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Joker (The Dark Knight)
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The Joker
The Dark Knight character
Heath Ledger as the Joker
First appearance
The Dark Knight (2008)
Created by
Christopher Nolan
David S. Goyer
Portrayed by
Heath Ledger
The Joker is a fictional character who appears in Christopher Nolan's 2008 superhero film The Dark Knight. Based upon the DC Comics character of the same name, he was played by Australian actor Heath Ledger. A psychopathic mass murderer with a sadistic sense of humor, the Joker's arc follows his attempt to undermine the efforts of Batman (Christian Bale), James Gordon (Gary Oldman), and Harvey Dent (Aaron Eckhart) to rid Gotham City of crime. The character embodies themes of chaos, anarchy and obsession: throughout the film, he expresses a desire to upset social order through crime, and defines himself by his conflict with Batman.
Ledger's interpretation of the character is specifically influenced by the graphic novels Batman: The Killing Joke and Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth. In the film, he wears the character's traditional color palette, while his facial appearance includes clown makeup that covers facial scars of a Glasgow smile. The character also explores techniques found in Ledger's previous performances, including his clown act in Terry Gilliam's fantasy film The Brothers Grimm. Further, it references paintings by artist Francis Bacon, Anthony Burgess' novel A Clockwork Orange and various punk rock musicians. Ledger's casting as the Joker was initially controversial.
The Joker is considered Ledger's finest performance; he himself regarded it as his most enjoyable. When the film was released in July 2008, six months after the actor had died from an accidental prescription drug overdose, the performance caused a sensation, receiving universal acclaim and numerous posthumous accolades, including the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor.
Contents
[hide]
1 Character arc
2 Background
3 Performance
3.1 Description
3.2 Development
3.3 Execution
3.3.1 Effects of Heath Ledger's death
4 Reception and legacy
4.1 Announcement and early response
4.2 Critical reception
5 See also
6 References
Character arc[edit]
The Joker (Heath Ledger) and five accomplices, all wearing clown masks, rob a mob-owned bank. He tricks four of them into killing each other, then kills the last one himself and escapes with the money. Interrupting a videoconference between mob leaders Sal Maroni (Eric Roberts), the Chechen (Ritchie Coster) and Gambol (Michael Jai White) with their accountant Lau (Chin Han), he offers to kill Batman (Christian Bale) for half of the mob's money. Gambol refuses the offer and puts a bounty on the "clown". Later, the Joker kills Gambol and takes over his gang.
After learning that Batman has retrieved Lau, Maroni and the Chechen accept the Joker's offer. The Joker announces that people will die each day until Batman reveals his true identity, and makes good on his threat by murdering Gotham Police Commissioner Gillian B. Loeb (Colin McFarlane) and mob trial Judge Janet Surillo (Nydia Rodriguez Terracina). When Gotham's district attorney, Harvey Dent (Aaron Eckhart), attempts to draw him out by identifying himself as Batman, the Joker tries to kidnap him, only to be arrested. Batman interrogates him after Dent goes missing. The Joker also reveals that Dent's girlfriend (and Bruce Wayne's childhood sweetheart) Rachel Dawes (Maggie Gyllenhaal) has also gone missing and reveals their separate locations, both rigged up to time bombs. Switching their whereabouts, the Joker tricks Batman into saving Dent, who is disfigured in the explosion, while Rachel is killed. The Joker then escapes the police station with Lau, who had previously fled to Hong Kong only to be captured by Batman.
The Joker kills Lau and the Chechen, burns all of the mob's money, and takes over the Chechen's gang. Then, to prevent Wayne Enterprises M&A law accountant Coleman Reese (Joshua Harto) from revealing Batman’s alter ego on TV, he announces that he will blow up a hospital if Reese is not dead within 60 minutes. During the panic, the Joker sneaks into Gotham General Hospital disguised as a nurse to meet with Dent, and persuades him to take revenge on the people he holds responsible for Rachel's death. He then blows up the hospital and takes a busload of hostages. He rigs explosives on two of the ferries separately containing citizens and criminals and tells the passengers that he will destroy both boats unless one blows up the other. Ultimately, however, the hostages choose not to blow each other up. Batman subsequently apprehends the Joker, who states that neither will kill each other and believes that they are meant to fight each other forever. The Joker gloats that he has won "the battle for Gotham's soul", as the city's inhabitants will lose hope once Dent's rampage as the murderous vigilante "Two-Face" become known. The Joker is then taken into custody as he laughs hysterically. Batman ultimately foils the Joker's plan by taking the blame for Dent's crimes.
Background[edit]
I feel like this is an opportunity for me to not take myself too seriously, and for some reason I just gravitated towards [The Joker] and I knew I had something to give to him. And I just instantly had an idea of how to do it.
