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Troubadour
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For other uses, see Troubadour (disambiguation).
"Trovatore" redirects here. For the opera, see Il trovatore.
The troubadour Perdigon playing his fiddle.
A troubadour (English: /ˈtruːbədʊər/, French: [tʁubaduʁ]; Occitan: trobador, IPA: [tɾuβaˈðu]) was a composer and performer of Old Occitan lyric poetry during the High Middle Ages (1100–1350). Since the word troubadour is etymologically masculine, a female troubadour is usually called a trobairitz.
The troubadour school or tradition began in the late 11th century in Occitania, but it subsequently spread to Italy and Spain. Under the influence of the troubadours, related movements sprang up throughout Europe: the Minnesang in Germany, trovadorismo in Galicia and Portugal, and that of the trouvères in northern France. Dante Alighieri in his De vulgari eloquentia defined the troubadour lyric as fictio rethorica musicaque poita: rhetorical, musical, and poetical fiction. After the "classical" period around the turn of the 13th century and a mid-century resurgence, the art of the troubadours declined in the 14th century and around the time of the Black Death (1348) it would die out.
The texts of troubadour songs deal mainly with themes of chivalry and courtly love. Most were metaphysical, intellectual, and formulaic. Many were humorous or vulgar satires. Works can be grouped into three styles: the trobar leu (light), trobar ric (rich), and trobar clus (closed). Likewise there were many genres, the most popular being the canso, but sirventes and tensos were especially popular in the post-classical period, in Italy and among the female troubadours, the trobairitz.
Contents
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1 Etymology of name
2 Origins
3 History
3.1 Early period
3.2 Spread
3.3 Classical period
4 Lives
4.1 Status
4.2 Trobadors and joglars
4.3 Vidas and razos
4.4 Podestà-troubadours
4.5 Trobairitz
5 Works
5.1 Schools and styles
5.2 Genres
5.3 Performance
5.4 Music
5.5 Grammars and dictionaries
6 Legacy
6.1 Transmission
6.2 Table of chansonniers
7 References
8 Notes
9 External links
Etymology of name[edit]
The oldest mention of the word "troubadour" as trobadors is found in a 12th-century Occitan text by Cercamon.[1]
The English word troubadour is an exact rendition from a French word first recorded in 1575 in an historical context to mean "langue d'oc poet at the court in the 12th and 13th century" (Jean de Nostredame, Vies des anciens Poètes provençaux, p. 14 in Gdf. Compl.).[2]
The French word is borrowed itself from the Occitan word trobador. It is the oblique case of the nominative trobaire “composer", related to trobar “to compose, to discuss, to invent" (Wace, Brut, editions I. Arnold, 3342) It may come from the hypothetical Late Latin *tropāre “to compose, to invent a poem" by regular phonetic change. This recreated form is deduced from the Latin root tropus, meaning a trope and the various meanings of the Old Occitan related words. In turn, the Latin word derives ultimately from Greek τρόπος (tropos), meaning "turn, manner".[3] B Intervocal Latin [p] shifted regularly to [b] in Occitan (cf. Latin sapere > Occitan saber “to know") (cf. Latin sapere > savoir). The Latin suffix -ātor, -atōris explains the Occitan suffix, according to its declension and accentuation : Gallo-Romance *TROPĀTOR[4] > Occitan trobaire (subject case) and *TROPATŌRE[5] > Occitan trobador « troubadour » (oblique case).
There is an alternative theory to explain the meaning of trobar as “to compose, to discuss, to invent". It has the support of some historians, specialists of literature and musicologists to justify of the troubadours' origins in Arabic Andalusian musical practices. According to them, the Arabic word ṭaraba “song" (from the triliteral root Ṭ-R-B (طرب) “provoke emotion, excitement, agitation; make music, entertain by singing") could partly be the etymon of the verb trobar.[6][7] Another Arabic root had already been proposed before : Ḍ-R-B (ضرب) “strike", by extension “play a musical instrument".[8] They entertain the possibility that the nearly homophonous Ḍ-R-B root may have contributed to the sense of the newly coined Romance verb trobar.
Some proponents of this theory argue, only on cultural grounds, that both etymologies may well be correct, and that there may have been a conscious poetic exploitation of the phonological coincidence between trobar and the triliteral Arabic root Ṭ-R-B when Sufi Islamic musical forms with a love theme first spread from Al-Andalus to southern France. It has also been pointed out that the concepts of "finding", "music", "love", and "ardour" — the precise semantic field attached to the word troubadour — are allied in Arabic under a single root W-J-D (وجد) that plays a major role in Sufic discussions of music, and that the word troubadour may in part reflect this.[9] Nevertheless, the linguistic facts do not support an hypothetical theory : the word trover is mentioned in French as soon as the 10th century before trobar in Occitan (see above) and the word trovere > trouvère appears almost simultaneously in French as trobador in Occitan (see above).
In archaic and classical troubadour poetry, the word is only used in a mocking sense, having more or less the meaning of "somebody who makes things up". Cercamon writes:
Ist trobador, entre ver e mentir,
Afollon drutz e molhers et espos,
E van dizen qu'Amors vay en biays
(These troubadours, between truth and lies/corrupt lovers, women and husbands,/ and keep saying that Love proceeds obliquely).[10]
Peire d'Alvernha also begins his famous mockery of contemporary authors cantarai d'aquest trobadors,[11] after which he proceeds to explain why none of them is worth anything.[12] When referring to themselves seriously, troubadours almost invariably use the word "chantaire" (singer).
Origins[edit]
The early study of the troubadours focused intensely on their origins. No academic consensus was ever achieved in the area. Today, one can distinguish at least eleven competing theories (the adjectives used below are a blend from the Grove Dictionary of Music and Roger Boase's The Origins and Meaning of Courtly Love):
Arabic (also Arabist or Hispano-Arabic)
Referring to the songs of the troubadours, Ezra Pound wrote in his Canto VIII that William of Aquitaine "had brought the song up out of Spain / with the singers and viels". In his study, Lévi-Provençal is said to have found four Arabo-Hispanic verses nearly or completely recopied in William's manuscript.[13] According to historical sources, William VIII, the father of William, brought to Poitiers hundreds of Muslim prisoners,[14] and may have imported singers, male and female, from the luxurious Muslim-ruled kingdoms over the Pyrenees in Iberia, who would naturally have been trained in the genre of love songs popular in the courts of in al-Andalus in that era. Trend admitted that the troubadours derived their sense of form and even the subject matter of their poetry from the Andalusian Muslims.[15] The hypothesis that the troubadour tradition was created, more or less, by William after his experience of Moorish arts while fighting with the Reconquista in Spain was also championed by Ramón Menéndez Pidal in the early 20th century, but its origins go back to the Cinquecento and Giammaria Barbieri (died 1575) and Juan Andrés (died 1822). Meg Bogin, American translator of the trobairitz, held this hypothesis. Certainly "a body of song of comparable intensity, profanity and eroticism [existed] in Arabic from the second half of the 9th century onwards,"[16] and a body of song and poetry on themes of secular love flourished intensely in the 10th and 11th centuries in the multi-lingual societies of al-Andalus not far from the southern border of Occitan. About 1022, the Muslim Cordoban Ibn Hazm published The Ring of the Dove, a literary work in Arabic devoted to narrating anecdotes of love affairs drawn mainly from his own contemporary society of Spain/al-Andalus; the plight of unrequited love, secret love, and love against many obstacles are recurring themes; while ancient Platonic views of love are cited and rejected, Ibn Hazm adds a long didactic exhortation to observing restraint and moral-religious boundaries at the end of the work. To such a strong and multi-faceted tradition of love literature and song nearby must be added the presence of the Toledo School of Translators starting in 1126. The presence of such a developed tradition of love poetry and song nearby and of many avenues of cultural exchange in such proximity to the birthplace of troubadour poetry has lent some degree of likelihood, though not certainty, to this theory, perhaps as plausible at least together with rather than to the exclusion of, some of the other theories of troubadour poetry's origins.
Bernardine-Marianist or Christian
According to this theory, it was the theology espoused by Bernard of Clairvaux and the increasingly important Mariology that most strongly influenced the development of the troubadour genre. Specifically, the emphasis on religious and spiritual love, disinterestedness, mysticism, and devotion to Mary would explain "courtly love". The emphasis of the reforming Robert of Arbrissel on "matronage" to achieve his ends can explain the troubadour attitude towards women.[17] Chronologically, however, this hypothesis is hard to sustain (the forces believed to have given rise to the phenomenon arrived later than it). But the influence of Bernardine and Marian theology can be retained without the origins theory. This theory was advanced early by Eduard Wechssler and further by Dmitri Scheludko (who emphasises the Cluniac Reform) and Guido Errante. Mario Casella and Leo Spitzer have added "Augustinian" influence to it.
