text:
Air pollution
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Bad air quality" and "Air quality" redirect here. For the obsolete medical theory, see Bad air. For the measure of how polluted the air is, see Air quality index. For the properties of air, see Qualities of air.
Air pollution from a coking oven.
Air pollution occurs when harmful substances including particulates and biological molecules are introduced into Earth's atmosphere. It may cause diseases, allergies or death of humans; it may also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops, and may damage the natural or built environment. Human activity and natural processes can both generate air pollution.
Indoor air pollution and poor urban air quality are listed as two of the world's worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report.[1] According to the 2014 World Health Organization report, air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide,[2] an estimate roughly echoed by one from the International Energy Agency.[3][4]
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season
Wet season
Storms
Cloud
Cumulonimbus cloud
Arcus cloud
Downburst
Microburst
Heat burst
Dust storm
Simoom
Haboob
Monsoon
Gale
Sirocco
Firestorm
Lightning
Supercell
Thunderstorm
Severe thunderstorm
Thundersnow
Storm surge
Tornado
Cyclone
Mesocyclone
Anticyclone
Tropical cyclone (Hurricane)
Extratropical cyclone
European windstorm
Atlantic Hurricane
Typhoon
Derecho
Landspout
Dust devil
Fire whirl
Waterspout
Winter storm
Ice storm
Blizzard
Ground blizzard
Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle)
Graupel
Hail
Ice pellets (Diamond dust)
Rain (Freezing rain)
Cloudburst
Snow
Rain and snow mixed
Snow grains
Snow roller
Slush
Topics
Atmospheric river
Atmospheric convection
Air pollution
Climate
Cloud
Fog
Cold wave
Heat wave
Jet stream
Meteorology
Severe weather
Weather forecasting
Weather portal
v
t
e
Contents
[hide]
1 Pollutants
1.1 Sources
1.1.1 Anthropogenic (man-made) sources
1.1.2 Natural sources
1.2 Emission factors
2 Exposure
3 Indoor air quality (IAQ)
4 Health effects
4.1 Mortality
4.2 Cardiovascular disease
4.3 Lung disease
4.4 Cancer
4.5 Children
4.5.1 Infants
4.6 "Clean" areas
4.7 Central nervous system
5 Agricultural effects
6 Economic effects
7 Historical disasters
8 Alternatives to pollution
9 Reduction efforts
9.1 Control devices
10 Regulations
10.1 Canada
10.2 Germany
11 Hotspots
12 Cities
13 National-scale air toxics assessments 1995–2005
14 Governing urban air pollution
15 See also
16 References
17 Further reading
18 External links
Pollutants[edit]
Main articles: Pollutant and Greenhouse gas
An air pollutant is a substance in the air that can have adverse effects on humans and the ecosystem. The substance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. A pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made. Pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are usually produced from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption. Other examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhaust, or the sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. Ground level ozone is a prominent example of a secondary pollutant. Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.
Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant in New Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.
Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse effect, (2) particulate contamination, (3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ground level ozone concentration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides.
Thermal oxidizers are air pollution abatement options for hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and odorous emissions.
Substances emitted into the atmosphere by human activity include:
Carbon dioxide (CO2) - Because of its role as a greenhouse gas it has been described as "the leading pollutant"[5] and "the worst climate pollution".[6] Carbon dioxide is a natural component of the atmosphere, essential for plant life and given off by the human respiratory system.[7] This question of terminology has practical effects, for example as determining whether the U.S. Clean Air Act is deemed to regulate CO2 emissions.[8] CO2 currently forms about 405 parts per million (ppm) of earth's atmosphere, compared to about 280 ppm in pre-industrial times,[9] and billions of metric tons of CO2 are emitted annually by burning of fossil fuels.[10] CO2 increase in earth's atmosphere has been accelerating.[11]
Sulfur oxides (SOx) - particularly sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, and their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain.[2] This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from high temperature combustion, and are also produced during thunderstorms by electric discharge. They can be seen as a brown haze dome above or a plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of several nitrogen oxides. One of the most prominent air pollutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor.
Carbon monoxide (CO) - CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic yet non-irritating gas. It is a product of combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust contributes to the majority of carbon monoxide let into our atmosphere. It creates a smog type formation in the air that has been linked to many lung diseases and disruptions to the natural environment and animals. In 2013, more than half of the carbon monoxide emitted into our atmosphere was from vehicle traffic and burning one gallon of gas will often emit over 20 pounds of carbon monoxide into the air.[12]
Volatile organic compounds (VOC) - VOCs are a well-known outdoor air pollutant. They are categorized as either methane (CH4) or non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases because of their role in creating ozone and prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere. This effect varies depending on local air quality. The aromatic NMVOCs benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia with prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound often associated with industrial use.
Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), atmospheric particulate matter, or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to combined particles and gas. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged worldwide, anthropogenic aerosols—those made by human activities—currently account for approximately 10 percent of our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease,[13] altered lung function and lung cancer. Particulates are related to respiratory infections and can be particularly harmful to those already suffering from conditions like asthma.[14]
Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles are linked to cardiopulmonary disease.[15][16]
Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially their compounds.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer; emitted from products are currently banned from use. These are gases which are released from air conditioners, refrigerators, aerosol sprays, etc. On release into the air, CFCs rise to the stratosphere. Here they come in contact with other gases and damage the ozone layer. This allows harmful ultraviolet rays to reach the earth's surface. This can lead to skin cancer, eye disease and can even cause damage to plants.
Ammonia (NH3) - emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous. In the atmosphere, ammonia reacts with oxides of nitrogen and sulfur to form secondary particles.[17]
Odours — such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes
Radioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events, war explosives, and natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.
Secondary pollutants include:
Particulates created from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by ultraviolet light from the sun to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.
Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of the troposphere. It is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer. Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog.
Peroxyacetyl nitrate (C2H3NO5) - similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.
Minor air pollutants include:
A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive
A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulates
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this, they have been observed to persist in the environment, to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have potentially significant impacts on human health and the environment.
Sources[edit]
Play media
This video provides an overview of a NASA study on the human fingerprint on global air quality.
There are various locations, activities or factors which are responsible for releasing pollutants into the atmosphere. These sources can be classified into two major categories.
Anthropogenic (man-made) sources[edit]
Controlled burning of a field outside of Statesboro, Georgia in preparation for spring planting.
These are mostly related to the burning of multiple types of fuel.
Stationary sources include smoke stacks of fossil fuel power stations, manufacturing facilities (factories) and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices. In developing and poor countries, traditional biomass burning is the major source of air pollutants; traditional biomass includes wood, crop waste and dung.[18][19]
Mobile sources include motor vehicles, marine vessels, and aircraft.
Controlled burn practices in agriculture and forest management. Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the forest.
Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents
Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is highly flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement.
Military resources, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry.
Natural sources[edit]
Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas.
Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation
Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle
Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.
Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires
Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) on warmer days. These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic pollutants—specifically, NOx, SO2, and anthropogenic organic carbon compounds — to produce a seasonal haze of secondary pollutants.[20] Black gum, poplar, oak and willow are some examples of vegetation that can produce abundant VOCs. The VOC production from these species result in ozone levels up to eight times higher than the low-impact tree species.[21]
Volcanic activity, which produces sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates
Emission factors[edit]
Main article: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors
Beijing air on a 2005-day after rain (left) and a smoggy day (right)
Air pollutant emission factors are reported representative values that attempt to relate the quantity of a pollutant released to the ambient air with an activity associated with the release of that pollutant. These factors are usually expressed as the weight of pollutant divided by a unit weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting the pollutant (e.g., kilograms of particulate emitted per tonne of coal burned). Such factors facilitate estimation of emissions from various sources of air pollution. In most cases, these factors are simply averages of all available data of acceptable quality, and are generally assumed to be representative of long-term averages.
