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Ventricular system
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Ventricular system
The ventricular system accounts for the production and circulation of cerebrospinal fluid.
Rotating 3D rendering of the four ventricles and connections. From top to bottom:
Blue - Lateral ventricles
Cyan - Interventricular foramina (Monro)
Yellow - Third ventricle
Red - Cerebral aqueduct (Sylvius)
Purple - fourth ventricle
Green - continuous with the central canal
(Apertures to subarachnoid space are not visible)
Details
Identifiers
Latin
Ventriculi cerebri
MeSH
D002552
NeuroNames
2497
FMA
78447
Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
[edit on Wikidata]
The ventricular system is a set of four interconnected cavities (ventricles) in the brain, where the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is produced. Within each ventricle is a region of choroid plexus, a network of ependymal cells involved in the production of CSF. The ventricular system is continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord (from the fourth ventricle) allowing for the flow of CSF to circulate. All of the ventricular system and the central canal of the spinal cord are lined with ependyma, a specialised form of epithelium.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Ventricles
1.2 Development
2 Function
2.1 Flow of cerebrospinal fluid
2.2 Protection of the brain
3 Clinical significance
4 Additional images
5 See also
6 References
Structure[edit]
Rotating 3D rendering of the four ventricles.
The system comprises four ventricles:
lateral ventricles right and left (one for each hemisphere)
third ventricle
fourth ventricle
There are several foramina, openings acting as channels, that connect the ventricles. The interventricular foramina (also called the foramina of Monro) connect the lateral ventricles to the third ventricle through which the cerebrospinal fluid can flow.
Name From To
interventricular foramina (Monro) lateral ventricles third ventricle
cerebral aqueduct (Sylvius) third ventricle fourth ventricle
median aperture (Magendie) fourth ventricle subarachnoid space via the cisterna magna
right and left lateral aperture (Luschka) fourth ventricle subarachnoid space via the cistern of great cerebral vein
Ventricles[edit]
3D rendering of ventricles (lateral and anterior views).
The four cavities of the human brain are called ventricles.[1] The two largest are the lateral ventricles in the cerebrum; the third ventricle is in the diencephalon of the forebrain between the right and left thalamus; and the fourth ventricle is located at the back of the pons and upper half of the medulla oblongata of the hindbrain. The ventricles are concerned with the production and circulation of cerebrospinal fluid[2]
Development[edit]
The structures of the ventricular system are embryologically derived from the neural canal, the centre of the neural tube.
As the part of the primitive neural tube that will develop into the brainstem, the neural canal expands dorsally and laterally, creating the fourth ventricle, whereas the neural canal that does not expand and remains the same at the level of the midbrain superior to the fourth ventricle forms the cerebral aqueduct. The fourth ventricle narrows at the obex (in the caudal medulla), to become the central canal of the spinal cord.
In more detail, around the third week of development, the embryo is a three-layered disc. The embryo is covered on the dorsal surface by a layer of cells called ectoderm. In the middle of the dorsal surface of the embryo is a linear structure called the notochord. As the ectoderm proliferates, the notochord is dragged into the middle of the developing embryo. The notochord becomes a canal within the embryo known as the neural canal.[3]
As the brain develops, by the fourth week of embryological development several swellings have formed within the embryo around the canal, near where the head will develop. These swellings represent different components of the central nervous system, and are three in number: the prosencephalon, mesencephalon and rhombencephalon. These in turn divide into five sections. As these sections develop around the neural canal, the inner neural canal becomes known as primitive ventricles. These form the ventricular system of the brain:[3] The neural stem cells of the developing brain, principally radial glial cells, line the developing ventricular system in a transient zone called the ventricular zone.[4]
The prosencephalon divides into the telencephalon, which forms the cortex of the developed brain, and the diencephalon. The ventricles contained within the telencephalon become the lateral ventricles, and the ventricles within the diencephalon become the third ventricle.
The rhombencephalon divides into a metencephalon and myelencephalon. The ventricles contained within the rhombencephalon become the fourth ventricle, and the ventricles contained within the mesencephalon become the aqueduct of Sylvius.
Separating the anterior horns of the lateral ventricles is the septum pellucidum: a thin, triangular, vertical membrane which runs as a sheet from the corpus callosum down to the fornix. During the third month of fetal development, a space forms between two septal laminae, known as the cave of septum pellucidum (CSP), which is a marker for fetal neural maldevelopment. During the fifth month of development, the laminae start to close and this closure completes from about three to six months after birth. Fusion of the septal laminae is attributed to rapid development of the alvei of the hippocampus, amygdala, septal nuclei, fornix, corpus callosum and other midline structures. Lack of such limbic development interrupts this posterior-to-anterior fusion, resulting in the continuation of the CSP into adulthood.[5]
Function[edit]
Flow of cerebrospinal fluid[edit]
MRI showing flow of CSF
The cerebrospinal fluid passes out through arachnoid villi into the venous sinuses of the skull.
A schematic illustration of the venous sinuses surrounding the brain.
The ventricles are filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) which bathes and cushions the brain and spinal cord within their bony confines. CSF is produced by modified ependymal cells of the choroid plexus found in all components of the ventricular system except for the cerebral aqueduct and the posterior and anterior horns of the lateral ventricles. CSF flows from the lateral ventricles via the interventricular foramina into the third ventricle, and then the fourth ventricle via the cerebral aqueduct in the brainstem. From the fourth ventricle it can pass into the central canal of the spinal cord or into the subarachnoid cisterns via three small foramina: the central median aperture and the two lateral apertures.
The fluid then flows around the superior sagittal sinus to be reabsorbed via the arachnoid granulations (or arachnoid villi) into the venous sinuses, after which it passes through the jugular vein and major venous system. CSF within the spinal cord can flow all the way down to the lumbar cistern at the end of the cord around the cauda equina where lumbar punctures are performed.
The cerebral aqueduct between the third and fourth ventricles is very small, as are the foramina, which means that they can be easily blocked.
Protection of the brain[edit]
The brain and spinal cord are covered by the meninges, the three protective membranes of the tough dura mater, the arachnoid mater and the pia mater. The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) within the skull and spine provides further protection and also buoyancy, and is found in the subarachnoid space between the pia mater and the arachnoid mater.