Celtic or Chivalric-Matriarchal
The survival of pre-Christian sexual mores and warrior codes from matriarchal societies, be they Celtic, Germanic, or Pictish, among the aristocracy of Europe can account for the idea (fusion) of "courtly love". The existence of pre-Christian matriarchy has usually been treated with scepticism as has the persistence of underlying paganism in high medieval Europe.
Classical Latin
The classical Latin theory emphasises parallels between Ovid, especially his Amores and Ars amatoria, and the lyric of courtly love. The aetas ovidiana that predominated in the 11th century in and around Orléans, the quasi-Ciceronian ideology that held sway in the Imperial court, and the scraps of Plato then available to scholars have all been cited as classical influences on troubadour poetry.[18]
(Crypto-)Cathar
According to this thesis, troubadour poetry is a reflection of Cathar religious doctrine. While the theory is supported by the traditional and near-universal account of the decline of the troubadours coinciding with the suppression of Catharism during the Albigensian Crusade (first half of the 13th century), support for it has come in waves. The explicitly Catholic meaning of many early troubadour works also works against the theory.
Liturgical
The troubadour lyric may be a development of the Christian liturgy and hymnody. The influence of the Song of Songs has even been suggested. There is no preceding Latin poetry resembling that of the troubadours. On those grounds, no theory of the latter's origins in classical or post-classical Latin can be constructed, but that has not deterred some, who believe that a pre-existing Latin corpus must merely be lost to us.[19] That many troubadours received their grammatical training in Latin through the Church (from clerici, clerics) and that many were trained musically by the Church is well-attested. The musical school of Saint Martial's at Limoges has been singled out in this regard.[20] "Para-liturgical" tropes were in use there in the era preceding the troubadours' appearance.
Feudal-social or -sociological
This theory or set of related theories has gained ground in the 20th century. It is more a methodological approach to the question than a theory; it asks not from where the content or form of the lyric came but rather in what situation/circumstances did it arise.[21] Under Marxist influence, Erich Köhler, Marc Bloch, and Georges Duby have suggested that the "essential hegemony" in the castle of the lord's wife during his absence was a driving force. The use of feudal terminology in troubadour poems is seen as evidence. This theory has been developed away from sociological towards psychological explanation.
Folklore or Spring Folk Ritual
According to María Rosa Menocal, Alfred Jeanroy first suggested that folklore and oral tradition gave rise to troubadour poetry in 1883. According to F. M. Warren, it was Gaston Paris, Jeanroy's reviewer, in 1891 who first located troubadour origins in the festive dances of women hearkening the spring in the Loire Valley. This theory has since been widely discredited, but the discovery of the jarchas raises the question of the extent of literature (oral or written) in the 11th century and earlier.[21]
Medieval Latin or Mediolatin (Goliardic)
Hans Spanke analysed the intertextual connexion between vernacular and medieval Latin (such as Goliardic) songs. This theory is supported by Reto Bezzola, Peter Dronke, and musicologist Jacques Chailley. According to them, trobar means "inventing a trope", the trope being a poem where the words are used with a meaning different from their common signification, i.e. metaphor and metonymy. This poem was originally inserted in a serial of modulations ending a liturgic song. Then the trope became an autonomous piece organized in stanza form.[22] The influence of late 11th-century poets of the "Loire school", such as Marbod of Rennes and Hildebert of Lavardin, is stressed in this connexion by Brinkmann.[23]
Neoplatonic
This theory is one of the more intellectualising. The "ennobling effects of love" in specific have been identified as Neoplatonic.[24] It is viewed either as a strength or weakness that this theory requires a second theory about how the Neoplatonism was transmitted to the troubadours; perhaps it can be coupled with one of the other origins stories or perhaps it is just peripheral. Käte Axhausen has "exploited" this theory and A. J. Denomy has linked it with the Arabist (through Avicenna) and the Cathar (through John Scotus Eriugena).[25]
History[edit]
William IX of Aquitaine portrayed as a knight, who first composed poetry on returning from the Crusade of 1101
Early period[edit]
The earliest troubadour whose work survives is Guilhèm de Peitieus, better known as Duke William IX of Aquitaine (1071–1126). Peter Dronke, author of The Medieval Lyric, however, believes that "[his] songs represent not the beginnings of a tradition but summits of achievement in that tradition."[26] His name has been preserved because he was the Duke of Aquitaine, but his work plays with already established structures; Eble II of Ventadorn is often credited as a predecessor, though none of his work survives. Orderic Vitalis referred to William composing songs about his experiences on his return from the Crusade of 1101 (c. 1102). This may be the earliest reference to troubadour lyrics. Orderic also provides us (1135) with what may be the first description of a troubadour performance: an eyewitness account of William of Aquitaine.
Picauensis uero dux ... miserias captiuitatis suae ... coram regibus et magnatis atque Christianis coetibus multotiens retulit rythmicis uersibus cum facetis modulationibus. (X.21)
Then the Poitevin duke ... the miseries of his captivity ... before kings, magnates, and Christian assemblies many times related with rhythmic verses and witty measures.[27]
Spread[edit]
Trobadours, 14th century
The first half of the 12th century saw relatively few recorded troubadours. Only in the last decades of the century did troubadour activity explode. Almost half of all troubadour works that survive are from the period 1180–1220.[28] In total, moreover, there are over 2,500 troubadour lyrics available to be studied as lingusitic artifacts (Akehurst, 23). The troubadour tradition seems to have begun in western Aquitaine (Poitou and Saintonge) and Gascony, from there spreading over into eastern Aquitaine (Limousin and Auvergne) and Provence. At its height it had become popular in Languedoc and the regions of Rouergue, Toulouse, and Quercy (c. 1200). Finally, in the early 13th century it began to spread into first Italy and then Catalonia, whence to the rest of Spain and to Portugal. This development has been called the rayonnement des troubadours (pronounced [ʁɛjɔnmɑ̃ dɛ tʁubaduːʁ]).[29]
Classical period[edit]
The classical period of troubadour activity lasted from about 1170 until about 1213. The most famous names among the ranks of troubadours belong to this period. During this period the lyric art of the troubadours reached the height of its popularity and the number of surviving poems is greatest from this period. During this period the canso, or love song, became distinguishable as a genre. The master of the canso and the troubadour who epitomises the classical period is Bernart de Ventadorn. He was highly regarded by his contemporaries, as were Giraut de Bornelh, reputed by his biographer to be the greatest composer of melodies to ever live, and Bertran de Born, the master of the sirventes, or political song, which became increasingly popular in this period.
The classical period came to be seen by later generations, especially in the 14th and 15th centuries and outside of Occitania, as representing the high point of lyric poetry and models to be emulated. The language of the classic poets, its grammar and vocabulary, their style and themes, were the ideal to which poets of the troubadour revival in Toulouse and their Catalan and Castilian contemporaries aspired. During the classical period the "rules" of poetic composition had first become standardised and written down, first by Raimon Vidal and then by Uc Faidit.
Lives[edit]
See also: List of troubadours and trobairitz, Minstrel, Vida (Occitan literary form), Razo, Consistori del Gay Saber, and Consistori de Barcelona
The 450 or so troubadours known to historians came from a variety of backgrounds. They made their living in a variety of ways, lived and travelled in many different places, and were actors in many types of social context. The troubadours were not wandering entertainers. Typically, they stayed in one place for a lengthy period of time under the patronage of a wealthy nobleman or woman. Many did travel extensively, however, sojourning at one court and then another.
Status[edit]
The earliest troubadour, the Duke of Aquitaine, came from the high nobility. He was followed immediately by two poets of unknown origins, known only by their sobriquets, Cercamon and Marcabru, and by a member of the princely class, Jaufre Rudel. Many troubadours are described in their vidas as poor knights. It was one of the most common descriptors of status: Berenguier de Palazol, Gausbert Amiel, Guilhem Ademar, Guiraudo lo Ros, Marcabru, Peire de Maensac, Peirol, Raimon de Miraval, Rigaut de Berbezilh, and Uc de Pena. Albertet de Sestaro is described as the son of a noble jongleur, presumably a petty noble lineage.
