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Esophagus
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Esophagus
The digestive tract, with the esophagus marked
Details
Precursor
Foregut
System
Part of the digestive system
Artery
Esophageal arteries
Vein
Esophageal veins
Nerve
Sympathetic trunk, vagus
Identifiers
Latin
Oesophagus
MeSH
D004947
TA
A05.4.01.001
FMA
7131
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The esophagus (American English) or oesophagus (British English) (/ɪˈsɒfəɡəs/), commonly known as the food pipe or gullet, is an organ in vertebrates through which food passes, aided by peristaltic contractions, from the pharynx to the stomach. The esophagus is a fibromuscular tube, about 25 centimetres long in adults, which travels behind the trachea and heart, passes through the diaphragm and empties into the uppermost region of the stomach. During swallowing, the epiglottis tilts backwards to prevent food from going down the larynx and lungs. The word esophagus is the Greek word οἰσοφάγος oisophagos, meaning "gullet".
The wall of the esophagus from the lumen outwards consists of mucosa, submucosa (connective tissue), layers of muscle fibers between layers of fibrous tissue, and an outer layer of connective tissue. The mucosa is a stratified squamous epithelium of around three layers of squamous cells, which contrasts to the single layer of columnar cells of the stomach. The transition between these two types of epithelium is visible as a zig-zag line. Most of the muscle is smooth muscle although striated muscle predominates in its upper third. It has two muscular rings or sphincters in its wall, one at the top and one at the bottom. The lower sphincter helps to prevent reflux of acidic stomach content. The esophagus has a rich blood supply and venous drainage. Its smooth muscle is innervated by involuntary nerves (sympathetic nerves via the sympathetic trunk and parasympathetic nerves via the vagus nerve) and in addition voluntary nerves (lower motor neurons) which are carried in the vagus nerve to innervate its striated muscle.
The esophagus may be affected by gastric reflux, cancer, prominent dilated blood vessels called varices that can bleed heavily, tears, constrictions, and disorders of motility. Diseases may cause difficulty swallowing (dysphagia), painful swallowing (odynophagia), chest pain, or cause no symptoms at all. Clinical investigations include X-rays when swallowing barium, endoscopy, and CT scans. Surgically, the esophagus is very difficult to access.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Sphincters
1.2 Nerve supply
1.3 Gastro-esophageal junction
1.4 Microanatomy
2 Development
3 Function
3.1 Swallowing
3.2 Reducing gastric reflux
4 Gene and protein expression
5 Clinical significance
5.1 Inflammation
5.2 Barrett's esophagus
5.3 Cancer
5.4 Varices
5.5 Motility disorders
5.6 Malformations
5.7 Imaging
6 History
7 Other animals
7.1 Vertebrates
7.2 Invertebrates
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Structure[edit]
The esophagus is one of the upper parts of the digestive system. There are taste buds on its upper part.[2] It begins at the back of the mouth, passing downwards through the rear part of the mediastinum, through the diaphragm, and into the stomach. In humans, the esophagus generally starts around the level of the sixth cervical vertebra behind the cricoid cartilage of the trachea, enters the diaphragm at about the level of the tenth thoracic vertebra, and ends at the cardia of the stomach, at the level of the eleventh thoracic vertebra.[3] The esophagus is usually about 25 cm (10 in) in length.[4]
Many blood vessels serve the esophagus, with blood supply varying along its course. The upper parts of the esophagus and the upper esophageal sphincter receive blood from the inferior thyroid artery, the parts of the esophagus in the thorax from the bronchial arteries and branches directly from the thoracic aorta, and the lower parts of the esophagus and the lower esophageal sphincter receive blood from the left gastric artery and the left inferior phrenic artery.[5][6] The venous drainage also differs along the course of the esophagus. The upper and middle parts of the esophagus drain into the azygos and hemiazygos veins, and blood from the lower part drains into the left gastric vein. All these veins drain into the superior vena cava, with the exception of the left gastric vein, which is a branch of the portal vein.[5] Lymphatically, the upper third of the esophagus drains into the deep cervical lymph nodes, the middle into the superior and posterior mediastinal lymph nodes, and the lower esophagus into the gastric and celiac lymph nodes. This is similar to the lymphatic drainage of the abdominal structures that arise from the foregut, which all drain into the celiac nodes.[5]
Position
The esophagus (yellow) passes behind the trachea and the heart.
The position and relation of the esophagus in the cervical region and in the posterior mediastinum. Seen from behind.