—Heath Ledger on why he preferred playing the super-villain.[1]
As a starting actor, Heath Ledger did not attach himself seriously to the roles he was playing. This changed, however, when at age 22 he started to watch some of his films. Realizing that they were movies he himself might not actually have wanted to see, it made him more cautious and respectful towards his professional choices.[2] The 2005 fantasy film The Brothers Grimm marked a turning point for the actor as director Terry Gilliam gave Ledger (and his co-star, Matt Damon) opportunities to create characters they had not been given before.[3] Gilliam helped Ledger put on a clown act for that film, an experience the actor later acknowledged as an influence for his performance as the Joker.[2]
Director Christopher Nolan had met with Ledger over the years for different roles. While meeting for the part of Batman in Batman Begins, Ledger explained that he was not interested in working on such a film.[4][5] The actor reflected on his problems with portraying superheroes, saying; "I would just feel stupid and silly. I couldn't pull it off and there are other people who can perfectly, but I just couldn't take myself seriously."[1] However, later impressed with Batman Begins,[5][6] Ledger sought the part of the Joker from Nolan.[5] Impressed with Ledger's determination, Nolan cast him in the part.[7] "Heath was just ready to do it, he was ready to do something that big."[8] Casting director John Papsidera reflected on the casting choice, saying the filmmakers knew they needed somebody courageous to play the part.[9] Heath Ledger was cast before there was a script.[10]
Performance[edit]
Heath Ledger described the Joker as a "psychopathic, mass murdering, schizophrenic clown with zero empathy."[11] Highlighting the opportunity for freshness, the actor aimed for a new and different interpretation of the character, separate from previous film incarnations.[7]
Ledger and Christopher Nolan both explained seeing eye-to-eye on the Joker's appearance in the film, sharing common reference points for who the character was going to be.[7] Based on philosophical ideas of anarchy and chaos, they looked at art by Francis Bacon for visual reference and they talked about Malcolm McDowell's performance as Alex in Stanley Kubrick's film A Clockwork Orange, and who Alex is in Anthony Burgess' novel of the same name.[12] Ledger was given Alan Moore's graphic novel Batman: The Killing Joke for preparation for the role, as well as Grant Morrison's graphic novel Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth, which the actor "really tried to read and put it down".[13] In an interview with MTV, Ledger said he regarded the experience playing the Joker as the most fun he ever had, "and probably will ever have".[14]
Description[edit]
"Everything about what he does from every gesture, every little facial tick, everything he's doing with his voice—it all speaks to the heart of this character. It all speaks to this idea of a character who's devoted to a concept of pure anarchy and chaos. It's hard to get a handle on how those elements combine. The physicality reminds me of the great silent comedians. It has a bit of [Buster] Keaton and [Charlie] Chaplin about it."
—Christopher Nolan on Ledger's performance.[15]
Wearing the character's traditional color palette, the Joker is dressed in a thin tie and green waistcoat, topped by a purple overcoat,[16] stylistic choices that hearken back to the era of New Romanticism.[17] His shoes have an upward swoop at the toe, reminiscent of clown shoes.[16] He carries no identification of any kind and offers no clear details about his true name or background; when he is arrested by the Gotham City police, they find only knives and lint in his pockets.
The Joker's hair is stringy, unkempt, and dyed green. His face is covered in a cracked and runny layer of white clown makeup, with his eyes thickly rimmed in black. A sloppy red grin is painted on the Glasgow smile beneath the makeup, extending from the mouth to the cheeks.[16] Film critic Peter Travers wrote about the Joker as having "grungy hair and yellow teeth of a hound fresh out of hell".[18]
The character's mannerisms carry a quality of unpredictability. His voice frequently shifts in pitch, so that he speaks his dialogue hitting higher notes, followed by an immediate lower voice capable of landing two octaves below. Nolan acknowledges this unpredictability to be part of the character's slinky physical movements as well, saying that Ledger's performance "[is] always a surprise".[19] About the Joker's physical appearance, Geoff Boucher wrote for the Los Angeles Times that the character probes the facial scars with his tongue and "walks with shoulders bowed and his chin out and down, like a hyena".[20]
Development[edit]
Steve Alexander, Heath Ledger's agent, said the actor had a "pay-or-play" deal on The Dark Knight, "so he felt free to do whatever he wanted to do as the Joker, no matter how crazy." According to The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus cinematographer Nicola Pecorini, Ledger had talked with him about Johnny Depp's off-kilter portrayal in Pirates of the Caribbean in relation to The Dark Knight, aiming to make a performance that would be "so far out he'd be fired."[21] As Ledger was cast early in pre-production, Nolan explained that the actor had "months and months" to prepare for the role.[22]
"Inside. He's laughing red and black and red and black till there's nothing left to laugh. Until, almost tenderly, he turns inside out through his mouth."
– Scrawlings from Heath Ledger's Joker diary[23]
During a span of six weeks, Ledger "locked" himself away in a hotel room, forming a character diary and experimenting with voices. "It's a combination of reading all the comic books I could that were relevant to the script and then just closing my eyes and meditating on it," he said about his process.[24] The diary contains scrawling and cuttings inside. Christopher Hooton, writing for The Independent, said that the 'Joker journal' had several stills from Stanley Kubrick's film A Clockwork Orange, joker cards, photos of hyenas, unhinged clown makeup and the word "chaos" highlighted in green. Furthermore, it contains a list of things the Joker would find funny, such as AIDS, landmines, and geniuses suffering brain damage.[23] It was revealed that Ledger had read Grant Morrison's writing of The Clown at Midnight (Batman #663) and based the list upon the Batman writer's prose.[25]
Ledger highlighted the importance of finding an iconic voice and laugh for the character, relating the voice as "the key to the demented killer."[26] Nolan explained Ledger's early and "peculiar" ambition for the voice of the character, saying that the actor had studied the way ventriloquist dummies talk. The filmmaker also acknowledged that the voice performance was based on the Alexander technique.[27]
Ledger developed the Joker's voice and mannerism slowly over time and during camera tests. "Don't act, just read it", Nolan had told Ledger for test screening. In hair and makeup tests, Ledger would start exploring the movements of the character. While test recording without sound, he shared his take on the Joker's voice and moves, and "in that way he sort of sneaked up on it."[22]
The actor developed the physical appearance of the character, being "very involved" with the painting of his face, says prosthetic supervisor Conor O'Sullivan.[7] O'Sullivan acknowledged how Ledger, Nolan and makeup artist John Caglione all gravitated towards a Francis Bacon painting Nolan was referring to. Ledger also got to choose the Joker's weapon among different rubber knives, and he worked closely with costume designer Lindy Hemming on deciding the look for the character.