Later troubadours especially could belong to lower classes, ranging from the middle class of merchants and "burgers" (persons of urban standing) to tradesmen and others who worked with their hands. Salh d'Escola and Elias de Barjols were described as the sons of merchants and Elias Fonsalada was the son of a burger and jongleur. Perdigon was the son of a "poor fisherman" and Elias Cairel of a blacksmith. Arnaut de Mareuil is specified in his vida as coming from a poor family, but whether this family was poor by noble standards or more global ones is not apparent.
Many troubadours also possessed a clerical education. For some this was their springboard to composition, since their clerical education equipped them with an understanding of musical and poetic forms as well as vocal training. The vidas of the following troubadours note their clerical status: Aimeric de Belenoi, Folquet de Marselha (who became a bishop), Gui d'Ussel, Guillem Ramon de Gironella, Jofre de Foixà (who became an abbot), Peire de Bussignac, Peire Rogier, Raimon de Cornet, Uc Brunet, and Uc de Saint Circ.
Trobadors and joglars[edit]
Musicians in the time of the Cantigas de Santa Maria. These would have been in the court of the king, two vielle players and one citoler.
The Occitan words trobador and trobaire are relatively rare compared with the verb trobar (compose, invent), which was usually applied to the writing of poetry. It signified that a poem was original to an author (trobador) and was not merely sung or played by one. The term was used mostly for poetry only and in more careful works, like the vidas, is not generally applied to the composition of music or to singing, though the troubadour's poetry itself is not so careful. Sometime in the middle of the 12th century, however, a distinction was definitely being made between an inventor of original verse and the performers of others'. These last were called joglars, from the Latin ioculatores, giving rise also to the French jongleur, Castilian juglar, and English juggler, which has come to refer to a more specific breed of performer. The medieval jongleur/joglar is really a minstrel.
At the height of troubadour poetry (the "classical period"), troubadours are often found attacking jongleurs and at least two small genres arose around the theme: the ensenhamen joglaresc and the sirventes joglaresc. These terms are debated, however, since the adjective joglaresc would seem to imply "in the manner of the jongleurs". Inevitably, however, pieces of said genres are verbal attacks at jongleurs, in general and in specific, with named individuals being called out. It is clear, for example from the poetry of Bertran de Born, that jongleurs were performers who did not usually compose.They often performed the troubadour's songs: singing, playing instruments, dancing, and even doing acrobatics.[30]
In the late 13th century Guiraut Riquier bemoaned the inexactness of his contemporaries and wrote a letter to Alfonso X of Castile, a noted patron of literature and learning of all kinds, for clarification on the proper reference of the terms trobador and joglar. According to Riquier, every vocation deserved a name of its own and the sloppy usage of joglar assured that it covered a multitude of activities, some, no doubt, with which Riquier did not wish to be associated. In the end Riquier argued—and Alfonso X seems to agree, though his "response" was probably penned by Riquier—that a joglar was a courtly entertainer (as opposed to popular or low-class one) and a troubadour was a poet and composer.
Despite the distinctions noted, many troubadours were also known as jongleurs, either before they began composing or alongside. Aimeric de Belenoi, Aimeric de Sarlat, Albertet Cailla, Arnaut de Mareuil, Elias de Barjols, Elias Fonsalada, Falquet de Romans, Guillem Magret, Guiraut de Calanso, Nicoletto da Torino, Peire Raimon de Tolosa, Peire Rogier, Peire de Valeira, Peirol, Pistoleta, Perdigon, Salh d'Escola, Uc de la Bacalaria, Uc Brunet, and Uc de Saint Circ were jongleur-troubadours.
Vidas and razos[edit]
A vida is a brief prose biography, written in Occitan, of a troubadour. The word vida means "life" in Occitan. In the chansonniers, the manuscript collections of medieval troubadour poetry, the works of a particular author are often accompanied by a short prose biography. The vidas are important early works of vernacular prose nonfiction. Nevertheless, it appears that many of them derive their facts from literal readings of their objects' poems, which leaves their historical reliability in doubt. Most of the vidas were composed in Italy in the 1220s, many by Uc de Saint Circ.
A razo (from Occitan for "reason") was a similar short piece of Occitan prose detailing the circumstances of a particular composition. A razo normally introduced the poem it explained; it might, however, share some of the characteristics of a vida. The razos suffer from the same problems as the vidas in terms of reliability. Many are likewise the work of Uc de Saint Circ.
Late 16th-century Italian cursive on paper, recording a song of Perceval Doria
Podestà-troubadours[edit]
A phenomenon arose in Italy, recognised around the turn of the 20th century by Giulio Bertoni, of men serving in several cities as podestàs on behalf of either the Guelph or Ghibelline party and writing political verse in Occitan rhyme. These figures generally came from the urban middle class. They aspired to high culture and though, unlike the nobility, they were not patrons of literature, they were its disseminators and its readers.
The first podestà-troubadour was Rambertino Buvalelli, possibly the first native Italian troubadour, who was podestà of Genoa between 1218 and 1221. Rambertino, a Guelph, served at one time or another as podestà of Brescia, Milan, Parma, Mantua, and Verona. It was probably during his three-year tenure there that he introduced Occitan lyric poetry to the city, which was later to develop a flourishing Occitan literary culture.
Among the podestà-troubadours to follow Rambertino, four were from Genoa: the Guelphs Luca Grimaldi, who also served in Florence, Milan, and Ventimiglia, and Luchetto Gattilusio, who served in Milan, Cremona, and Bologna, and the Ghibellines Perceval Doria, who served in Arles, Avignon, Asti, and Parma, and Simon Doria, sometime podestà of Savona and Albenga. Among the non-Genoese podestà-troubadours was Alberico da Romano, a nobleman of high rank who governed Vicenza and Treviso as variously a Ghibelline and a Guelph. He was a patron as well as a composer of Occitan lyric.
Mention should be made of the Provençal troubadour Isnart d'Entrevenas, who was podestà of Arles in 1220, though he does not fit the phenomenon Giulio Bertoni first identified in Italy.
Trobairitz[edit]
Main article: Trobairitz
The trobairitz were the female troubadours, the first female composers of secular music in the Western tradition. The word trobairitz was first used in the 13th-century Romance of Flamenca and its derivation is the same as that of trobaire but in feminine form. There were also female counterparts to the joglars: the joglaresas. The number of trobairitz varies between sources: there were twenty or twenty-one named trobairitz, plus an additional poet known only as Domna H. There are several anonymous texts ascribed to women; the total number of trobairitz texts varies from twenty-three (Schultz-Gora), twenty-five (Bec), thirty-six (Bruckner, White, and Shepard), and forty-six (Rieger). Only one melody composed by a trobairitz (the Comtessa de Dia) survives. Out of a total of about 450 troubadours and 2,500 troubadour works, the trobairitz and their corpus form a minor but interesting and informative portion. They are, therefore, quite well studied.
Castelloza
The trobairitz were in most respects as varied a lot as their male counterparts, with the general exceptions of their poetic style and their provenance. They wrote predominantly cansos and tensos; only one sirventes by a named woman, Gormonda de Monpeslier, survives (though two anonymous ones are attributed to women). One salut d'amor, by a woman (Azalais d'Altier) to a woman (Clara d'Anduza) is also extant and one anonymous planh is usually assigned a female authorship. They wrote almost entirely within the trobar leu style; only two poems, one by Lombarda and another Alais, Yselda, and Carenza, are usually considered to belong to the more demanding trobar clus. None of the trobairitz were prolific, or if they were their work has not survived. Only two have left us more than one piece: the Comtessa de Dia, with four, and Castelloza, with three or four. One of the known trobairitz, Gaudairença, wrote a song entitled Coblas e dansas, which has not survived; no other piece of hers has either.
The trobairitz came almost to a woman from Occitania. There are representatives from the Auvergne, Provence, Languedoc, the Dauphiné, Toulousain, and the Limousin. One trobairitz, Ysabella, may have been born in Périgord, Northern Italy, Greece, or Palestine. All the trobairitz whose families we know were high-born ladies; only one, Lombarda, was probably of the merchant class. All the trobairitz known by name lived around the same time: the late 12th and the early 13th century (c. 1170 – c. 1260). The earliest was probably Tibors de Sarenom, who was active in the 1150s (the date of her known composition is uncertain). The latest was either Garsenda of Forcalquier, who died in 1242, though her period of poetic patronage and composition probably occurred a quarter century earlier, or Guilleuma de Rosers, who composed a tenso with Lanfranc Cigala, known between 1235 and 1257. There exist brief prose biographies—vidas—for eight trobairitz: Almucs de Castelnau (actually a razo), Azalais de Porcairagues, the Comtessa de Dia, Castelloza, Iseut de Capio (also a razo), Lombarda, Maria de Ventadorn, and Tibors de Sarenom.