The CSF that is produced in the ventricular system is also necessary for chemical stability, and the provision of nutrients needed by the brain. The CSF helps to protect the brain from jolts and knocks to the head and also provides buoyancy and support to the brain against gravity. (Since the brain and CSF are similar in density, the brain floats in neutral buoyancy, suspended in the CSF.) This allows the brain to grow in size and weight without resting on the floor of the cranium, which would destroy nervous tissue.[6][7]
Clinical significance[edit]
The narrowness of the cerebral aqueduct and foramina means that they can become blocked, for example, by blood following a hemorrhagic stroke. As cerebrospinal fluid is continually produced by the choroid plexus within the ventricles, a blockage of outflow leads to increasingly high pressure in the lateral ventricles. As a consequence, this commonly leads in turn to hydrocephalus. Medically one would call this post-haemorrhagic acquired hydrocephalus, but is often referred to colloquially by the layperson as "water on the brain". This is an extremely serious condition regardless of the cause of blockage. An endoscopic third ventriculostomy is a surgical procedure for the treatment of hydrocephalus in which an opening is created in the floor of the third ventricle using an endoscope placed within the ventricular system through a burr hole. This allows the cerebrospinal fluid to flow directly to the basal cisterns, thereby bypassing any obstruction. A surgical procedure to make an entry hole to access any of the ventricles is called a ventriculostomy. This is done to drain accumulated cerebrospinal fluid either through a temporary catheter or a permanent shunt.
Other diseases of the ventricular system include inflammation of the membranes (meningitis) or of the ventricles (ventriculitis) caused by infection or the introduction of blood following trauma or haemorrhage (cerebral haemorrhage or subarachnoid haemorrhage).
During embryogenesis in the choroid plexus of the ventricles, choroid plexus cysts can form.
The scientific study of CT scans of the ventricles in the late 1970s gave new insight into the study of mental disorders. Researchers found that individuals with schizophrenia had (in terms of group averages) larger than usual ventricles. This became the first "evidence" that schizophrenia was biological in origin and led to a renewed interest in its study via the use of imaging techniques. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has superseded the use of CT in research in the role of detecting ventricular abnormalities in psychiatric illness.
Whether the enlarged ventricles is a cause or a result of schizophrenia has not yet been established. Enlarged ventricles are also found in organic dementia and have been explained largely in terms of environmental factors.[8] They have also been found to be extremely diverse between individuals, such that the percentage difference in group averages in schizophrenia studies (+16%) has been described as "not a very profound difference in the context of normal variation" (ranging from 25% to 350% of the mean average).[9]
The cave of septum pellucidum has been loosely associated with schizophrenia,[10] post-traumatic stress disorder,[11] traumatic brain injury,[12] as well as with antisocial personality disorder.[5] CSP is one of the distinguishing features of individuals displaying symptoms of dementia pugilistica.[13]
Additional images[edit]
Transverse dissection showing the ventricles of the brain.
View of ventricles.
Scheme showing relations of the ventricles to the surface of the brain.
Drawing of a cast of the ventricular cavities, viewed from above.
View of ventricles and choroid plexus
See also[edit]
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology.
Blood–brain barrier
Circumventricular organs
References[edit]
Jump up ^ National Institutes of Health (December 13, 2011). "Ventricles of the brain". nih.gov.
Jump up ^ International school of medicine and applied sciences kisumu library
^ Jump up to: a b Schoenwolf, Gary C. (2009). ""Development of the Brain and Cranial Nerves"". Larsen's human embryology (4th ed.). Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. ISBN 9780443068119.
Jump up ^ Rakic, P (October 2009). "Evolution of the neocortex: a perspective from developmental biology". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 10 (10): 724–35. doi:10.1038/nrn2719. PMC 2913577  . PMID 19763105.
^ Jump up to: a b Raine, Adrian; Lee, Lydia; Yang, Yaling; Colletti, Patrick (2010). "Neurodevelopmental marker for limbic maldevelopment in antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy". BJPsych". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 197 (3): 186–192. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.110.078485. PMC 2930915  . PMID 20807962.
Jump up ^ Klein, S.B., & Thorne, B.M. Biological Psychology. Worth Publishers: New York. 2007.
Jump up ^ Saladin, Kenneth S. Anatomy & Physiology. The Unit of Form and Function. 5th Edition. McGraw-Hill: New York. 2007
Jump up ^ Peper, Jiska S.; Brouwer, RM; Boomsma, DI; Kahn, RS; Hulshoff Pol, HE (2007). "Genetic influences on human brain structure: A review of brain imaging studies in twins". Human Brain Mapping. 28 (6): 464–73. doi:10.1002/hbm.20398. PMID 17415783.
Jump up ^ Allen JS, Damasio H, Grabowski TJ (August 2002). "Normal neuroanatomical variation in the human brain: an MRI-volumetric study". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 118 (4): 341–58. doi:10.1002/ajpa.10092. PMID 12124914.
Jump up ^ Galarza M, Merlo A, Ingratta A, Albanese E, Albanese A (2004). "Cavum septum pellucidum and its increased prevalence in schizophrenia: a neuroembryological classification". The Journal of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences. 16 (1): 41–6. doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.16.1.41. PMID 14990758.
Jump up ^ May F, Chen Q, Gilbertson M, Shenton M, Pitman R (2004). "Cavum septum pellucidum in monozygotic twins discordant for combat exposure: relationship to posttraumatic stress disorder". Biol. Psychiatry. 55 (6): 656–8. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.09.018. PMC 2794416  . PMID 15013837.
Jump up ^ Zhang L, Ravdin L, Relkin N, Zimmerman R, Jordan B, Lathan W, Uluğ A (2003). "Increased diffusion in the brain of professional boxers: a preclinical sign of traumatic brain injury?". AJNR. American journal of neuroradiology. 24 (1): 52–7. PMID 12533327.
Jump up ^ McKee, AC; Cantu, RC; Nowinski, CJ; Hedley-Whyte, ET; Gavett, BE; Budson, AE; Santini, VE; Lee, HS; Kubilus, CA; Stern, RA (Jul 2009). "Chronic traumatic encephalopathy in athletes: progressive tauopathy after repetitive head injury". Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 68 (7): 709–35. doi:10.1097/NEN.0b013e3181a9d503. PMC 2945234  . PMID 19535999.
[hide]
v
t
e
Ventricular system of the human brain
Lateral ventricles
Body
Lamina affixa
Stria terminalis
Collateral eminence
Occipital horn
Calcar avis
Septum pellucidum
Third ventricle
Recesses
Optic recess
Infundibular recess
Suprapineal recess
Pineal recess
Hypothalamic sulcus
Tela choroidea
Subfornical organ
Posterior commissure
Fourth ventricle
Roof
Superior medullary velum
Frenulum
Inferior medullary velum
Taenia
Floor
Upper
Facial colliculus
Locus coeruleus
Lower
Vagal trigone
Hypoglossal trigone
Area postrema
Obex
Medial eminence
Sulcus limitans
Fastigium
Apertures
Median/Magendie
Lateral recess to Lateral/Luschka
Other
Rhomboid fossa
Tela choroidea
Cerebrospinal fluid
Blood–brain barrier
Cerebral aqueduct
Interventricular foramina
Perilymphatic duct
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text:
Nil Darpan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Nil Darpan (Bengali: নীল দর্পন।, The Indigo mirror) is a Bengali play written by Dinabandhu Mitra in 1858–1859. The play was published from Dhaka in 1860, under a pseudonym of the author.The play was essential to Nilbidraha, better known as the Indigo revolt of February–March 1859 in Bengal, when farmers refused to sow indigo in their fields to protest against exploitative farming under the British Raj.[1] It was also essential to the development of theatre in Bengal and influenced Girish Chandra Ghosh, who, in 1872, would establish The National Theatre in Calcutta (Kolkata) where the first ever play commercially staged was Nildarpan.
