Sally to run away with him that night to live in the wilderness of New England, but she is uninterested in his hastily conceived plan and declines. The conversation turns sour, and the two angrily part ways.
Holden decides to meet his old classmate, a Columbia student named Carl Luce, for drinks at the Wicker Bar in the Seton Hotel. During the meeting, Holden annoys Carl with his fixation on sex. After Luce leaves, Holden gets drunk, awkwardly flirts with several adults, and calls an icy Sally. Exhausted and out of money, Holden wanders over to Central Park to investigate the ducks, breaking Phoebe's record on the way. Nostalgically recalling his experience in elementary school and the unchanging dioramas in the Museum of Natural History that he enjoyed visiting as a child, Holden heads home to see Phoebe. He sneaks into his parents' apartment while they are out, and wakes up Phoebe – the only person with whom he seems to be able to communicate his true feelings. Although Phoebe is happy to see Holden, she quickly deduces that he has been expelled, and chastises him for his aimlessness and his apparent dislikes towards everything. When asked if he cares about anything, Holden shares a selfless fantasy he has been thinking about (based on a mishearing of Robert Burns's Comin' Through the Rye): he pictures himself as the sole guardian of thousands of children playing in a huge rye field on the edge of a cliff. His job is to catch the children if, in their abandon, they come close to falling off the brink; to be, in effect, the "catcher in the rye". Because of this misinterpretation, Holden believes that to be the "catcher in the rye" means to save children from losing their innocence.
When his mother returns home, Holden slips out and visits his former and much-admired English teacher, Mr. Antolini, who is now a New York University professor. Mr. Antolini expresses concern that Holden is headed for "a terrible fall" and advises him to begin applying himself. Although Holden is exhausted, he is courteous and considers his advice. Mr. Antolini also provides Holden a place to sleep. Holden is upset when he wakes up in the night to find Mr. Antolini patting his head, which he interprets as a homosexual advance. Confused and uncertain, he leaves and spends the rest of the night in a waiting room at Grand Central Station, where he sinks further into despair and expresses regret over leaving Mr. Antolini. He spends most of Monday morning wandering Fifth Avenue.
Losing hope of finding belonging or companionship in the city, Holden impulsively decides that he will head out west and live a reclusive lifestyle as a gas station attendant. He decides to see Phoebe at lunchtime to explain his plan and say farewell. While visiting Phoebe's school to give a forged excuse note, Holden becomes obsessed with graffiti containing the word "fuck", and becomes distressed by the thought of children learning the word's meaning. When he meets Phoebe at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, she arrives with a suitcase and asks to go with him, even though she was looking forward to acting as Benedict Arnold in a play that Friday. Holden refuses to let her come with him, which upsets Phoebe, so Holden decides not to leave after all. He tries to cheer her up by allowing her to skip school and taking her to the Central Park Zoo, but she remains angry with him. They eventually reach the zoo's carousel, where Phoebe reconciles with Holden after he buys her a ticket. Holden is finally filled with happiness and joy at the sight of Phoebe riding in the rain.
In a short epilogue, Holden briefly alludes to encountering his parents that night and "getting sick" (implying a tuberculosis diagnosis), mentioning that he will be attending another school in September. Holden says that he doesn't want to tell anything more because, surprisingly, he has found himself missing his former classmates. He warns the reader that telling others about their own experiences will lead them to miss the people who shared them.
History[edit]
Various older stories by Salinger contain characters similar to those in The Catcher in the Rye. While at Columbia University, Salinger wrote a short story called "The Young Folks" in Whit Burnett's class; one character from this story has been described as a "thinly penciled prototype of Sally Hayes". In November 1941, he sold the story "Slight Rebellion off Madison", which featured Holden Caulfield, to The New Yorker, but it wasn't published until December 21, 1946 due to World War II. The story "I'm Crazy", which was published in the December 22, 1945, issue of Collier's, contained material that was later used in The Catcher in the Rye. In 1946, The New Yorker accepted a 90-page manuscript about Holden Caulfield for publication, but Salinger later withdrew it.[14]
Writing style[edit]
The Catcher in the Rye is narrated in a subjective style from the point of view of Holden Caulfield, following his exact thought processes. There is flow in the seemingly disjointed ideas and episodes; for example, as Holden sits in a chair in his dorm, minor events, such as picking up a book or looking at a table, unfold into discussions about experiences.
Critical reviews affirm that the novel accurately reflected the teenage colloquial speech of the time.[15] Words and phrases that appear frequently include:
"Old" – term of familiarity or endearment.
"Phony" – superficially acting a certain way only to change others’ perceptions
"That killed me" – one found that hilarious or astonishing
"Flit" – homosexual
"Crumbum" or "crumby" – inadequate, insufficient, disappointing
"Snowing" – sweet-talking
"I got a bang out of that" – one found it hilarious or exciting
"Shoot the bull" – have a conversation containing false elements
"Give her the time" or "necking" – sexual intercourse
"Chew the fat" or "chew the rag" – small-talk
"Rubbering" or "rubbernecks" – idle onlooking/onlookers
"The Can" – the bathroom
Interpretations[edit]
Bruce Brooks held that Holden's attitude remains unchanged at story's end, implying no maturation, thus differentiating the novel from young adult fiction.[16] In contrast, Louis Menand thought that teachers assign the novel because of the optimistic ending, to teach adolescent readers that "alienation is just a phase."[17] While Brooks maintained that Holden acts his age, Menand claimed that Holden thinks as an adult, given his ability to accurately perceive people and their motives. Others highlight the dilemma of Holden's state, in between adolescence and adulthood.[18][19] Holden is quick to become emotional. "I felt sorry as hell for..." is a phrase he often uses. It is often said that Holden changes at the end, when he watches Phoebe on the carousel, and he talks about the golden ring and how it's good for kids to try and grab it.[18]
Freddie Bartholomew in Captains Courageous
Peter Beidler, in his A Reader's Companion to J. D. Salinger's "The Catcher in the Rye", identifies the movie that the prostitute "Sunny" refers to. In chapter 13 she says that in the movie a boy falls off a boat. The movie is Captains Courageous (1937), starring Spencer Tracy. Sunny says that Holden looks like the boy who fell off the boat. Beidler shows (page 28) a still of the boy, played by child-actor Freddie Bartholomew.
Each Caulfield child has literary talent. D.B. writes screenplays in Hollywood; Holden also reveres D.B. for his writing skill (Holden's own best subject), but he also despises Hollywood industry-based movies, considering them the ultimate in "phony" as the writer has no space for his own imagination, and describes D.B.'s move to Hollywood to write for films as "prostituting himself"; Allie wrote poetry on his baseball glove; and Phoebe is a diarist.[20][not in citation given] This "catcher in the rye" is an analogy for Holden, who admires in children attributes that he struggles to find in adults, like innocence, kindness, spontaneity, and generosity. Falling off the cliff could be a progression into the adult world that surrounds him and that he strongly criticizes. Later, Phoebe and Holden exchange roles as the "catcher" and the "fallen"; he gives her his hunting hat, the catcher's symbol, and becomes the fallen as Phoebe becomes the catcher.[21]
In their biography of Salinger, David Shields and Shane Salerno argue that: "The Catcher in the Rye can best be understood as a disguised war novel." Salinger witnessed the horrors of World War II, but rather than writing a combat novel, Salinger, according to Shields and Salerno, "took the trauma of war and embedded it within what looked to the naked eye like a coming-of-age novel."[22]
Reception[edit]
The Catcher in the Rye has been listed as one of the best novels of the twentieth century. Shortly after its publication, writing for The New York Times, Nash K. Burger called it "an unusually brilliant novel,"[23] while James Stern wrote an admiring review of the book in a voice imitating Holden's.[24] George H. W. Bush called it a "marvelous book," listing it among the books that have inspired him.[25] In June 2009, the BBC's Finlo Rohrer wrote that, 58 years since publication, the book is still regarded "as the defining work on what it is like to be a teenager. Holden is at various times disaffected, disgruntled, alienated, isolated, directionless, and sarcastic."[26] Adam Gopnik considers it one of the "three perfect books" in American literature, along with Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and The Great Gatsby, and believes that "no book has ever captured a city better than Catcher in the Rye captured New York in the fifties."[27] Jeff Pruchnic wrote an appraisal of The Catcher in the Rye after the death of J.D. Salinger. In this article, Pruchnic focuses on how the novel continues to be received incredibly well, even after it has aged many generations. Pruchnic describes Holden as a “teenage protagonist frozen midcentury but destined to be discovered by those of a similar age in every generation to come”.[28] Bill Gates said that The Catcher in the Rye is one of his favorite books ever. [29]
However, not all reception has been positive; the book has had its share of critics. Rohrer writes, "Many of these readers are disappointed that the novel fails to meet the expectations generated by the mystique it is shrouded in. J. D. Salinger has done his part to enhance this mystique. That is to say, he has done nothing."[26] Rohrer assessed the reasons behind both the popularity and criticism of the book, saying that it "captures existential teenage angst" and has a "complex central character" and "accessible conversational style"; while at the same time some readers may dislike the "use of 1940s New York vernacular" and other things.