The upper esophagus lies at the back of the mediastinum behind the trachea, adjoining along the tracheoesophageal stripe, and in front of the erector spinae muscles and the vertebral column. The lower esophagus lies behind the heart and curves in front of the thoracic aorta. From the bifurcation of the trachea downwards, the esophagus passes behind the right pulmonary artery, left main bronchus, and left atrium. At this point it passes through the diaphragm.[3]
The thoracic duct, which drains the majority of the body's lymph, passes behind the esophagus, curving from lying behind the esophagus on the right in the lower part of the esophagus, to lying behind the esophagus on the left in the upper esophagus. The esophagus also lies in front of parts of the hemiazygos veins and the intercostal veins on the right side. The vagus nerve divides and covers the esophagus in a plexus.[3]
Constrictions
The esophagus is constricted in three places.
The esophagus has four points of constriction. When a corrosive substance, or a solid object is swallowed, it is most likely to lodge and damage one of these four points. These constrictions arise from particular structures that compress the esophagus. These constrictions are:[7]
At the start of the esophagus, where the laryngopharynx joins the esophagus, behind the cricoid cartilage
Where it is crossed on the front by the aortic arch in the superior mediastinum
Where the esophagus is compressed by the left main bronchus in the posterior mediastinum
The esophageal hiatus where it passes through the diaphragm in the posterior mediastinum
Sphincters[edit]
The esophagus is surrounded at the top and bottom by two muscular rings, known respectively as the upper esophageal sphincter and the lower esophageal sphincter.[3] These sphincters act to close the esophagus when food is not being swallowed. The esophageal sphincters are functional but not anatomical, meaning that they act as sphincters but do not have distinct thickenings like other sphincters.[8]
The upper esophageal sphincter surrounds the upper part of the esophagus. It consists of skeletal muscle but is not under voluntary control. Opening of the upper esophageal sphincter is triggered by the swallowing reflex. The primary muscle of the upper esophageal sphincter is the cricopharyngeal part of the inferior pharyngeal constrictor.[9]
The lower esophageal sphincter, or gastroesophageal sphincter, surrounds the lower part of the esophagus at the junction between the esophagus and the stomach.[8] It is also called the cardiac sphincter or cardioesophageal sphincter, named from the adjacent part of the stomach, the cardia. Dysfunction of the gastroesophageal sphincter causes gastroesophageal reflux, which causes heartburn and if it happens often enough, can lead to gastroesophageal reflux disease, with damage of the esophageal mucosa.[10]
Nerve supply[edit]
The esophagus is innervated by the vagus nerve and the cervical and thoracic sympathetic trunk.[5] The vagus nerve has a parasympathetic function, supplying the muscles of the esophagus and stimulating glandular contraction. Two sets of nerve fibers travel in the vagus nerve to supply the muscles. The upper striated muscle, and upper esophageal sphincter, are supplied by neurons with bodies in the nucleus ambiguus, whereas fibers that supply the smooth muscle and lower esophageal sphincter have bodies situated in the dorsal motor nucleus.[5] The vagus nerve plays the primary role in initiating peristalsis.[11] The sympathetic trunk has a sympathetic function. It may enhance the function of the vagus nerve, increasing peristalsis and glandular activity, and causing sphincter contraction. In addition, sympathetic activation may relax the muscle wall and cause blood vessel constriction.[5] Sensation along the esophagus is supplied by both nerves, with gross sensation being passed in the vagus nerve and pain passed up the sympathetic trunk.[3]
Gastro-esophageal junction[edit]
The gastro-esophageal junction (also known as the esophagogastric junction) is the junction between the esophagus and the stomach, at the lower end of the esophagus.[12] The pink color of the esophageal mucosa contrasts to the deeper red of the gastric mucosa,[5][13] and the mucosal transition can be seen as an irregular zig-zag line, which is often called the z-line.[14] Histological examination reveals abrupt transition between the stratified squamous epithelium of the esophagus and the simple columnar epithelium of the stomach.[15] Normally, the cardia of the stomach is immediately distal to the z-line[16] and the z-line coincides with the upper limit of the gastric folds of the cardia; however, when the anatomy of the mucosa is distorted in Barrets esophagus the true gastro-eshophageal junction can be identified by the upper limit of the gastric folds rather than the mucosal transition.[17] The functional location of the lower oesophageal sphincter is generally situated about 3 cm (1.2 in) below the z-line.[5]
Microanatomy[edit]
Main article: Gastrointestinal wall
H&E stain of a biopsy of the normal esophageal wall, showing the stratified squamous cell epithelium of the esophageal wall.
Histological section of the gastro-esophageal junction, with a black arrow indicating the junction.