There are 12 compounds in the list of persistent organic pollutants. Dioxins and furans are two of them and intentionally created by combustion of organics, like open burning of plastics. These compounds are also endocrine disruptors and can mutate the human genes.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published a compilation of air pollutant emission factors for a wide range of industrial sources.[22] The United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and many other countries have published similar compilations, as well as the European Environment Agency.[23][24][25][26]
Exposure[edit]
Air pollution risk is a function of the hazard of the pollutant and the exposure to that pollutant. Air pollution exposure can be expressed for an individual, for certain groups (e.g. neighborhoods or children living in a country), or for entire populations. For example, one may want to calculate the exposure to a hazardous air pollutant for a geographic area, which includes the various microenvironments and age groups. This can be calculated[27] as an inhalation exposure. This would account for daily exposure in various settings (e.g. different indoor micro-environments and outdoor locations). The exposure needs to include different age and other demographic groups, especially infants, children, pregnant women and other sensitive subpopulations. The exposure to an air pollutant must integrate the concentrations of the air pollutant with respect to the time spent in each setting and the respective inhalation rates for each subgroup for each specific time that the subgroup is in the setting and engaged in particular activities (playing, cooking, reading, working, etc.). For example, a small child's inhalation rate will be less than that of an adult. A child engaged in vigorous exercise will have a higher respiration rate than the same child in a sedentary activity. The daily exposure, then, needs to reflect the time spent in each micro-environmental setting and the type of activities in these settings. The air pollutant concentration in each microactivity/microenvironmental setting is summed to indicate the exposure.[27]
Indoor air quality (IAQ)[edit]
Main article: Indoor air quality
Air quality monitoring, New Delhi, India.
A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority of their time. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and trapped inside houses. Building materials including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde (H2CO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled. Intentional air pollution is introduced with the use of air fresheners, incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood fires in stoves and fireplaces can add significant amounts of smoke particulates into the air, inside and out.[28] Indoor pollution fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation.
Carbon monoxide poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by the burning of charcoal indoors or in a confined space, such as a tent.[29] Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can result even from poorly-adjusted pilot lights. Traps are built into all domestic plumbing to keep sewer gas and hydrogen sulfide, out of interiors. Clothing emits tetrachloroethylene, or other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning.
Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use of asbestos in industrial and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in many localities. Asbestosis is a chronic inflammatory medical condition affecting the tissue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to asbestos from asbestos-containing materials in structures. Sufferers have severe dyspnea (shortness of breath) and are at an increased risk regarding several different types of lung cancer. As clear explanations are not always stressed in non-technical literature, care should be taken to distinguish between several forms of relevant diseases. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), these may defined as; asbestosis, lung cancer, and Peritoneal Mesothelioma (generally a very rare form of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always associated with prolonged exposure to asbestos).
Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates. Pets produce dander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms on walls and generates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulation allows these airborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature.
Health effects[edit]
See also: Neuroplastic effects of pollution
Air pollution is a significant risk factor for a number of pollution-related diseases and health conditions including respiratory infections, heart disease, COPD, stroke and lung cancer.[2] The health effects caused by air pollution may include difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing, asthma and worsening of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics.[27] The most common sources of air pollution include particulates, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. Children aged less than five years that live in developing countries are the most vulnerable population in terms of total deaths attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution.[30]
Mortality[edit]
The World Health Organization estimated in 2014 that every year air pollution causes the premature death of some 7 million people worldwide.[2] India has the highest death rate due to air pollution.[31] India also has more deaths from asthma than any other nation according to the World Health Organization. In December 2013 air pollution was estimated to kill 500,000 people in China each year.[32] There is a positive correlation between pneumonia-related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicle emissions.[33]
Annual premature European deaths caused by air pollution are estimated at 430,000.[34] An important cause of these deaths is nitrogen dioxide and other nitrogen oxides (NOx) emitted by road vehicles.[34] In a 2015 consultation document the UK government disclosed that nitrogen dioxide is responsible for 23,500 premature UK deaths per annum.[35] Across the European Union, air pollution is estimated to reduce life expectancy by almost nine months.[36] Causes of deaths include strokes, heart disease, COPD, lung cancer, and lung infections.[2]
Urban outdoor air pollution is estimated to cause 1.3 million deaths worldwide per year. Children are particularly at risk due to the immaturity of their respiratory organ systems.[37]
The US EPA estimates that a proposed set of changes in diesel engine technology (Tier 2) could result in 12,000 fewer premature mortalities, 15,000 fewer heart attacks, 6,000 fewer emergency room visits by children with asthma, and 8,900 fewer respiratory-related hospital admissions each year in the United States.[38]
The US EPA has estimated that limiting ground-level ozone concentration to 65 parts per billion, would avert 1,700 to 5,100 premature deaths nationwide in 2020 compared with the 75-ppb standard. The agency projected the more protective standard would also prevent an additional 26,000 cases of aggravated asthma, and more than a million cases of missed work or school.[39][40] Following this assessment, the EPA acted to protect public health by lowering the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for ground-level ozone to 70 parts per billion (ppb).[41]
A new economic study of the health impacts and associated costs of air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin and San Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that more than 3,800 people die prematurely (approximately 14 years earlier than normal) each year because air pollution levels violate federal standards. The number of annual premature deaths is considerably higher than the fatalities related to auto collisions in the same area, which average fewer than 2,000 per year.[42][43][44]
Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to combustion-derived particulate matter air pollution. In several human experimental studies, using a well-validated exposure chamber setup, DE has been linked to acute vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus formation.[45][46]
The mechanisms linking air pollution to increased cardiovascular mortality are uncertain, but probably include pulmonary and systemic inflammation.[47]
Cardiovascular disease[edit]
A 2007 review of evidence found ambient air pollution exposure is a risk factor correlating with increased total mortality from cardiovascular events (range: 12% to 14% per 10 microg/m3 increase).[48]
Air pollution is also emerging as a risk factor for stroke, particularly in developing countries where pollutant levels are highest.[49] A 2007 study found that in women, air pollution is not associated with hemorrhagic but with ischemic stroke.[50] Air pollution was also found to be associated with increased incidence and mortality from coronary stroke in a cohort study in 2011.[51] Associations are believed to be causal and effects may be mediated by vasoconstriction, low-grade inflammation and atherosclerosis[52] Other mechanisms such as autonomic nervous system imbalance have also been suggested.[53] [54]
Lung disease[edit]
Research has demonstrated increased risk of developing asthma[55] and COPD[56] from increased exposure to traffic-related air pollution. Additionally, air pollution has been associated with increased hospitalization and mortality from asthma and COPD.[57][58] Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) includes diseases such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema.[59]
A study conducted in 1960-1961 in the wake of the Great Smog of 1952 compared 293 London residents with 477 residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns with low reported death rates from chronic bronchitis. All subjects were male postal truck drivers aged 40 to 59. Compared to the subjects from the outlying towns, the London subjects exhibited more severe respiratory symptoms (including cough, phlegm, and dyspnea), reduced lung function (FEV1 and peak flow rate), and increased sputum production and purulence. The differences were more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to 59. The study controlled for age and smoking habits, so concluded that air pollution was the most likely cause of the observed differences.[60] More recent studies have shown that air pollution exposure from traffic reduces lung function development in children [61] and lung function may be compromised by air pollution even at low concentrations.[62] Air pollution exposure also cause lung cancer in non smokers.
It is believed that much like cystic fibrosis, by living in a more urban environment serious health hazards become more apparent. Studies have shown that in urban areas patients suffer mucus hypersecretion, lower levels of lung function, and more self-diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and emphysema.[63]
Cancer[edit]
Cancer is mainly the result of environmental factors.[64]
A review of evidence regarding whether ambient air pollution exposure is a risk factor for cancer in 2007 found solid data to conclude that long-term exposure to PM2.5 (fine particulates) increases the overall risk of non-accidental mortality by 6% per a 10 microg/m3 increase. Exposure to PM2.5 was also associated with an increased risk of mortality from lung cancer (range: 15% to 21% per 10 microg/m3 increase) and total cardiovascular mortality (range: 12% to 14% per a 10 microg/m3 increase). The review further noted that living close to busy traffic appears to be associated with elevated risks of these three outcomes --- increase in lung cancer deaths, cardiovascular deaths, and overall non-accidental deaths. The reviewers also found suggestive evidence that exposure to PM2.5 is positively associated with mortality from coronary heart diseases and exposure to SO2 increases mortality from lung cancer, but the data was insufficient to provide solid conclusions.[65] Another investigation showed that higher activity level increases deposition fraction of aerosol particles in human lung and recommended avoiding heavy activities like running in outdoor space at polluted areas.[66]