Censorship and use in schools[edit]
In 1960, a teacher in Tulsa, Oklahoma was fired for assigning the novel in class; however, he was later reinstated.[30] Between 1961 and 1982, The Catcher in the Rye was the most censored book in high schools and libraries in the United States.[31] The book was banned in the Issaquah, Washington, high schools in 1978 as being part of an "overall communist plot".[32] In 1981, it was both the most censored book and the second most taught book in public schools in the United States.[33] According to the American Library Association, The Catcher in the Rye was the 10th most frequently challenged book from 1990 to 1999.[10] It was one of the ten most challenged books of 2005,[34] and although it had been off the list for three years, it reappeared in the list of most challenged books of 2009.[35]
The challenges generally begin with Holden's frequent use of vulgar language,[36][37] with other reasons including sexual references,[38] blasphemy, undermining of family values[37] and moral codes,[39] encouragement of rebellion,[40] and promotion of drinking, smoking, lying, promiscuity, and sexual abuse.[39] Often the challengers have been unfamiliar with the plot itself.[31] Shelley Keller-Gage, a high school teacher who faced objections after assigning the novel in her class, noted that "the challengers are being just like Holden... They are trying to be catchers in the rye".[37] A Streisand effect has been that this incident caused people to put themselves on the waiting list to borrow the novel, when there was no waiting list before.[41][42]
Shooters citing the book as an influence[edit]
Further information: The Catcher in the Rye in popular culture § Shootings
Several shootings have been associated with Salinger's novel, including Robert John Bardo's murder of Rebecca Schaeffer and John Hinckley, Jr.'s assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan. Additionally, after fatally shooting John Lennon, Mark David Chapman was arrested with a copy of the book that he had purchased that same day, inside of which he had written: "To Holden Caulfield, From Holden Caulfield, This is my statement".[43][44]
Attempted adaptations[edit]
In film[edit]
Early in his career, Salinger expressed a willingness to have his work adapted for the screen.[45] In 1949, a critically panned film version of his short story "Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut" was released; renamed My Foolish Heart, the film took great liberties with Salinger's plot and is widely considered to be among the reasons that Salinger refused to allow any subsequent film adaptations of his work.[18][46] The enduring popularity of The Catcher in the Rye, however, has resulted in repeated attempts to secure the novel's screen rights.[47]
When The Catcher in the Rye was first released, many offers were made to adapt it for the screen, including one from Samuel Goldwyn, producer of My Foolish Heart.[46] In a letter written in the early 1950s, Salinger spoke of mounting a play in which he would play the role of Holden Caulfield opposite Margaret O'Brien, and, if he couldn't play the part himself, to "forget about it." Almost 50 years later, the writer Joyce Maynard definitively concluded, "The only person who might ever have played Holden Caulfield would have been J. D. Salinger."[48]
Salinger told Maynard in the 1970s that Jerry Lewis "tried for years to get his hands on the part of Holden,"[48] despite Lewis not having read the novel until he was in his thirties.[41] Celebrities ranging from Marlon Brando and Jack Nicholson to Tobey Maguire and Leonardo DiCaprio have since tried to make a film adaptation.[49] In an interview with Premiere, John Cusack commented that his one regret about turning 21 was that he had become too old to play Holden Caulfield. Writer-director Billy Wilder recounted his abortive attempts to snare the novel's rights:
Of course I read The Catcher in the Rye... Wonderful book. I loved it. I pursued it. I wanted to make a picture out of it. And then one day a young man came to the office of Leland Hayward, my agent, in New York, and said, 'Please tell Mr. Leland Hayward to lay off. He's very, very insensitive.' And he walked out. That was the entire speech. I never saw him. That was J. D. Salinger and that was Catcher in the Rye.[50]
In 1961, Salinger denied Elia Kazan permission to direct a stage adaptation of Catcher for Broadway.[51] More recently, Salinger's agents received bids for the Catcher film rights from Harvey Weinstein and Steven Spielberg,[52] neither of which was even passed on to Salinger for consideration.
In 2003, the BBC television program The Big Read featured The Catcher in the Rye, interspersing discussions of the novel with "a series of short films that featured an actor playing J. D. Salinger's adolescent antihero, Holden Caulfield."[51] The show defended its unlicensed adaptation of the novel by claiming to be a "literary review", and no major charges were filed.
After Salinger's death in 2010, Phyllis Westberg, who was Salinger's agent at Harold Ober Associates, stated that nothing has changed in terms of licensing film, television, or stage rights of his works.[53] A letter written by Salinger in 1957 revealed that he was open to an adaptation of The Catcher in the Rye released after his death. He wrote: "Firstly, it is possible that one day the rights will be sold. Since there's an ever-looming possibility that I won't die rich, I toy very seriously with the idea of leaving the unsold rights to my wife and daughter as a kind of insurance policy. It pleasures me no end, though, I might quickly add, to know that I won't have to see the results of the transaction." Salinger also wrote that he believed his novel was not suitable for film treatment, and that translating Holden Caulfield's first-person narrative into voice-over and dialogue would be contrived.[54]
Banned fan fiction[edit]
In 2009, a year before his death, Salinger successfully sued to stop the U.S. publication of a novel that presents Holden Caulfield as an old man.[26][55] The novel's author, Fredrik Colting, commented: "call me an ignorant Swede, but the last thing I thought possible in the U.S. was that you banned books".[56] The issue is complicated by the nature of Colting's book, 60 Years Later: Coming Through the Rye, which has been compared to fan fiction.[57] Although commonly not authorized by writers, no legal action is usually taken against fan fiction, since it is rarely published commercially and thus involves no profit.[58] Colting, however, has published his book commercially, therefore interfering with copyright law and is not protected.
Cultural influence[edit]
Main article: The Catcher in the Rye in popular culture
The Catcher in the Rye has had significant cultural influence, and works inspired by the novel have been said to form their own genre. Sarah Graham assessed works influenced by The Catcher in the Rye to include the novels Less Than Zero by Bret Easton Ellis, The Perks of Being a Wallflower by Stephen Chbosky, A Complicated Kindness by Miriam Toews, The Bell Jar by Sylvia Plath, Ordinary People by Judith Guest, and the film Igby Goes Down by Burr Steers.[59]
Fantasy writer Harry Turtledove has written a pastiche-parody "Catcher in the Rhine", based on his daughter's mishearing of Salinger's title. In this short story, an unnamed narrator, who is clearly meant to be Holden Caulfield but is unnamed to avoid copyright problems, goes on vacation to Germany and meets characters from the Niebelunglied. This was first published in The Chick is in the Mail, edited by Esther Friesner, Baen 2000 and reprinted in the omnibus Chicks Ahoy! (2010). It was reprinted in Atlantis and Other Places also in 2010.
In "Catcher In The Wry" former major league baseball player, Bob Uecker, recounts anecdotes of his years behind the plate and on the road, recalling the antics of his famous teammates, including Hank Aaron, Bob Gibson, Richie Allen, and Warren Spahn.
The July 1985 issue of National Lampoon included a parody of the novel, ostensibly written by Holden Caulfield's son, entitled 'The Son of the Catcher, who Lives in Rye'.
In December 1991, punk rock band Green Day released their second studio album (Kerplunk), containing the song Who Wrote Holden Caulfield. The song describes said character as crazy, frustrated, and lacking motivation.
See also[edit]
Book censorship in the United States
Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "CalArts Remembers Beloved Animation Instructor E. Michael Mitchell". Calarts.edu. Archived from the original on 2009-09-28. Retrieved 2010-01-30.
Jump up ^ "50 Most Captivating Covers". Onlineuniversities.com. Retrieved 2010-01-30.
Jump up ^ Ulin, David L. (2010-01-29). "J.D. Salinger: a gift of words and silence". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2013-01-19.
Jump up ^ Costello, Donald P., and Harold Bloom. "The Language of "The Catcher in the Rye.." Bloom's Modern Critical Interpretations: The Catcher in the Rye (2000): 11–20. Literary Reference Center. EBSCO. Web. Dec 1, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Carte Blanche: Famous Firsts". Booklist. November 15, 2000. Retrieved 2007-12-20.
Jump up ^ Magill, Frank N. (1991). "J. D. Salinger". Magill's Survey of American Literature. New York: Marshall Cavendish Corporation. p. 1803. ISBN 1-85435-437-X.