The human esophagus has a mucous membrane consisting of a tough stratified squamous epithelium without keratin, a smooth lamina propria, and a muscularis mucosae.[5] The epithelium of the esophagus has a relatively rapid turnover, and serves a protective function against the abrasive effects of food. In many animals the epithelium contains a layer of keratin, representing a coarser diet.[18] There are two types of glands, with mucus-secreting esophageal glands being found in the submucosa, and esophageal cardiac glands, similar to cardiac glands of the stomach, located in the lamina propria and most frequent in the terminal part of the organ.[18][19] The mucus from the glands gives a good protection to the lining.[20] The submucosa also contains the submucosal plexus, a network of nerve cells that is part of the enteric nervous system.[18]
The muscular layer of the esophagus has two types of muscle. The upper third of the esophagus contains striated muscle, the lower third contains smooth muscle, and the middle third contains a mixture of both.[5] Muscle is arranged in two layers: one in which the muscle fibers run longitudinal to the esophagus, and the other in which the fibers encircle the esophagus. These are separated by the myenteric plexus, a tangled network of nerve fibers involved in the secretion of mucus and in peristalsis of the smooth muscle of the esophagus. The outermost layer of the esophagus is the adventitia in most of its length, with the abdominal part being covered in serosa. This makes it distinct from many other structures in the gastrointestinal tract that only have a serosa.[5]
Development[edit]
In early embryogenesis, the esophagus develops from the endodermal primitive gut tube. The ventral part of the embryo abuts the yolk sac. During the second week of embryological development, as the embryo grows, it begins to surround parts of the sac. The enveloped portions form the basis for the adult gastrointestinal tract.[21] The sac is surrounded by a network of vitelline arteries. Over time, these arteries consolidate into the three main arteries that supply the developing gastrointestinal tract: the celiac artery, superior mesenteric artery, and inferior mesenteric artery. The areas supplied by these arteries are used to define the midgut, hindgut and foregut.[21]
The surrounded sac becomes the primitive gut. Sections of this gut begin to differentiate into the organs of the gastrointestinal tract, such as the esophagus, stomach, and intestines.[21] The esophagus develops as part of the foregut tube.[21] The innervation of the esophagus develops from the pharyngeal arches.[3]
Function[edit]
Swallowing[edit]
Food is ingested through the mouth and when swallowed passes first into the pharynx and then into the esophagus. The esophagus is thus one of the first components of the digestive system and the gastrointestinal tract. After food passes through the esophagus, it enters the stomach.[8] When food is being swallowed, the epiglottis moves backward to cover the larynx, preventing food from entering the trachea. At the same time, the upper esophageal sphincter relaxes, allowing a bolus of food to enter. Peristaltic contractions of the esophageal muscle push the food down the esophagus. These rhythmic contractions occur both as a reflex response to food that is in the mouth, and also as a response to the sensation of food within the esophagus itself. Along with peristalsis, the lower esophageal sphincter relaxes.[8]
Reducing gastric reflux[edit]
The stomach produces gastric acid, a strongly acidic mixture consisting of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and potassium and sodium salts to enable food digestion. Constriction of the upper and lower esophageal sphincters help to prevent reflux (backflow) of gastric contents and acid into the esophagus, protecting the esophageal mucosa. In addition, the acute angle of His and the lower crura of the diaphragm helps this sphincteric action.[8][22]
Gene and protein expression[edit]
About 20,000 protein-coding genes are expressed in human cells and nearly 70% of these genes are expressed in the normal esophagus.[23][24] Some 250 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the esophagus with less than 50 genes being highly specific. The corresponding esophagus-specific proteins are mainly involved in squamous differentiation such as keratins KRT13, KRT4 and KRT6C. Other specific proteins that help lubricate the inner surface of esophagus are mucins such as MUC21 and MUC22. Many genes with elevated expression are also shared with skin and other organs that are composed of squamous epithelia.[25]
Clinical significance[edit]
The main conditions affecting the esophagus are described here. For a more complete list, see esophageal disease.