Nolan noted, "We gave a Francis Bacon spin to [his face]. This corruption, this decay in the texture of the look itself. It's grubby. You can almost imagine what he smells like."[28] With costume designer Lindy Hemming picking inspiration for the "chaotic" look from such countercultural pop culture artists as Iggy Pop, Johnny Rotten, and Sid Vicious.[7][29] She gave the image for the Joker of someone who is "very sweaty" and who "probably doesn't have a proper home." She tried to present a backstory for the character "that he really doesn't look after himself."[7]
Execution[edit]
Application of Heath Ledger's makeup was done with the actor scrunching special facial expressions. Caglione called the application work "a dance". This technique created facial textures for the white paint. As Ledger closed his eyes tight, Caglione put on the black makeup. Then, water was sprayed over the eyes and the actor would squeeze his eyes and shake his head and "all that black drippy, smudgy stuff would happen".[16]
To get in character for filming, Ledger used his Joker diary which he carried with him on set. Between takes, Heath Ledger stayed out of character even as he wore the character costume, just being himself. The actor would goof around, skateboarding while in his Joker costume on set, and smoking cigarettes. John Caglione described Ledger as helping others around to relax, never letting "the intense nature of the roles overwhelm him."[30]
The first sequence shot was the films IMAX opening, the "prologue". As the Joker wears a mask through the scene with minimal dialogue, Nolan set the prologue first in schedule because he wanted to put off performance worries, allowing Ledger to enjoy that relief.[22]
The interrogation scene between Batman and the Joker was the first scene shot with Ledger really showing the full performance all together.[22] The director and his leading actors all liked the idea of shooting the key scene early on. During rehearsals, the actors kept things loose and improvisational, saving for the actual shoot. Bale confirmed that Ledger did not perform the Joker's voice during rehearsals, waiting to get in character when the cameras rolled.[31] Nolan later acknowledged the scene to be his favorite in the film, saying "I had never seen anybody sell a punch the way Heath was able to do with Christian."[32]
Ledger was allowed to shoot and direct the threat videos the Joker sends out as warnings. Each take Ledger made was different from the last. Nolan was impressed enough with the first video shoot that he chose to not be present when Ledger shot the video with a kidnapped reporter (Anthony Michael Hall).[33]
Heath Ledger always showed up early on set. The first thing he would do, according to Caglione, was to give bear hugs to cast and crew members around the set. "And no matter how banged-up or bruised Heath was after a long day, after we'd take off the last drop of makeup, he'd just hug everybody in the trailer before he left".[34] At the end of shooting, on his Joker diary's final page, Ledger wrote "BYE BYE".[35]
Effects of Heath Ledger's death[edit]
On January 22, 2008, after he had completed filming The Dark Knight, Ledger died, aged 28, of an accidental prescription drug overdose, leading to intense press attention and memorial tributes. "It was tremendously emotional, right when he passed, having to go back in and look at him every day [during editing]," Nolan recalled. "But the truth is, I feel very lucky to have something productive to do, to have a performance that he was very, very proud of, and that he had entrusted to me to finish."[36] All of Ledger's scenes appear as he completed them in the filming; in editing the film, Nolan added no "digital effects" to alter Ledger's actual performance posthumously.[37] Nolan has dedicated the film in part to Ledger's memory.[38][39]
Ledger's death affected the marketing campaign for The Dark Knight[40] and also both the production and marketing of Terry Gilliam's film The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus; both Nolan and Gilliam celebrated and paid tribute to Ledger's work in these films.[36][40][41][42]
Reception and legacy[edit]
Announcement and early response[edit]
On July 31, 2006, The Dark Knight was officially announced by Warner Bros with the casting of Heath Ledger as the Joker.[43] The casting decision surprised others,[44] and was seen as a controversial move at the time,[45] receiving notable negative reactions on the internet.[46][47][48] Nolan remembered the cynicism he endured surrounding Ledger's casting, saying that "the whole world turned around and said 'What are you doing?' You know, Heath Ledger, Joker, didn't make any sense to people at all."[49] In his 2016 book The Caped Crusade: Batman and the Rise of Nerd Culture, NPR contributor Glen Weldon recalled that fans were outraged over the choice of Ledger, due to his past roles in films such as Brokeback Mountain (2005).[50]
However, with the first trailer released in 2007, the film and its portrayal of the Joker received very positive response from audiences and entertainment industry professionals alike. Mexican filmmaker Guillermo del Toro gushed of his impression for Ledger's performance, finding it "really, really edgy and scary." American Batman writers Paul Dini and Jeph Loeb both chimed with the positive reactions. Loeb, who had been critical of Jack Nicholson’s portrayal of the Joker in 1989's Batman, expressed his excitement for Ledger's interpretation, saying the casting felt "just about right. I eagerly anticipate more!"[51]
Critical reception[edit]
"Heath Ledger is magnificent. The Joker, incarnated with chilling authority by the actor, is simply one of the most twisted and mesmerizing creeps in movie history." —Richard Corliss, Time[52]
Heath Ledger's portrayal of the Joker received critical acclaim, winning numerous posthumous awards for his performance, including the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor,[53] a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture,[54] the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role,[55] the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor,[56] a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role,[57] and a Best Actor International Award at the 2008 Australian Film Institute Awards.[58]
"I can only speak superlatives of Ledger, who is mad-crazy-brilliant as the Joker", wrote Peter Travers of Rolling Stone, stating that the film is deeper than its predecessor, with a "deft" script that refuses to scrutinize the Joker with popular psychology.[59] Travers praised the cast, saying each brings his or her "'A' game" to the film."[59] Travers said Ledger moves the Joker away from Jack Nicholson's interpretation into darker territory, and expresses his support for any potential campaign to have Ledger nominated for an Academy Award,[59]
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times stated that Heath Ledger's portrayal is a "key performance" and pondered whether he would become the first posthumous Academy Award-winning actor since Peter Finch in 1976.[60]
Mark Dinning from Empire magazine called Ledger's performance "monumental" and wrote "The Dark Knight is Ledger's movie. It is a towering performance. ... A force of fucking nature".[61] Kevin Smith commented on Ledger, calling his "incredible" performance "the most frightening, smart and well-played villains ever. Ever."[62] Mark Lee, writing for The Daily Telegraph, commented that Ledger accomplished "a genuinely unsettling, brilliant nuanced portrait of evil". Tim Teeman commented for The Times that "Ledger is so terrifying and unpredictable that his very presence on screen makes you nervous." Total Film reviewed that Ledger is "burning brightly as he embodies an icon. ... This is the definitive Joker", calling the performance "a masterpiece". For The Hollywood Reporter, Kirk Honeycutt called Ledger's performance "a beauty."\[63] Entertainment Weekly put the film on its end-of-the-decade, "best-of" list, saying, "Every great hero needs a great villain. And in 2008, Christian Bale's Batman found his in Heath Ledger's demented dervish, the Joker."[64] Emanuel Levy wrote Ledger "throws himself completely" into the role.[65] David Denby of The New Yorker, otherwise critical of the film, praised Ledger's "sinister and frightening" performance, which he says is the film's one element of success. Denby called Ledger "mesmerising" and said, "His performance is a heroic, unsettling final act: this young actor looked into the abyss."[66] "It's just one of the most iconic movie performances of modern times," declared chief film critic of Variety Scott Foundas.[67]
Film critics, co-stars Maggie Gyllenhaal and Michael Caine, and many of Ledger's colleagues in the film community joined Bale in calling for and predicting a nomination for the 2008 Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor in recognition of Ledger's performance in The Dark Knight.[68]
See also[edit]
2000s portal
Joker in other media
Barack Obama "Joker" poster
References[edit]
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text:
History of the domestic sheep
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Sheep shearers, Flanders, from the Grimani Breviary c. 1510
"Valach" from Brumov in Moravian Wallachia, 1787. Shepherding was a traditional occupation of Romanians, and as they colonised the northern Carpathian range and eventually assimilated, their exonym "Vlach" became synonymous with "shepherd".