Contents
[hide]
1 Critical summary
2 Characters (চরিত্রসমূহ)
3 Legacy
4 The trial of Nil Durpan
5 Background of the trial of the play Nil Darpan
6 Bibliography
7 References
8 External links
Critical summary[edit]
The play was received with mixed results upon its release. The play was translated by Reverend J.Long for which he was sentenced to prison and charged with sedition.[2]
"I PRESENT" The Indigo Planting Mirror "to the Indigo Planters' hands; now, let every one of them, having observed his face, erase the freckle of the stain of selfishness from his forehead, and, in its stead, place on it the sandal powder of beneficence, then shall I think my labour success".
It was evident from this wish that it is a piece meant to raise a voice among the elite intellectuals of Kolkata so that the farmers revolt will be integrated with the urban thinkers. Unlike the Sepoy Revolt, the Indigo revolt is effectively a revolt integrating the whole population of Bengalis with no distance kept between the several classes of society, which can be attributed to the effort by Mitra and Rev. James Long and Michael Madhusudan Dutt.
Indian literature has a long-standing tradition of drama writing. Almost for a millennium the only form of literature other than odes was drama. The distinction of the genre of Sanskrit Drama by the luminaries like Kalidasa were strong enough to keep the millions absorbed for centuries. But it was coming at a dwan by the mid 1800 in Bengal where the Bengal Renaissance say the rise in western education and ideas, and therefore the styles of new forms of literature were seeping in.[3] For example, Ram Narayan Tarkaratna (1823–1885) had already left the Sanskrit tradition and started writing about social realism.[3] The drama is markedly different from the earlier dramas of that period, notably the first modern drama written in Bengali by Ram Narayan still had the old sadhu bhasa the artificial sanskritised dialect of modern Bengali as the writing medium.
The characters in the drama are the villagers and the indigo planters who got the money and the law in their hand.
Characters (চরিত্রসমূহ)[edit]
GOKUL CHUNDER BASU, a rich farmer. (গোলক চন্দ্র বসু, একজন সম্পন্ন চাষি)
NOBIN MADHAB, son of Gokul Chunder Basu. (নবীন মাধব, গোলক বসুর বড় ছেলে)
BINDU MADHAB, son of Gokul Chunder Basu. (বিন্দু মাধব, গোলক বসুর ছোট ছেলে)
SADHU CHURN, a neighbouring Ryot. (সাধু চরণ, গোলকের প্রতিবেশি রাইয়ত)
RAY CHURN, Sadhu'a brother. (রাই চরণ, সাধু চরণের ছোট ভাই)
Gopi Nath, The Dewan. (গোপীনাথ, নীলকরের দেওয়ান)
Torap, A heroic figure.(তোরাপ, একজন প্রতিবাদী চরিত্র)
Indigo Planters. নীলকর :
J. J. WOOD. (জ়ে জ়ে ঊড, প্রধান নীলকর)
P. P. ROSE J. (পি পি রোগ, উডের ছেলে)
THE AJVIIN OR LAND MEASURER. (জমির পরিমাপকারী)
AMIN KHALASI, a Tent-pitcher. (আমিন খালাসী, নীল সংগ্রাহক)
TAIDGIR Native Superintendent of Indigo Cultivation.
Magistrate, Amla, Attorney, Deputy Inspector, pundit, Keeper of the Gaol, Doctor, a Cow-keeper, a Native Doctor, Four Boys, a Latyal or Club-man, and a Herdsman.
WOMEN (মহিলা চরিত্রসমূহ)
SABITRI Wife of Gokul Chunder. (সাবিত্রী, গোলক বসুর স্ত্রী)
SOIRINDRI, Wife of Nobin. (সৌরিন্দ্রী, নবীন মাধবের স্ত্রী)
SARALOTA Wife of Bindu Madhab. (সরলতা, বিন্দু মাধবের স্ত্রী)
REBOTI Wife of Sadhu Churn. (রেবতী, সাধু চরণের স্ত্রী)
KHETROMANI Daughter of Sadhu+Reboti. (ক্ষেত্রমনি, সাধুচরণ ও রেবতীর মেয়ে)
ADURI Maid-servant in Gokul Chunder's house. (আদুরি, গোলকের বাড়ির কাজের মেয়ে)
PODI MOYRANI A Sweetmeat Maker. (পদী ময়রানী, বিনোদনকারিনী, রোগ সাহেবের সহচরী)
Legacy[edit]
The legacy of black humor in the play is well shared by contemporary dramatists like Michael Madhusudan Dutt and Girish Chandra Ghosh. It was also important in development of the chalit bhasa, or colloquial dialect, which is free of the Sanskrit influenced Sadhu bhasa.
The trial of Nil Durpan[edit]
The proceedings of the trial of Reverend Mr. James Long first appeared in the second Edition (India) of the English version of the play, Nil Durpan (transcribed as Neel Darpan or Nil Darpan). It included all the relevant documents and comments of the Indian and British Newspapers. It was published in 1903 by Messers A. N. ANDINI and Co., Calcutta. Mr. Kumud Bihari Bose compiled it under the title: The Trial of the Rev. James Long and the Drama of Nil Durpan with "Indigo Planters and all about them" as a sub title.[4] The play, Nil Durpan, dealt with the upheaval between the Indigo planters and Indian Rioters in different parts of Bengal, Bihar and U.P. This conflict gave rise to the rift and division between the different classes of the society and between the different sections of the Government as well.
Background of the trial of the play Nil Darpan[edit]
James Long believed that the British mercantile community and even the Government unjustly and oppressively treated the Indigo cultivators. His view concurred with Dinabandhu Mitra who expressed his sentiments in a play entitled Nil Darpan (the original Bengali play was written by him) and published anonymously from Dhaka in 1860. Mitra sent Long a copy of the play as early as 1861. Long brought it to the notice of W. S Seton-Karr, Secretary to the Governor of Bengal and ex-President of the Indigo Commission. Seton-Karr, sensing its importance, mentioned Nil Durpan in conversation with the Lieutenant Governor, Grant.Grant expressed a wish to see a translation of it and print a few copies to be circulated privately amongst friends. After the discussion, Seton-Karr asked Long to arrange for a translation of the play in English. Michael Madhusudan Dutta translated it under the supervision of Long. Long as the editor cut out some coarse passages and wrote a short prefatory note for the play. When the translation was complete, Seton-Karr ordered printing of five hundred copies in lieu of Grant's wish of a few copies. Then Long sent the translated manuscripts to Clement Henry Manuel, the proprietor of the Calcutta Printing and Publishing Press to print five hundred copies and the cost came to around Rs.300. It was published in April or May 1861. Unknown to the Lieutenant Governor, Long began sending out the copies in official Government envelopes that had the heading: "on her Majesty's Service".[5] The translation revealed the nature of the oppression against the indigo planters. It naturally offended the establishment of the play so much that a razing propaganda was started by the Anglo-Indian Press against the publisher and the translator. One of the leading newspapers named The Englishmen and some indigo planters instituted a libel suit against Long and the printer- C. H. Manuel. The words mentioned in Long's Introduction to the play stated that what was presented in it was "plain but true". This was subsequently used by the planters in their prosecution of Long for publishing defamatory statements.