Works[edit]
Schools and styles[edit]
Three main styles of Occitan lyric poetry have been identified: the trobar leu (light), trobar ric (rich), and trobar clus (closed, hermetic). The first was by far the most common: the wording is straightforward and relatively simple compared to the ric and literary devices are less common than in the clus. This style was the most accessible and it was immensely popular. The most famous poet of the trobar leu was Bernart de Ventadorn. The trobar clus regularly escapes modern scholarly interpretation. Words are commonly used metaphorically and symbolically and what a poem appears to be about on its surface is rarely what is intended by the poet or understood by audiences "in the know". The clus style was invented early by Marcabru but only favoured by a few masters thereafter. The trobar ric style is not as opaque as the clus, rather it employs a rich vocabulary, using many words, rare words, invented words, and unusual, colourful wordings.
Modern scholars recognise several "schools" in the troubadour tradition. Among the earliest is a school of followers of Marcabru, sometimes called the "Marcabrunian school": Bernart Marti, Bernart de Venzac, Gavaudan, and Peire d'Alvernhe. These poets favoured the trobar clus or ric or a hybrid of the two. They were often moralising in tone and critical of contemporary courtly society. Another early school, whose style seems to have fallen out of favour, was the "Gascon school" of Cercamon, Peire de Valeira, and Guiraut de Calanso. Cercamon was said by his biographer to have composed in the "old style" (la uzansa antiga) and Guiraut's songs were d'aquella saison ("of that time"). This style of poetry seems to be attached to early troubadours from Gascony and was characterised by references to nature: leaves, flowers, birds, and their songs. This Gascon "literary fad" was unpopular in Provence in the early 13th century, harming the reputation of the poets associated with it.
In the late 13th century a school arose at Béziers, once the centre of pre-Albigensian Languedoc and of the Trencavel lordships, in the 1260s–80s. Three poets epitomise this "school": Bernart d'Auriac, Joan Esteve, Joan Miralhas, and Raimon Gaucelm. All three were natives of Béziers and lived there. All three were members of the urban middle class and no courtesans: Miralhas was possibly a potter and Bernart was a mayestre (teacher). All three were supporters of the French king Louis IX and the French aristocracy against the native Occitan nobility. They have been described as "Gallicised". Raimon Gaucelm supported the Eighth Crusade and even wrote a planh, the only known one of its kind, to a burgher of Béziers. Joan Esteve and Bernart both composed in support of the French in the Aragonese Crusade. The Béziers are a shining example of the transformation of Occitania in the aftermath of the Albigensian Crusade, but also of the ability of troubadours to survive it.
Genres[edit]
Troubadours, at least after their style became established, usually followed some set of "rules", like those of the Leys d'amors (compiled between 1328 and 1337). Initially all troubadour verses were called simply vers, yet this soon came to be reserved for only love songs and was later replaced by canso, though the term lived on as an antique expression for the troubadours' early works and was even employed with a more technically meaning by the last generation of troubadours (mid-14th century), when it was thought to derive from the Latin word verus (truth) and was thus used to describe moralising or didactic pieces. The early troubadours developed many genres and these only proliferated as rules of composition came to be put in writing. The known genres are:
Alba (morning song)— the song of a lover as dawn approaches, often with a watchman warning of the approach of a lady's jealous husband
Arlabecca— a song defined by poetic metre, but perhaps once related to the rebec
Canso, originally vers, also chanso or canço— the love song, usually consisting of five or six stanzas with an envoi
Cobla esparsa— a stand-alone stanza
Comiat— a song renouncing a lover
Crusade song (canso de crozada)— a song about the Crusades, usually encouraging them
Dansa or balada— a lively dance song with a refrain
Descort— a song heavily discordant in verse form and/or feeling
Desdansa— a dance designed for sad occasions
Devinalh— a riddle or cryptogram
Ensenhamen— a long didactic poem, usually not divided into stanzas, teaching a moral or practical lesson
Enuig— a poem expressing indignation or feelings of insult
Escondig— a lover's apology
Estampida— a dance-like song
Gap— a boasting song, often presented as a challenge, often similar to modern sports chants
Maldit— a song complaining about a lady's behaviour and character
Partimen— a poetical exchange between two or more poets in which one is presented with a dilemma by another and responds
Pastorela— the tale of the love request of a knight to a shepherdess
Planh— a lament, especially on the death of some important figure
Plazer— a poem expressing pleasure
Salut d'amor— a love letter addressed to another, not always one's lover
Serena— the song of a lover waiting impatiently for the evening (to consummate his love)
Sestina— highly structured verse form
Sirventes— a political poem or satire, originally put in the mouth of a paid soldier (sirvens)
Sonnet (sonet)— an Italian genre imported into Occitan verse in the 13th century
Tenso— a poetical debate which was usually an exchange between two poets, but could be fictional
Torneyamen— a poetical debate between three or more persons, often with a judge (like a tournament)
Viadeira— a traveller's complaint
All these genres were highly fluid. A cross between a sirventes and a canso was a meg-sirventes (half-sirventes).[31] A tenso could be "invented" by a single poet; an alba or canso could be written with religious significance, addressed to God or the Virgin; and a sirventes may be nothing more than a political attack. The maldit and the comiat were often connected as a maldit-comiat and they could be used to attack and renounce a figure other than a lady or a lover, like a commanding officer (when combined, in a way, with the sirventes).
Peire Bremon Ricas Novas uses the term mieja chanso (half song) and Cerverí de Girona uses a similar phrase, miga canço, both to refer to a short canso and not a mixture of genres as sometimes supposed. Cerverí's mig (or meig) vers e miga canço was a vers in the new sense (a moralising song) that was also highly critical and thus combined the canso and the sirventes. Among the more than one hundred works of Cerverí de Girona are many songs with unique labels, which may correspond more to "titles" than "genres", but that is debatable: peguesca (nonsense), espingadura (flageolet song), libel (legal petition), esdemessa (leap), somni (dream), acuyndamen (challenge), desirança (nostalgia), aniversari (anniversary), serena (serene).[32]
Most "Crusading songs" are classified either as cansos or sirventes but sometimes separately. Some styles became popular in other languages and in other literary or musical traditions. In French, the alba became the aubade, the pastorela the pastourelle, and the partimen the jeu parti. The sestina became popular in Italian literature. The troubadours were not averse to borrowing either. The planh developed out of the Latin planctus and the sonnet was stolen from the Sicilian School. Interestingly, the basse danse (bassa dansa) was first mentioned in the troubadour tradition (c. 1324), but only as being performed by jongleurs.
The Monge de Montaudon receiving a sparrow hawk as a prize for his performance in a contest
Performance[edit]
Troubadours performed their own songs. Jongleurs (performers) and cantaires (singers) also performed troubadours' songs. They could work from chansonniers, many of which have survived, or possibly from more rudimentary (and temporary) songbooks, none of which have survived, if they even existed. Some troubadours, like Arnaut de Maruelh, had their own jongleurs who were dedicated to singing their patron's work. Arnaut's joglar et cantaire, probably both a singer and a messenger, who carried his love songs to his lady, was Pistoleta. The messenger was commonplace in troubadour poetry; many songs reference a messenger who will bring it to its intended ear. A troubadour often stayed with a noble patron of his own and entertained his court with his songs. Court songs could be used not only as entertainment but also as propaganda, praising the patron, mocking his enemies, encouraging his wars, teaching ethics and etiquette, and maintaining religious unity.
The court was not the only venue for troubadour performance. Competitions were held from an early date. According to the vida of the Monge de Montaudon, he received a sparrow hawk, a prized hunting bird, for his poetry from the cour du Puy, some sort of poetry society associated with the court of Alfonso II of Aragon. The most famous contests were held in the twilight of the troubadours in the 14th and 15th centuries. The jocs florals held by the Consistori del Gay Saber at Toulouse, by Peter IV of Aragon at Lleida, and the Consistori de la Gaya Sciència at Barcelona awarded floral prizes to the best poetry in various categories, judging it by its accordance with a code called the Leys d'amors.