Inflammation[edit]
Main article: Esophagitis
Inflammation of the esophagus is known as esophagitis. Reflux of gastric acids from the stomach, infection, substances ingested (for example, corrosives), some medications (such as bisphosphonates), and food allergies can all lead to esophagitis. Esophageal candidiasis is an infection of the yeast candida albicans that may occur when a person is immunocompromised. As of 2014[update] the cause of some forms of esophagitis, such as eosinophilic esophagitis, is not known. Esophagitis can cause painful swallowing and is usually treated by managing the cause of the esophagitis - such as managing reflux or treating infection.[4]
Barrett's esophagus[edit]
Main article: Barrett's esophagus
Prolonged esophagitis, particularly from gastric reflux, is one factor thought to play a role in the development of Barrett's esophagus. In this condition, there is metaplasia of the lining of the lower esophagus, which changes from stratified squamous epithelia to simple columnar epithelia. Barrett's esophagus is thought to be one of the main contributors to the development of esophageal cancer.[4]
Cancer[edit]
Main article: Esophageal cancer
There are two main types of cancer of the esophagus. Squamous cell carcinoma is a carcinoma that can occur in the squamous cells lining the esophagus. This type is much more common in China and Iran. The other main type is an adenocarcinoma that occurs in the glands or columnar tissue of the esophagus. This is most common in developed countries in those with Barrett's esophagus, and occurs in the cuboidal cells.[4]
In its early stages, esophageal cancer may not have any symptoms at all. When severe, esophageal cancer may eventually cause obstruction of the esophagus, making swallowing of any solid foods very difficult and causing weight loss. The progress of the cancer is staged using a system that measures how far into the esophageal wall the cancer has invaded, how many lymph nodes are affected, and whether there are any metastases in different parts of the body. Esophageal cancer is often managed with radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and may also be managed by partial surgical removal of the esophagus. Inserting a stent into the esophagus, or inserting a nasogastric tube, may also be used to ensure that a person is able to digest enough food and water. As of 2014[update], the prognosis for esophageal cancer is still poor, so palliative therapy may also be a focus of treatment.[4]
Varices[edit]
Main article: Esophageal varices
Esophageal varices are swollen twisted branches of the azygous vein in the lower third of the esophagus. These blood vessels anastomose (join up) with those of the portal vein when portal hypertension develops.[26] These blood vessels are engorged more than normal, and in the worst cases may partially obstruct the esophagus. These blood vessels develop as part of a collateral circulation that occurs to drain blood from the abdomen as a result of portal hypertension, usually as a result of liver diseases such as cirrhosis.[4]:941–42 This collateral circulation occurs because the lower part of the esophagus drains into the left gastric vein, which is a branch of the portal vein. Because of the extensive venous plexus that exists between this vein and other veins, if portal hypertension occurs, the direction of blood drainage in this vein may reverse, with blood draining from the portal venous system, through the plexus. Veins in the plexus may engorge and lead to varices.[5][6]
Esophageal varices often do not have symptoms until they rupture. A ruptured varix is considered a medical emergency, because varices can bleed a lot. A bleeding varix may cause a person to vomit blood, or suffer shock. To deal with a ruptured varix, a band may be placed around the bleeding blood vessel, or a small amount of a clotting agent may be injected near the bleed. A surgeon may also try to use a small inflatable balloon to apply pressure to stop the wound. IV fluids and blood products may be given in order to prevent hypovolemia from excess blood loss.[4]
Motility disorders[edit]
Several disorders affect the motility of food as it travels down the esophagus. This can cause difficult swallowing, called dysphagia, or painful swallowing, called odynophagia. Achalasia refers to a failure of the lower esophageal sphincter to relax properly, and generally develops later in life. This leads to progressive enlargement of the esophagus, and possibly eventual megaesophagus. A nutcracker esophagus refers to swallowing that can be extremely painful. Diffuse esophageal spasm is a spasm of the esophagus that can be one cause of chest pain. Such referred pain to the wall of the upper chest is quite common in esophageal conditions.[27] Sclerosis of the esophagus, such as with systemic sclerosis or in CREST syndrome may cause hardening of the walls of the esophagus and interfere with peristalsis.[4]
Malformations[edit]
Esophageal strictures are usually benign and typically develop after a person has had reflux for many years. Other strictures may include esophageal webs (which can also be congenital) and damage to the esophagus by radiotherapy, corrosive ingestion, or eosinophilic esophagitis. A Schatzki ring is fibrosis at the gastro-esophageal junction. Strictures may also develop in chronic anemia, and Plummer-Vinson syndrome.[4]
Two of the most common congenital malformations affecting the esophagus are an esophageal atresia where the oesophagus ends in a blind sac instead of connecting to the stomach; and an esophageal fistula – an abnormal connection between the esophagus and the trachea.[28] Both of these conditions usually occur together.[28] These are found in about 1 in 3500 births.[29] Half of these cases may be part of a syndrome where other abnormalities are also present, particularly of the heart or limbs. The other cases occur singly.[30]
Imaging[edit]
A mass seen during an endoscopy and an ultrasound of the mass conducted during the endoscopy session.