Counsel (acting on Long's advice) named Long as the one responsible as Long had given Manuel a copy of the play for publication.
The planters filed for only nominal damages even as they had decided to prosecute Long for libel in a criminal suit.
Friday, 19 July 1861 was fixed as the first date for the trial and it lasted from then to 24 July, at the Calcutta Supreme Court. It was regarded as the first of the "state trial of India under the Empire". Mr. Peterson and Mr. Cowie were prosecuted. Mr. Eglinton and Mr. Newmarch appeared on behalf of the defendant. Sir Mordunt Wells presided as the Judge.
It is true that it becomes difficult to censor any literary work when it becomes so available in the public domain. That is why it became very urgent to find out the list of people who had the books after its printing. The issue of finding out the list was the concern for the first day of trial on 19 July 1861. The list given in at the trial contained the number of copies that had been issued was said to be two hundred and two.
The agenda for the days of 20 to 24 July was to justify the two counts brought against James Long. The first count referred to a libel or the supposed libel against the two leading newspapers named the Englishman and Hurkaru published from the city of Kolkata. These two papers were alluded to in the preface of the play, Nil Durpan:
The Editors of two daily newspapers are filling their columns with your praises; and whatever other people may think, you never enjoy pleasure from it, since you know fully the reason of their so doing. What surprising power of attraction silver has! The detestable Judas gave the great preacher of the Christian religion, Jesus and others, into the hands of Odious Pilate for the sake of thirty rupees; what wonder then, if the proprietors of two newspapers, becoming enslaved by the hope of gaining one thousand rupees, throw the poor helpless of this land into the terrible grasp of your mouths.[6] Being aggrieved, Mr. Brett, the managing proprietor and formerly joint editor of the Englishman, brought a criminal prosecution against James Long. He claimed that the implied meanings of the allusions were defamatory because the extract symbolises, they wrote for reward from the indigo planters and not otherwise.
The second count which concerned the interests of the society at large was the alleged libel against that portion of the community called as the indigo planters of Lower Bengal.
Sir Mordunt Wells accused Long of slandering the European women in the Nil Durpan the question of shame was brought up through the episode of a woman riding on horseback with Magistrate of Zillah through the village)as well as injuring the reputation of every European in the country by calling Planter or Civilian or Soldier.The fictitious characters named Mr. Wood and Mr. Rose in the play represent the indigo planters. This also became a reason for attacking Long.
Bibliography[edit]
Dinabandhu Mitra: Nil Durpan or the Indigo Planting Mirror, translated by Michael Madhusudan Dutt, edited by Sudhi Pradhan and Sailesh Sen Gupta (Calcutta: Paschimbanga Natya Academy, 1997)
Geoffrey A. Oddie, chapter Eight, The Aftermath: Nil Durpan, Trial and Imprisonment, Missionaries, Rebellion and Proto-Nationalism: James Long of Bengal 1814–87 (London: Routledge, 1999)
Nurul Hossain Choudhury, "James Rev. Long", Banglapedia.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Nildarpan (play by Mitra) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia
Jump up ^ Internet Archive: Details: Nil darpan, or, The indigo planting mirror : a drama
^ Jump up to: a b Бенгальская литература // Литературная энциклопедия. Т. 1. — 1930 (текст)
Jump up ^ i. Editorial note to Nil Durpan, ed. Sudhi Pradhan, p. ii
Jump up ^ Oddie, p. 119
Jump up ^ See to the "Preface" of Nil Durpan, by James Long, ed. by Sudhi Pradhan, p. xi
External links[edit]
Full text of the play in English translation
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Combustion
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Burning" redirects here. For the type of injury, see Burn. For combustion without external ignition, see spontaneous combustion. For the vehicle engine, see internal combustion engine. For other uses, see Burning (disambiguation), Combustion (disambiguation), and Firing (disambiguation).
"Burning point" redirects here. For the musical group, see Burning Point.
This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in Russian. (April 2017) Click [show] for important translation instructions. [show]
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The flames caused as a result of a fuel undergoing combustion (burning)
Air pollution abatement equipment provides combustion control for industrial processes.
Combustion /kəmˈbʌs.tʃən/ or burning[1] is a high-temperature exothermic redox chemical reaction between a fuel (the reductant) and an oxidant, usually atmospheric oxygen, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as smoke. Combustion in a fire produces a flame, and the heat produced can make combustion self-sustaining. Combustion is often a complicated sequence of elementary radical reactions. Solid fuels, such as wood and coal, first undergo endothermic pyrolysis to produce gaseous fuels whose combustion then supplies the heat required to produce more of them. Combustion is often hot enough that light in the form of either glowing or a flame is produced. A simple example can be seen in the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen into water vapor, a reaction commonly used to fuel rocket engines. This reaction releases 242 kJ/mol of heat and reduces the enthalpy accordingly (at constant temperature and pressure):
:2H
2(g) + O
2(g) → 2H
2O(g)
Combustion of an organic fuel in air is always exothermic because the double bond in O2 is much weaker than other double bonds or pairs of single bonds, and therefore the formation of the stronger bonds in the combustion products CO2 and H2O results in the release of energy.[2] The bond energies in the fuel play only a minor role, since they are similar to those in the combustion products; e.g., the sum of the bond energies of CH4 is nearly the same as that of CO2. The heat of combustion is approximately -418 kJ per mole of O2 used up in the combustion reaction, and can be estimated from the elemental composition of the fuel.[2]
Uncatalyzed combustion in air requires fairly high temperatures. Complete combustion is stoichiometric with respect to the fuel, where there is no remaining fuel, and ideally, no remaining oxidant. Thermodynamically, the chemical equilibrium of combustion in air is overwhelmingly on the side of the products. However, complete combustion is almost impossible to achieve, since the chemical equilibrium is not necessarily reached, or may contain unburnt products such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen and even carbon (soot or ash). Thus, the produced smoke is usually toxic and contains unburned or partially oxidized products. Any combustion at high temperatures in atmospheric air, which is 78 percent nitrogen, will also create small amounts of several nitrogen oxides, commonly referred to as NO
x, since the combustion of nitrogen is thermodynamically favored at high, but not low temperatures. Since combustion is rarely clean, flue gas cleaning or catalytic converters may be required by law.