Troubadour songs are still performed and recorded today, albeit rarely.
A chantar m'er
The only existing song by a trobairitz which survives with music.
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Music[edit]
Troubadour songs were usually monophonic. Fewer than 300 melodies out of an estimated 2500 survive.[33] Most were composed by the troubadours themselves. Some were set to pre-existing pieces of music. Raimbaut de Vaqueyras wrote his Kalenda maya ("The Calends of May") to music composed by jongleurs at Montferrat.
Grammars and dictionaries[edit]
Beginning in the early 13th century, the spread of Occitan verse demanded grammars and dictionaries, especially for those whose native tongue was not Occitan, such as the Catalan and Italian troubadours, and their imitators. The production of such works only increased with the academisation of the troubadour lyric in the 14th century.
Title
Translation of title
Author
Date, place
Character
Razos de trobar "Explanations of composition" Raimon Vidal c. 1210
Prose guide to poetic composition that defends the superiority of Occitan over other vernaculars. Occitan–Italian dictionary.
Donatz proensals "Provençal Donatus" Uc Faidit c. 1243 An Occitan imitation of Latin grammarian Aelius Donatus. A rhymary and Latin–Occitan dictionary designed for Italians.
Doctrina de compondre dictats "Doctrinal of understanding sayings" Anonymous,
possibly Raimon Vidal late 13th century A catalogue and explanation of the different poetic genres. It expands on the Razos and may be the concluding section of the Regles of Jaufre de Foixa.
Lo breviari d'amors "Breviary of love" Matfre Ermengau begun 1288
A pious encyclopedia, the last section of which, "Perilhos tractatz d'amor de donas, seguon qu'en han tractat li antic trobador en lurs cansos", is an Occitan grammar.
Doctrina d'acort[34] "Doctrinal of concordance" Terramagnino da Pisa 1282–96, Sardinia A condensed verse adaptation of the Razos, poorly preserved in the manuscripts.
Regles de trobar[35] "Rules of composition" Jaufre de Foixa 1289–91, Sicily
Contains many examples of troubadour verse, designed to augment the Razos de trobar.
Mirall de trobar "Mirror of composition" Berenguer d'Anoia early 14th century
Mainly covers rhetoric and errors, and is littered with examples of troubadour verse.
Cançoneret de Ripoll "Little Chansonnier of Ripoll" Anonymous 1346, Roussillon or Cerdagne A chansonnier containing a unique grammar, including a catalogue of poetic genres, expands on the Doctrina de compondre dictats and the Leys d'amors.
Leys d'amors[36] "Laws of love" Guilhem Molinier 1328–37, Toulouse
First commissioned in 1323. Prose rules governing the Consistori del Gay Saber and the Consistori de Barcelona.
Leys d'amors[36] "Laws of love" Anonymous 1337–47, Toulouse Verse adaptation of the prose Leys.
Leys d'amors[36] "Laws of love" Joan de Castellnou 1355, Toulouse Final, expanded, prose version of the previous Leys.
Doctrinal de trobar "Doctrinal of composition" Raimon de Cornet c. 1324
(before 1341) Dedicated to Peter IV of Aragon, identical in structure to the Leys of Guilhem Molinier.
Glosari "Glossary" Joan de Castellnou 1341 A commentary on the Doctrinal de trobar.
Compendi[37] "Compendium" Joan de Castellnou before 1341 A catalogue of all the "vices" one can commit by transgressing the Leys etc.
Libre de concordances
(or Diccionari de rims) "Book of concordances"
(or "Dictionary of rhymes") Jaume March II 1371 An Occitan rhymary for Catalans.
Torcimany "Translation" Luys d'Averçó late 14th century A rhymary and Catalan–Occitan dictionary.
Legacy[edit]
Main article: Occitan literature
Transmission[edit]
Some 2,600 poems or fragments of poems have survived from around 450 identifiable troubadours. They are largely preserved in songbooks called chansonniers made for wealthy patrons.
Troubadour songs are generally referred to by their incipits, that is, their opening lines. If this is long, or after it has already been mentioned, an abbreviation of the incipit may be used for convenience. A few troubadour songs are known by "nicknames", thus D'un sirventes far by Guilhem Figueira is commonly called the Sirventes contra Roma. When a writer seeks to avoid using unglossed Occitan, the incipit of the song may be given in translation instead or a title may even be invented to reflect the theme of the work. Especially in translations designed for a popular audience, such as Ezra Pound's, English titles are commonly invented by the translator/editor. There are examples, however, of troubadour songs given Occitan titles in the manuscripts, such as an anonymous pastorela that begins Mentre per una ribeira, which is entitled Porquieira.
Table of chansonniers[edit]
The number of Occitan parchment chansonniers given as extant varies between authors, depending on how they treat fragmentary and multilingual manuscripts. Conventionally, fragments are classified as fragments of the surviving chansonnier they most closely resemble and not as chansonniers in their own right. Some chansonniers have received both Occitan and French letters: troubadour D is trouvère H, W is M and X is U. The lettering (siglas) was introduced by Karl Bartsch, who placed sources he considered more reliable higher in the alphabet. This system is imperfect, however, since many of the chansonniers produced for an Italian audience are heavily edited and do not necessarily more closely resemble the original compositions. While parchment chansonniers are more durable, paper ones also exist and have received lower-case siglas.[38][39]
Image
Troubadour manuscript letter (sigla)
Provenance (place of origin, date)
Location (library, city)
Shelf mark
Notes
A Lombardy,
13th century Biblioteca Vaticana,
Rome Latin 5232
B Occitania,
13th century Bibliothèque nationale de France,
Paris BN f.f. 1592
C Occitania,
14th century Bibliothèque nationale de France,
Paris BN f.f. 856
D Lombardy,
12 August 1254 Biblioteca Estense,
Modena Kg.4.MS2=E.45=α.R.4.4 The Poetarum Provinciali.
E Occitania,
14th century Bibliothèque nationale de France,
Paris BN f.f. 1749
F Lombardy,
14th century Biblioteca Vaticana,
Rome Chigi L.IV.106
G Lombardy or Venetia,
late 13th century Biblioteca Ambrosiana,
Milan R 71 sup. Contains troubadour music.
H Lombardy,
late 13th century Biblioteca Vaticana,
Rome Latin 3207
I Lombardy,
13th century Bibliothèque nationale de France,
Paris BN f.f. 854
J Occitania,
14th century Biblioteca Nazionale,
Florence Conventi Soppressi F.IV.776
K Lombardy,
13th century Bibliothèque nationale de France,
Paris BN f.f. 12473
L Lombardy,
14th century Biblioteca Vaticana,
Rome Latin 3206
M Lombardy,
14th century Bibliothèque nationale de France,
Paris BN f.f. 12474
N Lombardy,
14th century Pierpont Morgan,
New York 819 The Philipps Manuscript.
O Lombardy,
14th century Biblioteca Vaticana,
Rome Vat.Lat. 3208
P Lombardy,
1310 Biblioteca Laurenziana,
Florence XLI.42
Q Lombardy,
14th century Biblioteca Riccardiana,
Florence 2909
R Toulousain or Rouergue,
14th century Bibliothèque nationale de France,
Paris BN f.f. 22543 Contains more troubadour music than any other manuscript. Perhaps produced for Henry II of Rodez.
S Lombardy,
13th century Bodleian Library,
Oxford Douce 269
Sg Catalonia,
14th century Biblioteca de Catalunya,
Barcelona 146 The famous Cançoner Gil. Called Z in the reassignment of letter names by François Zufferey.
T Lombardy,
late 13th century Bibliothèque nationale de France,
Paris BN f.f. 15211
U Lombardy,
14th century Biblioteca Laurenziana,
Florence XLI.43
V Catalonia,
1268 Biblioteca Marciana,
Venice fr. App. cod. XI
W perhaps Artois,
1254–c. 1280 Bibliothèque nationale de France,
Paris BN f.f. 844 Also trouvère manuscript M. Contains the chansonnier du roi of Theobald I of Navarre. Possibly produced for Charles I of Naples. Contains troubadour music.
X Lorraine,
13th century Bibliothèque nationale de France,
Paris BN f.f. 20050 Chansonnier de Saint-Germain-des-Prés. Also trouvère manuscript U and therefore has marks of French influence. Contains troubadour music. Owned by Saint-Germain-des-Prés in the 18th century.