The history of the domesticated sheep goes back to between 11000 and 9000 BC, and the domestication of the wild mouflon in ancient Mesopotamia. Sheep are among the first animals to have been domesticated by humans, and there is evidence of sheep farming in Iranian statuary dating to that time period. These sheep were primarily raised for meat, milk, and skins. Woolly sheep began to be developed around 6000 BC in Iran, and cultures such as the Persians relied on sheep's wool for trading. They were then imported to Africa and Europe via trading.
Contents
[hide]
1 Wild ancestors
2 In Asia
2.1 Domestication
2.2 Modern
2.2.1 Middle East
2.2.2 India
2.2.3 China
2.2.4 Japan
2.2.5 Mongolia
3 In Africa
4 In Europe
5 In the Americas
5.1 North America
5.2 South America
6 In Australia and New Zealand
6.1 Animal welfare concerns
7 References
8 Footnotes
Wild ancestors[edit]
Main article: Domestic sheep
The mouflon is thought to be the primary ancestor of domestic sheep.
The exact line of descent between domestic sheep and their wild ancestors is unclear.[1] The most common hypothesis states that Ovis aries is descended from the Asiatic (O. orientalis) species of mouflon.[2]:5 A few breeds of sheep, such as the Castlemilk Moorit from Scotland, were formed through crossbreeding with wild European mouflon.[3]
The urial (O. vignei) was once thought to have been a forebear of domestic sheep, as they occasionally interbreed with mouflon in the Iranian part of their range.[2]:6 However, the urial, argali (O. ammon), and snow sheep (O. nivicola) have a different number of chromosomes than other Ovis species, making a direct relationship implausible, and phylogenetic studies show no evidence of urial ancestry.[1] Further studies comparing European and Asian breeds of sheep showed significant genetic differences between the two. Two explanations for this phenomenon have been posited. The first explanation is that a currently unknown species or subspecies of wild sheep that contributed to the formation of domestic sheep.[4] The second explanation is that this variation is the result of multiple waves of capture from wild mouflon, similar to the known development of other livestock.[5]
One chief difference between ancient sheep and modern breeds is the technique by which wool could be collected. Primitive sheep can be shorn, but many can have their wool plucked out by hand in a process called "rooing". Rooing helps to leave behind the coarse fibers called kemps which are still longer than the soft fleece. The fleece may also be collected from the field after it falls out naturally. This rooing trait survives today in unrefined breeds such as the Soay and many Shetlands. Indeed, the Soay, along with other Northern European breeds with short tails, naturally rooing fleece, diminutive size, and horns in both sexes, are closely related to ancient sheep. Originally, weaving and spinning wool was a handicraft practiced at home, rather than an industry. Babylonians, Sumerians, and Persians all depended on sheep; and although linen was the first fabric to be fashioned in to clothing, wool was a prized product. The raising of flocks for their fleece was one of the earliest industries, and flocks were a medium of exchange in barter economies. Numerous biblical figures kept large flocks, and subjects of the king of Israel were taxed according to the number of rams they owned.[2]:7
In Asia[edit]
Domestication[edit]
Sheep were among the first animals to be domesticated by humankind (although the domestication of dogs may be over 20,000 years earlier); the domestication date is estimated to fall between 11,000 and 9,000 B.C in Mesopotamia.[2]:4[6]:11–14[7]:2[8] Their wild relatives have several characteristics, such as a relative lack of aggression, a manageable size, early sexual maturity, a social nature, and high reproduction rates, which made them particularly suitable for domestication.[9]:78–80 Today, Ovis aries is an entirely domesticated animal that is largely dependent on humans for its health and survival.[9]:167 Feral sheep do exist, but exclusively in areas devoid of large predators (usually islands) and not on the scale of feral horses, goats, pigs, or dogs, although some feral populations have remained isolated long enough to be recognized as distinct breeds.[9]:75[10]
The rearing of sheep for secondary products, and the resulting breed development, began in either southwest Asia or western Europe.[11] Initially, sheep were kept solely for meat, milk and skins. Archaeological evidence from statuary found at sites in Iran suggests that selection for woolly sheep may have begun around 6000 BC,[2]:5[6]:11 and the earliest woven wool garments have been dated to two to three thousand years later.[12]:8 Before this, when a sheep was slaughtered for its meat, the hide would be tanned and worn as a kind of tunic. Researchers believe that the development of such clothing encouraged humans to live in areas far colder than the Fertile Crescent, where temperatures averaged 70 °F (21 °C).[13] Sheep molars and bones found at Çatalhöyük suggest that populations of domestic sheep may have been established in the area.[14] By that span of the Bronze Age, sheep with all the major features of modern breeds were widespread throughout Western Asia.[2]:6
The residents of the ancient city of Jeitun, which dates to 6000 BC, kept sheep and goats as their primary livestock.[15] There have also been numerous identifications of Nomadic pastoralism in archaeological sites, identified by a prevalence of sheep and goat bones, a lack of grain or grain-processing equipment, very limited architecture showing a set of characteristic traits, a location outside the region's zone of agriculture, and ethnographic analogy to modern nomadic pastoral peoples.[16]
Modern[edit]
A shepherd with fat-tailed sheep[17] on a mountainside in Afghanistan
Middle East[edit]
There is a large but constantly declining minority of nomadic and seminomadic pastoralists in countries such as Saudi Arabia (probably less than 3%), Iran (4%), and Afghanistan (at most 10%).[18]
India[edit]