Jump up ^ According to List of best-selling books. An earlier article says more than 20 million: Yardley, Jonathan (October 19, 2004). "J. D. Salinger's Holden Caulfield, Aging Gracelessly". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2007-01-21.
Jump up ^ Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of Allusions By Elizabeth Webber, Mike Feinsilber p.105
Jump up ^ Grossman, Lev; Lacayo, Richard (October 16, 2005). "All-Time 100 Novels: The Complete List". Time.
^ Jump up to: a b "The 100 most frequently challenged books: 1990–1999". American Library Association. Retrieved 2009-08-13.
Jump up ^ List of most commonly challenged books from the list of the one hundred most important books of the 20th century by Radcliffe Publishing Course
Jump up ^ Guinn, Jeff (August 10, 2001). "'Catcher in the Rye' still influences 50 years later" (fee required). Erie Times-News. Retrieved 2007-12-18. Alternate URL
Jump up ^ "The Big Read", BBC, April 2003. Retrieved October 18, 2012.
Jump up ^ Salzman, Jack (1991). New essays on the Catcher in the Rye. Cambridge University Press. p. 3. ISBN 9780521377980.
Jump up ^ Costello, Donald P. (October 1959). "The Language of 'The Catcher in the Rye'". American Speech. 34 (3): 172–182. doi:10.2307/454038. JSTOR 454038. Most critics who glared at The Catcher in the Rye at the time of its publication thought that its language was a true and authentic rendering of teenage colloquial speech.
Jump up ^ Brooks, Bruce (May 1, 2004). "Holden at sixteen". Horn Book Magazine. Archived from the original on December 21, 2007. Retrieved December 19, 2007.
Jump up ^ Menand, Louis (September 27, 2001). "Holden at fifty". The New Yorker. Retrieved 2007-12-19.
^ Jump up to: a b c Onstad, Katrina (February 22, 2008). "Beholden to Holden". CBC News. Archived from the original on February 25, 2008.
Jump up ^ Graham, 33.
Jump up ^ Svogun, Margaret Dumais (Winter 2003). "J.D. Salinger's The catcher in the Rye". Explicator. 2 (2). pp. 110–113. Retrieved 2008-02-26.
Jump up ^ Yasuhiro Takeuchi (Fall 2002). "The Burning Carousel and the Carnivalesque: Subversion and Transcendence at the Close of The Catcher in the Rye". Studies in the Novel. 34 (3). pp. 320–337. Retrieved 2008-02-26.
Jump up ^ Shields, David; Salerno, Shane (2013). Salinger (Hardcover ed.). Simon & Schuster. p. xvi. Retrieved 23 August 2015. The Catcher in the Rye can best be understood as a disguised war novel. Salinger emerged from the war incapable of believing in the heroic, noble ideals we like to think our cultural institutions uphold. Instead of producing a combat novel, as Norman Mailer, James Jones, and Joseph Heller did, Salinger took the trauma of war and embedded it within what looked to the naked eye like a coming-of-age novel.
Jump up ^ Burger, Nash K. (July 16, 1951). "Books of The Times". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-03-18.
Jump up ^ Stern, James (July 15, 1951). "Aw, the World's a Crumby Place". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-03-18.
Jump up ^ "Academy of Achievement – George H. W. Bush". The American Academy of Achievement. Archived from the original on 1997-02-13. Retrieved 2009-06-05.
^ Jump up to: a b c Rohrer, Finlo (June 5, 2009). "The why of the Rye". BBC News Magazine. BBC. Retrieved 2009-06-05.
Jump up ^ Gopnik, Adam. The New Yorker, February 8, 2010, p. 21
Jump up ^ Pruchnic, Jeff. "Holden at Sixty: Reading Catcher After the Age of Irony." Critical Insights: ------------The Catcher in The Rye (2011): 49-63. Literary Reference Center. Web. 2 Feb. 2015.
Jump up ^ Gates, Bill. "The Best Books I Read in 2013". gatesnotes.com. Retrieved 2017-08-07.
Jump up ^ Dutra, Fernando (September 25, 2006). "U. Connecticut: Banned Book Week celebrates freedom". The America's Intelligence Wire. Archived from the original on February 15, 2013. Retrieved 2007-12-20. In 1960 a teacher in Tulsa, Okla., was fired for assigning "The Catcher in the Rye". After appealing, the teacher was reinstated, but the book was removed from the itinerary in the school.
^ Jump up to: a b "In Cold Fear: 'The Catcher in the Rye', Censorship, Controversies and Postwar American Character. (Book Review)". Modern Language Review. April 1, 2003. Retrieved 2007-12-19.
Jump up ^ Reiff, Raychel Haugrud (2008). J.D. Salinger: The Catcher in the Rye and Other Works. Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-7614-2594-6.
Jump up ^ Andrychuk, Sylvia (February 17, 2004). "A History of J.D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye" (PDF). p. 6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-28. During 1981, The Catcher in the Rye had the unusual distinction of being the most frequently censored book in the United States, and, at the same time, the second-most frequently taught novel in American public schools.
Jump up ^ ""It's Perfectly Normal" tops ALA's 2005 list of most challenged books". American Library Association. Retrieved March 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Top ten most frequently challenged books of 2009". American Library Association. Retrieved 2010-09-27.
Jump up ^ "Art or trash? It makes for endless, unwinnable debate". The Topeka Capital-Journal. October 6, 1997. Retrieved 2007-12-20. Another perennial target, J.D. Salinger's "Catcher in the Rye," was challenged in Maine because of the "f" word.
^ Jump up to: a b c Mydans, Seth (September 3, 1989). "In a Small Town, a Battle Over a Book". The New York Times. p. 2. Retrieved 2007-12-20.
Jump up ^ MacIntyre, Ben (September 24, 2005). "The American banned list reveals a society with serious hang-ups". The Times. London. Retrieved 2007-12-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Frangedis, Helen (November 1988). "Dealing with the Controversial Elements in The Catcher in the Rye". The English Journal. 77 (7): 72–75. doi:10.2307/818945. JSTOR 818945. The foremost allegation made against Catcher is... that it teaches loose moral codes; that it glorifies... drinking, smoking, lying, promiscuity, and more.
Jump up ^ Yilu Zhao (August 31, 2003). "Banned, But Not Forgotten". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-12-20. The Catcher in the Rye, interpreted by some as encouraging rebellion against authority...
^ Jump up to: a b Whitfield, Stephen (December 1997). "Cherished and Cursed: Toward a Social History of The Catcher in the Rye" (PDF). The New England Quarterly. 70 (4): 567–600. doi:10.2307/366646. JSTOR 366646. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 12, 2012. Retrieved November 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ J. D. Salinger. Philadelphia: Chelsea House. 2001. pp. 77–105. ISBN 0-7910-6175-2.
Jump up ^ Weeks, Linton (September 10, 2000). "Telling on Dad". Amarillo Globe-News. Retrieved 2011-02-12.
Jump up ^ Doyle, Aidan (December 15, 2003). "When books kill". Salon.com. Archived from the original on November 5, 2007.
Jump up ^ Hamilton, Ian (1988). In Search of J. D. Salinger. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-394-53468-9. p. 75.
^ Jump up to: a b Berg, A. Scott. Goldwyn: A Biography. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989. ISBN 1-57322-723-4. p. 446.
Jump up ^ See Dr. Peter Beidler's A Reader's Companion to J. D. Salinger's the Catcher in the Rye, Chapter 7.
^ Jump up to: a b Maynard, Joyce (1998). At Home in the World. New York: Picador. p. 93. ISBN 0-312-19556-7.
Jump up ^ "News & Features". IFILM: The Internet Movie Guide. 2004. Archived from the original on 2004-09-06. Retrieved 2007-04-05.
Jump up ^ Crowe, Cameron, ed. Conversations with Wilder. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999. ISBN 0-375-40660-3. p. 299.
^ Jump up to: a b McAllister, David (November 11, 2003). "Will J. D. Salinger sue?". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2007-04-12.
Jump up ^ AJ (2010-01-29). "Why J. D. Salinger Never Wanted A 'Catcher in the Rye' Movie". The Daily Caller. Retrieved 2013-01-19.
Jump up ^ "Slim chance of Catcher in the Rye movie – ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)". ABCnet.au. Retrieved 2010-01-30.
Jump up ^ Connelly, Sherryl (January 29, 2010). "Could 'Catcher in the Rye' finally make it to the big screen? Salinger letter suggests yes". Daily News. New York. Retrieved 2010-01-30.
Jump up ^ Gross, Doug (June 3, 2009). "Lawsuit targets 'rip-off' of 'Catcher in the Rye'". CNN. Retrieved 2009-06-03.