In 2011, a large Danish epidemiological study found an increased risk of lung cancer for patients who lived in areas with high nitrogen oxide concentrations. In this study, the association was higher for non-smokers than smokers.[67] An additional Danish study, also in 2011, likewise noted evidence of possible associations between air pollution and other forms of cancer, including cervical cancer and brain cancer.[68]
In December 2015, medical scientists reported that cancer is overwhelmingly a result of environmental factors, and not largely down to bad luck.[64] Maintaining a healthy weight, eating a healthy diet, minimizing alcohol and eliminating smoking reduces the risk of developing the disease, according to the researchers.[64]
Children[edit]
In the United States, despite the passage of the Clean Air Act in 1970, in 2002 at least 146 million Americans were living in non-attainment areas—regions in which the concentration of certain air pollutants exceeded federal standards.[69] These dangerous pollutants are known as the criteria pollutants, and include ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead. Protective measures to ensure children's health are being taken in cities such as New Delhi, India where buses now use compressed natural gas to help eliminate the "pea-soup" smog.[70] A recent study in Europe has found that exposure to ultrafine particles can increase blood pressure in children.[71]
Infants[edit]
Ambient levels of air pollution have been associated with preterm birth and low birth weight. A 2014 WHO worldwide survey on maternal and perinatal health found a statistically significant association between low birth weights (LBW) and increased levels of exposure to PM2.5. Women in regions with greater than average PM2.5 levels had statistically significant higher odds of pregnancy resulting in a low-birth weight infant even when adjusted for country-related variables.[72] The effect is thought to be from stimulating inflammation and increasing oxidative stress.
A study by the University of York found that in 2010 exposure to PM2.5 was strongly associated with 18% of preterm births globally, which was approximately 2.7 million premature births. The countries with the highest air pollution associated preterm births were in South and East Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, and West sub-Saharan Africa.[73]
The source of PM 2.5 differs greatly by region. In South and East Asia, pregnant women are frequently exposed to indoor air pollution because of the wood and other biomass fuels used for cooking which are responsible for more than 80% of regional pollution. In the Middle East, North Africa and West sub-Saharan Africa, fine PM comes from natural sources, such as dust storms.[73] The United States had an estimated 50,000 preterm births associated with exposure to PM2.5 in 2010.[73]
A study performed by Wang, et al. between the years of 1988 and 1991 has found a correlation between Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) and total suspended particulates (TSP) and preterm births and low birth weights in Beijing. A group of 74,671 pregnant women, in four separate regions of Beijing, were monitored from early pregnancy to delivery along with daily air pollution levels of Sulfur Dioxide and TSP (along with other particulates). The estimated reduction in birth weight was 7.3 g for every 100 µg/m3 increase in SO2 and 6.9g for each 100 µg/m3 increase in TSP. These associations were statistically significant in both summer and winter, although, summer was greater. The proportion of low birth weight attributable to air pollution, was 13%. This is the largest attributable risk ever reported for the known risk factors of low birth weight.[74] Coal stoves, which are in 97% of homes, are a major source of air pollution in this area.
Brauer et al. studied the relationship between air pollution and proximity to a highway with pregnancy outcomes in a Vancouver cohort of pregnant woman using addresses to estimate exposure during pregnancy. Exposure to NO, NO2, CO PM10 and PM2.5 were associated with infants born small for gestational age (SGA). Women living <50meters away from an expressway or highway were 26% more likely to give birth to a SGA infant.[75]
"Clean" areas[edit]
Even in the areas with relatively low levels of air pollution, public health effects can be significant and costly, since a large number of people breathe in such pollutants. A 2005 scientific study for the British Columbia Lung Association showed that a small improvement in air quality (1% reduction of ambient PM2.5 and ozone concentrations) would produce $29 million in annual savings in the Metro Vancouver region in 2010.[76] This finding is based on health valuation of lethal (death) and sub-lethal (illness) affects.
Central nervous system[edit]
Data is accumulating that air pollution exposure also affects the central nervous system.[77]
In a June 2014 study conducted by researchers at the University of Rochester Medical Center, published in the journal Environmental Health Perspectives, it was discovered that early exposure to air pollution causes the same damaging changes in the brain as autism and schizophrenia. The study also shows that air pollution also affected short-term memory, learning ability, and impulsivity. Lead researcher Professor Deborah Cory-Slechta said that "When we looked closely at the ventricles, we could see that the white matter that normally surrounds them hadn't fully developed. It appears that inflammation had damaged those brain cells and prevented that region of the brain from developing, and the ventricles simply expanded to fill the space. Our findings add to the growing body of evidence that air pollution may play a role in autism, as well as in other neurodevelopmental disorders." Air pollution has a more significant negative effect on males than on females.[78][79]
In 2015, experimental studies reported the detection of significant episodic (situational) cognitive impairment from impurities in indoor air breathed by test subjects who were not informed about changes in the air quality. Researchers at the Harvard University and SUNY Upstate Medical University and Syracuse University measured the cognitive performance of 24 participants in three different controlled laboratory atmospheres that simulated those found in "conventional" and "green" buildings, as well as green buildings with enhanced ventilation. Performance was evaluated objectively using the widely used Strategic Management Simulation software simulation tool, which is a well-validated assessment test for executive decision-making in an unconstrained situation allowing initiative and improvisation. Significant deficits were observed in the performance scores achieved in increasing concentrations of either volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or carbon dioxide, while keeping other factors constant. The highest impurity levels reached are not uncommon in some classroom or office environments.[80][81]
Agricultural effects[edit]
In India in 2014, it was reported that air pollution by black carbon and ground level ozone had cut crop yields in the most affected areas by almost half in 2010 when compared to 1980 levels.[82]
Economic effects[edit]
Air pollution costs the world economy $5 trillion per year as a result of productivity losses and degraded quality of life, according to a joint study by the World Bank and the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) at the University of Washington[83][84] These productivity losses are caused by deaths due to diseases caused by air pollution. One out of ten deaths in 2013 was caused by diseases associated with air pollution and the problem is getting worse. The problem is even more acute in the developing world. "Children under age 5 in lower-income countries are more than 60 times as likely to die from exposure to air pollution as children in high-income countries."[83][84] The report states that additional economic losses caused by air pollution, including health costs and the adverse effect on agricultural and other productivity were not calculated in the report, and thus the actual costs to the world economy are far higher than $5 trillion.
Historical disasters[edit]
The world's worst short-term civilian pollution crisis was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster in India.[85] Leaked industrial vapours from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A. (later bought by Dow Chemical Company), killed at least 3787 people and injured from 150,000 to 600,000. The United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the December 4 Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000 died and more recent estimates put the figure at nearer 12,000.[86] An accidental leak of anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in the former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have caused at least 64 deaths.[87] The worst single incident of air pollution to occur in the US occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania in late October, 1948, when 20 people died and over 7,000 were injured.[88]
Alternatives to pollution[edit]
There are now practical alternatives to the principal causes of air pollution:
Areas downwind (over 20 miles) of major airports more than double total particulate emissions in air, even when factoring in areas with frequent ship calls, and heavy freeway and city traffic like Los Angeles.[89] Aviation biofuel mixed in with jetfuel at a 50/50 ratio can reduce jet derived cruise altitude particulate emissions by 50-70%, according to a NASA led 2017 study (however, this should imply ground level benefits to urban air pollution as well).[90]
Ship propulsion and idling can be switched to much cleaner fuels like natural gas. (Ideally a renewable source but not practical yet)
Combustion of fossil fuels for space heating can be replaced by using ground source heat pumps and seasonal thermal energy storage.[91]
Electric power generation from burning fossil fuels can be replaced by power generation from nuclear and renewables. For poor nations, heating and home stoves that contribute much to regional air pollution can be replaced by a much cleaner fossil fuel like natural gas, or ideally, renewables.
Motor vehicles driven by fossil fuels, a key factor in urban air pollution, can be replaced by electric vehicles. Though lithium supply and cost is a limitation, there are alternatives. Herding more people into clean public transit such as electric trains can also help. Nevertheless, even in emission-free electric vehicles, rubber tires produce significant amounts of air pollution themselves, ranking as 13th worst pollutant in Los Angeles.[92]
Biodigesters can be utilized in poor nations where slash and burn is prevalent, turning a useless commodity into a source of income. The plants can be gathered and sold to a central authority that will break it down in a large modern biodigester, producing much needed energy to use.
Induced humidity and ventilation both can greatly dampen air pollution in enclosed spaces, which was found to be relatively high inside subway lines due to braking and friction and relatively less ironically inside transit buses than lower sitting passenger automobiles or subways.[93]
Reduction efforts[edit]
There are various air pollution control technologies and strategies available to reduce air pollution.[94][95] At its most basic level, land-use planning is likely to involve zoning and transport infrastructure planning. In most developed countries, land-use planning is an important part of social policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and population, as well as to protect the environment.