Fires occur naturally, ignited by lightning strikes or by volcanic products. Combustion (fire) was the first controlled chemical reaction discovered by humans, in the form of campfires and bonfires, and continues to be the main method to produce energy for humanity. Usually, the fuel is carbon, hydrocarbons or more complicated mixtures such as wood that contains partially oxidized hydrocarbons. The thermal energy produced from combustion of either fossil fuels such as coal or oil, or from renewable fuels such as firewood, is harvested for diverse uses such as cooking, production of electricity or industrial or domestic heating. Combustion is also currently the only reaction used to power rockets. Combustion is also used to destroy (incinerate) waste, both nonhazardous and hazardous.
Oxidants for combustion have high oxidation potential and include atmospheric or pure oxygen, chlorine, fluorine, chlorine trifluoride, nitrous oxide and nitric acid. For instance, hydrogen burns in chlorine to form hydrogen chloride with the liberation of heat and light characteristic of combustion. Although usually not catalyzed, combustion can be catalyzed by platinum or vanadium, as in the contact process.
Contents
[hide]
1 Types
1.1 Complete and incomplete
1.1.1 Complete
1.1.2 Incomplete
1.1.2.1 Incomplete combustion produced Carbon monoxide
1.1.2.2 Problems associated with incomplete combustion.
1.2 Smouldering
1.3 Rapid
1.4 Spontaneous
1.5 Turbulent
1.6 Micro-gravity
1.7 Micro-combustion
2 Chemical equations
2.1 Stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen
2.2 Stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in air
2.3 Trace combustion products
2.4 Incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen
3 Fuels
3.1 Liquid fuels
3.2 Gaseous fuels
3.3 Solid fuels
4 Combustion management
5 Reaction mechanism
5.1 Kinetic modelling
6 Temperature
7 Instabilities
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
Types[edit]
Complete and incomplete[edit]
See also: pyrolysis
Complete[edit]
The combustion of methane, a hydrocarbon.
In complete combustion, the reactant burns in oxygen, and produces a limited number of products. When a hydrocarbon burns in oxygen, the reaction will primarily yield carbon dioxide and water. When elements are burned, the products are primarily the most common oxides. Carbon will yield carbon dioxide, sulfur will yield sulfur dioxide, and iron will yield iron(III) oxide. Nitrogen is not considered to be a combustible substance when oxygen is the oxidant, but small amounts of various nitrogen oxides (commonly designated NO
x species) form when the air is the oxidant.
Combustion is not necessarily favorable to the maximum degree of oxidation, and it can be temperature-dependent. For example, sulfur trioxide is not produced quantitatively by the combustion of sulfur. NOx species appear in significant amounts above about 2,800 °F (1,540 °C), and more is produced at higher temperatures. The amount of NOx is also a function of oxygen excess.[3]
In most industrial applications and in fires, air is the source of oxygen (O
2). In the air, each mole of oxygen is mixed with approximately 7000371000000000000♠3.71 mol of nitrogen. Nitrogen does not take part in combustion, but at high temperatures some nitrogen will be converted to NO
x (mostly NO, with much smaller amounts of NO
2). On the other hand, when there is insufficient oxygen to completely combust the fuel, some fuel carbon is converted to carbon monoxide and some of the hydrogen remains unreacted. A more complete set of equations for the combustion of a hydrocarbon in the air, therefore, requires an additional calculation for the distribution of oxygen between the carbon and hydrogen in the fuel.
The amount of air required for complete combustion to take place is known as theoretical air. However, in practice, the air used is 2-3x that of theoretical air.
Incomplete[edit]
Incomplete combustion will occur when there is not enough oxygen to allow the fuel to react completely to produce carbon dioxide and water. It also happens when the combustion is quenched by a heat sink, such as a solid surface or flame trap. Same as complete combustion, water is produced by incomplete combustion. However, carbon and carbon monoxide are the products instead of carbon dioxide.
For most fuels, such as diesel oil, coal or wood, pyrolysis occurs before combustion. In incomplete combustion, products of pyrolysis remain unburnt and contaminate the smoke with noxious particulate matter and gases. Partially oxidized compounds are also a concern; partial oxidation of ethanol can produce harmful acetaldehyde, and carbon can produce toxic carbon monoxide.
The quality of combustion can be improved by the designs of combustion devices, such as burners and internal combustion engines. Further improvements are achievable by catalytic after-burning devices (such as catalytic converters) or by the simple partial return of the exhaust gases into the combustion process. Such devices are required by environmental legislation for cars in most countries and may be necessary to enable large combustion devices, such as thermal power stations, to reach legal emission standards.
The degree of combustion can be measured and analyzed with test equipment. HVAC contractors, firemen and engineers use combustion analyzers to test the efficiency of a burner during the combustion process. In addition, the efficiency of an internal combustion engine can be measured in this way, and some U.S. states and local municipalities use combustion analysis to define and rate the efficiency of vehicles on the road today.
Incomplete combustion produced Carbon monoxide[edit]
Carbon monoxide is one of the products from incomplete combustion.[4] Carbon is released in the normal incomplete combustion reaction, forming soot and dust. Since carbon monoxide is considered as a poisonous gas, complete combustion is more preferable.[5]
Problems associated with incomplete combustion.[edit]
Environmental problems : [6]
These oxides combine with water and oxygen in the atmosphere, creating nitric acid and sulfuric acids, which return to Earth's surface as acid deposition, or "acid rain." Acid deposition harms aquatic organisms and kills trees. Due to its formation of certain nutrients which are less available to plants such as calcium and phosphorus, it reduces the productivity of ecosystem and farms. An additional problem associated with nitrogen oxides is that they, along with hydrocarbon pollutants, contribute to the formation of tropospheric ozone, a major component of smog.
Human health problems : [6]
Breathing Carbon Monoxide causes headache, dizziness, vomiting, and nausea. If Carbon Monoxide levels are high enough, humans become unconscious or die. Exposure to moderate and high levels of Carbon Monoxide over long periods of time are positively correlation with risk of heart disease. People who survive severe CO poisoning may suffer long-term health problems.[7] Carbon monoxide from air is absorbed in the lungs which then binds with hemoglobin in human's red blood cells. This would reduce the capacity of red blood cells to carry oxygen throughout the body.
Smouldering[edit]
Smouldering is the slow, low-temperature, flameless form of combustion, sustained by the heat evolved when oxygen directly attacks the surface of a condensed-phase fuel. It is a typically incomplete combustion reaction. Solid materials that can sustain a smouldering reaction include coal, cellulose, wood, cotton, tobacco, peat, duff, humus, synthetic foams, charring polymers (including polyurethane foam) and dust. Common examples of smoldering phenomena are the initiation of residential fires on upholstered furniture by weak heat sources (e.g., a cigarette, a short-circuited wire) and the persistent combustion of biomass behind the flaming fronts of wildfires.
Rapid[edit]
This section's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on Talk:Combustion. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. (July 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Play media
An experiment that demonstrates the large amount of energy released on combustion of ethanol. A mixture of alcohol (in this case, ethanol) vapour and air in a large plastic bottle with a small neck is ignited, resulting in a large blue flame and a 'whoosh' sound.