Y France/Lombardy,
13th century Bibliothèque nationale de France,
Paris BN f.f. 795
Z Occitania,
13th century Bibliothèque nationale de France,
Paris BN f.f. 1745
a Biblioteca Riccardiana,
Florence 2814 Copy of a lost manuscript compiled by Bernart Amoros.
a1 Biblioteca Estense,
Modena Càmpori Appendice 426, 427, 494
(formerly Gamma.N.8.4.11–13) Copy of a lost manuscript compiled by Bernart Amoros.
b Biblioteca Vaticana,
Rome Barberiniani 4087 Copy of a lost manuscript compiled by Miquel de la Tor.
c Biblioteca Laurenziana,
Florence Plut. XC inferiore 26
d Staatsbibliothek,
Berlin Phillipps 1910 Pillet-Carstens N2, since Pillet-Carstens d is a mere copy of K.
e Biblioteca Vaticana,
Rome Latin 7182
e (Pillet-Carstens) Biblioteca Vaticana,
Rome Barberiniani 3965 Copy of a lost manuscript compiled by Miquel de la Tor.
f Bibliothèque nationale de France,
Paris BN f.f. 12472
References[edit]
Abraham, Mary C. (2012) "The Rhetoric of the Troubadours" Musical Offerings: Vol. 1: No. 1, Article 1.
Akehurst, F. R. P., and Davis, Judith M., edd. (1995). A Handbook of the Troubadours. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07976-0.
Aubrey, Elizabeth (1989). "References to Music in Old Occitan Literature." Acta Musicologica, 61:2 (May–August), pp. 110–149.
Boase, Roger (1977). The Origin and Meaning of Courtly Love: A Critical Study of European Scholarship. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-87471-950-X.
Chaytor, Henry John (1912). The Troubadours. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gaunt, Simon, and Kay, Sarah, edd. (1999) The Troubadours: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57473-0.
Jones, W. Powell (1931). "The Jongleur Troubadours of Provence." PMLA, 46:2 (June), pp. 307–311.
Menocal, María Rosa (1981). "Close Encounters in Medieval Provence: Spain's Role in the Birth of Troubadour Poetry." Hispanic Review, 49:1 (Williams Memorial Issue, Winter), pp. 43–64.
Paden, William D. (2005) "Troubadours and History" (pp. 157–182). The world of Eleanor of Aquitaine : literature and society in southern France between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries, edd. Marcus Bull and Catherine Léglu. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. ISBN 1-84383-114-7.
Riquer, Martín de. Los trovadores: historia literaria y textos. 3 vol. Barcelona: Planeta, 1975.
Silverstein, Theodore (1949). "Andreas, Plato, and the Arabs: Remarks on Some Recent Accounts of Courtly Love." Modern Philology, 47:2 (November), pp. 117–126.
Smythe, Barbara (1966). Trobador Poets: Selections from the Poems of Eight Trobadors, Translated from the Provençal with Introduction & Notes. New York: Cooper Square Publishers.
Warren, F. M. (1912). "The Troubadour Canso and Latin Lyric Poetry." Modern Philology, 9:4 (April), pp. 469–487.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Wolf, George (1983). The Poetry of Cercamon and Jaufre Rudel. London: Garland Publishing.
Jump up ^ "TROUBADOUR : Etymologie de TROUBADOUR".
Jump up ^ Chaytor, Part 1.
Jump up ^ Jacques Allières, La formation de la langue française, coll. Que sais-je ?, éditions PUF, 1982, p. 49. 2) Imparisyllabiques β) Mots en -OR -ŌRE.
Jump up ^ ALLIÈRES 49.
Jump up ^ Maria Rosa Menocal (1985), "Pride and Prejudice in Medieval Studies: European and Oriental", Hispanic Review, 53:1, 61–78.
Jump up ^ Roger Boase (1977). The origin and meaning of courtly love: a critical study of European scholarship. Manchester University Press. p. 131.
Jump up ^ Richard Lemay, « À propos de l'origine arabe de l'art des troubadours », Annales. Économies, sociétés, civilisations, vol. 21, n°5, 1966, p. 991 (French)
Jump up ^ See Idries Shah, The Sufis.
Jump up ^ Puois nostre temps comens'a brunezir; read the whole text here
Jump up ^ read the whole text here
Jump up ^ Del Monte, A. (1955). Peire d'Alvernha, Liriche. Turin.
Jump up ^ Bell, Joseph Norment (1979). Love theory in later Hanbalite Islam. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-87395-244-6.
Jump up ^ M. Guettat (1980), La Musique classique du Maghreb (Paris: Sindbad).
Jump up ^ J. B. Trend (1965), Music of Spanish History to 1600 (New York: Krause Reprint Corp.)
Jump up ^ Grove, "Troubadour".
Jump up ^ Gerald A. Bond, "Origins", in Akehurst and Davis, p. 246.
Jump up ^ Gerald A. Bond, "Origins", in Akehurst and Davis, p. 243.
Jump up ^ Warren, 4.
Jump up ^ Warren, 7.
^ Jump up to: a b Menocal, 47.
Jump up ^ Troubadour, Observatoire de terminologie littéraire, University of Limoges, France.
Jump up ^ Gerald A. Bond, "Origins", in Akehurst and Davis, 244.
Jump up ^ Menocal, 46.
Jump up ^ Silverstein, 118.
Jump up ^ Peter Dronke, The Medieval Lyric, Perennial Library, 1968. p. 111.
Jump up ^ Translation based on Marjorie Chibnall, in Bond, p. 240.
Jump up ^ Paden, 161.
Jump up ^ Paden, 163.
Jump up ^ The earliest reference to the basse danse comes from Raimon de Cornet, who attributes it to the jongleurs of the mid-14th century.
Jump up ^ Sometimes canso-sirventes or sirventes-canso was used. Bertran de Born uses the term miei sirventes.
Jump up ^ Frank M. Chambers (1985), An Introduction to Old Provençal Versification, (Darby, PA: Diane Publishing, ISBN 0-87169-167-1.), pp. 195–96.
Jump up ^ The Grove Concise Dictionary of Music edited by Stanley Sadie. Macmillan Press Ltd., London.
Jump up ^ Sometimes Doctrina de cort: "Doctrinal of court".
Jump up ^ Sometimes Vers e regles de trobar: "Verses and rules of composition".
^ Jump up to: a b c Fully Las flors del Gay Saber, estiers dichas las leys d'amors: "The flowers of the Gay Science, which are called the laws of love".
Jump up ^ Fully Compendi de la conexença dels vicis que.s podon esdevenir en las dictats del Gay Saber: "Compendium of the knowledge of the vices that can be expressed in the Gay Science".
Jump up ^ Gaunt and Kay, "Appendix 4", 303–04.
Jump up ^ Paden, "Manuscripts", in Akehurst and Davis, 329.
External links[edit]
Literary Encyclopedia: Troubadour.
The University of Naples' troubadours' text collection
Complete works of the major troubadours
Books about Troubadours
Said I. Abdelwahed. Troubadour Poetry: An Intercultural Experience.
Courtly Site - site on courtly love, literature, troubadours
Pound, Ezra (October 1913). "Troubadors: Their Sorts and Conditions". The Quarterly Journal. 219: 426–440.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Troubadours.
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Rational planning model
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The rational planning model is a model of the planning process involving a number of rational actions or steps. Taylor (1998) outlines five steps, as follows:[1]
Definition of the problems and/or goals;
Identification of alternative plans/policies;
Evaluation of alternative plans/policies;
Implementation of plans/policies;
Monitoring of effects of plans/policies.
The rational planning model is used in planning and designing neighborhoods, cities, and regions. It has been central in the development of modern urban planning and transportation planning. The model has many limitations, particularly the lack of guidance on involving stakeholders and the community affected by planning, and other models of planning, such as collaborative planning, are now also widely used.
The very similar rational decision-making model, as it is called in organizational behavior, is a process for making logically sound decisions.[2] This multi-step model and aims to be logical and follow the orderly path from problem identification through solution. Rational decision making is a multi-step process for making logically sound decisions that aims to follow the orderly path from problem identification through solution.