Because a large share of air pollution is caused by combustion of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, the reduction of these fuels can reduce air pollution drastically. Most effective is the switch to clean power sources such as wind power, solar power, hydro power which don't cause air pollution.[96] Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many developing countries have permissive regulations),[citation needed] expanding regulation to new sources (such as cruise and transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as string trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use of hybrid vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels or conversion to electric vehicles.
Titanium dioxide has been researched for its ability to reduce air pollution. Ultraviolet light will release free electrons from material, thereby creating free radicals, which break up VOCs and NOx gases. One form is superhydrophilic.[97]
In 2014, Prof. Tony Ryan and Prof. Simon Armitage of University of Sheffield prepared a 10 meter by 20 meter-sized poster coated with microscopic, pollution-eating nanoparticles of titanium dioxide. Placed on a building, this giant poster can absorb the toxic emission from around 20 cars each day.[98]
A very effective means to reduce air pollution is the transition to renewable energy. According to a study published in Energy and Environmental Science in 2015 the switch to 100% renewable energy in the United States would eliminate about 62,000 premature mortalities per year and about 42,000 in 2050, if no biomass were used. This would save about $600 billion in health costs a year due to reduced air pollution in 2050, or about 3.6% of the 2014 U.S. gross domestic product.[96]
Control devices[edit]
The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices in industry and transportation. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere.
Particulate control
Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones)
Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air), using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulates such as dust and smoke from the air stream.
Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system (distinguished from air cleaners which utilize disposable filters to remove the dust).
Particulate scrubbers Wet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology. The term describes a variety of devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or from other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact with the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it through a pool of liquid, or by some other contact method, so as to remove the pollutants.
Scrubbers
Baffle spray scrubber
Cyclonic spray scrubber
Ejector venturi scrubber
Mechanically aided scrubber
Spray tower
Wet scrubber
NOx control
Low NOx burners
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)
NOx scrubbers
Exhaust gas recirculation
Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)
VOC abatement
Adsorption systems, using activated carbon, such as Fluidized Bed Concentrator
Flares
Thermal oxidizers
Catalytic converters
Biofilters
Absorption (scrubbing)
Cryogenic condensers
Vapor recovery systems
Acid Gas/SO2 control
Wet scrubbers
Dry scrubbers
Flue-gas desulfurization
Mercury control
Sorbent Injection Technology
Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO)
K-Fuel
Dioxin and furan control
Miscellaneous associated equipment
Source capturing systems
Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS)
Regulations[edit]
Smog in Cairo
Main article: Air quality law
In general, there are two types of air quality standards. The first class of standards (such as the U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards and E.U. Air Quality Directive) set maximum atmospheric concentrations for specific pollutants. Environmental agencies enact regulations which are intended to result in attainment of these target levels. The second class (such as the North American Air Quality Index) take the form of a scale with various thresholds, which is used to communicate to the public the relative risk of outdoor activity. The scale may or may not distinguish between different pollutants.
Canada[edit]
In Canada, air pollution and associated health risks are measured with the Air Quality Health Index or (AQHI). It is a health protection tool used to make decisions to reduce short-term exposure to air pollution by adjusting activity levels during increased levels of air pollution.
The Air Quality Health Index or "AQHI" is a federal program jointly coordinated by Health Canada and Environment Canada. However, the AQHI program would not be possible without the commitment and support of the provinces, municipalities and NGOs. From air quality monitoring to health risk communication and community engagement, local partners are responsible for the vast majority of work related to AQHI implementation. The AQHI provides a number from 1 to 10+ to indicate the level of health risk associated with local air quality. Occasionally, when the amount of air pollution is abnormally high, the number may exceed 10. The AQHI provides a local air quality current value as well as a local air quality maximums forecast for today, tonight and tomorrow and provides associated health advice.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 +
Risk: Low (1-3) Moderate (4-6) High (7-10) Very high (above 10)
As it is now known that even low levels of air pollution can trigger discomfort for the sensitive population, the index has been developed as a continuum: The higher the number, the greater the health risk and need to take precautions. The index describes the level of health risk associated with this number as 'low', 'moderate', 'high' or 'very high', and suggests steps that can be taken to reduce exposure.[99]
Health Risk
Air Quality Health Index
Health Messages[100]
At Risk population General Population
Low 1-3 Enjoy your usual outdoor activities. Ideal air quality for outdoor activities
Moderate 4-6 Consider reducing or rescheduling strenuous activities outdoors if you are experiencing symptoms. No need to modify your usual outdoor activities unless you experience symptoms such as coughing and throat irritation.
High 7-10 Reduce or reschedule strenuous activities outdoors. Children and the elderly should also take it easy. Consider reducing or rescheduling strenuous activities outdoors if you experience symptoms such as coughing and throat irritation.
Very high Above 10 Avoid strenuous activities outdoors. Children and the elderly should also avoid outdoor physical exertion and should stay indoors. Reduce or reschedule strenuous activities outdoors, especially if you experience symptoms such as coughing and throat irritation.
The measurement is based on the observed relationship of Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), ground-level Ozone (O3) and particulates (PM2.5) with mortality, from an analysis of several Canadian cities. Significantly, all three of these pollutants can pose health risks, even at low levels of exposure, especially among those with pre-existing health problems.
When developing the AQHI, Health Canada's original analysis of health effects included five major air pollutants: particulates, ozone, and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), as well as sulfur dioxide (SO2), and carbon monoxide (CO). The latter two pollutants provided little information in predicting health effects and were removed from the AQHI formulation.
The AQHI does not measure the effects of odour, pollen, dust, heat or humidity.
Germany[edit]
TA Luft is the German air quality regulation.
Hotspots[edit]
Main article: Toxic Hotspots
Air pollution hotspots are areas where air pollution emissions expose individuals to increased negative health effects.[101] They are particularly common in highly populated, urban areas, where there may be a combination of stationary sources (e.g. industrial facilities) and mobile sources (e.g. cars and trucks) of pollution. Emissions from these sources can cause respiratory disease, childhood asthma, cancer, and other health problems. Fine particulate matter such as diesel soot, which contributes to more than 3.2 million premature deaths around the world each year, is a significant problem. It is very small and can lodge itself within the lungs and enter the bloodstream. Diesel soot is concentrated in densely populated areas, and one in six people in the U.S. live near a diesel pollution hot spot.[102]
External video
AirVisual Earth – realtime map of global wind and air pollution [103]
While air pollution hotspots affect a variety of populations, some groups are more likely to be located in hotspots. Previous studies have shown disparities in exposure to pollution by race and/or income. Hazardous land uses (toxic storage and disposal facilities, manufacturing facilities, major roadways) tend to be located where property values and income levels are low. Low socioeconomic status can be a proxy for other kinds of social vulnerability, including race, a lack of ability to influence regulation and a lack of ability to move to neighborhoods with less environmental pollution. These communities bear a disproportionate burden of environmental pollution and are more likely to face health risks such as cancer or asthma.[104]
Studies show that patterns in race and income disparities not only indicate a higher exposure to pollution but also higher risk of adverse health outcomes.[105] Communities characterized by low socioeconomic status and racial minorities can be more vulnerable to cumulative adverse health impacts resulting from elevated exposure to pollutants than more privileged communities.[105] Blacks and Latinos generally face more pollution than whites and Asians, and low-income communities bear a higher burden of risk than affluent ones.[104] Racial discrepancies are particularly distinct in suburban areas of the US South and metropolitan areas of the US West.[106][clarification needed] Residents in public housing, who are generally low-income and cannot move to healthier neighborhoods, are highly affected by nearby refineries and chemical plants.[107]
Cities[edit]
See also: List of most polluted cities in the world by particulate matter concentration
The factual accuracy of parts of this article (those related to the first two images in this section) may be compromised due to out-of-date information. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (October 2013)
Nitrogen dioxide concentrations as measured from satellite 2002-2004
Deaths from air pollution in 2004
Air pollution is usually concentrated in densely populated metropolitan areas, especially in developing countries where environmental regulations are relatively lax or nonexistent.[108] However, even populated areas in developed countries attain unhealthy levels of pollution, with Los Angeles and Rome being two examples.[109] Between 2002 and 2011 the incidence of lung cancer in Beijing near doubled. While smoking remains the leading cause of lung cancer in China, the number of smokers is falling while lung cancer rates are rising.[110] Another project focusing on the effects on pollution in vegetation has been researched by the local university in Sheffield, UK.
National-scale air toxics assessments 1995–2005[edit]
The national-scale air toxics assessment (NATA) is an evaluation of air toxics by the U.S. EPA. The EPA has furnished four assessments that characterize nationwide chronic cancer risk estimates and noncancer hazards from inhaling air toxics. The lates was from 2005, and made publicly available in early 2011.