An X-ray of swallowed barium may be used to reveal the size and shape of the esophagus, and the presence of any masses. The esophagus may also be imaged using a flexible camera inserted into the esophagus, in a procedure called an endoscopy. If an endoscopy is used on the stomach, the camera will also have to pass through the esophagus. During an endoscopy, a biopsy may be taken. If cancer of the esophagus is being investigated, other methods, including a CT scan, may also be used.[4]
History[edit]
The word esophagus (British English: oesophagus), comes from the Greek: οἰσοφάγος (oisophagos) meaning gullet. It derives from two roots (eosin) to carry and (phagos) to eat.[31] The use of the word oesophagus, has been documented in anatomical literature since at least the time of Hippocrates, who noted that "the oesophagus ... receives the greatest amount of what we consume." [32] Its existence in other animals and its relationship with the stomach was documented by the Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder (AD23–AD79),[33] and the peristaltic contractions of the esophagus have been documented since at least the time of Galen.[34]
The first attempt at surgery on the esophagus focused in the neck, and was conducted in dogs by Theodore Billroth in 1871. In 1877 Czerny carried out surgery in people. By 1908, an operation had been performed by Voeckler to remove the esophagus, and in 1933 the first surgical removal of parts of the lower esophagus, (to control esophageal cancer), had been conducted.[35]
The Nissen fundoplication, in which the stomach is wrapped around the lower esophageal sphincter to stimulate its function and control reflux, was first conducted by Rudolph Nissen in 1955.[35]
Other animals[edit]
Vertebrates[edit]
In tetrapods, the pharynx is much shorter, and the esophagus correspondingly longer, than in fish. In the majority of vertebrates, the esophagus is simply a connecting tube, but in some birds, which regurgitate components to feed their young, it is extended towards the lower end to form a crop for storing food before it enters the true stomach.[36][37] In ruminants, animals with four stomachs, a groove called the sulcus reticuli is often found in the esophagus, allowing milk to drain directly into the hind stomach, the abomasum.[38] In the horse the esophagus is about 1.2 to 1.5 m (4 to 5 ft) in length, and carries food to the stomach. A muscular ring, called the cardiac sphincter, connects the stomach to the esophagus. This sphincter is very well developed in horses. This and the oblique angle at which the esophagus connects to the stomach explains why horses cannot vomit.[39] The esophagus is also the area of the digestive tract where horses may suffer from choke.
The esophagus of snakes is remarkable for the distension it undergoes when swallowing prey.[40]
In most fish, the esophagus is extremely short, primarily due to the length of the pharynx (which is associated with the gills). However, some fish, including lampreys, chimaeras, and lungfish, have no true stomach, so that the esophagus effectively runs from the pharynx directly to the intestine, and is therefore somewhat longer.[36]
In many vertebrates, the esophagus is lined by stratified squamous epithelium without glands. In fish, the esophagus is often lined with columnar epithelium,[37] and in amphibians, sharks and rays, the esophageal epithelium is ciliated, helping to wash food along, in addition to the action of muscular peristalsis.[36] In addition, in the bat Plecotus auritus, fish and some amphibians, glands secreting pepsinogen or hydrochloric acid have been found.[37]
The muscle of the esophagus in many mammals is striated initially, but then becomes smooth muscle in the caudal third or so. In canines and ruminants, however, it is entirely striated to allow regurgitation to feed young (canines) or regurgitation to chew cud (ruminants). It is entirely smooth muscle in amphibians, reptiles and birds.[37]
Contrary to popular belief,[41] a human body would not be able to pass through the esophagus of a whale, which generally measures less than 10 centimetres (4 in) in diameter, although in larger baleen whales it may be up to 25 centimetres (10 in) when fully distended.[42]
Invertebrates[edit]
A structure with the same name is often found in invertebrates, including molluscs and arthropods, connecting the oral cavity with the stomach.[43] In terms of the digestive system of snails and slugs, the mouth opens into an esophagus, which connects to the stomach. Because of torsion, which is the rotation of the main body of the animal during larval development, the esophagus usually passes around the stomach, and opens into its back, furthest from the mouth. In species that have undergone de-torsion, however, the esophagus may open into the anterior of the stomach, which is the reverse of the usual gastropod arrangement.[44] There is an extensive rostrum at the front of the esophagus in all carnivorous snails and slugs.[45] In the freshwater snail species Tarebia granifera, the brood pouch is above the esophagus.[46]
In the cephalopods, the brain often surrounds the esophagus.[47]
See also[edit]
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology.
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Jump up ^ Bostock, John; Riley, Henry T.; Pliny the Elder (1855). The natural history of Pliny. London: H. G. Bohn. p. 64.
Jump up ^ Brock, Galen ; with an English translation by Arthur John (1916). On the natural faculties (Repr. ed.). London: W. Heinemann. p. "Book 3" S8. ISBN 978-0-674-99078-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Norton, Jeffrey A., ed. (2008). Surgery : basic science and clinical evidence (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Springer. pp. 744–746. ISBN 978-0-387-30800-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c Romer, Alfred Sherwood; Parsons, Thomas S. (1977). The Vertebrate Body. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 344–345. ISBN 0-03-910284-X.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Hume, C. Edward Stevens, Ian D. (2005). Comparative physiology of the vertebrate digestive system (1st pbk. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-521-61714-7.
Jump up ^ Mackie, R. I. (1 April 2002). "Mutualistic Fermentative Digestion in the Gastrointestinal Tract: Diversity and Evolution". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 42 (2): 319–326. doi:10.1093/icb/42.2.319. PMID 21708724.
Jump up ^ Giffen, James M.; Gore, Tom (1998) [1989]. Horse Owner’s Veterinary Handbook (2nd ed.). New York: Howell Book House. ISBN 0-87605-606-0.