Contents
[hide]
1 Method
1.1 Verify, define, and detail the problem
1.2 Generate all possible solutions
1.3 Generate objective assessment criteria
1.4 Choose the best solution generated
1.5 Implement the preferred alternative
1.6 Monitor and evaluate outcomes and results
1.7 Feedback
2 Discourse of rational planning model used in policy making
2.1 Decision criteria for policy analysis — Step 2
2.2 Decision methods for policy analysis — Step 5
2.3 Case study of rational policy analysis
3 Requirements and limitations
4 Current status
5 See also
6 Sources
7 References
Method[edit]
Rational decision-making or planning follows a series of steps detailed below:
Verify, define, and detail the problem[edit]
Verifying, defining & detailing the problem (problem definition, goal definition, information gathering). This step includes recognizing the problem, defining an initial solution, and starting primary analysis. Examples of this are creative devising, creative ideas, inspirations, breakthroughs, and brainstorms.
The very first step which is normally overlooked by the top level management is defining the exact problem. Though we think that the problem identification is obvious, many times it is not. The rational decision making model is a group-based decision making process. If the problem is not identified properly then we may face a problem as each and every member of the group might have a different definition of the problem. Hence, it is very important that the definition of the problem is the same among all group members. Only then is it possible for the group members to find alternate sources or problem solving in an effective manner.
Generate all possible solutions[edit]
This step encloses two to three final solutions to the problem and preliminary implementation to the site. In planning, examples of this are Planned Units of Development and downtown revitalizations.
This activity is best done in groups, as different people may contribute different ideas or alternative solutions to the problem. Without alternative solutions, there is a chance of arriving at a non-optimal or a rational decision. For exploring the alternatives it is necessary to gather information. Technology may help with gathering this information.
Generate objective assessment criteria[edit]
Evaluative criteria are measurements to determine success and failure of alternatives. This step contains secondary and final analysis along with secondary solutions to the problem. Examples of this are site suitability and site sensitivity analysis. After going thoroughly through the process of defining the problem, exploring for all the possible alternatives for that problem and gathering information this step says evaluate the information and the possible options to anticipate the consequences of each and every possible alternative that is thought of. At this point optional criteria for measuring the success or failure of the decision taken needs to be considered.
Choose the best solution generated[edit]
This step comprises a final solution and secondary implementation to the site. At this point the process has developed into different strategies of how to apply the solutions to the site.
Based on the criteria of assessment and the analysis done in previous steps, choose the best solution generated. These four steps form the core of the Rational Decision Making Model.
Implement the preferred alternative[edit]
This step includes final implementation to the site and preliminary monitoring of the outcome and results of the site. This step is the building/renovations part of the process.
Monitor and evaluate outcomes and results[edit]
This step contains the secondary and final monitoring of the outcomes and results of the site. This step takes place over a long period of time.
Feedback[edit]
Modify future decisions and actions taken based on the above evaluation of outcomes.[3]
Discourse of rational planning model used in policy making[edit]
The rational model of decision-making is a process for making sound decisions in policy making in the public sector. Rationality is defined as “a style of behavior that is appropriate to the achievement of given goals, within the limits imposed by given conditions and constraints”.[4] It is important to note the model makes a series of assumptions in order for it to work, such as:
The model must be applied in a system that is stable,
The government is a rational and unitary actor and that its actions are perceived as rational choices,
The policy problem is unambiguous,
There are no limitations of time or cost.
Indeed, some of the assumptions identified above are also pin pointed out in a study written by the historian H.A. Drake, as he states:
In its purest form, the Rational Actor approach presumes that such a figure [as Constantine] has complete freedom of action to achieve goals that he or she has articulated through a careful process of rational analysis involving full and objective study of all pertinent information and alternatives. At the same time, it presumes that this central actor is so fully in control of the apparatus of government that a decision once made is as good as implemented. There are no staffs on which to rely, no constituencies to placate, no generals or governors to cajole. By attributing all decision making to one central figure who is always fully in control and who acts only after carefully weighing all options, the Rational Actor method allows scholars to filter out extraneous details and focus attention on central issues.[5]
Furthermore, as we have seen, in the context of policy rational models are intended to achieve maximum social gain. For this purpose, Simon identifies an outline of a step by step mode of analysis to achieve rational decisions. Ian Thomas describes Simon's steps as follows:
Intelligence gathering— data and potential problems and opportunities are identified, collected and analyzed.
Identifying problems
Assessing the consequences of all options
Relating consequences to values— with all decisions and policies there will be a set of values which will be more relevant (for example, economic feasibility and environmental protection) and which can be expressed as a set of criteria, against which performance (or consequences) of each option can be judged.
Choosing the preferred option— given the full understanding of all the problems and opportunities, all the consequences and the criteria for judging options.[6]
In similar lines, Wiktorowicz and Deber describe through their study on ‘Regulating biotechnology: a rational-political model of policy development’ the rational approach to policy development. The main steps involved in making a rational decision for these authors are the following:
The comprehensive organization and analysis of the information
The potential consequences of each option
The probability that each potential outcome would materialize
The value (or utility) placed on each potential outcome.[7]
The approach of Wiktorowicz and Deber is similar to Simon and they assert that the rational model tends to deal with “the facts” (data, probabilities) in steps 1 to 3, leaving the issue of assessing values to the final step. According to Wiktorowicz and Deber values are introduced in the final step of the rational model, where the utility of each policy option is assessed.
Many authors have attempted to interpret the above-mentioned steps, amongst others, Patton and Sawicki [8] who summarize the model as presented in the following figure (missing):
Defining the problem by analyzing the data and the information gathered.
Identifying the decision criteria that will be important in solving the problem. The decision maker must determine the relevant factors to take into account when making the decision.
A brief list of the possible alternatives must be generated; these could succeed to resolve the problem.
A critical analyses and evaluation of each criterion is brought through. For example, strength and weakness tables of each alternative are drawn and used for comparative basis. The decision maker then weights the previously identified criteria in order to give the alternative policies a correct priority in the decision.
The decision-maker evaluates each alternative against the criteria and selects the preferred alternative.
The policy is brought through.
The model of rational decision-making has also proven to be very useful to several decision making processes in industries outside the public sphere. Nonetheless, many criticisms of the model arise due to claim of the model being impractical and lying on unrealistic assumptions. For instance, it is a difficult model to apply in the public sector because social problems can be very complex, ill-defined and interdependent. The problem lies in the thinking procedure implied by the model which is linear and can face difficulties in extra ordinary problems or social problems which have no sequences of happenings. This latter argument can be best illustrated by the words of Thomas R. Dye, the president of the Lincoln Center for Public Service, who wrote in his book `Understanding Public Policy´ the following passage:
There is no better illustration of the dilemmas of rational policy making in America than in the field of health…the first obstacle to rationalism is defining the problem. Is our goal to have good health — that is, whether we live at all (infant mortality), how well we live (days lost to sickness), and how long we live (life spans and adult mortality)? Or is our goal to have good medical care — frequent visits to the doctor, wellequipped and accessible hospitals, and equal access to medical care by rich and poor alike?[9]
The problems faced when using the rational model arise in practice because social and environmental values can be difficult to quantify and forge consensus around.[10] Furthermore, the assumptions stated by Simon are never fully valid in a real world context.
However, as Thomas states the rational model provides a good perspective since in modern society rationality plays a central role and everything that is rational tends to be prized. Thus, it does not seem strange that “we ought to be trying for rational decision-making”.[6]
Decision criteria for policy analysis — Step 2[edit]
As illustrated in Figure 1, rational policy analysis can be broken into 6 distinct stages of analysis. Step 2 highlights the need to understand which factors should be considered as part of the decision making process. At this part of the process, all the economic, social, and environmental factors that are important to the policy decision need to be identified and then expressed as policy decision criteria. For example, the decision criteria used in the analysis of environmental policy is often a mix of —
Ecological impacts — such as biodiversity, water quality, air quality, habitat quality, species population, etc.
Economic efficiency — commonly expressed as benefits and costs.
Distributional equity — how policy impacts are distributed amongst different demographics. Factors that can affect the distribution of impacts include location, ethnicity, income, and occupation.
Social/Cultural acceptability — the extent to which the policy action may be opposed by current social norms or cultural values.
Operational practicality — the capacity required to actually operationalize the policy.
Legality — the potential for the policy to be implemented under current legislation versus the need to pass new legislation that accommodates the policy.