"EPA developed the NATA as a state-of-the-science screening tool for State/Local/Tribal Agencies to prioritize pollutants, emission sources and locations of interest for further study, in order to gain a better understanding of the risks. NATA assessments do not incorporate refined information about emission sources, but rather, use general information about sources to develop estimates of risks which are more likely to overestimate impacts than underestimate them. NATA provides estimates of the risk of cancer and other serious health effects from breathing (inhaling) air toxics in order to inform both national and more localized efforts to identify and prioritize air toxics, emission source types and locations which are of greatest potential concern in terms of contributing to population risk. This in turn helps air pollution experts focus limited analytical resources on areas and or populations where the potential for health risks are highest. Assessments include estimates of cancer and non-cancer health effects based on chronic exposure from outdoor sources, including assessments of non-cancer health effects for Diesel Particulate Matter. Assessments provide a snapshot of the outdoor air quality and the risks to human health that would result if air toxic emissions levels remained unchanged."[111]
Most polluted cities by PM[112]
Particulate
matter,
μg/m³ (2004)
City
168 Cairo, Egypt
150 Delhi, India
128 Kolkata, India (Calcutta)
125 Tianjin, China
123 Chongqing, China
109 Kanpur, India
109 Lucknow, India
104 Jakarta, Indonesia
101 Shenyang, China
Governing urban air pollution[edit]
In Europe, Council Directive 96/62/EC on ambient air quality assessment and management provides a common strategy against which member states can "set objectives for ambient air quality in order to avoid, prevent or reduce harmful effects on human health and the environment . . . and improve air quality where it is unsatisfactory".[113]
On 25 July 2008 in the case Dieter Janecek v Freistaat Bayern CURIA, the European Court of Justice ruled that under this directive[113] citizens have the right to require national authorities to implement a short term action plan that aims to maintain or achieve compliance to air quality limit values.[114]
This important case law appears to confirm the role of the EC as centralised regulator to European nation-states as regards air pollution control. It places a supranational legal obligation on the UK to protect its citizens from dangerous levels of air pollution, furthermore superseding national interests with those of the citizen.
In 2010, the European Commission (EC) threatened the UK with legal action against the successive breaching of PM10 limit values.[115] The UK government has identified that if fines are imposed, they could cost the nation upwards of £300 million per year.[116]
In March 2011, the Greater London Built-up Area remains the only UK region in breach of the EC's limit values, and has been given 3 months to implement an emergency action plan aimed at meeting the EU Air Quality Directive.[117] The City of London has dangerous levels of PM10 concentrations, estimated to cause 3000 deaths per year within the city.[118] As well as the threat of EU fines, in 2010 it was threatened with legal action for scrapping the western congestion charge zone, which is claimed to have led to an increase in air pollution levels.[119]
In response to these charges, Boris Johnson, Mayor of London, has criticised the current need for European cities to communicate with Europe through their nation state's central government, arguing that in future "A great city like London" should be permitted to bypass its government and deal directly with the European Commission regarding its air quality action plan.[117]
This can be interpreted as recognition that cities can transcend the traditional national government organisational hierarchy and develop solutions to air pollution using global governance networks, for example through transnational relations. Transnational relations include but are not exclusive to national governments and intergovernmental organisations,[120] allowing sub-national actors including cities and regions to partake in air pollution control as independent actors.
Particularly promising at present are global city partnerships.[121] These can be built into networks, for example the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, of which London is a member. The C40 is a public 'non-state' network of the world's leading cities that aims to curb their greenhouse emissions.[121] The C40 has been identified as 'governance from the middle' and is an alternative to intergovernmental policy.[122] It has the potential to improve urban air quality as participating cities "exchange information, learn from best practices and consequently mitigate carbon dioxide emissions independently from national government decisions".[121] A criticism of the C40 network is that its exclusive nature limits influence to participating cities and risks drawing resources away from less powerful city and regional actors.
See also[edit]
Air pollutant concentrations
Air stagnation
ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution
Asian brown cloud
Atmospheric chemistry
Beehive burner
BenMAP
Best Available Control Technology
Building biology
Critical load
Emission standard
Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated Database
Environmental agreement
Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion
Global Atmosphere Watch
Global dimming
Great Smog of London
Haze
Health Effects Institute (HEI)
Indicator value
Industrial Hygiene Foundation
Intake fraction
International Agency for Research on Cancer
Kyoto Protocol
Light water reactor sustainability
List of smogs by death toll
Lowest Achievable Emissions Rate
Montreal Protocol
NASA Clean Air Study
Particulate matter sampler
Polluter pays principle
Regulation of greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act
Tire fire
Global warming portal
Environment portal
Book: Pollution
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Reports". WorstPolluted.org. Archived from the original on 11 August 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-29.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "7 million premature deaths annually linked to air pollution". WHO. 25 March 2014. Retrieved 25 March 2014.
Jump up ^ http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/WorldEnergyOutlookSpecialReport2016EnergyandAirPollution.pdf
Jump up ^ "Study Links 6.5 Million Deaths Each Year to Air Pollution". New York Times. 26 June 2016. Retrieved 27 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Air Pollution Causes, Effects, and Solutions". National Geographic. 9 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Vaidyanathan, ClimateWire, Gayathri. "The Worst Climate Pollution Is Carbon Dioxide". Scientific American.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Keith (18 April 2009). "How Carbon Dioxide Became a 'Pollutant'". Wall Street Journal.
Jump up ^ Barbalace, Roberta C. (November 7, 2006). "CO2 Pollution and Global Warming: When does carbon dioxide become a pollutant?". environmentalchemistry.com.
Jump up ^ "Graphic: The relentless rise of carbon dioxide". Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet. NASA.
Jump up ^ "How much of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions are associated with electricity generation?". Retrieved 2016-12-16.
Jump up ^ "Full Mauna Loa CO2 record". Earth System Research Laboratory. Retrieved 10 January 2017.
Jump up ^ “Vehicles, Air Pollution, and Human Health.” Union of Concerned Scientists, www.ucsusa.org/clean-vehicles/vehicles-air-pollution-and-human-health
Jump up ^ "Evidence growing of air pollution's link to heart disease, death". Archived from the original on 2010-06-03. Retrieved 2010-05-18. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) // American Heart Association. May 10, 2010
Jump up ^ J.R. Balmes, J.M. Fine, D. Sheppard Symptomatic bronchoconstriction after short-term inhalation of sulfur dioxide Am. Rev. Respir. Dis., 136 (1987), p. 1117
Jump up ^ "Newly detected air pollutant mimics damaging effects of cigarette smoke" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-08-29.
Jump up ^ "Infant Inhalation Of Ultra-fine Air Pollution Linked To Adult Lung Disease". Sciencedaily.com. 2009-07-23. Retrieved 2010-08-29.
Jump up ^ "The Effect of Changing Background Emissions on External Cost Estimates for Secondary Particulates" (PDF). Open environmental sciences. 2008.
Jump up ^ David Pennise; Kirk Smith. "Biomass Pollution Basics" (PDF). WHO.
Jump up ^ "Indoor air pollution and household energy". WHO and UNEP. 2011.
Jump up ^ Goldstein, Allen H.; Charles D. Koven; Colette L. Heald; Inez Y. Fung (2009-05-05). "Biogenic carbon and anthropogenic pollutants combine to form a cooling haze over the southeastern United States". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106: 8835–8840. doi:10.1073/pnas.0904128106. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
Jump up ^ Fischetti, Mark. "Trees That Pollute". Scientific American. 310 (6): 14–14. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0614-14. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "AP 42, Volume I". Epa.gov. Archived from the original on 24 September 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-29.
Jump up ^ "United Kingdom's emission factor database". Naei.org.uk. Archived from the original on 2010-07-07. Retrieved 2010-08-29.
Jump up ^ "EMEP/EEA air pollutant emission inventory guidebook — 2009". Eea.europa.eu. 2009-06-19. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
Jump up ^ "Environmental Pollution". Theenvironmentalblog.org. 2011-12-16. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
Jump up ^ "Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (reference manual)". Ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp. Retrieved 2010-08-29.
^ Jump up to: a b c Daniel A. Vallero. "Fundamentals of Air Pollution". Elsevier Academic Press.
Jump up ^ "Duflo, E., Greenstone, M., and Hanna, R. (2008) "Indoor air pollution, health and economic well-being". ''S.A.P.I.EN.S.'' '''1''' (1)". Sapiens.revues.org. Retrieved 2010-08-29.
Jump up ^ "Bucknell tent death: Hannah Thomas-Jones died from carbon monoxide poisoning". BBC News. 17 January 2013. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Air quality and health". www.who.int. Retrieved 2011-11-26.
Jump up ^ The New York Times International Weekly 2nd February 2014 'Beijing's Air Would Be Called Good In Delhi' by Gardiner Harris.
Jump up ^ Mr Chen's claim was made in The Lancet (December 2013 issue) and reported in The Daily Telegraph 8th January 2014 page 15 'Air pollution killing up to 500,000 Chinese each year, admits former health minister.
Jump up ^ "Study links traffic pollution to thousands of deaths". The Guardian. London, UK: Guardian Media Group. 2008-04-15. Archived from the original on 20 April 2008. Retrieved 2008-04-15.
^ Jump up to: a b "Car emissions: taking tests out of the lab and onto the road - News - European Parliament". Retrieved 11 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "Complete Guide To The 'Toxin Tax' For Diesel Cars". Motorway. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Air pollution causes early deaths". BBC. February 21, 2005. Retrieved August 14, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Air pollution". World Health Organization. Retrieved 2016-12-02.
Jump up ^ "Clean Air Nonroad Diesel Rule" (PDF). EPA. May 2004. p. 5. Retrieved 28 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Tankersley, Jim (January 8, 2010). "EPA proposes nation's strictest smog limits ever". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved August 14, 2012.
Jump up ^ "EPA slideshow" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-12-11.
Jump up ^ "EPA Strengthens Ozone Standards to Protect Public Health/Science-based standards to reduce sick days, asthma attacks, emergency room visits, greatly outweigh costs (10/1/2015)". Retrieved 11 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Grossni, Mark (November 13, 2008). "Human cost of valley's dirty air: $6.3 billion". Sacramento Bee. Archived from the original on 2008-12-16. Retrieved August 14, 2012.
Jump up ^ Sahagun, Louis (November 13, 2008). "Pollution saps state's economy, study says". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved August 14, 2012.