In India, there are efforts to 'grade up', or improve the quality of, the native desi sheep breed, by crossing it with Merino and other high-quality wool sheep. This is being done in an effort to produce a desi sheep that produces high-quality wool and mutton.[19]
China[edit]
Sheep are not an important part of China's agricultural economy, since the majority of China does not have the large open pastures required for sheep-rearing.[20] Sheep farming is more common in the northwestern provinces of the country, where such tracts of land exist.[21] China does have a native sheep breed, the zhan. The population of the breed has been in decline since 1985, despite government promotion of the breed.[22]
Japan[edit]
The Japanese government encouraged farmers to raise sheep throughout the 19th century. Sheep-rearing programs began to import Yorkshire, Berkshire, Spanish merino, and numerous Chinese and Mongolian sheep breeds, encouraged by government promotion of sheep farming. However, a lack of knowledge on the farmer's part of how to successfully keep sheep, and the government's failure to provide information to those importing the sheep they promoted, led to the project's failure, and in 1888 it was discontinued.[23]
Mongolia[edit]
Sheep herding has been one of the main economic activities and lifestyles of Mongolians for millennia. Mongolian sheep herding traditions and modern science are well developed. Mongolian selection and veterinary science classifies the sheep herd of the country by (i) wool fiber’s length, thinness and softness, (ii) capability of surviving at various altitudes, (iii) physical appearance, tail form, size, and other criteria. The most common sheep breeds are Mongol Khalha, Gov-altai, Baidrag, Bayad, Uzenchin, Sumber and number of other breeds, all being of the fat-tailed breed.
A census of the entire domestic animals stock of the country is carried out annually. At the end of 2014, the census counted more than 23 million of sheep that makes up 44.6 percent of the entire herding stock.[24]
Annually before the Lunar New year the Government awards the prestigious “Best Herder” (in Mongolian “Улсын сайн малчин цол”) nomination to select herders.
In Africa[edit]
Sheep entered the African continent not long after their domestication in western Asia.[25] A minority of historians once posited a contentious African theory of origin for Ovis aries.[25] This theory is based primarily on rock art interpretations, and osteological evidence from Barbary sheep.[25] The first sheep entered North Africa via Sinai, and were present in ancient Egyptian society between eight and seven thousand years ago.[25]:12 Sheep have always been part of subsistence farming in Africa, but today the only country that keeps significant numbers of commercial sheep is South Africa, with 28.8 million head.[2]:20[26]
In Ethiopia, there are several varieties of sheep landrace. Attempts have been made to classify the sheep based on factors such as tail shape and wool type, and H. Epstein made an attempt at classifying them this way by dividing the breeds into 14 types based on those two factors. However, in 2002, further genetic analysis revealed that there are only four distinct varieties of Ethiopian sheep: short-fat-tailed, long-fat-tailed, fat-rumped, and thin-tailed.[27]
In Europe[edit]
See also: British Agricultural Revolution and Sheep farming in Wales
A depiction of a ram from the Aberdeen Bestiary, a 12th-century illuminated manuscript
Sheep-fold in 1872
Sheep husbandry spread quickly in Europe. Excavations show that in about 6000 BC, during the Neolithic period of prehistory, the Castelnovien people, living around Châteauneuf-les-Martigues near present-day Marseille in the south of France, were among the first in Europe to keep domestic sheep.[28] Practically from its inception, ancient Greek civilization relied on sheep as primary livestock, and were even said to name individual animals.[6]:13 Scandinavian sheep of a type seen today — with short tails and multi-colored fleece — were also present early on. Later, the Roman Empire kept sheep on a wide scale, and the Romans were an important agent in the spread of sheep raising through much of Europe. Pliny the Elder, in his Natural History (Naturalis Historia), speaks at length about sheep and wool.[29] Declaring "Many thanks, too, do we owe to the sheep, both for appeasing the gods, and for giving us the use of its fleece.", he goes on to detail the breeds of ancient sheep and the many colors, lengths and qualities of wool.[29] Romans also pioneered the practice of blanketing sheep, in which a fitted coat (today usually of nylon) is placed over the sheep to improve the cleanliness and luster of its wool.[2]:74
During the Roman occupation of the British Isles, a large wool processing factory was established in Winchester, England in about 50 AD.[6]:11 By 1000 AD, England and Spain were recognized as the twin centers of sheep production in the Western world.[2]:8–9[6]:12 As the original breeders of the fine-wooled merino sheep that have historically dominated the wool trade, the Spanish gained great wealth. Wool money largely financed Spanish rulers and thus the voyages to the New World by conquistadors.[6]:12 The powerful Mesta (its full title was Honrado Concejo de la Mesta, the Honorable Council of the Mesta) was a corporation of sheep owners mostly drawn from Spain's wealthy merchants, Catholic clergy and nobility that controlled the merino flocks.[30] By the 17th century, the Mesta held upwards of two million head of merino sheep.[30]
Mesta flocks followed a seasonal pattern of transhumance across Spain. In the spring, they left the winter pastures (invernaderos) in Extremadura and Andalusia to graze on their summer pastures (agostaderos) in Castile, returning again in the autumn.[30] Spanish rulers eager to increase wool profits gave extensive legal rights to the Mesta, often to the detriment of local peasantry.[30] The huge merino flocks had a lawful right of way for their migratory routes (cañadas). Towns and villages were obliged by law to let the flocks graze on their common land, and the Mesta had its own sheriffs that could summon offending individuals to its own tribunals.[30]
Sheep are often identified by farmers by using a paint mark called a raddle.