Rapid combustion is a form of combustion, otherwise known as a fire, in which large amounts of heat and light energy are released, which often results in a flame. This is used in a form of machinery such as internal combustion engines and in thermobaric weapons. Such a combustion is frequently called an explosion, though for an internal combustion engine this is inaccurate.[disputed – discuss] An internal combustion engine nominally operates on a controlled rapid burn. When the fuel-air mixture in an internal combustion engine explodes, that is known as detonation.[disputed – discuss]
Spontaneous[edit]
Spontaneous combustion is a type of combustion which occurs by self-heating (increase in temperature due to exothermic internal reactions), followed by thermal runaway (self-heating which rapidly accelerates to high temperatures) and finally, ignition. For example, phosphorus self-ignites at room temperature without the application of heat.
Turbulent[edit]
Combustion resulting in a turbulent flame is the most used for industrial application (e.g. gas turbines, gasoline engines, etc.) because the turbulence helps the mixing process between the fuel and oxidizer.
Micro-gravity[edit]
Colourized gray-scale composite image of the individual frames from a video of a backlit fuel droplet burning in microgravity.
The term 'micro' gravity refers to a gravitational state that is 'low' (i.e., 'micro' in the sense of 'small' and not necessarily a millionth of Earth's normal gravity) such that the influence of buoyancy on physical processes may be considered small relative to other flow processes that would be present at normal gravity. In such an environment, the thermal and flow transport dynamics can behave quite differently than in normal gravity conditions (e.g., a candle's flame takes the shape of a sphere.[8]). Microgravity combustion research contributes to the understanding of a wide variety of aspects that are relevant to both the environment of a spacecraft (e.g., fire dynamics relevant to crew safety on the International Space Station) and terrestrial (Earth-based) conditions (e.g., droplet combustion dynamics to assist developing new fuel blends for improved combustion, materials fabrication processes, thermal management of electronic systems, multiphase flow boiling dynamics, and many others).
Micro-combustion[edit]
Combustion processes which happen in very small volumes are considered micro-combustion. The high surface-to-volume ratio increases specific heat loss. Quenching distance plays a vital role in stabilizing the flame in such combustion chambers.
Chemical equations[edit]
Stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen[edit]
Generally, the chemical equation for stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen is:
C x H y + z O 2 ⟶ x CO 2 + y 2 H 2 O {\displaystyle {\ce {{C_{\mathit {x}}H_{\mathit {y}}}+{\mathit {z}}O2->{{\mathit {x}}CO2}+{\frac {\mathit {y}}{2}}H2O}}}
where z = x + y 4 {\displaystyle z=x+{\frac {y}{4}}} .
For example, the stoichiometric burning of propane in oxygen is:
C 3 H 8 ⏟ + propane ( fuel ) 5 O 2 ⏟ ⟶ oxygen 3 CO 2 ⏟ + carbon dioxide 4 H 2 O ⏟ water {\displaystyle {\ce {\underbrace {C3H8} _{\underset {(fuel)}{propane}}+\underbrace {5O2} _{oxygen}->\underbrace {3CO2} _{carbon\ dioxide}+\underbrace {4H2O} _{water}}}}
Stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in air[edit]
If the stoichiometric combustion takes place using air as the oxygen source, the nitrogen present in the air (Atmosphere of Earth) can be added to the equation (although it does not react) to show the stoichiometric composition of the fuel in air and the composition of the resultant flue gas. Note that treating all non-oxygen components in air as nitrogen gives a 'nitrogen' to oxygen ratio of 3.77, i.e. (100% - O2%) / O2% where O2% is 20.95% vol:
C x H y + z O 2 + 3.77 z N 2 ⟶ x CO 2 + y 2 H 2 O + 3.77 z N 2 {\displaystyle {\ce {C}}_{x}{\ce {H}}_{y}+z{\ce {O2}}+3.77z{\ce {N2 ->}}\ x{\ce {CO2}}+{\frac {y}{2}}{\ce {H2O}}+3.77z{\ce {N2}}}
where z = x + 1 4 y {\displaystyle z=x+{\frac {1}{4}}y} .
For example, the stoichiometric combustion of propane (C3H8) in air is:
C 3 H 8 ⏟ + fuel 5 O 2 ⏟ oxygen + 18.87 N 2 ⏟ nitrogen ⟶ 3 CO 2 ⏟ + carbon dioxide 4 H 2 O ⏟ water + 18.87 N 2 ⏟ nitrogen {\displaystyle {\ce {\underbrace {C3H8} _{fuel}+\underbrace {5O2} _{oxygen}}}+\underbrace {18.87{\ce {N2}}} _{\text{nitrogen}}{\ce {->\underbrace {3CO2} _{carbon\ dioxide}+\underbrace {4H2O} _{water}}}+\underbrace {18.87{\ce {N2}}} _{\text{nitrogen}}} The stoichiometric composition of propane in air is 1 / (1 + 5 + 18.87) = 4.02% vol
Trace combustion products[edit]
Various other substances begin to appear in significant amounts in combustion products when the flame temperature is above about 7003160000000000000♠1600 K. When excess air is used, nitrogen may oxidize to NO and, to a much lesser extent, to NO
2. CO forms by disproportionation of CO
2, and H
2 and OH form by disproportionation of H
2O.
For example, when 7000100000000000000♠1 mol of propane is burned with 7001286000000000000♠28.6 mol of air (120% of the stoichiometric amount), the combustion products contain 3.3% O
2. At 7003140000000000000♠1400 K, the equilibrium combustion products contain 0.03% NO and 0.002% OH. At 7003180000000000000♠1800 K, the combustion products contain 0.17% NO, 0.05% OH, 0.01% CO, and 0.004% H
2.[9]
Diesel engines are run with an excess of oxygen to combust small particles that tend to form with only a stoichiometric amount of oxygen, necessarily producing nitrogen oxide emissions. Both the United States and European Union enforce limits to vehicle nitrogen oxide emissions, which necessitate the use of special catalytic converters or treatment of the exhaust with urea (see Diesel exhaust fluid).
Incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen[edit]
The incomplete (partial) combustion of a hydrocarbon with oxygen produces a gas mixture containing mainly CO
2, CO, H
2O, and H
2. Such gas mixtures are commonly prepared for use as protective atmospheres for the heat-treatment of metals and for gas carburizing.[10] The general reaction equation for incomplete combustion of one mole of a hydrocarbon in oxygen is:
C x H y ⏟ + fuel z O 2 ⏟ ⟶ oxygen a CO 2 ⏟ + carbon dioxide b CO ⏟ + carbon monoxide c H 2 O ⏟ + water d H 2 ⏟ hydrogen {\displaystyle {\ce {\underbrace {C_{\mathit {x}}H_{\mathit {y}}} _{fuel}+\underbrace {{\mathit {z}}{O2}} _{oxygen}->\underbrace {{\mathit {a}}{CO2}} _{carbon\ dioxide}+\underbrace {{\mathit {b}}{CO}} _{carbon\ monoxide}+\underbrace {{\mathit {c}}{H2O}} _{water}+\underbrace {{\mathit {d}}{H2}} _{hydrogen}}}}
When z falls below roughly 50% of the stoichiometric value, CH
4 can become an important combustion product; when z falls below roughly 35% of the stoichiometric value, elemental carbon may become stable.