Jump up ^ Kay, Jane (November 13, 2008). "Bad air costing state's economy billions". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved August 14, 2012.
Jump up ^ Lucking, A. J.; Lundback, M.; Mills, N. L.; Faratian, D.; Barath, S. L.; Pourazar, J.; Cassee, F. R.; Donaldson, K.; Boon, N. A.; Badimon, J. J.; Sandstrom, T.; Blomberg, A.; Newby, D. E. (2008). "Diesel exhaust inhalation increases thrombus formation in man". European Heart Journal. 29 (24): 3043–3051. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehn464. PMID 18952612.
Jump up ^ Törnqvist, H. K.; Mills, N. L.; Gonzalez, M.; Miller, M. R.; Robinson, S. D.; Megson, I. L.; MacNee, W.; Donaldson, K.; Söderberg, S.; Newby, D. E.; Sandström, T.; Blomberg, A. (2007). "Persistent Endothelial Dysfunction in Humans after Diesel Exhaust Inhalation". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 176 (4): 395–400. doi:10.1164/rccm.200606-872OC. PMID 17446340.
Jump up ^ Pope, C. A. (15 December 2003). "Cardiovascular Mortality and Long-Term Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution: Epidemiological Evidence of General Pathophysiological Pathways of Disease". Circulation. 109 (1): 71–77. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000108927.80044.7F. PMID 14676145.
Jump up ^ Chen, H; Goldberg, MS; Villeneuve, PJ (Oct–Dec 2008). "A systematic review of the relation between long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and chronic diseases". Reviews on environmental health. 23 (4): 243–97. doi:10.1515/reveh.2008.23.4.243. PMID 19235364.
Jump up ^ Mateen, F. J.; Brook, R. D. (2011). "Air Pollution as an Emerging Global Risk Factor for Stroke". JAMA. 305 (12): 1240–1241. doi:10.1001/jama.2011.352. PMID 21427378.
Jump up ^ Miller K. A.; Siscovick D. S.; Sheppard L.; Shepherd K.; Sullivan J. H.; Anderson G. L.; Kaufman J. D. (2007). "Long-term exposure to air pollution and incidence of cardiovascular events in women". The New England Journal of Medicine. Research Support, N.I.H., ExtramuralResearch Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S. 356 (5): 447–458. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa054409. PMID 17267905.
Jump up ^ Andersen, Z. J.; Kristiansen, L. C.; Andersen, K. K.; Olsen, T. S.; Hvidberg, M.; Jensen, S. S.; Raaschou-Nielsen, O. (2011). "Stroke and Long-Term Exposure to Outdoor Air Pollution From Nitrogen Dioxide: A Cohort Study". Stroke. 43: 320–5. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.111.629246. PMID 22052517.
Jump up ^ Provost, E; Madhloum, N; Int Panis, L; De Boever, P; Nawrot, TS (May 2015). "Carotid intima-media thickness, a marker of subclinical atherosclerosis, and particulate air pollution exposure: the meta-analytical evidence". PLoS ONE. 10 (5): e0127014. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0127014. PMC 4430520  . PMID 25970426.
Jump up ^ Brook, RD; Rajagopalan, S; Pope, CA III; Brook, JR; Bhatnagar, A (2010). "Particulate matter air pollution and cardiovascular disease: An update to the scientific statement from the American Heart Association". Circulation. 121: 2331–2378. doi:10.1161/cir.0b013e3181dbece1. PMID 20458016.
Jump up ^ Louwies, T; Int Panis, L; Kicinski, M; De Boever, P; Nawrot, Tim S (2013). "Retinal Microvascular Responses to Short-Term Changes in Particulate Air Pollution in Healthy Adults". Environmental Health Perspectives. 121: 1011–6. doi:10.1289/ehp.1205721. PMC 3764070  . PMID 23777785.
Jump up ^ Gehring, U.; Wijga, A. H.; Brauer, M.; Fischer, P.; de Jongste, J. C.; Kerkhof, M.; Brunekreef, B. (2010). "Traffic-related air pollution and the development of asthma and allergies during the first 8 years of life". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 181 (6): 596–603. doi:10.1164/rccm.200906-0858OC.
Jump up ^ Andersen, Z. J.; Hvidberg, M.; Jensen, S. S.; Ketzel, M.; Loft, S.; Sorensen, M.; Raaschou-Nielsen, O. (2011). "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution: a cohort study. [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't]". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 183 (4): 455–461. doi:10.1164/rccm.201006-0937OC.
Jump up ^ Health; Occupational; Thoracic Society, American (1996). "[Comparative Study Review]". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 153 (1): 3–50. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.153.1.8542133. PMID 8542133.
Jump up ^ Andersen, Z. J.; Bonnelykke, K.; Hvidberg, M.; Jensen, S. S.; Ketzel, M.; Loft, S.; Raaschou-Nielsen, O. (2011). "Long-term exposure to air pollution and asthma hospitalisations in older adults: a cohort study". Thorax. 67: 6–11. doi:10.1136/thoraxjnl-2011-200711.
Jump up ^ Zoidis, John D. (1999). "The Impact of Air Pollution on COPD". RT: for Decision Makers in Respiratory Care.
Jump up ^ Holland WW, Reid DD. The urban factor in chronic bronchitis" Lancet 1965;I:445-448.
Jump up ^ Gauderman, W (2007). "Effect of exposure to traffic on lung development from 10 to 18 years of age: a cohort study". The Lancet. 369 (9561): 571–577. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60037-3.
Jump up ^ Int Panis, L (2017). "Short-term air pollution exposure decreases lung function: a repeated measures study in healthy adults". Environmental Health.
Jump up ^ J. Sunyer (2001). "Urban air pollution and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary disease: a review". European Respiratory Journal. 17 (5): 1024–1033. doi:10.1183/09031936.01.17510240. PMID 11488305.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gallagher, James (17 December 2015). "Cancer is not just 'bad luck' but down to environment, study suggests". BBC. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Chen, H; Goldberg, M. S.; Villeneuve, P. J. (2008). "A systematic review of the relation between long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and chronic diseases". Reviews on environmental health. 23 (4): 243–97. doi:10.1515/reveh.2008.23.4.243. PMID 19235364.
Jump up ^ Saber, E.M.; Heydari, G. (May 2012). "Flow patterns and deposition fraction of particles in the range of 0.1–10 μm at trachea and the first third generations under different breathing conditions". Computers in Biology and Medicine. 42 (5): 631–638. doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2012.03.002. PMID 22445097.
Jump up ^ Raaschou-Nielsen, O.; Andersen, Z. J.; Hvidberg, M.; Jensen, S. S.; Ketzel, M.; Sorensen, M.; Tjonneland, A. (2011). "Lung cancer incidence and long-term exposure to air pollution from traffic. [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't]". Environmental Health Perspectives. 119 (6): 860–865. doi:10.1289/ehp.1002353. PMC 3114823  . PMID 21227886.
Jump up ^ Raaschou-Nielsen, O.; Andersen, Z. J.; Hvidberg, M.; Jensen, S. S.; Ketzel, M.; Sorensen, M.; Tjonneland, A. (2011). "Air pollution from traffic and cancer incidence: a Danish cohort study". Environmental health. 10: 67. doi:10.1186/1476-069X-10-67. PMC 3157417  . PMID 21771295.
Jump up ^ Committee on Environmental Health (2004). "Ambient Air Pollution: Health Hazards to Children". Pediatrics. 114 (6): 1699–1707. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-2166. PMID 15574638.
Jump up ^ "Polluted Cities: The Air Children Breathe" (PDF). World Health Organization.
Jump up ^ Pieters, N; Koppen, G; Van Poppel, M; De Prins, S; Cox, B; Dons, E; Nelen, V; Int Panis, L; Plusquin, M; Schoeters, G; Nawrot, TS (March 2015). "Blood Pressure and Same-Day Exposure to Air Pollution at School: Associations with Nano-Sized to Coarse PM in Children". Environmental Health Perspectives. 123: 737–42. doi:10.1289/ehp.1408121. PMC 4492263  . PMID 25756964.
Jump up ^ Fleischer, Nancy L.; Merialdi, Mario; van Donkelaar, Aaron; Vadillo-Ortega, Felipe; Martin, Randall V.; Betran, Ana Pilar; Souza, João Paulo (2014-04-01). "Outdoor air pollution, preterm birth, and low birth weight: analysis of the world health organization global survey on maternal and perinatal health". Environmental Health Perspectives. 122 (4): 425–430. doi:10.1289/ehp.1306837. ISSN 1552-9924. PMC 3984219  . PMID 24508912.
^ Jump up to: a b c Malley, Christopher S.; Kuylenstierna, Johan C. I.; Vallack, Harry W.; Henze, Daven K.; Blencowe, Hannah; Ashmore, Mike R. (2017-04-01). "Preterm birth associated with maternal fine particulate matter exposure: A global, regional and national assessment". Environment International. 101: 173–182. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2017.01.023. ISSN 1873-6750. PMID 28196630.
Jump up ^ Wang, X.; Ding, H.; Ryan, L.; Xu, X. (1997-05-01). "Association between air pollution and low birth weight: a community-based study". Environmental Health Perspectives. 105 (5): 514–520. doi:10.1289/ehp.97105514. ISSN 0091-6765. PMC 1469882  . PMID 9222137.
Jump up ^ Brauer, Michael; Lencar, Cornel; Tamburic, Lillian; Koehoorn, Mieke; Demers, Paul; Karr, Catherine (2008-05-01). "A Cohort Study of Traffic-Related Air Pollution Impacts on Birth Outcomes". Environmental Health Perspectives. 116 (5): 680. doi:10.1289/ehp.10952. PMC 2367679  . PMID 18470315.
Jump up ^ "2005 BC Lung Association report on the valuation of health impacts from air quality in the Lower Fraser Valley airshed" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-15. Retrieved 2010-08-29.
Jump up ^ Bos, I; De Boever, P; Int Panis, L; Meeusen, R (2014). "Physical Activity, Air Pollution and the Brain" (PDF). Sports Medicine. 44 (11): 1505–18. doi:10.1007/s40279-014-0222-6. PMID 25119155.
Jump up ^ McEnaney, Michael (7 June 2014). "Air pollution link discovered to autism, schizophrenia risks". Retrieved 8 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "New Evidence Links Air Pollution to Autism, Schizophrenia". University of Rochester Medical Center. 6 June 2014. Retrieved 8 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "New Study Demonstrates Indoor Building Environment Has Significant, Positive Impact on Cognitive Function". New York Times. 26 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Allen, Joseph G.; MacNaughton, Piers; Satish, Usha; Santanam, Suresh; Vallarino, Jose; Spengler, John D. (2015). "Associations of Cognitive Function Scores with Carbon Dioxide, Ventilation, and Volatile Organic Compound Exposures in Office Workers: A Controlled Exposure Study of Green and Conventional Office Environments". Environmental Health Perspectives. 124: 805–12. doi:10.1289/ehp.1510037. PMC 4892924  . PMID 26502459.
Jump up ^ India air pollution 'cutting crop yields by almost half' The Guardian, 3 November 2014
^ Jump up to: a b Common Dreams, 8 September 2016, "Making Case for Clean Air, World Bank Says that Pollution Cost Global Economy $5 Trillion: Impact is Most Severe in Developing Nations Where 93% of Deaths and Nonfatal Illnesses Attributed to Air Pollution Worldwide Occurred in 2013," http://www.commondreams.org/news/2016/09/08/making-case-clean-air-world-bank-says-pollution-cost-global-economy-5-trillion
^ Jump up to: a b World Bank Group, 2016, "The Cost of Air Pollution: Strengthening the Economic Case for Action," by The World Bank and the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation at the University of Washington, http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/781521473177013155/pdf/108141-REVISED-Cost-of-PollutionWebCORRECTEDfile.pdf
Jump up ^ Simi Chakrabarti. "20th anniversary of world's worst industrial disaster". Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
Jump up ^ Bell, Michelle L.; Michelle L. Bell; Devra L. Davis; Tony Fletcher (January 2004). "A Retrospective Assessment of Mortality from the London Smog Episode of 1952: The Role of Influenza and Pollution". Environ Health Perspect. 112 (1): 6–8. doi:10.1289/ehp.6539. PMC 1241789  . PMID 14698923.
Jump up ^ Meselson M, Guillemin J, Hugh-Jones M, et al. (November 1994). "The Sverdlovsk anthrax outbreak of 1979" (PDF). Science. 266 (5188): 1202–8. doi:10.1126/science.7973702. PMID 7973702. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-09-21.