Exportation of merinos without royal permission was also a punishable offense, thus ensuring a near-absolute monopoly on the breed until the mid-18th century. After the breaking of the export ban, fine wool sheep began to be distributed worldwide. The export to Rambouillet by Louis XVI in 1786 formed the basis for the modern Rambouillet (or French Merino) breed.[7]:66 After the Napoleonic Wars and the global distribution of the once-exclusive Spanish stocks of Merinos, sheep raising in Spain reverted to hardy coarse-wooled breeds such as the Churra, and was no longer of international economic significance.[31]
The sheep industry in Spain was an instance of migratory flock management, with large homogenous flocks ranging over the entire country. The management model used in England was quite different but had a similar importance to economy of the country. Up until the early 20th century, owling (the smuggling of sheep or wool out of the country) was a punishable offense, and to this day the Lord Speaker of the House of Lords sits on a cushion known as the Woolsack.[32]
The high concentration and more sedentary nature of shepherding in the UK allowed sheep especially adapted to their particular purpose and region to be raised, thereby giving rise to an exceptional variety of breeds in relation to the land mass of the country.[2]:419 This greater variety of breeds also produced a valuable variety of products to compete with the superfine wool of Spanish sheep. By the time of Elizabeth I's rule, sheep and wool trade was the primary source of tax revenue to the Crown of England and the country was a major influence in the development and spread of sheep husbandry.[2]:9[33]
An important event not only in the history of domestic sheep, but of all livestock, was the work of Robert Bakewell in the 18th century. Before his time, breeding for desirable traits was often based on chance, with no scientific process for selection of breeding stock. Bakewell established the principles of selective breeding—especially line breeding—in his work with sheep, horses and cattle; his work later influenced Gregor Mendel and Charles Darwin.[7]:56 His most important contribution to sheep was the development of the Leicester Longwool, a quick-maturing breed of blocky conformation that formed the basis for many vital modern breeds.[7]:58 Today, the sheep industry in the UK has diminished significantly,[34] though pedigreed rams can still fetch around 100,000 Pounds sterling at auction.[35][36]
In the Americas[edit]
See also: Agricultural history of the United States
Sheep grazing on the south lawn of the White House, c. 1918
No ovine species native to the Americas has ever been domesticated, despite being closer genetically to domestic sheep than many Asian and European species. The first domestic sheep in North America—most likely of the Churra breed—arrived with Christopher Columbus' second voyage in 1493.[2][6]:12 The next transatlantic shipment to arrive was with Hernán Cortés in 1519, landing in Mexico.[2] No export of wool or animals is known to have occurred from these populations, but flocks did disseminate throughout what is now Mexico and the Southwest United States with Spanish colonists.[6]:12 Churras were also introduced to the Navajo tribe of Native Americans, and became a key part of their livelihood and culture. The modern presence of the Navajo-Churro breed is a result of this heritage.[37]:20
North America[edit]
The next transport of sheep to North America was not until 1607, with the voyage of the Susan Constant to Virginia.[2]:234 However, the sheep that arrived in that year were all slaughtered because of a famine, and a permanent flock was not to reach the colony until two years later in 1609.[2]:234 In two decades' time, the colonists had expanded their flock to a total of 400 head. By the 1640s there were about 100,000 head of sheep in the 13 colonies, and in 1662, a woolen mill was built in Watertown, Massachusetts.[2]:9[6]:11 Especially during the periods of political unrest and civil war in Britain spanning the 1640s and 1650s which disrupted maritime trade, the colonists found it pressing to produce wool for clothing.[38] Many islands off the coast were cleared of predators and set aside for sheep: Nantucket, Long Island, Martha's Vineyard and small islands in Boston Harbor were notable examples.[38] There remain some rare breeds of American sheep—such as the Hog Island sheep—that were the result of island flocks. Placing semi-feral sheep and goats on islands was common practice in colonization during this period.[38] Early on, the British government banned further export of sheep to the Americas, or wool from it, in an attempt to stifle any threat to the wool trade in the British Isles. One of many restrictive trade measures that precipitated the American Revolution, the sheep industry in the Northeast grew despite the bans.[2]:10
Gradually, beginning in the 19th century, sheep production in the U.S. moved westward. Today, the vast majority of flocks reside on Western range lands. During this westward migration of the industry, competition between sheep (sometime called "range maggots") and cattle operations grew more heated, eventually erupting into range wars.[39] Other than simple competition for grazing and water rights, cattlemen believed that the secretions of the foot glands of sheep made cattle unwilling to graze on places where sheep had stepped.[12]:4 As sheep production centered on the U.S. western ranges, it became associated with other parts of Western culture, such as the rodeo. In modern America, a minor event in rodeos is mutton busting, in which children compete to see who can stay atop a sheep the longest before falling off. Another effect of the westward movement of sheep flocks in North America was the decline of wild species such as Bighorn sheep (O. canadesis). Most diseases of domestic sheep are transmittable to wild ovines, and such diseases, along with overgrazing and habitat loss, are named as primary factors in the plummeting numbers of wild sheep.[40] Sheep production peaked in North America during the 1940s and 1950s at more than 55 million head.[6]:14 By 2013 the number of sheep in the United States was 10 percent what it had been in the early 1940s.[41]
In the 1970s, Roy McBride, a farmer from Alpine, Texas, invented a collar filled with the poison compound 1080 to protect his livestock from coyotes, which tended to attack the throat. This device is known as the livestock protection collar and is in widespread use in Texas, as well as in South Africa.[42]