Jump up ^ Cundall, D.; Tuttman, C.; Close, M. (Mar 2014). "A model of the anterior esophagus in snakes, with functional and developmental implications". Anat Rec. 297 (3): 586–98. doi:10.1002/ar.22860.
Jump up ^ Eveleth, Rose (20 February 2013). "Could a Whale Accidentally Swallow You? It Is Possible". Smithsonian. Retrieved 12 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Tinker, Spencer Wilkie (1988). Whales of the world. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-935848-47-2.
Jump up ^ Hartenstein, Volker (September 1997). "Development of the insect stomatogastric nervous system". Trends in Neurosciences. 20 (9): 421–427. doi:10.1016/S0166-2236(97)01066-7. PMID 9292972.
Jump up ^ Barnes, Robert D. (1982). Invertebrate Zoology. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. ISBN 0-03-056747-5.
Jump up ^ Gerlach, J.; Van Bruggen, A.C. (1998). "A first record of a terrestrial mollusc without a radula". Journal of Molluscan Studies. 64 (2): 249–250. doi:10.1093/mollus/64.2.249.
Jump up ^ Appleton C. C., Forbes A. T.& Demetriades N. T. (2009). "The occurrence, bionomics and potential impacts of the invasive freshwater snail Tarebia granifera (Lamarck, 1822) (Gastropoda: Thiaridae) in South Africa". Zoologische Mededelingen 83.
Jump up ^ Kutsch, with a coda written by T.H. Bullock ; edited by O. Breidbach, W. (1994). The nervous systems of invertebrates : an evolutionary and comparative approach. Basel: Birkhäuser. p. 117. ISBN 978-3-7643-5076-5.
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text:
Appropriation bill
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (September 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
It has been suggested that this article be merged with Money bill. (Discuss) Proposed since November 2016.
An appropriation bill (also known as a running bill or supply bill) is proposed law that authorizes the expenditure of government funds. It is a bill that sets money aside for specific spending.[1] In most democracies, approval of the legislature is necessary for the government to spend money.
In a Westminster parliamentary system, the defeat of an appropriation bill in a parliamentary vote generally necessitates either the resignation of a government or the calling of a general election. One of the more famous examples of the defeat of a supply bill was the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, when the Senate, which was controlled by the opposition, refused to approve a package of appropriation and loan bills, prompting Governor-General Sir John Kerr to dismiss Prime Minister Gough Whitlam and appoint Malcolm Fraser as caretaker Prime Minister until the next election (where the Fraser government was elected).[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Appropriation bills by country
1.1 New Zealand
1.2 United States
2 See also
3 References
Appropriation bills by country[edit]
New Zealand[edit]
In New Zealand, an Appropriation Bill is the formal name for the annual act of Parliament which gives legal effect to the Budget, that is, the Government's taxing and spending policies for the forthcoming year (from 1 July to 30 June). Like other bills, it is enacted, following debate, by the House of Representatives, and assented to by the Governor-General. The main Appropriation Bill is traditionally placed before the House for its first reading in May amid considerable media interest, an event known as the introduction of the Budget. An Appropriation Bill is not sent to a select committee, a lengthy process undergone by most bills during which they are scrutinised in detail by the committee, which also receives public submissions relating to the bill. Instead, an expedited process is followed in which the Appropriation Bill essentially goes directly to its second reading for consideration by the committee of the whole House. Royal assent is granted after the formality of a third reading.
The main Appropriation Bill is formally called an "Appropriation (Estimates) Bill", or, after assented to, an "Appropriation (Estimates) Act". Supplementary Budgetary legislation in New Zealand includes an annual "Appropriation (Confirmation and Validation) Bill", which serves to validate taxation and spending incurred in the previous year which fell outside the previous year's Budget, and "Imprest Supply Bills," typically several in a year, which grant interim authority to the Government to tax and spend.
Both Appropriation and Imprest Supply bills fall under the rubric of confidence and supply. A refusal by the House to pass such a Bill conventionally leads to either the resignation of the Government (unlikely, since there is usually no alternative Government immediately available) or to a dissolution of the House and a subsequent general election.
United States[edit]
Main article: Appropriations bill (United States)
Under the U.S. presidential system, the support of the Congress for the President's appropriations requests is not necessary for the separately elected President to remain in office, but can severely limit the President's ability to govern effectively.
In the United States, there are two types of appropriations. When Congress sets up particular programs, the legislation may itself set up the necessary appropriation mechanism, such as the social security program where payment of benefits are "mandatory". A mandatory program does not need an additional authorisation in order for spending under the program to occur. An authorization bill can create programs and make known Congress's intended level of spending for programs that also require an appropriation.[3] What distinguishes a mandatory program from a discretionary program is that after Congress enacts a law creating a mandatory program, the program is permitted to spend funds until the program expires based on a provision in law, or until a subsequent law either terminates the program or reauthorizes it. "Discretionary" programs typically require annual appropriations legislation.