Jump up ^ Fogel, Karl. Looks like censorship, smells like censorship... maybe it IS censorship?. QuestionCopyright.org. 2009-07-07.
Jump up ^ Sutherland, John. How fanfic took over the web London Evening Standard. Retrieved 2009-07-22.
Jump up ^ Fan Fiction and a New Common Law'(1997) Rebecca Tushnet, Loyola of Los Angeles Entertainment Law Journal,. vol.17.
Jump up ^ Rohrer, Finlo (June 5, 2009). "Why does Salinger's Catcher in the Rye still resonate?". BBC News Magazine. Retrieved 2012-02-12.
Bibliography[edit]
Graham, Sarah (2007). J.D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-34452-2.
Rohrer, Finlo (June 5, 2009). "The why of the Rye". BBC News Magazine. BBC.
Further reading[edit]
Steinle, Pamela Hunt (2000). In Cold Fear: The Catcher in the Rye Censorship Controversies and Postwar American Character. Ohio State University Press.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: The Catcher in the Rye
Book Drum illustrated profile of The Catcher in the Rye
Photos of the first edition of Catcher in the Rye
Lawsuit targets "rip-off" of "Catcher in the Rye" – CNN
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Bottom bracket
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Aerozine ceramic bottom bracket BSA/ISO
The bottom bracket on a bicycle connects the crankset (chainset) to the bicycle and allows the crankset to rotate freely. It contains a spindle that the crankset attaches to, and the bearings that allow the spindle and cranks to rotate. The chainrings and pedals attach to the cranks. The bottom bracket fits inside the bottom bracket shell, which connects the seat tube, down tube and chain stays as part of the bicycle frame.
The term "bracket" refers to the tube fittings that are used to hold frame tubes together in lugged steel frames[1] which also form the shell that contains the spindle and bearings; the term is now used for all frames, bracketed or not.
There is some disagreement as to whether the word axle or spindle should be used in particular contexts. The distinction is based on whether the unit is stationary, as in a hub, or rotates, as in a bottom bracket.[2] American bicycle mechanic and author Sheldon Brown uses axle once and spindle four times in his bottom bracket glossary entry.[3] This article uses spindle throughout for consistency.
An old American term for bottom bracket is hanger. This is usually used in connection with Ashtabula cranks, alternatively termed one-piece cranks.
Contents
[hide]
1 Bottom bracket types
1.1 Three-piece
1.1.1 Loose bearing
1.1.2 Bayliss Wiley Unit Bottom Bracket
1.1.3 Cartridge bearing
1.2 One-piece (Ashtabula)
1.3 Thompson
1.4 External bearings
1.4.1 X-type and Hollowtech II
1.4.2 Giga-X-Pipe
1.4.3 Ultra-Torque
1.4.4 Pressed Bearing Standards
1.5 Other
2 Interface types
2.1 Cottered
2.2 Square taper
2.3 Splined
2.3.1 Octalink
2.3.2 ISIS Drive
2.3.3 Other designs
3 Sizes
3.1 Shell width and spindle length
3.2 Shell diameters and threading
4 Bottom bracket height
5 Eccentric bottom brackets
6 References
7 Standards
8 External links
Bottom bracket types[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Three-piece[edit]
In typical modern bikes, the bottom bracket spindle is separate from the cranks. This is known as a three-piece crankset. The cranks attach to the spindle via a common square taper, cotter or splined interface.
Loose bearing[edit]
Earlier three-piece cranks consist of a spindle incorporating bearing cones (facing out), a fixed cup on the drive side, an adjustable cup on the non-drive side, and loose bearings. Overhauling requires removing at least one cup, cleaning or replacing the bearings, reinstalling the spindle, and adjusting the cups.
Bayliss Wiley Unit Bottom Bracket[edit]
Plain bottom bracket shell of Royal Enfield Revelation houses Bayliss Wiley unit bottom bracket
The ‘Bayliss Wiley unit bottom bracket’ is a self-contained unit that fits into a plain, slightly larger-than-usual bottom bracket shell in a bicycle frame. It comprises a standard spindle and bearings in a steel cylinder with a slightly-modified bearing cup at each end. The cylinder, bearing and spindle are placed in the shell and held in place by the bearing cups, each of which has a narrow flange that bears against the edge of the shell.[4]
Bayliss Wiley unit bottom bracket
The Bayliss-Wiley Unit Bottom Bracket was introduced in the mid-1940s. It was fitted to various English lightweights through the 1950s and was used by Royal Enfield on its 'Revelation' small wheeler in the mid-1960s. However, the unit bottom bracket was never popular and it had a reputation for being troublesome. A lack of positive location allowed it to rotate within the frame, loosening the bearing cups. Contemporary users overcome the problem by fixing the unit in the frame using adhesive or a screw.[4]
Cartridge bearing[edit]
Many modern bicycles use what is called a "cartridge" bottom bracket instead. Sealed cartridge bottom brackets are normally two pieces, a unit holding the spindle and bearings that screws into the bottom bracket shell from the drive side and a support cup (often made of light alloy or plastic) that supports the spindle/bearing assembly on the non-drive side. Other designs are three piece, the spindle is separate, but the bearing cups incorporate cheaply replaceable standard cartridge bearing units. Either arrangement makes servicing the bottom bracket a simple matter of removing the old cartridge from the bottom bracket shell, and installing a new one in its place. Cartridge bottom brackets generally have seals to prevent the ingress of water and dirt. The early Shimano LP bottom brackets from the 1990s had the support cup on the drive side and used loose bearings inside; they could be dismantled and serviced much like cup and cone bearings.[1]
In general use, the term 'three piece' refers to the former design, with sealed bottom brackets being seen as the 'standard'. Designs utilizing separate bearings are usually found on low end bikes, due to the low cost.
One-piece (Ashtabula)[edit]
With a one-piece (also called Ashtabula) crank and bottom bracket, the spindle and crank arms are a single piece. The bottom bracket shell is large to accommodate removal of this S-shaped crank. Bearing cups are pressed into the bottom bracket shell. The crank holds the cones, facing in; adjustment is made via the left-threaded non-drive side cone.
One-piece cranks are easily maintained and reliable, but heavy. They are found on BMX bikes as well as low-end road and mountain bikes. They fit only frames with American sized (also known as "Pro size") bottom brackets.
The bearings are normally open to the elements and easily contaminated, although this rarely causes failure. Ball retainers (caged bearings) are used to facilitate assembly and to reduce the number of balls required.[5]
Thompson[edit]
The Thompson bottom bracket uses adjustable spindle cones and cups pressed into the bottom bracket shell like the Ashtabula bottom bracket. Unlike the Ashtabula crank, the non-drive side crank is removable, allowing for a smaller bottom bracket shell. Frames with either Italian or English bottom bracket shell diameters (independent of threading) may be fitted with Thompson bottom brackets.
Thompson bottom bracket
Thompson bottom brackets are rare. The design is similar to a typical hub bearing and theoretically supports the load better, but is hard to seal effectively against dirt and water.
External bearings[edit]
Many current designs are now using an integrated bottom bracket with outboard bearings. This is an attempt to address several issues associated with weight and stiffness. Because of the relatively small 1.37" (36 mm for shells threaded to the Italian standard) diameter shell, designs that place the bearings inside the shell can either have large bearings and a thinner spindle, which lacks stiffness, or smaller bearings and a thicker spindle (such as the original Shimano Octalink), which lacks durability. External bearings allow for a large diameter (hence stiff) and hollow (hence light) spindle. They also offer more distance between the two bearing surfaces, which contributes to stiffness while allowing lighter components. A different approach would be to standardise on the larger BMX shell for all bicycles, or the BB30 standard[6] originally introduced by Cannondale.
Several implementations of external bearings have been brought to market.
X-type and Hollowtech II[edit]
In one design, the driveside (right) crankarm and the bottom bracket spindle are an integrated unit and the bearings are placed outside of the bottom bracket shell. There are a number of versions of this design available: Shimano's Hollowtech II, RaceFace's X-type, FSA's MegaExo. The terms 'X-Type' and 'Hollowtech II' are both used to refer to any design of this type, but are in fact trademarks of the corporations marketing the systems. These external bearings are compatible with those from other manufacturers. With this new standard have come several cranksets designed to use the external bearings of other manufacturers, such as DMR's "Ex type" and Charge Bikes "Regular" cranks.