South America[edit]
A large sheep farm in Chile
In South America, especially in Patagonia, there is an active modern sheep industry.[43] Sheep keeping was largely introduced through immigration to the continent by Spanish and British peoples, for whom sheep were a major industry during the period.[44] South America has a large number of sheep, but the highest-producing nation (Brazil) kept only just over 15 million head in 2004, far fewer than most centers of sheep husbandry.[45] The primary challenges to the sheep industry in South America are the phenomenal drop in wool prices in the late 20th century and the loss of habitat through logging and overgrazing.[46] The most influential region internationally is that of Patagonia, which has been the first to rebound from the fall in wool prices.[43][44] With few predators and almost no grazing competition (the only large native grazing mammal is the guanaco), the region is prime land for sheep raising.[44] The most exceptional area of production is surrounding the La Plata river in the Pampas region.[2]:19 Sheep production in Patagonia peaked in 1952 at more than 21 million head, but has steadily fallen to fewer than ten today.[44] Most operations focus on wool production for export from Merino and Corriedale sheep; the economic sustainability of wool flocks has fallen with the drop in prices, while the cattle industry continues to grow.[44]
In Australia and New Zealand[edit]
Main articles: Agriculture in Australia and Agriculture in New Zealand
Further information: 1891 Australian shearers' strike
A New Zealand Merino
Australia and New Zealand are crucial players in the contemporary sheep industry, and sheep are an iconic part of both countries' culture and economy. New Zealand has the highest density of sheep per capita (sheep outnumber the human population 12 to 1), and Australia is the world's indisputably largest exporter of sheep and cattle.[47] In 2007, New Zealand even declared 15 February their official National Lamb Day to celebrate the country's history of sheep production.[48]
The First Fleet brought the initial population of 70 sheep from the Cape of Good Hope to Australia in 1788.[49] The next shipment was of 30 sheep from Calcutta and Ireland in 1793.[49] All of the early sheep brought to Australia were exclusively used for the dietary needs of the penal colonies. The beginnings of the Australian wool industry were due to the efforts of Captain John Macarthur.[49] At Macarthur's urging 16 Spanish merinos were imported in 1797, effectively beginning the Australian sheep industry.[49] By 1801 Macarthur had 1,000 head of sheep, and in 1803 he exported 111 kilograms (245 lb) of wool to England.[49] Today, Macarthur is generally thought of as the father of the Australian sheep industry.[49]
Drenching Merino sheep in Walcha, New South Wales
The growth of the sheep industry in Australia was explosive. In 1820, the continent held 100,000 sheep, a decade later it had one million.[50] By 1840, New South Wales alone kept 4 million sheep; flock numbers grew to 13 million in a decade.[50] While much of the growth in both nations was due to the active support of Britain in its desire for wool, both worked independently to develop new high-production breeds: the Corriedale, Coolalee, Coopworth, Perendale, Polwarth, Booroola Merino, Peppin Merino, and Poll Merino were all created in New Zealand or Australia.[7]:34, 44, 64 Wool production was a fitting industry for colonies far from their home nations. Before the advent of fast air and maritime shipping, wool was one of the few viable products that was not subject to spoiling on the long passage back to British ports.[50] The abundant new land and milder winter weather of the region also aided the growth of the Australian and New Zealand sheep industries.[50]
Flocks in Australia have always been largely range bands on fenced land, and are aimed at production of medium to superfine wool for clothing and other products as well as meat. New Zealand flocks are kept in a fashion similar to English ones, in fenced holdings without shepherds. Although wool was once the primary income source for New Zealand sheep owners (especially during the New Zealand wool boom), today it has shifted to meat production for export.[2]:17[51]
Animal welfare concerns[edit]
The Australian sheep industry is the only sector of the industry to receive international criticism for its practices. Sheep stations in Australia are cited in Animal Liberation, the seminal book of the animal rights movement, as the author's primary evidence in his argument against retaining sheep as a part of animal agriculture.[52] The practice of mulesing, in which skin is cut away from an animal's perineal area to prevent cases of the fatal condition flystrike, has been condemned by animal rights groups such as PETA as being a "painful and unnecessary" process.[53] In response, a program of phasing out mulesing is currently being implemented,[54] and some mulesing operations are being carried out with the use of anaesthetic.[55] The Animal Welfare Advisory Committee to the New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture Code of recommendations and minimum standards for the welfare of Sheep, considers mulesing a "special technique" which is performed on some Merino sheep at a small number of farms in New Zealand.[56]
Most of the sheep meat exported from Australia is either frozen carcases to the UK or is live export to the Middle East for halal slaughter. PETA has stated that sheep exported to countries outside the jurisdiction of Australia's animal cruelty laws are treated inhumanely and that halal meat processing facilities exist in Australia, making the export of live animals redundant.[57] Entertainer Pink has pledged to boycott all Australian sheep products in protest.[58]
References[edit]
Budiansky, Stephen (1999). The Covenant of the Wild: Why animals chose domestication. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07993-1.
Ensminger, Dr. M.E.; R.O. Parker (1986). Sheep and Goat Science, Fifth Edition. Danville, Illinois: The Interstate Printers and Publishers Inc. ISBN 0-8134-2464-X.
Pugh, David G. (2001). Sheep & Goat Medicine. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 0-7216-9052-1.
Simmons, Paula; Carol Ekarius (2001). Storey's Guide to Raising Sheep. North Adams, MA: Storey Publishing LLC. ISBN 978-1-58017-262-2.
Smith M.S., Barbara; Mark Aseltine PhD; Gerald Kennedy DVM (1997). Beginning Shepherd's Manual, Second Edition. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press. ISBN 0-8138-2799-X.