An appropriation bill is used to actually provide money for "discretionary" programs. Appropriations are generally done on an annual basis, although multi-year appropriations are occasionally passed. According to the United States Constitution (Article I, Section 8, clause 12), Army appropriations cannot be for more than two years at a time. An annual appropriation requires that the funds appropriated be obligated (spent) by the end of the fiscal year of the appropriation. Once the fiscal year ends, no more money can be spent via the prior year's appropriation. A new appropriation for the new fiscal year must be passed in order for continued spending to occur, or passage of a special appropriations bill known as a continuing resolution, which generally permits continued spending for a short period of time—usually at prior year levels. The Anti-Deficiency Act makes void any attempt to spend money for which there is no current appropriation.[4]
According to the Origination Clause of the United States Constitution, all bills for raising revenue, generally tax bills, must originate in the House of Representatives, similar to the Westminster system requirement that all money bills originate in the lower house. Traditionally, though, appropriation bills also originate in the House of Representatives.[5][6] House appropriations bills begin with "H.R.", meaning "House of Representatives". In reference to revenue bills, the Constitution also states that the "Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills." As with revenue bills, the Senate and House each drafts and considers its own appropriation bill. The Senate then "cuts-and-pastes," substituting the language of its version of a particular appropriation bill for the language of the House bill, then agrees to the bill as amended.
The United States House Committee on Appropriations and the United States Senate Committee on Appropriations have jurisdiction over appropriations bills.[7] Both committees have twelve matching subcommittees tasked with working on one of the twelve annual regular appropriations bills. Other Committees and lawmakers in Congress write legislation creating programs and reauthorizing old ones to continue. This legislation is called an authorization bill. In this legislation, they authorize these programs to exist, and they authorize the expenditure of funds on them, but they cannot actually give them the money. That second step, of granting the money, is done in an appropriations bill. The appropriations committees have power because they can decide whether to fund these programs at the maximum level authorized, a lesser amount, or not at all.[8]
Appropriations bills in the United States can also come in the format of an omnibus spending bill, a continuing resolution, or a supplemental appropriation bill. If Congress has not enacted the regular appropriations bills by the start of a new fiscal year, it can pass a continuing resolution, which continues the pre-existing appropriations at the same levels as the previous fiscal year (or with minor modifications) for a set amount of time.[7] An omnibus spending bill is simply a combination of multiple appropriations bills into one larger appropriations bill. Supplemental appropriations bills increase funding for activities that were already funded in previous appropriations bills or the provide new funding for unexpected expenses.[9] For example, both the War in Afghanistan and the Iraq War were funded with a variety of supplemental appropriations.[10][11] Supplemental appropriations bills also provide funding for recovering from unexpected natural disasters like Hurricane Sandy (the Disaster Relief Appropriations Act, 2013).
Annual appropriations are divided into 12 separate pieces of legislation:
Agriculture,
Commerce, Justice, and Science,
Defense,
Energy and Water,
Financial Services,
Homeland Security,
Interior and Environment,
Labor, Health and Human Services, and Education,
Legislative,
Military and Veterans,
State and Foreign Operations,
Transportation and Housing and Urban Development.
See also[edit]
Appropriation Act (U.K.)
Loss of supply
References[edit]
Jump up ^ O'Sullivan, Arthur; Sheffrin, Steven M. (2003). Economics: Principles in Action. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 173. ISBN 0-13-063085-3.
Jump up ^ "Disagreements between the Houses" (PDF). House of Representatives Practice (6th ed.). Parliament of Australia. Retrieved 26 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Oleszek, Walter J. (2008). Congressional procedures and the policy process (7. ed., [Nachdr.]. ed.). Washington, D.C.: CQ Press. p. 42. ISBN 9780872893030.
Jump up ^ Cohen, Andrew (28 September 2013). "The Odd Story of the Law That Dictates How Government Shutdowns Work". The Atlantic. Retrieved 20 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Oleszek, Walter J. (2011). Congressional Procedures and the Policy Process, 8th ed. Washington, DC 20037: CQ Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-60426-613-9.
Jump up ^ "Forms of Congressional Action". How Our Laws Are Made. Library of Congress. Retrieved 12 February 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Tollestrup, Jessica (23 February 2012). "The Congressional Appropriations Process: An Introduction" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 23 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Oleszek, Walter J. (2007). Congressional Procedures and the Policy Process. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-87289-303-0.
Jump up ^ Tollestrup, Jessica (23 February 2012). "The Congressional Appropriations Process: An Introduction" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. p. 13. Retrieved 24 January 2014.