Jump up ^ Davis, Devra (2002). When Smoke Ran Like Water: Tales of Environmental Deception and the Battle Against Pollution. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-01521-2.
Jump up ^ http://www.scpr.org/news/2014/05/29/.../air-pollution-from-lax-jets-worse-than-previously/
Jump up ^ "NASA Confirms Biofuels Reduce Jet Emissions". Retrieved 11 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "IHT - Interseasonal Heat Transfer™ - Seasonal Heat Storage - GSHC - Renewable Heat & Renewable Cooling from ThermalBanks - Efficient Renewable Energy - Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems". www.icax.co.uk. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "Road Rubber - Science Updates - Science NetLinks". sciencenetlinks.com. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "Subway air pollution damages passenger health". Retrieved 11 January 2018.
Jump up ^ J. C. Fensterstock, J. A. Kurtzweg & G. Ozolins (1971): Reduction of Air Pollution Potential through Environmental Planning, Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 21:7, 395-399
Jump up ^ Fensterstock, Ketcham and Walsh, The Relationship of Land Use and Transportation Planning to Air Quality Management, Ed. George Hagevik, May 1972.
^ Jump up to: a b Mark Z. Jacobson et al.: 100% clean and renewable wind, water, and sunlight (WWS) all-sector energy road maps for the 50 United States. In: Energy and Environmental Science (2015), doi:10.1039/C5EE01283J.
Jump up ^ Jason Palmer (12 November 2011). "'Smog-eating' material breaking into the big time". BBC News.
Jump up ^ "Nanotechnology to gobble up pollution". BBC News. Retrieved 29 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Environment Canada - Air - Air Quality". Ec.gc.ca. 2007-09-10. Retrieved 2011-11-11.
Jump up ^ "Environment Canada - Air - AQHI categories and explanations". Ec.gc.ca. 2008-04-16. Retrieved 2011-11-11.
Jump up ^ "Air pollution hot spot". Retrieved 24 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Pettit, David (14 December 2014). "Global Toll of Air Pollution: Over 3 Million Deaths Each Year". Switchboard NRDC.
Jump up ^ Watch air pollution flow across the planet in real time Science Magazine News, 28 November 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Drury, Richard; Belliveau, Michael; Kuhn, J Scott; Shipra, Bansal (Spring 1999). "Pollution Trading and Environmental Justice: Los Angeles' Failed Experiment in Air Pollution Policy". Duke Environmental Law & Policy Forum. 9 (231).
^ Jump up to: a b Morello-Frosch, Rachel; Zuk, Miriam; Jerrett, Michael; Shamasunder, Bhavna; Kyle, Amy D. (2011). "Understanding the Cumulative Impacts of Inequalities in Environmental Health: Implications for Policy". Health Affairs. 30: 879–887. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0153.
Jump up ^ Mohai, P; Lantz, PM; Morenoff, J; House, JS; Mero, RP (2009). "Racial and Socioeocnomic Disparities in Residential Proximity". American Journal of Public Health. 99 (3): S649–S656. doi:10.2105/ajph.2007.131383. PMC 2774179  . PMID 19890171.
Jump up ^ Lerner, Steve (2010). "Sacrifice Zones: The Front Lines of Toxic Chemical Exposure in the United States". Port Arthur, Texas: Public Housing Residents Breathe Contaminated Air from Nearby Refineries and Chemical Plants. MIT Press.
Jump up ^ Ostachuk, A.; Evelson, P.; Martin, S.; Dawidowski, L.; Yakisich, J.S.; Tasat, D.R. (2008). "Age-related lung cell response to urban Buenos Aires air particle soluble fraction". Environmental Research. 107 (2): 170–177. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2008.01.007.
Jump up ^ Michelozzi, P.; Forastiere, F.; Fusco, D.; Perucci, C. A.; Ostro, B.; Ancona, C.; Pallotti, G. (1998). "Air Pollution and Daily Mortality in Rome, Italy". Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 55 (9): 605–610. doi:10.1136/oem.55.9.605. JSTOR 27730990. PMC 1757645  . PMID 9861182.
Jump up ^ The Daily Telegraph 8 January 2014 'Air pollution killing up to 500,000 Chinese each year, admits former health minister'.
Jump up ^ "NATA | National-Scale Air Toxics Assessments | Technology Transfer Network Air Technical Web Site | US EPA". Epa.gov. 2006-06-28. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
Jump up ^ "World Bank Statistics" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-08-29.
^ Jump up to: a b Europa (1996). "Summaries of EU legislation - Management and quality of ambient air". Retrieved 24 January 2015.
Jump up ^ European Court of Justice, CURIA (2008). "PRESS RELEASE No 58/08 Judgment of the Court of Justice in Case C-237/07" (PDF). Retrieved 24 January 2015.
Jump up ^ European Commission. "Air quality: Commission sends final warning to UK over levels of fine particle pollution". Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2011.
Jump up ^ House of Commons Environmental Audit Committee (2010). "Environmental Audit Committee - Fifth Report Air Quality". Retrieved 24 January 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Guardian (11 March 2011). "Britain fends off threat of £300m fine over London air pollution". Guardian. Retrieved 24 January 2015.
Jump up ^ London Assembly Environment Committee (2009). "Every Breath You Take" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 February 2015. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
Jump up ^ BBC (2010) (2010-12-06). "Threat to sue over London congestion charge scrapping". BBC News. Retrieved 24 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Risse-Kappen, T (1995). Bringing transnational relations back in: non-state actors, domestic structures, and international institutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–34.
^ Jump up to: a b c Pattberg, P; Stripple, J. (2008). "Beyond the public and private divide: remapping transnational climate governance in the 21st century". International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics. 8 (4).
Jump up ^ Roman, M (2010). "Governing from the middle: the C40 Cities Leadership Group". Corporate Governance. 10 (1).
Further reading[edit]
Brimblecombe, Peter. The Big Smoke: A History of Air Pollution in London Since Medieval Times (Methuen, 1987)
Brimblecombe, Peter. "History of air pollution." in Composition, Chemistry and Climate of the Atmosphere (Van Nostrand Reinhold (1995): 1-18
Brimblecombe, Peter; Makra, László (2005). "Selections from the history of environmental pollution, with special attention to air pollution. Part 2*: From medieval times to the 19th century". International journal of environment and pollution. 23 (4): 351–367. doi:10.1504/ijep.2005.007599.
Cherni, Judith A. Economic Growth versus the Environment: The Politics of Wealth, Health and Air Pollution (2002) online
Corton, Christine L. London Fog: The Biography (2015)
Currie, Donya. "WHO: Air Pollution a Continuing Health Threat in World's Cities," The Nation's Health (February 2012) 42#1 online
Dewey, Scott Hamilton. Don't Breathe the Air: Air Pollution and US Environmental Politics, 1945-1970 (Texas A & M University Press, 2000)
Gonzalez, George A. The politics of air pollution: Urban growth, ecological modernization, and symbolic inclusion (SUNY Press, 2012)
Grinder, Robert Dale (1978). "From Insurgency to Efficiency: The Smoke Abatement Campaign in Pittsburgh before World War I". Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine. 61 (3): 187–202.
Grinder, Robert Dale. "The Battle for Clean Air: The Smoke Problem in Post-Civil War America" in Martin V. Melosi, ed., Pollution & Reform in American Cities, 1870-1930 (1980), p83-103.* Mosley, Stephen. The chimney of the world: a history of smoke pollution in Victorian and Edwardian Manchester. Routledge, 2013.
Peebles, Graham. Worldwide Air Pollution is Making us Ill (December 2016)
Schreurs, Miranda A. Environmental Politics in Japan, Germany, and the United States (Cambridge University Press, 2002) online
Thorsheim, Peter. Inventing Pollution: Coal, Smoke, and Culture in Britain since 1800 (2009)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Air pollution.
Library resources about
Air pollution
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Global real-time air quality index map
Air Quality Index (AQI) Basics
AQI Calculator AQI to Concentration and Concentration to AQI for five pollutants
International Conference on Urban Air Quality.
UNEP Urban Issues
European Commission > Environment > Policies > Air >Air Quality
Database: outdoor air pollution in cities from the World Health Organisation
World Health Organization Fact Sheet on Air quality and health
Impact assessment of the mortality effects of longer-term exposure to air pollution: exploring cause-specific mortality and susceptibility by BG Miller. Institute of Occupational Medicine Research Report TM/03/01
The Mortality Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution in the United Kingdom, UK Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollution, 2010.
Ozone Pollution at EPA.gov
Tips and Reviews for Healthy Air Life - AirBetter.org
[hide]
v
t
e
Natural resources
Air
Pollution / quality
Ambient standards (USA)
Index
Indoor
developing nations
Law
Clean Air Act (USA)
Ozone depletion
Emissions
Airshed
Trading
Deforestation (REDD)
Energy
Law
Resources
Fossil fuels (peak oil)
Geothermal
Nuclear
Solar
sunlight
shade
Tidal
Wave
Wind
Land
Arable
peak farmland
Degradation
Law
property
Management
habitat conservation
Minerals
mining
law
sand
peak
rights
Soil
conservation
fertility
health
resilience
Use
planning
reserve
Life
Biodiversity
Bioprospecting
Biosphere
Bushfood
Bushmeat
Fisheries
law
management
Food
Forests
genetic resources
law
management
Game
law
Gene bank
Herbalist plants
Marine conservation
Non-timber forest products
Rangeland
Seed bank
Wildlife
conservation
management
Wood
Water
Types / location
Aquifer
storage and recovery
Drinking
Fresh
Groundwater
pollution
recharge
remediation
Hydrosphere
Ice
bergs
glacial
polar
Irrigation
Rain
harvesting
Stormwater
Surface water
Wastewater
reclaimed
Aspects
Desalination
Floods
Law
Leaching
Sanitation
Conflict
Conservation
Peak water
Pollution
Privatization
Quality
Right
Resources
management
policy
Related
Commons
enclosure
global
land
tragedy of
Economics
ecological
land
Ecosystem services
Exploitation
overexploitation
Earth Overshoot Day
Management
adaptive
Natural capital
accounting
Nature reserve
Systems ecology
Urban ecology
Wilderness
Resource
Common-pool
Conflict (perpetuation)
Curse
Depletion
Extraction
Nationalism
Renewable / Non-renewable
Portals
Agriculture and agronomy
Energy
Environment
Fishing
Forestry
Mining
Water
Wetlands
Category
agencies
law
management
ministries
organizations
Colleges
Natural resources
Authority control
NDL: 00572537
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&oldid=822370127"
Categories:
Air pollution
Climate forcing agents
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from January 2008
Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2014
Articles with obsolete information from October 2013
All Wikipedia articles in need of updating
Articles containing video clips
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Afrikaans
العربية
অসমীয়া
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Беларуская
भोजपुरी
Български
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Galego
ગુજરાતી
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Ido
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
עברית
ಕನ್ನಡ
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Кыргызча
Latina
Latviešu
Lietuvių
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
Bahasa Melayu
Монгол
Nederlands
नेपाली
日本語
Norsk
پښتو
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Scots
Shqip
සිංහල
Simple English
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
தமிழ்
తెలుగు
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Tiếng Việt
Walon
ייִדיש
粵語
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 26 January 2018, at 00:04.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