The products of incomplete combustion can be calculated with the aid of a material balance, together with the assumption that the combustion products reach equilibrium.[11][12] For example, in the combustion of one mole of propane (C
3H
8) with four moles of O
2, seven moles of combustion gas are formed, and z is 80% of the stoichiometric value. The three elemental balance equations are:
Carbon: a + b = 3 {\displaystyle a+b=3}
Hydrogen: 2 c + 2 d = 8 {\displaystyle 2c+2d=8}
Oxygen: 2 a + b + c = 8 {\displaystyle 2a+b+c=8}
These three equations are insufficient in themselves to calculate the combustion gas composition. However, at the equilibrium position, the water-gas shift reaction gives another equation:
CO + H 2 O ⟶ CO 2 + H 2 {\displaystyle {\ce {{CO}+ {H2O}-> {CO2}+ {H2}}}} ; K e q = a × d b × c {\displaystyle K_{eq}={\frac {a\times d}{b\times c}}}
For example, at 7003120000000000000♠1200 K the value of Keq is 0.728.[13] Solving, the combustion gas consists of 42.4% H
2O, 29.0% CO
2, 14.7% H
2, and 13.9% CO. Carbon becomes a stable phase at 7003120000000000000♠1200 K and 7005101325000000000♠1 atm pressure when z is less than 30% of the stoichiometric value, at which point the combustion products contain more than 98% H
2 and CO and about 0.5% CH
4.
Fuels[edit]
Substances or materials which undergo combustion are called fuels. The most common examples are natural gas, propane, kerosene, diesel, petrol, charcoal, coal, wood, etc.
Liquid fuels[edit]
Combustion of a liquid fuel in an oxidizing atmosphere actually happens in the gas phase. It is the vapor that burns, not the liquid. Therefore, a liquid will normally catch fire only above a certain temperature: its flash point. The flash point of a liquid fuel is the lowest temperature at which it can form an ignitable mix with air. It is the minimum temperature at which there is enough evaporated fuel in the air to start combustion.
Gaseous fuels[edit]
Combustion of gaseous fuels may occur through one of four distinctive types of burning: diffusion flame, premixed flame, autoignitive reaction front, or as a detonation.[14] The type of burning that actually occurs depends on the degree to which the fuel and oxidizer are mixed prior to heating: for example, a diffusion flame is formed if the fuel and oxidizer are separated initially, whereas a premixed flame is formed otherwise. Similarly, the type of burning also depends on the pressure: a detonation, for example, is an autoignitive reaction front coupled to a strong shock wave giving it its characteristic high-pressure peak and high detonation velocity.[14]
Solid fuels[edit]
The act of combustion consists of three relatively distinct but overlapping phases:
Preheating phase, when the unburned fuel is heated up to its flash point and then fire point. Flammable gases start being evolved in a process similar to dry distillation.
Distillation phase or gaseous phase, when the mix of evolved flammable gases with oxygen is ignited. Energy is produced in the form of heat and light. Flames are often visible. Heat transfer from the combustion to the solid maintains the evolution of flammable vapours.
Charcoal phase or solid phase, when the output of flammable gases from the material is too low for persistent presence of flame and the charred fuel does not burn rapidly and just glows and later only smoulders.
A general scheme of polymer combustion
Combustion management[edit]
Efficient process heating requires recovery of the largest possible part of a fuel’s heat of combustion into the material being processed.[15][16] There are many avenues of loss in the operation of a heating process. Typically, the dominant loss is sensible heat leaving with the offgas (i.e., the flue gas). The temperature and quantity of offgas indicates its heat content (enthalpy), so keeping its quantity low minimizes heat loss.
In a perfect furnace, the combustion air flow would be matched to the fuel flow to give each fuel molecule the exact amount of oxygen needed to cause complete combustion. However, in the real world, combustion does not proceed in a perfect manner. Unburned fuel (usually CO and H
2) discharged from the system represents a heating value loss (as well as a safety hazard). Since combustibles are undesirable in the offgas, while the presence of unreacted oxygen there presents minimal safety and environmental concerns, the first principle of combustion management is to provide more oxygen than is theoretically needed to ensure that all the fuel burns. For methane (CH
4) combustion, for example, slightly more than two molecules of oxygen are required.
The second principle of combustion management, however, is to not use too much oxygen. The correct amount of oxygen requires three types of measurement: first, active control of air and fuel flow; second, offgas oxygen measurement; and third, measurement of offgas combustibles. For each heating process, there exists an optimum condition of minimal offgas heat loss with acceptable levels of combustibles concentration. Minimizing excess oxygen pays an additional benefit: for a given offgas temperature, the NOx level is lowest when excess oxygen is kept lowest.[3]
Adherence to these two principles is furthered by making material and heat balances on the combustion process.[17][18][19][20] The material balance directly relates the air/fuel ratio to the percentage of O
2 in the combustion gas. The heat balance relates the heat available for the charge to the overall net heat produced by fuel combustion.[21][22] Additional material and heat balances can be made to quantify the thermal advantage from preheating the combustion air,[23][24] or enriching it in oxygen.[25][26]
Reaction mechanism[edit]
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Combustion in oxygen is a chain reaction in which many distinct radical intermediates participate. The high energy required for initiation is explained by the unusual structure of the dioxygen molecule. The lowest-energy configuration of the dioxygen molecule is a stable, relatively unreactive diradical in a triplet spin state. Bonding can be described with three bonding electron pairs and two antibonding electrons, whose spins are aligned, such that the molecule has nonzero total angular momentum. Most fuels, on the other hand, are in a singlet state, with paired spins and zero total angular momentum. Interaction between the two is quantum mechanically a "forbidden transition", i.e. possible with a very low probability. To initiate combustion, energy is required to force dioxygen into a spin-paired state, or singlet oxygen. This intermediate is extremely reactive. The energy is supplied as heat, and the reaction then produces additional heat, which allows it to continue.
Combustion of hydrocarbons is thought to be initiated by hydrogen atom abstraction (not proton abstraction) from the fuel to oxygen, to give a hydroperoxide radical (HOO). This reacts further to give hydroperoxides, which break up to give hydroxyl radicals. There are a great variety of these processes that produce fuel radicals and oxidizing radicals. Oxidizing species include singlet oxygen, hydroxyl, monatomic oxygen, and hydroperoxyl. Such intermediates are short-lived and cannot be isolated. However, non-radical intermediates are stable and are produced in incomplete combustion. An example is acetaldehyde produced in the combustion of ethanol. An intermediate in the combustion of carbon and hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, is of special importance because it is a poisonous gas, but also economically useful for the production of syngas.