Weaver, Sue (2005). Sheep: small-scale sheep keeping for pleasure and profit. 3 Burroughs Irvine, CA 92618: Hobby Farm Press, an imprint of BowTie Press. ISBN 1-931993-49-1.
Wooster, Chuck (2005). Living with Sheep: Everything You Need to Know to Raise Your Own Flock. Geoff Hansen (Photography). Guilford, Connecticut: The Lyons Press. ISBN 1-59228-531-7.
Hussain, Aftab; Fakeha Affaf (2011). Composition of fatty acids: Physicochemical studies on sheep fat. Saarbrücken, Germany: VDM verlag. ISBN 978-3-639-35780-6.
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Ensminger
Jump up ^ "Castlemilk Moorit". Breeds of Livestock. Oklahoma State University Dept. of Animal Science. Retrieved 2008-01-27.
Jump up ^ Hiendleder, S.; K. Mainz, Y. Plante, H. Lewalski (March 2007). "Analysis of mitochondrial DNA indicates that domestic sheep are derived from two different ancestral maternal sources: no evidence for contributions from urial and argali sheep". The Journal of Heredity. 89 (2): 113–20. doi:10.1093/jhered/89.2.113. PMID 9542158. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Meadows, J.R.; I. Cemal, O. Karaca; et al. (March 2007). "Five ovine mitochondrial lineages identified from sheep breeds of the near East". Genetics. 175 (3): 1371–9. doi:10.1534/genetics.106.068353. PMC 1840082  . PMID 17194773.
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Jump up ^ Donald E Bixby, DVM; D. Philip Sponenberg DVM. "Breed Conservation in the United States of America: presentation to the Fifth Congress on Iberoamerican Breeds and Criollos". Archived from the original on 2010-10-17. Retrieved 2008-09-07.
Jump up ^ Chessa, B.; Pereira, F.; Arnaud, F.; Amorim, A.; Goyache, F.; Mainland, I.; Kao, R. R.; Pemberton, J. M.; Beraldi, D.; Stear, M. J.; Alberti, A.; Pittau, M.; Iannuzzi, L.; Banabazi, M. H.; Kazwala, R. R.; Zhang, Y. -P.; Arranz, J. J.; Ali, B. A.; Wang, Z.; Uzun, M.; Dione, M. M.; Olsaker, I.; Holm, L. -E.; Saarma, U.; Ahmad, S.; Marzanov, N.; Eythorsdottir, E.; Holland, M. J.; Ajmone-Marsan, P.; Bruford, M. W. (2009). "Revealing the History of Sheep Domestication Using Retrovirus Integrations". Science. 324 (5926): 532–536. doi:10.1126/science.1170587. PMC 3145132  . PMID 19390051.
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Jump up ^ "History of Sheep & History of the Different Breeds". Daneke Club Lambs and Livestock. Retrieved September 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ Russell, Nerissa; Martin, Louise (1998). "Çatalhöyük Animal Bone Report". ÇATALHÖYÜK 1998 ARCHIVE REPORT. Çatalhöyük Research Project. Retrieved September 18, 2013.
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^ Jump up to: a b c d Blench, Roger; Kevin C MacDonald (1999). The Origins and Development of African Livestock. Routledge. ISBN 1-84142-018-2.
Jump up ^ "A PROFILE OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUTTON MARKET VALUE CHAIN" (PDF). Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Retrieved September 17, 2013.
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Jump up ^ Max Escalon de Fonton, L'Homme avant l'histoire, p. 16–17, in Histoire de la Provence, Editions Privat, Toulouse, 1990. See also F. Bourdier, Préhistoire de France (Paris, 1967) and G. Bailloud, Les civilisations Néolithiques de la France (Paris, 1955).
^ Jump up to: a b Pliny the Elder (77). "Naturalis Historia". pp. Chapters 72–25. Retrieved 2007-12-29. Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Defourneaux, Marcelin (1979). Daily Life in Spain in the Golden Age. Stanford University Press. pp. 147–48. ISBN 0-8047-1029-5.
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Jump up ^ "Sheep industry vulnerable target warns BWMB". Farmer's Guardian. 2008-01-21. Archived from the original on 2008-04-22. Retrieved 2008-01-21.
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Jump up ^ Forstenzer, Martin (2005-09-20). "It's Wild vs. Domestic Sheep as Groups Lock Horns Over Grazing Area". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-12-12.
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Jump up ^ Walton, Murray T., "OF LIVESTOCK PROTECTION COLLARS TO PROTECT SHEEP AND GOATS" (1991). Fifth Eastern Wildlife Damage Control Conference (1991). Paper 50.
^ Jump up to: a b Rohter, Larry (2003-07-23). "In Patagonia, Sheep Ranches Get Another Chance". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-01-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Andrés F. Cibils and Pablo R. Borrelli. "Grasslands of the world". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 2007-12-23. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ "FAOSTAT". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 2007-12-07.
Jump up ^ Nash, Nathaniel C. (1994-03-19). "Patagonia Fortunes Fade in Cloud of Volcanic Ash". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-01-27.
Jump up ^ "The people of New Zealand". TeAra: the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. 2006-06-09. Retrieved 2007-12-07.
Jump up ^ Associated Press (2007-01-26). "New Zealand Declares National Lamb Day". CBS News. Archived from the original on April 25, 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-21.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f D'arcy, J.B. (1990). Sheep Management and Wool Technology. University of New South Wales Press. pp. 147–48. ISBN 0-86840-036-X.
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Jump up ^ Peter Wilkinson (2004-11-08). "In the News". Australian Wool Growers Association. Archived from the original on September 24, 2006. Retrieved 2007-01-09.
Jump up ^ Cuming, Marius (2007-03-16). "Pain relief from man to lamb". Stock and Land. Archived from the original on 2008-08-08. Retrieved 2008-08-11.
Jump up ^ Code of recommendations and minimum standards for the welfare of Sheep. Retrieved 1 October 2008. Archived June 5, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Savethesheep.com". PETA. Retrieved 2007-12-07.
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