Magic Motorcycle, a small USA component manufacturer that was later purchased by Cannondale, and re-formed into Cannondale's CODA brand (Coda Magic 900 cranks), made a proprietary external bearing bottom bracket, oversized spindle and crank system in the early 1990s. This design is similar to the external Bottom Bracket designs that are currently being marketed by FSA, RaceFace and Shimano. The modern versions are using the same bearing size (6805-RS) and even the original mounting tool fits but the bearings are sitting closer to the frame now. The crank had intricately CNC machined wide hollow crank arms made of two halves glued together. However, Cannondale moved on and developed the SI cranks and the new BB30 bottom bracket standard. Their special frames have a larger bottom bracket shell allowing the bearings to be inside again while their top level SI crankarms are still two machined aluminum halves glued together.
Another precursor to the current external bearings/through spindle design was developed by Sweet Parts, a micro manufacturer of high end cranks and stems. Their Sweet Wings cranks from the early 1990s incorporated the through spindle concept by attaching the two half pipes coming off each crank arm and held together with a single bolt that resided within the cavity of the spindle itself. Their bottom bracket bearing arrangement was a "hybrid" - the right side was internal while the left side was external (and had the 6805-RS sealed bearing, too).
Giga-X-Pipe[edit]
A SRAM GIGA-X-Pipe Bottom bracket.
Truvativ's approach is an evolution of the ISIS Drive bottom bracket. The spindle is made longer, and the bearings sit outside the bottom bracket shell. The spindle is permanently pressed into the right crank. The left side spline interface looks similar, but is different so as to prevent installation of older ISIS Drive crankarms—which are no longer compatible because Q-factor and chainline can not be maintained using these older cranks with an external bearing BB. They refer to this design as 'Giga-X-Pipe' or 'GXP.' They also make a heavier duty external bearing bottom bracket called 'Howitzer.' The Howitzer BB is more like a traditional BB in that the spindle is not permanently pressed into the right crank. Again, the Howitzer spline looks similar to the ISIS Drive standard spline but is actually different, so as to prevent the usage of ISIS Drive cranks on the external bearing BB, which would affect chainline and Q-factor.
Ultra-Torque[edit]
Hirth joint between the semi-axles of a Campagnolo Ultra-Torque crankset
In late 2006, Campagnolo introduced an outboard bearing design called Ultra-TorqueTM, which has both crank arms permanently attached to halves of the spindle (called semi-axles), which then join in the middle of the bottom bracket with a Hirth joint and a bolt.[7]
Pressed Bearing Standards[edit]
Bicycle frames utilizing pressed bearing standards do not have any threads inside the bottom bracket shell. The bottom bracket is pressed directly into the frame. Using pressed in standards allows frame manufacturers greater flexibility in frame design that many times offers greater stiffness and weight reductions. The current pressed-bearing standards (and developed by) are: BB30 (Cannondale), PF30 (SRAM), BB90 & BB95 (Trek), BB86 & BB92 (Shimano), BB79 (Cervelo’s BBRight), and BB386EVO (FSA and BH bicycles). In BB30, BB90 & BB95 systems: the bearings are pressed directly into the frame. For PF30, BB86 & BB92, BB79, and BB386EVO; the bearing is housed in a nylon plastic cup that is pressed into the frame’s bottom bracket shell. Pressed in standards usually require two-piece cranksets where the spindle is attached to one of the crankarms. Due to fixed spindle length and diameter, cranksets designed for one pressed standard may not be compatible with another. For example, a crankset made specifically for BB30 will not fit in a BB86 bottom bracket and frame. There are other instances where adapters can be used to fit a crankset made for one standard into another. For example, a Shimano (two piece Hollowtech II 24mm OD spindle) road crankset can fit into a BB30 bottom bracket shell (42mm ID) using aftermarket adapters.
Other[edit]
Lightning Cycle Dynamics, Inc. offers a carbon crank bottom bracket assembly[8] with semi-axles that connect in the middle via a hirth-like joint to form the spindle.[9]
Schlumpf makes a bottom bracket that incorporates a two-speed epicyclic transmission.[10]
Interface types[edit]
As well as the different means to fit the bottom bracket into the frame, there are a number of ways of connecting the crank arms to the bottom bracket spindle. Shimano introduced a proprietary splined interface named "Octalink". Several other manufacturers (King Cycle Group, Truvativ, and Race Face) created a "open" standard called "ISIS Drive" or simply "ISIS", for International Splined Interface Standard.[11]
Cottered[edit]
One of the earliest standards of crank interface, cottered cranks are now considered obsolete in Western countries, but are still in common use in China, India and other developing nations. The spindle is a cylinder, and has a flat region across it (a land). The crank has a hole through it to fit onto the spindle, with a transverse hole for the cotter pin. The cotter pin is cylindrical with one side flattened at an angle to form a wedge to match the spindle land. When tightened, this produces a simple and effective interface. The problem is that normally the interface cannot be tightened enough without a cotter press, a highly specialized tool,[12] though still produced and for sale. Cotters can also be installed with an improvised tool designed for another purpose, such as a ball joint splitter or hammer, with mixed results.
Because all the load is on one very small area of the cotter pin and the crank land the cotter pin deforms plastically under normal use and so must be replaced regularly. If this is not done the crank and the spindle wear and must be replaced. There is warning because of a characteristic creak sound that aging pins cause the cranks to make.
Square taper[edit]
A square-taper cartridge bottom bracket.
A Shimano UN25 Square Taper Bottom Bracket before fitting
Often referred to as 'cotterless', since this was the design that was introduced after cottered spindles, square taper was once the most popular (and only) style 'cotterless' crank. This interface consists of a spindle with square tapered ends that fit into square tapered holes in each crank. It is still manufactured in great numbers for bicycles and maintains popularity for such applications as bicycles.[13]
Not all square taper crank and bottom bracket combinations are compatible. Although nearly all spindles use a 2 degree taper, there are two competing standards, defined by the measurement across the flat at the end of the spindle. The JIS size is used by Shimano and most other Asian manufacturers. The ISO size is primarily used by Campagnolo and other European manufacturers, in addition to cranks that adhere to the NJS standards (Sugino 75). Some manufacturers make cranks and bottom brackets to both specifications.
Some square tapered bottom bracket axles are threaded at the ends and use nuts. Other square tapered bottom brackets are hollow or not and crank bolts thread into the ends.
Titanium has been used in an effort to make bottom brackets lighter, but early attempts were not entirely successful. Several manufacturers have built bottom brackets with titanium spindles and alloy cups but their durability was lower than that of steel. Early Campagnolo Super Record titanium spindles (which were hollow) were replaced by a later version that used solid, nutted spindles for improved reliability.
In recent years Shimano has migrated much of their product line away from square taper to a spline attachment called Octalink and to external bearing types. In late 2006, Campagnolo announced that it was abandoning the square taper interface for double chainsets in favor of an outboard bearing design called Ultra-Torque, which uses a splined interface between spindle halves.
Splined[edit]
Several different competing standards for splined interfaces exist. The tool for installing and removing these bottom brackets is often also a spline.
Octalink[edit]
A Shimano Octalink v1 Bottom Bracket before fitting
The Octalink system uses a spindle with eight splines. The splines provide a contact area between crank and spindle for an interface. Octalink exists in the marketplace in two variants, Octalink v1 and Octalink v2. The difference between the two can be seen by the depth of mounting grooves on the bottom bracket spindle. V1 spline grooves are 5 mm long, while V2 are 9mm long. 105, Ultegra 6500 and Dura Ace 7700 cranksets mate to version one bottom brackets, while later mountain bike designs use the deeper-grooved version two. The system is proprietary and protected by Shimano patents and license fees.
ISIS Drive[edit]
ISIS Drive, the International Splined Interface Standard, is a non-proprietary splined specification for the interface between a bicycle crankset and the bottom bracket spindle. It was created by King Cycle Group, Truvativ, and Race Face.
Other designs[edit]
BMX 3-Piece bottom brackets typically use a spindle either 19(.05)mm (3/4") or 22 mm in diameter. In some cases these are splined and the number of splines depend on the manufacturer/model of the crankset, or in other cases the spindle is specific to the crankset.
There are other designs in use that have varying degrees of popularity. One is Truvativ's Power Spline interface. It is a 12 spline spindle proprietary to Truvativ offered as a lower cost alternative to other spline designs. It is essentially a beefed up square taper spindle with splines instead of tapers.
Phil Wood uses a similar splined design to the Shimano bottom bracket. The difference is an 18-tooth versus a 20-tooth as per the Shimano design.
Sizes[edit]
Bottom brackets have several key size parameters: spindle length, shell width, and shell diameter.
Shell width and spindle length[edit]
There are a few standard shell widths (68, 70, 73, 83 or 100 mm). Road bikes usually use 68 mm; Italian road bikes use 70 mm; Early model mountain bikes use 73 mm. Later models (1995 and newer) use 68 mm more commonly. Some downhill bikes even use an 83 mm bottom bracket shell. Snow bikes use a 100mm shell.