Uncertainty — the degree to which the level of policy impacts can be known.[11]
Some criteria, such as economic benefit, will be more easily measurable or definable, while others such as environmental quality will be harder to measure or express quantitatively. Ultimately though, the set of decision criteria needs to embody all of the policy goals, and overemphasising the more easily definable or measurable criteria, will have the undesirable impact of biasing the analysis towards a subset of the policy goals.[12]
The process of identifying a suitably comprehensive decision criteria set is also vulnerable to being skewed by pressures arising at the political interface. For example, decision makers may tend to give "more weight to policy impacts that are concentrated, tangible, certain, and immediate than to impacts that are diffuse, intangible, uncertain, and delayed."^8. For example, with a cap-and-trade system for carbon emissions the net financial cost in the first five years of policy implementation is a far easier impact to conceptualise than the more diffuse and uncertain impact of a country's improved position to influence global negotiations on climate change action.
Decision methods for policy analysis — Step 5[edit]
Displaying the impacts of policy alternatives can be done using a policy analysis matrix (PAM) such that shown in Table 1. As shown, a PAM provides a summary of the policy impacts for the various alternatives and examination of the matrix can reveal the tradeoffs associated with the different alternatives.
Table 1. Policy analysis matrix (PAM) for SO2 emissions control.
Once policy alternatives have been evaluated, the next step is to decide which policy alternative should be implemented. This is shown as step 5 in Figure 1. At one extreme, comparing the policy alternatives can be relatively simple if all the policy goals can be measured using a single metric and given equal weighting. In this case, the decision method is an exercise in benefit cost analysis (BCA).
At the other extreme, the numerous goals will require the policy impacts to be expressed using a variety of metrics that are not readily comparable. In such cases, the policy analyst may draw on the concept of utility to aggregate the various goals into a single score. With the utility concept, each impact is given a weighting such that 1 unit of each weighted impact is considered to be equally valuable (or desirable) with regards to the collective well-being.
Weimer and Vining also suggest that the "go, no go" rule can be a useful method for deciding amongst policy alternatives^8. Under this decision making regime, some or all policy impacts can be assigned thresholds which are used to eliminate at least some of the policy alternatives. In their example, one criterion "is to minimize SO2 emissions" and so a threshold might be a reduction SO2 emissions "of at least 8.0 million tons per year". As such, any policy alternative that does not meet this threshold can be removed from consideration. If only a single policy alternative satisfies all the impact thresholds then it is the one that is considered a "go" for each impact. Otherwise it might be that all but a few policy alternatives are eliminated and those that remain need to be more closely examined in terms of their trade-offs so that a decision can be made.
Case study of rational policy analysis[edit]
To demonstrate the rational analysis process as described above, let’s examine the policy paper “Stimulating the use of biofuels in the European Union: Implications for climate change policy” by Lisa Ryan where the substitution of fossil fuels with biofuels has been proposed in the European Union (EU) between 2005–2010 as part of a strategy to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions from road transport, increase security of energy supply and support development of rural communities.
Considering the steps of Patton and Sawicki model as in Figure 1 above, this paper only follows components 1 to 5 of the rationalist policy analysis model:
Defining The Problem – the report identifies transportation fuels pose two important challenges for the European Union (EU). First, under the provisions of the Kyoto Protocol to the Climate Change Convention, the EU has agreed to an absolute cap on greenhouse gas emissions; while, at the same time increased consumption of transportation fuels has resulted in a trend of increasing greenhouse gas emissions from this source. Second, the dependence upon oil imports from the politically volatile Middle East generates concern over price fluctuations and possible interruptions in supply. Alternative fuel sources need to be used & substituted in place of fossil fuels to mitigate GHG emissions in the EU.
Determine the Evaluation Criteria – this policy sets Environmental impacts/benefits (reduction of GHG’s as a measure to reducing climate change effects) and Economical efficiency (the costs of converting to biofuels as alternative to fossil fuels & the costs of production of biofuels from its different potential sources)as its decision criteria. However, this paper does not exactly talk about the social impacts, this policy may have. It also does not compare the operational challenges involved between the different categories of biofuels considered.
Identifying Alternative Policies – The European Commission foresees that three alternative transport fuels: hydrogen, natural gas, and biofuels, will replace transport fossil fuels, each by 5% by 2020.
Evaluating Alternative Policies – Biofuels are an alternative motor vehicle fuel produced from biological material and are promoted as a transitional step until more advanced technologies have matured. By modelling the efficiency of the biofuel options the authors compute the economic and environmental costs of each biofuel option as per the evaluation criteria mentioned above.
Select The Preferred Policy – The authors suggest that the overall best biofuel comes from the sugarcane in Brazil after comparing the economic & the environmental costs. The current cost of subsidising the price difference between European biofuels and fossil fuels per tonne of CO2 emissions saved is calculated to be €229–2000. If the production of European biofuels for transport is to be encouraged, exemption from excise duties is the instrument that incurs the least transactions costs, as no separate administrative or collection system needs to be established. A number of entrepreneurs are producing biofuels at the lower margin of the costs specified here profitably, once an excise duty rebate is given. It is likely that growth in the volume of the business will engender both economies of scale and innovation that will reduce costs substantially.[13]
Requirements and limitations[edit]
However, there are a lot of assumptions, requirements without which the rational decision model is a failure. Therefore, they all have to be considered. The model assumes that we have or should or can obtain adequate information, both in terms of quality, quantity and accuracy. This applies to the situation as well as the alternative technical situations. It further assumes that you have or should or can obtain substantive knowledge of the cause and effect relationships relevant to the evaluation of the alternatives. In other words, it assumes that you have a thorough knowledge of all the alternatives and the consequences of the alternatives chosen. It further assumes that you can rank the alternatives and choose the best of it. The following are the limitations for the Rational Decision Making Model:
requires a great deal of time
requires great deal of information
assumes rational, measurable criteria are available and agreed upon
assumes accurate, stable and complete knowledge of all the alternatives, preferences, goals and consequences
assumes a rational, reasonable, non – political world
Current status[edit]
While the rational planning model was innovative at its conception, the concepts are controversial and questionable processes today. The rational planning model has fallen out of mass use as of the last decade. Rather than conceptualising human agents as rational planners, Lucy Suchman argues, agents can better be understood as engaging in situated action.[14] Going further, Guy Benveniste argued that the rational model could not be implemented without taking the political context into account.[15]
See also[edit]
Rationality and power
Sources[edit]
See working paper #2 at http://ewp.uoregon.edu/publications/working
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Taylor, Nigel (1998). Urban Planning Theory since 1945. London: Sage Publications. pp. 67–68.
Jump up ^ Robbins, Stephen P.; Timothy A. Judge (2007). Organizational Behavior (12th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. 156–8. ISBN 978-0132431569.
Jump up ^ Brooks, Michael P. (2002). Planning Theory for Practitioners. Chicago: American Planning Association. pp. 175–6.
Jump up ^ Simon, Herbert (1976). Administrative Behavior (3rd ed.). New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0-684-83582-7.
Jump up ^ Drake, H.A., ed. (2002). Constantine and the Bishops: The Politics of Intolerance. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
^ Jump up to: a b Thomas, Ian, ed. (2007). Environmental Policy: Australian Practice in the Context of Theory. Sydney: Federation Press. ISBN 1-86287-603-7.
Jump up ^ Wiktorowicz, Mary; Deber, Raisa (May 1997). "Regulating biotechnology: a rational-political Model of policy development". Health Policy Journal. 40 (2): 115–138. doi:10.1016/S0168-8510(96)00889-5.
Jump up ^ Patton, C., Sawicki, D. (1986). Basic methods of policy analysis and planning. NJ: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-060948-X. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Dye, Thomas R. (2007). Understanding Public Policy (12th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-936948-1.
Jump up ^ Morgan M.G.; Kandlikar M.; Risbey J.; Dowlatabadi H. (19 March 1999). "Why Conventional Tools for Policy Analysis Are Often Inadequate for Problems of Global Change". Climatic Change. 41 (3–4): 271–281. doi:10.1023/A:1005469411776.
Jump up ^ Loomis, John; Helfand, Gloria (2001). Environmental Policy Analysis for Decision Making. Kluwer Academic. ISBN 0-7923-6500-3.
Jump up ^ Weimer & Vining 1989
Jump up ^ Ryan L.; Convery F.; Ferreira S. (November 2006). "Stimulating the use of biofuels in the European Union: Implications for climate change policy". Energy Policy. 34 (17): 3184–94. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2005.06.010.
Jump up ^ Suchman, Lucy (2007). Human-Machine Reconfigurations: Plans and Situation Action (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ Benveniste, Guy (1994). Mastering the Politics of Planning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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