Solid and heavy liquid fuels also undergo a great number of pyrolysis reactions that give more easily oxidized, gaseous fuels. These reactions are endothermic and require constant energy input from the ongoing combustion reactions. A lack of oxygen or other poorly designed conditions result in these noxious and carcinogenic pyrolysis products being emitted as thick, black smoke.
The rate of combustion is the amount of a material that undergoes combustion over a period of time. It can be expressed in grams per second (g/s) or kilograms per second (kg/s).
Detailed descriptions of combustion processes, from the chemical kinetics perspective, requires the formulation of large and intricate webs of elementary reactions.[27] For instance, combustion of hydrocarbon fuels typically involve hundreds of chemical species reacting according to thousands of reactions (see, e.g., the GRI-mech mechanism, http://combustion.berkeley.edu/gri-mech/).
Inclusion of such mechanisms within computational flow solvers still represents a pretty challenging task mainly in two aspects. First, the number of degrees of freedom (proportional to the number of chemical species) can be dramatically large; second, the source term due to reactions introduces a disparate number of time scales which makes the whole dynamical system stiff. As a result, the direct numerical simulation of turbulent reactive flows with heavy fuels soon becomes intractable even for modern supercomputers.[28]
Therefore, a plethora of methodologies has been devised for reducing the complexity of combustion mechanisms without resorting to high detail level. Examples are provided by:
The Relaxation Redistribution Method (RRM)[29][30][31][32]
The Intrinsic Low-Dimensional Manifold (ILDM) approach and further developments[33][34][35]
The invariant constrained equilibrium edge preimage curve method.[36]
A few variational approaches[37][38]
The Computational Singular perturbation (CSP) method and further developments.[39][40]
The Rate Controlled Constrained Equilibrium (RCCE) and Quasi Equilibrium Manifold (QEM) approach.[41][42]
The G-Scheme.[43]
The Method of Invariant Grids (MIG).[44][45][46]
Kinetic modelling[edit]
The kinetic modelling may be explored for insight into the reaction mechanisms of thermal decomposition in the combustion of different materials by using for instance Thermogravimetric analysis [47].
Temperature[edit]
Antoine Lavoisier conducting an experiment related to combustion generated by amplified sun light.
Assuming perfect combustion conditions, such as complete combustion under adiabatic conditions (i.e., no heat loss or gain), the adiabatic combustion temperature can be determined. The formula that yields this temperature is based on the first law of thermodynamics and takes note of the fact that the heat of combustion is used entirely for heating the fuel, the combustion air or oxygen, and the combustion product gases (commonly referred to as the flue gas).
In the case of fossil fuels burnt in air, the combustion temperature depends on all of the following:
the heating value;
the stoichiometric air to fuel ratio λ {\displaystyle {\lambda }} ;
the specific heat capacity of fuel and air;
the air and fuel inlet temperatures.
The adiabatic combustion temperature (also known as the adiabatic flame temperature) increases for higher heating values and inlet air and fuel temperatures and for stoichiometric air ratios approaching one.
Most commonly, the adiabatic combustion temperatures for coals are around 2,200 °C (3,992 °F) (for inlet air and fuel at ambient temperatures and for λ = 1.0 {\displaystyle \lambda =1.0} ), around 2,150 °C (3,902 °F) for oil and 2,000 °C (3,632 °F) for natural gas.[48][49]
In industrial fired heaters, power stationsteam generators, and large gas-fired turbines, the more common way of expressing the usage of more than the stoichiometric combustion air is percent excess combustion air. For example, excess combustion air of 15 percent means that 15 percent more than the required stoichiometric air is being used.
Instabilities[edit]
Combustion instabilities are typically violent pressure oscillations in a combustion chamber. These pressure oscillations can be as high as 180 dB, and long-term exposure to these cyclic pressure and thermal loads reduce the life of engine components. In rockets, such as the F1 used in the Saturn V program, instabilities led to massive damage to the combustion chamber and surrounding components. This problem was solved by re-designing the fuel injector. In liquid jet engines, the droplet size and distribution can be used to attenuate the instabilities. Combustion instabilities are a major concern in ground-based gas turbine engines because of NOx emissions. The tendency is to run lean, an equivalence ratio less than 1, to reduce the combustion temperature and thus reduce the NOx emissions; however, running the combustion lean makes it very susceptible to combustion instability.
The Rayleigh Criterion is the basis for analysis of thermoacoustic combustion instability and is evaluated using the Rayleigh Index over one cycle of instability[50]
G ( x ) = 1 T ∫ T q ′ ( x , t ) p ′ ( x , t ) d t {\displaystyle G(x)={\frac {1}{T}}\int _{T}q'(x,t)p'(x,t)dt}
where q' is the heat release rate perturbation and p' is the pressure fluctuation.[51][52] When the heat release oscillations are in phase with the pressure oscillations, the Rayleigh Index is positive and the magnitude of the thermo acoustic instability is maximised. On the other hand, if the Rayleigh Index is negative, then thermoacoustic damping occurs. The Rayleigh Criterion implies that a thermoacoustic instability can be optimally controlled by having heat release oscillations 180 degrees out of phase with pressure oscillations at the same frequency.[53][54] This minimizes the Rayleigh Index.
See also[edit]
Related concepts
Air-fuel ratio
Autoignition temperature
Chemical looping combustion
Deflagration
Detonation
Explosion
Fire
Flame
Heterogeneous Combustion
Markstein number
Phlogiston theory (historical)
Spontaneous combustion
Machines and equipment
Boiler
Bunsen burner
External combustion engine
Furnace
Gas turbine
Internal combustion engine
Rocket engine
Scientific and engineering society
International Flame Research Foundation
The Combustion Institute
Other
List of light sources
References[edit]
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Further reading[edit]
Look up combustion in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Poinsot, Thierry; Veynante, Denis (2012). Theoretical and Numerical Combustion (3rd ed.). European Centre for Research and Advanced Training in Scientific Computation.
Lackner, Maximilian; Winter, Franz; Agarwal, Avinash K., eds. (2010). Handbook of Combustion, 5 volume set. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-527-32449-1.
Baukal, Charles E., ed. (1998). Oxygen-Enhanced Combustion. CRC Press.
Glassman, Irvin; Yetter, Richard. Combustion (Fourth ed.).
Turns, Stephen (2011). An Introduction to Combustion: Concepts and Applications.
Ragland, Kenneth W; Bryden, Kenneth M. (2011). Combustion Engineering (Second ed.).
Baukal, Charles E. Jr, ed. (2013). "Industrial Combustion". The John Zink Hamworthy Combustion Handbook: Three-Volume Set (Second ed.).
Gardiner, W. C. Jr (2000). Gas-Phase Combustion Chemistry (Revised ed.).
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