Spindles come in a wider range of lengths (102 – 140 mm), and are sized to match not only the shell width, but also the type of crankset it will support (longer for triple, shorter for single, etc.). Spindle length, along with the crank's shape, determines the Q factor or tread.
Shell diameters and threading[edit]
There are a few standard shell diameters (34.798–36 mm) with associated thread pitches (24–28 tpi).
Most (except for Italian and French) designs use right-hand (normal) threading for the left side and left-hand (reverse) threading for the right (drive) side. This is opposite of most pedal threading and is done for the same reason: to keep the bottom bracket cup from backing out of the bottom bracket shell due to precession.
With the development of external bearing designs, the standard shell diameter has become a considerable constraint, limiting both the diameter of the bottom bracket spindle and the size of the actual bearing balls in the races. Consequently, these external bearing designs can be less durable than older internal bearing designs. To address this problem several designers have promoted new standards for larger diameter bottom bracket shells, the best known of which is BB30 promoted by Cannondale. The name BB30 refers to the 30 mm diameter of the spindle, not of the shell.
Bottom Bracket Thread Name
Nominal Thread Description
Cup Outside Diameter
Shell width
Shell Inside Diameter
ISO/English or BSC (British Standard Cycle) sometimes incorrectly referred to as BSA 1.37 in x 24 TPI 34.6–34.9 mm
Left-hand thread drive side
68 mm, 73 mm (oversize), 83 mm (some downhill & FR bikes), 100 mm ("fat bikes") 33.6–33.9 mm
Italian 36 mm x 24 TPI 35.6–35.9 mm
Right-hand thread both sides
70 mm 34.6–34.9 mm
French 35 mm x 1 mm 34.6–34.9 mm
Right-hand thread both sides
68 mm 33.6–33.9 mm
Swiss (uncommon) 35 mm x 1 mm 34.6–34.9 mm
Left-hand thread drive side
68 mm 33.6–33.9 mm
Chater-Lea (uncommon/older vintage) 1.450 in x 26 TPI Oversized
Left-hand thread drive side
64 mm ~35.8 mm
Whitworth (Raleigh 3-speeds + Raleigh road frames except Super Course) 1-3/8 in x 26 TPI 34.6–34.9 mm
Left-hand thread drive side
71/76 33.6–33.9 mm
O.P.C. Ashtabula 24 tpi (most), 28 tpi (Schwinn, Mongoose) Male threads on crank 68 mm 51.3 mm
O.P.C. Fauber Male threads on crank 68 mm 45 mm
Raleigh 1 3/8 in x 26 tpi 34.6–34.9 mm
Left-hand thread drive side
33.6–33.9 mm
BB30 (Cannondale)[14] Press fit, not threaded No cups 68 mm (road) or 73 mm (MTB) 42 mm
PressFit 30 (SRAM)[15] Press fit, not threaded 46 mm composite cups 68 mm (road) or 73 mm (MTB) 46 mm
BBright[16] Press fit, not threaded 46 mm composite cups 79 mm 46 mm
Shimano Press Fit (BB86)[17] Press fit, not threaded 41 mm composite cups 86.5 mm (road), 89.5 mm or 92 mm (MTB) 41 mm
BB386EVO Press fit, not threaded 46 mm composite cups 86.5 mm 46 mm
Spanish (BMX) Press fit, not threaded No cups 68 mm 37 mm
Bottom bracket height[edit]
The bottom bracket height is the vertical distance from the center of the bottom bracket to the ground, and it expresses clearance of the frame over obstacles. The height of the bottom bracket is of concern when designing the frame. The height of the bottom bracket is the baseline for the rider's height while riding. Combined with the length of the cranks, it determines the bicycle's ground clearance.
A higher bottom bracket is useful for mountain bikes. In a fixed-gear bicycle, the bottom bracket should be high enough to prevent the pedals from coming in contact with the ground while cornering but is not always achieved.
A lower bottom bracket creates a lower center of gravity and allows for a larger frame without creating an uncomfortable standover height.
Eccentric bottom brackets[edit]
An eccentric is a cylindrical plug or bearing cup that fits into an enlarged bottom bracket shell. The plug is machined to accept a typical bottom bracket, but offset from the center of the plug, so that by rotating the plug, the location of the bottom bracket (and hence the chain tension) may be adjusted (fore and aft to tension the chain, the upper or lower eccentric position for a given chain length can be chosen to fine tune bottom bracket height). Once properly adjusted the plug is then fixed in place by a pair of set screws, a clamping bottom bracket shell, an expanding wedge in the plug, or the plug may be manufactured in left and right halves that clamp against the faces of the bottom bracket shell with screws that connect the two halves.
Eccentric bottom bracket shell inner diameters vary between manufacturers from 42mm-55mm (nominally).
Eccentrics are used in applications that require precise chain tension adjustment such as the timing chain of tandem bicycles, the chain that connects the stoker's and captain's cranks. They may also be employed on bicycles that do not have an adjustable rear wheel position, due to vertical dropouts or a rear disc brake, and that do not have an external rear derailleur such as single-speeds or bikes with an internal-geared hub.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "British Council Film Collection - How a Bicycle is made". British Council Film Collection. 1945. At 03:25. Retrieved 2016-03-16.
Jump up ^ Brown, Sheldon. "Sheldon Brown's Bicycle Glossary:Axle". Sheldon Brown. Retrieved 2009-01-14.
Jump up ^ Brown, Sheldon. "Sheldon Brown's Bicycle Glossary:Bottom bracket". Sheldon Brown. Retrieved 2009-01-14.
^ Jump up to: a b "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-10-15. Retrieved 2013-08-26. Royal Enfield Revelation (retrieved 26 August 2013).
Jump up ^ Brown, Sheldon. "Bicycle Glossary: Retainer". Retrieved 2010-03-26. The advantages of retainers are ease of assembly, and economy because the manufacturer can get by with fewer balls, if they are spaced apart by a retainer.
Jump up ^ "BB30 Standard". 2007. Retrieved 2008-03-19.
Jump up ^ "Campagnolo Ultra-Torque Crankset". 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-14.
Jump up ^ "The Lightest Integral Crankset and Bottom Bracket Assembly!". Archived from the original on 2003-12-07. Retrieved 2009-01-21.
Jump up ^ Cranks Installation Sheet "Lightning Carbon Cranks/BB Installation Procedure" Check |url= value (help) (PDF). Retrieved 2009-01-21.
Jump up ^ "Schlumpf Innovations: Mountain Drive". 2005. Archived from the original on 2007-10-30. Retrieved 2007-11-18.
Jump up ^ "International Spline Interface Standard web site". Retrieved 2015-06-04.
Jump up ^ "Cottered Cranks by Sheldon "No Clunk" Brown". Retrieved 2008-02-27.
Jump up ^ Nick Legan (Aug 31, 2011). "Eurobike Day One: The big brands can wait". VeloNews. Retrieved 2012-07-21. Aluminum cranks for square taper bottom brackets seem to be holding strong as well. Most of these cranks are made for single-chainring application.
Jump up ^ "BB30 Standard" (PDF). 2006. Retrieved 2015-06-04.
Jump up ^ sram.com — frame fit specifications
Jump up ^ BBright.net web site
Jump up ^ "Press-Fit bottom bracket adapter" (PDF). 2007. Retrieved 2015-06-04.
Standards[edit]
ISO 6695: Cycles – Pedal axle and crank assembly with square end fittings – Assembly dimensions. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, 1991. (also: British Standard BS 6102-14)
ISO 6696: Cycles – Screw threads used in bottom bracket assemblies. 1989. (also: British Standard BS 6102-9)
ISIS drive
External links[edit]
The Wikibook Bicycles has a page on the topic of: Bottom bracket overhaul
Bottom Bracket Size Database by Sheldon Brown
How to fit a bottom bracket by Ceramic Speed
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List of winners of the New York City Marathon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The New York City Marathon is a 42,195-meter (26.2 mile) race through all five boroughs of New York City, and ranks as the largest marathon in the world, with a record 51,392 finishers (29,927 men/21,465 women) in 2016. Since its inaugural race in 1970, 34 men and 25 women have won the open division of the New York City Marathon, representing 22 different countries. From 1970 through 1975, the race was held entirely in Central Park. It has started in Staten Island and gone through New York City's other four boroughs since 1976. Grete Waitz of Norway has won the race more than any other athlete, having completed her 9th victory in 1988, setting three course records in the process. Current course records were set by Geoffrey Mutai of Kenya in 2011 in the men's division, and by Margaret Okayo of Kenya in 2003 in the women's division.