value: mw-page-base noprint

value: mw-head-base noprint

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value:
/wiki/Bad_air
mw-redirect
Bad air

value:
/wiki/Qualities_of_air
mw-redirect
Qualities of air

value:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

attr: class style

value:
/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere
mw-redirect
Earth's atmosphere

value:
/wiki/Blacksmith_Institute
mw-redirect
Blacksmith Institute

value:
/wiki/Severe_thunderstorm
mw-redirect
Severe thunderstorm

value:
/wiki/Atlantic_Hurricane
mw-redirect
Atlantic Hurricane

value: padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top:#ccc 1px solid; border-bottom:#ccc 1px solid;

value: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

value:
/wiki/Ground_level_ozone
mw-redirect
Ground level ozone

value:
/wiki/Thermal_oxidiser
mw-redirect
Thermal oxidiser

value:
/wiki/Hazardous_air_pollutant
mw-redirect
Hazardous air pollutant

value:
/wiki/Volatile_organic_compounds
mw-redirect
Volatile organic compounds

value:
/wiki/Fossil_fuels
mw-redirect
Fossil fuels

value:
/wiki/Plume_(hydrodynamics)
mw-redirect
Plume (hydrodynamics)

value:
/wiki/Radioactive_pollutants
mw-redirect
Radioactive pollutants

value:
/wiki/Nuclear_explosions
mw-redirect
Nuclear explosions

value: File:Human Fingerprint on Global Air Quality.webm

value: <video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm/854px--Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" autoplay="" style="width:854px;height:480px" class="kskin" data-durationhint="102.741" data-startoffset="0" data-mwtitle="Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/ca/Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm/Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm.480p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="SD WebM (480P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 480P" data-transcodekey="480p.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" data-bandwidth="1089320" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, opus"" data-title="Original WebM file, 1,280 × 720 (1.16 Mbps)" data-shorttitle="WebM source" data-width="1280" data-height="720" data-bandwidth="1163774" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/ca/Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm/Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm.720p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="HD WebM (720P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 720P" data-transcodekey="720p.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" data-bandwidth="1734096" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/ca/Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm/Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm.160p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="Low bandwidth WebM (160P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 160P" data-transcodekey="160p.webm" data-width="284" data-height="160" data-bandwidth="219616" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/ca/Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm/Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm.240p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="Small WebM (240P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 240P" data-transcodekey="240p.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" data-bandwidth="323408" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/ca/Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm/Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="WebM (360P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 360P" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" data-bandwidth="577104" data-framerate="29.97"/></video>

value: Edit section: Anthropogenic (man-made) sources

value:
/wiki/Controlled_burning
mw-redirect
Controlled burning

value:
/wiki/Germ_warfare
mw-redirect
Germ warfare

value:
/wiki/Earth%27s_crust
mw-redirect
Earth's crust

value: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors

value: United States Environmental Protection Agency

value:
/wiki/New_Delhi,_India
mw-redirect
New Delhi, India

value:
/wiki/Peritoneal_Mesothelioma
mw-redirect
Peritoneal Mesothelioma

value:
/wiki/Heart_disease
mw-redirect
Heart disease

value:
/wiki/Emergency_room
mw-redirect
Emergency room

value:
/wiki/Non-Attainment_Area
mw-redirect
Non-Attainment Area

value:
/wiki/Criteria_pollutant
mw-redirect
Criteria pollutant

value:
/wiki/Particulate_matter
mw-redirect
Particulate matter

value:
/wiki/Metro_Vancouver
mw-redirect
Metro Vancouver

value: Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation

value:
/wiki/Developing_world
mw-redirect
Developing world

value:
/wiki/Bhopal_Disaster
mw-redirect
Bhopal Disaster

value:
/wiki/Ground_source_heat_pumps
mw-redirect
Ground source heat pumps

value:
/wiki/Slash_and_burn
mw-redirect
Slash and burn

value:
/wiki/Hydro_power
mw-redirect
Hydro power

value: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2008)

value:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

value:
/wiki/Energy_and_Environmental_Science
mw-redirect
Energy and Environmental Science

value:
/wiki/Health_costs
mw-redirect
Health costs

value: Sorbent Injection Technology (page does not exist)

value: Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (page does not exist)

value: Source capturing systems (page does not exist)

value: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;

value:
/wiki/Air_Quality_Index
mw-redirect
Air Quality Index

value:
/wiki/Environment_Canada
mw-redirect
Environment Canada

value: text-align:center; width:35px; height:35px; background:#6cf;

value: text-align:center; width:35px; height:35px; background:#0cf;

value: text-align:center; width:35px; height:35px; background:#9cc;

value: height:35px; height:35px; text-align:center; width:35px; text-align:center; width:35px; background:#999;

value: text-align:center; width:35px; height:35px; background:#996;

value: text-align:center; width:35px; height:35px; background:#960;

value: text-align:center; width:35px; height:35px; background:#963;

value: width:18px; width:35px; text-align:center; text-align:center; height:35px; background:#930;

value: width:18px; width:35px; text-align:center; text-align:center; height:35px; background:#600;

value: text-align:center; width:35px; height:35px; background:#f00;

value:
/wiki/Toxic_Hotspots
mw-redirect
Toxic Hotspots

value:
nofollow
external text
https://airvisual.com/earth

value: width:22em;width: 220px; float: right; clear: right; margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em

value: Effects of air pollution on health in communities of color in America (page does not exist)

value: The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (May 2014)

value:
noprint Inline-Template
margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;

value: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update

value: Edit section: National-scale air toxics assessments 1995–2005

value: Edit section: Governing urban air pollution

value:
/wiki/Member_states
mw-redirect
Member states

value:
/wiki/Congestion_charge
mw-redirect
Congestion charge

value: ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution

value:
/wiki/Best_Available_Control_Technology
mw-redirect
Best Available Control Technology

value: Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated Database

value:
/wiki/Environmental_agreement
mw-redirect
Environmental agreement

value: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion

value: International Agency for Research on Cancer

value: List of accidents and disasters by death toll

value:
/wiki/Lowest_Achievable_Emissions_Rate
mw-redirect
Lowest Achievable Emissions Rate

value: Regulation of greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act

value: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

value: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

value: border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; border: 0; background:transparent; width:100%;

value:
nofollow
http://www.worstpolluted.org/
external text

value:
/wiki/New_York_Times
mw-redirect
New York Times

value: Category:CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown

value:
nofollow
external text
http://www.physorg.com/pdf138201201.pdf

value: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0904128106

value:
nofollow
external text
http://sapiens.revues.org/index130.html

value:
nofollow
http://www.who.int/ceh/risks/cehair/en/
external text

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1093%2Feurheartj%2Fehn464

value:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18952612

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1164%2Frccm.200606-872OC

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17446340

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14676145

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1515%2Freveh.2008.23.4.243

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19235364

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.2011.352

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21427378

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMoa054409

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17267905

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22052517

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25970426

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20458016

value:
nofollow
http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/1205721/
external text

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.1205721

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23777785

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1164%2Frccm.200906-0858OC

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1164%2Frccm.201006-0937OC

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8542133

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11488305

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22445097

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.1002353

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21227886

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1186%2F1476-069X-10-67

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21771295

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.2004-2166

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15574638

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.1408121

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25756964

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.1306837

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1552-9924

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24508912

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1873-6750

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28196630

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.97105514

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0091-6765

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9222137

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.10952

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18470315

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25119155

value:
nofollow
http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/15-10037/
external text

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.1510037

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26502459

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.6539

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14698923

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.7973702

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7973702

value:
nofollow
external text
https://doi.org/10.1039%2FC5EE01283J

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1377%2Fhlthaff.2011.0153

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2105%2Fajph.2007.131383

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19890171

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1136%2Foem.55.9.605

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/27730990

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9861182

value:
nofollow
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/natamain/
external text

value: -moz-column-width: 33em; -webkit-column-width: 33em; column-width: 33em; list-style-type: decimal;

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1504%2Fijep.2005.007599

value:
plainlist
padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;text-align:left;

value: float:right;clear:right;width:auto;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

value:
nofollow
http://aqicn.org/map/world/
external text

value:
nofollow
http://www.urbanairquality.org/
external text

value:
/wiki/World_Health_Organisation
mw-redirect
World Health Organisation

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.epa.gov/ozone-pollution

value:
nofollow
external text
http://www.airbetter.org

value: Indoor air pollution in developing nations

value: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation

value:
/wiki/File:Carson_Fall_Mt_Kinabalu.jpg
image
Carson Falls on Mount Kinabalu, Borneo

value:
navbox-image
7
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

value:
/wiki/Energy_resources
mw-redirect
Energy resources

value:
/wiki/Game_(food)
mw-redirect
Game (food)

value:
/wiki/Resource_extraction
mw-redirect
Resource extraction

value: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

value: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2008

value: Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2014

value: Category:Articles with obsolete information from October 2013

value: Category:All Wikipedia articles in need of updating

value: Category:Articles containing video clips

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value:
/wiki/Air_pollution
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

value:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

value: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

value: Permanent link to this revision of the page

value: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

value: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

value: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

value:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

value: تلوث الهواء – Arabic

value: বায়ু প্ৰদূষণ – Assamese

value: বায়ু দূষণ – Bangla

value: Забруджванне атмасферы – Belarusian

value: हवा प्रदूषण – Bhojpuri

value: Замърсяване на въздуха – Bulgarian

value: Ατμοσφαιρική ρύπανση – Greek

value: آلودگی هوا – Persian

value: વાયુનું પ્રદૂષણ – Gujarati

value: Մթնոլորտի աղտոտում – Armenian

value: वायु प्रदूषण – Hindi

value: זיהום אוויר – Hebrew

value: ವಾಯು ಮಾಲಿನ್ಯ – Kannada

value: Атмосфераны ластау – Kazakh

value: Абанын булганышы – Kyrgyz

value: Загадување на воздухот – Macedonian

value: അന്തരീക്ഷമലിനീകരണം – Malayalam

value: वायुप्रदूषण – Marathi

value: Агаарын бохирдол – Mongolian

value: वायु प्रदुषण – Nepali

value: د هوا ککړتيا – Pashto

value: Загрязнение атмосферы Земли – Russian

value: वायुमालिन्यम् – Sanskrit

value: වායු දූෂණය – Sinhala

value: Загађење ваздуха – Serbian

value: வளி மாசடைதல் – Tamil

value: వాయు కాలుష్యం – Telugu

value: มลพิษทางอากาศ – Thai

value: Забруднення повітря – Ukrainian

value: فضائی آلودگی – Urdu

value: לופט פארפעסטיקונג – Yiddish

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Air_pollution rootpage-Air_pollution skin-vector action-view