A wheelchair race has been held since 2000. Among the wheelchair racers, Edith Hunkeler of Switzerland and Tatyana McFadden of USA has the most victories, with five each (McFadden has four in a row). Tatyana McFadden also holds the women's course record with a time of 1:43:04 set in 2015, while Kurt Fearnley of Australia holds the men's record with 1:29:22 set in 2006.
Contents
[hide]
1 Men's open division
2 Women's open division
3 Men's wheelchair division
4 Women's wheelchair division
5 Victories by nationality
6 References
7 External links
Men's open division[edit]
Rodgers Rop, winner of the 2002 New York City Marathon. He won the Boston Marathon that same year.
Paul Tergat, winner of the 2005 New York City Marathon, participating in an event for the World Food Program.
Marílson Gomes dos Santos, winner of the 2006 and 2008 New York City Marathons, and the first and only Brazilian to win it in either division.
Year
Winner
Country
Time
Notes
1970 Gary Muhrcke United States 2:31:38 Course record
1971 Norman Higgins United States 2:22:54 Course record
1972 Sheldon Karlin United States 2:27:52
1973 Tom Fleming United States 2:21:54 Course record
1974 Norbert Sander United States 2:26:30
1975 Tom Fleming United States 2:19:27 Course record, 2nd victory
1976 Bill Rodgers United States 2:10:10 Course record
1977 Bill Rodgers United States 2:11:28 2nd victory
1978 Bill Rodgers United States 2:12:12 3rd victory
1979 Bill Rodgers United States 2:11:42 4th victory
1980 Alberto Salazar United States 2:09:41 Course record
1981 Alberto Salazar United States 2:08:13 World record, 2nd victory
1982 Alberto Salazar United States 2:09:29 3rd victory
1983 Rod Dixon New Zealand 2:08:59
1984 Orlando Pizzolato Italy 2:14:53
1985 Orlando Pizzolato Italy 2:11:34 2nd victory
1986 Gianni Poli Italy 2:11:06
1987 Ibrahim Hussein Kenya 2:11:01
1988 Steve Jones United Kingdom 2:08:20
1989 Juma Ikangaa Tanzania 2:08:01 Course record
1990 Douglas Wakiihuri Kenya 2:12:39
1991 Salvador García Mexico 2:09:28
1992 Willie Mtolo South Africa 2:09:29
1993 Andrés Espinosa Mexico 2:10:04
1994 Germán Silva Mexico 2:11:21
1995 Germán Silva Mexico 2:11:00 2nd victory
1996 Giacomo Leone Italy 2:09:54
1997 John Kagwe Kenya 2:08:12
1998 John Kagwe Kenya 2:08:45 2nd victory
1999 Joseph Chebet Kenya 2:09:14
2000 Abdelkader El Mouaziz Morocco 2:10:09
2001 Tesfaye Jifar Ethiopia 2:07:43 Course record
2002 Rodgers Rop Kenya 2:08:07
2003 Martin Lel Kenya 2:10:30
2004 Hendrick Ramaala South Africa 2:09:28
2005 Paul Tergat Kenya 2:09:30
2006 Marílson Gomes dos Santos Brazil 2:09:58
2007 Martin Lel Kenya 2:09:04 2nd victory
2008 Marílson Gomes dos Santos Brazil 2:08:43 2nd victory
2009 Meb Keflezighi United States 2:09:15
2010 Gebregziabher Gebremariam Ethiopia 2:08:14
2011 Geoffrey Mutai Kenya 2:05:06 Course record
2012 Cancelled due to Hurricane Sandy
2013 Geoffrey Mutai Kenya 2:08:24 2nd victory
2014 Wilson Kipsang Kenya 2:10:59
2015 Stanley Biwott Kenya 2:10:34
2016 Ghirmay Ghebreslassie Eritrea 2:07:51
2017 Geoffrey Kamworor Kenya 2:10:53
Women's open division[edit]
Paula Radcliffe, winner of the 2004, 2007 & 2008 New York City Marathons.
Jeļena Prokopčuka, winner of the 2005 and 2006 New York City Marathons, the first and only Latvian runner to win in either division.
Year
Winner
Country
Time
Notes
1972 Nina Kuscsik United States 3:08:41 Course record
1973 Nina Kuscsik United States 2:57:07 Course record, 2nd victory
1974 Kathrine Switzer United States 3:07:29
1975 Kim Merritt United States 2:46:14 Course record
1976 Miki Gorman United States 2:39:11 Course record
1977 Miki Gorman United States 2:43:10 2nd victory
1978 Grete Waitz Norway 2:32:30 Course record
1979 Grete Waitz Norway 2:27:33 Course record, 2nd victory
1980 Grete Waitz Norway 2:25:42 Course record, 3rd victory
1981 Allison Roe New Zealand 2:25:29 Course record
1982 Grete Waitz Norway 2:27:14 4th victory
1983 Grete Waitz Norway 2:27:00 5th victory
1984 Grete Waitz Norway 2:29:30 6th victory
1985 Grete Waitz Norway 2:28:34 7th victory
1986 Grete Waitz Norway 2:28:06 8th victory
1987 Priscilla Welch United Kingdom 2:30:17
1988 Grete Waitz Norway 2:28:07 9th victory
1989 Ingrid Kristiansen Norway 2:25:30
1990 Wanda Panfil Poland 2:30:45
1991 Liz McColgan United Kingdom 2:27:32
1992 Lisa Ondieki Australia 2:24:40 Course record
1993 Uta Pippig Germany 2:26:24
1994 Tegla Loroupe Kenya 2:27:37
1995 Tegla Loroupe Kenya 2:28:06 2nd victory
1996 Anuţa Cătună Romania 2:28:18
1997 Franziska Rochat-Moser Switzerland 2:28:43
1998 Franca Fiacconi Italy 2:25:17
1999 Adriana Fernandez Mexico 2:25:06
2000 Lyudmila Petrova Russia 2:25:45
2001 Margaret Okayo Kenya 2:24:21 Course record
2002 Joyce Chepchumba Kenya 2:25:56
2003 Margaret Okayo Kenya 2:22:31 Course record, 2nd victory
2004 Paula Radcliffe United Kingdom 2:23:10
2005 Jeļena Prokopčuka Latvia 2:24:41
2006 Jeļena Prokopčuka Latvia 2:25:05 2nd victory
2007 Paula Radcliffe United Kingdom 2:23:09 2nd victory
2008 Paula Radcliffe United Kingdom 2:23:56 3rd victory
2009 Derartu Tulu Ethiopia 2:28:52
2010 Edna Kiplagat Kenya 2:28:20
2011 Firehiwot Dado Ethiopia 2:23:15
2012 Cancelled due to Hurricane Sandy
2013 Priscah Jeptoo Kenya 2:25:07
2014 Mary Keitany Kenya 2:25:07
2015 Mary Keitany Kenya 2:24:25 2nd victory
2016 Mary Keitany Kenya 2:24:26 3rd victory
2017 Shalane Flanagan United States 2:26:53 Fifth US woman to win; first since 1977
Men's wheelchair division[edit]
David Weir, winner of the 2010 race
Masazumi Soejima, winner of the 2011 race
Year
Winner
Country
Time
Notes
2000 Ayari, KamelKamel Ayari Tunisia 1:53:50 [1]
2001 Mendoza, SaúlSaúl Mendoza Mexico 1:39:29 Course record[2]
2002 Schabort, KrigeKrige Schabort South Africa 1:38:27 Course record[3]
2003 Schabort, KrigeKrige Schabort South Africa 1:32:19 Course record, 2nd victory[4]
2004 Mendoza, SaúlSaúl Mendoza Mexico 1:33:16 2nd victory[5]
2005 van Dyk, ErnstErnst van Dyk South Africa 1:31:11 Course record[6]
2006 Fearnley, KurtKurt Fearnley Australia 1:29:22 Course record[7]
2007 Fearnley, KurtKurt Fearnley Australia 1:33:58 2nd victory[8]
2008 Fearnley, KurtKurt Fearnley Australia 1:44:51 3rd victory[9]
2009 Fearnley, KurtKurt Fearnley Australia 1:35:58 4th victory
2010 Weir, DavidDavid Weir United Kingdom 1:37:29
2011 Soejima, MasazumiMasazumi Soejima Japan 1:31:41
2012 Cancelled due to Hurricane Sandy
2013 Hug, MarcelMarcel Hug Switzerland 1:40:14
2014 Fearnley, KurtKurt Fearnley Australia 1:30:55 5th victory (Note that the course was shortened by 3 miles at the start)
2015 van Dyk, ErnstErnst van Dyk South Africa 1:30:54 2nd victory
2016 Hug, MarcelMarcel Hug Switzerland 1:35:44 2nd victory
2017 Hug, MarcelMarcel Hug Switzerland 1:37.17 3rd victory
Women's wheelchair division[edit]
Year
Winner
Country
Time
Notes
2000 Xuan, Anh Nguyen ThiAnh Nguyen Thi Xuan Vietnam 2:46:47 [1]
2001 Porcellato, FrancescaFrancesca Porcellato Italy 2:08:51 Course record[10]
2002 Blauwet, CheriCheri Blauwet United States 2:14:39 [3]
2003 Blauwet, CheriCheri Blauwet United States 1:59:30 Course record, 2nd victory[4]
2004 Hunkeler, EdithEdith Hunkeler Switzerland 1:53:27 Course record[5]
2005 Hunkeler, EdithEdith Hunkeler Switzerland 1:54:52 2nd victory[6]
2006 McGrory, AmandaAmanda McGrory United States 1:54:19 2 seconds ahead of 2nd-place finisher[7]
2007 Hunkeler, EdithEdith Hunkeler Switzerland 1:52:38 Course record, 3rd victory[8]
2008 Hunkeler, EdithEdith Hunkeler Switzerland 2:06:42 4th victory[9]
2009 Hunkeler, EdithEdith Hunkeler Switzerland 1:58:15 5th victory
2010 McFadden, TatyanaTatyana McFadden United States 2:02:22
2011 McGrory, AmandaAmanda McGrory United States 1:50:25 Course record
2012 Cancelled due to Hurricane Sandy
2013 McFadden, TatyanaTatyana McFadden United States 1:59:13 2nd victory
2014 McFadden, TatyanaTatyana McFadden United States 1:42:16 3rd victory (Note that their course was shortened by 3 miles at the start)
2015 McFadden, TatyanaTatyana McFadden United States 1:43:04 4th victory; course record
2016 McFadden, TatyanaTatyana McFadden United States 1:47:43 5th victory
Victories by nationality[edit]
Country
Men's
Open
Women's
Open
Men's
Wheelchair
Women's
Wheelchair
Total
United States 14 7 0 9 30
Kenya 14 10 0 0 24
Norway 0 10 0 0 10
Mexico 4 1 2 0 7
United Kingdom 1 5 1 0 7
Switzerland 0 1 3 5 9
Italy 4 1 0 1 6
Australia 0 1 5 0 6
South Africa 2 0 4 0 6
Ethiopia 2 2 0 0 4
Brazil 2 0 0 0 2
New Zealand 1 1 0 0 2
Latvia 0 2 0 0 2
Morocco 1 0 0 0 1
Tanzania 1 0 0 0 1
Germany 0 1 0 0 1
Poland 0 1 0 0 1
Romania 0 1 0 0 1
Russia 0 1 0 0 1
Tunisia 0 0 1 0 1
Vietnam 0 0 0 1 1
Eritrea 1 0 0 0 1
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Dicker, Ron (November 6, 2000). "NEW YORK CITY MARATHON: WHEELCHAIRS; In First Official Race, the Winner Stays Clear of Controversy". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-05-20.
Jump up ^ Rose, Derek; Bill Hutchinson (November 5, 2001). "PATRIOTIC STRUT TO MARATHON". Daily News. Retrieved 2009-05-20. [permanent dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b Lichtenstein, Grace (November 4, 2002). "THE MARATHON: WHEELCHAIR COMPETITION; Swiss Legislator Wins Without Vote". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-05-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Williams, Lena (November 3, 2003). "Glue and Cable Wire Aid Tenacious Winner". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 31, 2013. Retrieved 2009-05-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Williams, Lena (November 8, 2004). "MARATHON 2004: NOTEBOOK; Strategy Pays Off in Men's Wheelchair Race". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-05-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Litsky, Frank (November 7, 2005). "After a Bumpy Challenge, a Road Record and Sore Arms". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-05-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Litsky, Frank (November 5, 2006). "Potholes Fail to Stop Winner of Wheelchair Race". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-05-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Litsky, Frank (November 5, 2007). "Racecar Driver Is Fourth in Handcycle". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-05-20.
^ Jump up to: a b "Defending Champions at New York Marathon". International Paralympic Committee. November 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-05-20.
Jump up ^ Lilly, Brandon (November 5, 2001). "MARATHON 2001: WHEELCHAIR DIVISION; Israeli Sets Mark in Men's Hand-Cycle Competition". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-05-20.
External links[edit]
"TCS New York City Marathon Results Archive", New York Road Runners.
"RRIC Annual Marathon Report 2006", Running USA Wire, May 20, 2006.
"New York City Marathon Winners". Encarta. MSN. Archived from the original on 2009-11-01. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
[show]
v
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e
New York City Marathon
...1987...
...2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
List of winners
[show]
v
t
e
New York City Marathon – men's winners
1970: Gary Muhrcke (USA)
1971: Norman Higgins (USA)
1972: Sheldon Karlin (USA)
1973: Tom Fleming (USA)
1974: Norbert Sander (USA)
1975: Tom Fleming (USA)
1976-79: Bill Rodgers (USA)
1980-82: Alberto Salazar (USA)
1983: Rod Dixon (NZL)
1984-85: Orlando Pizzolato (ITA)
1986: Gianni Poli (ITA)
1987: Ibrahim Hussein (KEN)
1988: Steve Jones (GBR)
1989: Juma Ikangaa (TAN)
1990: Douglas Wakiihuri (KEN)
1991: Salvador García (MEX)
1992: Willie Mtolo (RSA)
1993: Andrés Espinosa (MEX)
1994-95: Germán Silva (MEX)
1996: Giacomo Leone (ITA)
1997-98: John Kagwe (KEN)
1999: Joseph Chebet (KEN)
2000: Abdelkader El Mouaziz (MAR)
2001: Tesfaye Jifar (ETH)
2002: Rodgers Rop (KEN)
2003: Martin Lel (KEN)
2004: Hendrick Ramaala (RSA)
2005: Paul Tergat (KEN)
2006: Marílson Gomes dos Santos (BRA)
2007: Martin Lel (KEN)
2008: Marílson Gomes dos Santos (BRA)
2009: Meb Keflezighi (USA)
2010: Gebregziabher Gebremariam (ETH)
2011: Geoffrey Mutai (KEN)
2012: Marathon canceled
2013: Geoffrey Mutai (KEN)
2014: Wilson Kipsang Kiprotich (KEN)
2015: Stanley Biwott (KEN)
2016: Ghirmay Ghebreslassie (ERI)
2017: Geoffrey Kamworor (KEN)
World Marathon Majors
Berlin Marathon – List (M/W)
Boston Marathon – List (M/W)
Chicago Marathon – List (M/W)
London Marathon – List (M/W)
New York City Marathon – List (M/W)
Tokyo Marathon – List (M/W)
[show]
v
t
e
New York City Marathon – women's winners
1971: Beth Bonner (USA)
1972–1973: Nina Kuscsik (USA)
1974: Kathrine Switzer (USA)
1975: Kim Merritt (USA)
1976–1977: Miki Gorman (USA)
1978–1980: Grete Waitz (NOR)
1981: Allison Roe (NZL)
1982–1986: Grete Waitz (NOR)
1987: Priscilla Welch (GBR)
1988: Grete Waitz (NOR)
1989: Ingrid Kristiansen (NOR)
1990: Wanda Panfil (POL)
1991: Liz McColgan (GBR)
1992: Lisa Ondieki (AUS)
1993: Uta Pippig (GER)
1994–1995: Tegla Loroupe (KEN)
1996: Anuța Cătună (ROM)
1997: Franziska Rochat-Moser (SUI)
1998: Franca Fiacconi (ITA)
1999: Adriana Fernández (MEX)
2000: Lyudmila Petrova (RUS)
2001: Margaret Okayo (KEN)
2002: Joyce Chepchumba (KEN)
2003: Margaret Okayo (KEN)
2004: Paula Radcliffe (GBR)
2005–2006: Jeļena Prokopčuka (LAT)
2007–2008: Paula Radcliffe (GBR)
2009: Derartu Tulu (ETH)
2010: Edna Kiplagat (KEN)
2011: Firehiwot Dado (ETH)
2012: Marathon canceled
2013: Priscah Jeptoo (KEN)
2014–2016: Mary Keitany (KEN)
2017: Shalane Flanagan (USA)
World Marathon Majors
Berlin Marathon – List (M/W)
Boston Marathon – List (M/W)
Chicago Marathon – List (M/W)
London Marathon – List (M/W)
New York City Marathon – List (M/W)
Tokyo Marathon – List (M/W)
[show]
v
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e
World Marathon Majors
Marathons
Tokyo
winners
Boston
winners
London
winners
Berlin
winners
Chicago
winners
New York City
winners
Results
Final standings
IAAF World Championships Marathon
World Marathon Cup
Olympic Games Marathon
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