Jump up ^ National Priorities Project | Bringing the Federal Budget Home from the Cost of War website
Jump up ^ "Congressional Reports: Cost of Iraq, Afghanistan since 9/11". zFacts.org. 2006-04-24. Archived from the original on 2006-08-21. Retrieved 2006-08-15.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appropriation_bill&oldid=836801663"
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text:
Wonder (film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Wonder
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Stephen Chbosky
Produced by
David Hoberman
Todd Lieberman
Screenplay by
Jack Thorne
Steve Conrad
Stephen Chbosky
Based on
Wonder
by R.J. Palacio
Starring
Julia Roberts
Owen Wilson
Jacob Tremblay
Izabela Vidovic
Mandy Patinkin
Daveed Diggs
Music by
Marcelo Zarvos
Cinematography
Don Burgess
Edited by
Mark Livolsi
Production
company
Lionsgate[1]
Mandeville Films[1]
Participant Media[1]
Walden Media[1]
TIK Films[1]
Distributed by
Lionsgate
Release date
November 17, 2017 (2017-11-17) (United States)
Running time
113 minutes[2]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$20 million[3]
Box office
$218.8 million[4]
Wonder is a 2017 American drama film directed by Stephen Chbosky and written by Jack Thorne, Steve Conrad, and Chbosky, based on the 2012 novel of the same name by R.J. Palacio. The film stars Julia Roberts, Owen Wilson, and Jacob Tremblay. The film follows a child with Treacher Collins syndrome trying to fit in. Wonder was released in the United States on November 17, 2017, by Lionsgate and has grossed over $218 million worldwide on a $20 million budget.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
2.1 Main cast members
2.2 Other cast members
3 Production
4 Music
5 Release
5.1 Box office
5.2 Critical response
5.3 Accolades
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
August "Auggie" Pullman is a fifth-grade boy living in North River Heights in upper Manhattan. He has a rare medical facial deformity, which he refers to as "mandibulofacial dysostosis." Due to numerous (27) surgeries, Auggie had been homeschooled by his mother Isabel, but as Auggie is approaching middle school age, Isabel and Nate decide to enroll him in Beecher Prep, a private school, for the start of middle school. At first, Auggie is ostracized by nearly all the student body, but he is soon befriended by a boy named Jack Will.
During Halloween, Auggie wears an old GhostFace mask and costume because his dog, Daisy, threw up on his Boba Fett costume. Unrecognized, he walks around school knowing he would not get tormented while incognito. As he walks through the door to his homeroom he overhears Jack telling Julian Albans that he was only pretending to be friends with Auggie. Feeling betrayed, Auggie wants to quit Beecher Prep and go back to homeschooling, but his older sister Olivia, nicknamed "Via," talks him out of it. Auggie later confides the incident to another friend, a girl named Summer, but swears her to secrecy. When Jack notices that Auggie has become quiet and distant he asks Summer why, but she only gives him the term "Ghost Face" as a clue; Jack is shocked when it suddenly dawns on him that it was Auggie wearing the GhostFace costume, and thus had overheard everything he said to Julian.When Julian wants Jack to switch partners to be with him in a science fair project Jack refuses. When Julian asks Jack does he want to work with that "freak," Jack angrily punches him in the face and a fight ensues between the two, which is soon broken up by Mr. Browne and Ms. Petosa. Jack is suspended for two days, and decides not to get Julian suspended to knowing it would not be fair.He later writes an apology letter to Mr. Tushman. Auggie, over winter break, requests Jack's Minecraft coordinates, which Jack sends. Jack apologizes to Auggie, and Auggie accepts.
During the rest of the school year, Auggie is repeatedly bullied by Julian and his group; they leave hurtful notes on his desk and tape to his locker their class picture with Auggie photoshopped out. When Mr. Tushman later confronts Julian and his parents using all the notes and the doctored picture as evidence, Julian's mother proclaims that she had had Auggie edited out of the photo to make it look more presentable to her friends at home; she then says that the school should not be inclusive and that Auggie does not belong there. But despite her threats to pull their funding from the school, Tushman suspends Julian for two days. Julian showed remorse to Tushman for his actions to Auggie.
Meanwhile, Via signs up for Drama Club at her high school after her best friend, Miranda, ignores her; in the process, she meets Justin, a friendly boy with whom she forms a close friendship, which later develops into a romantic relationship. Later, Via is selected to be an understudy for the lead role in the school's production of Our Town, with Justin as the lead actor.
Later on, Isabel and Nate find out that Via's play is coming around, and Via never told them about it, and they get into a fight with Auggie overhearing everything. Auggie later confronts his mom and his sister, who brush it off. Auggie then accuses them of lying and storms off to his room, and then Daisy starts to whimper. Via then rushes up to Auggie's room telling him that Daisy is sick. They say goodbye to Isabel who meets Nate at the hospital. They then return that night without the dog, implying that Daisy was put to sleep.
On the night of the play, Miranda, the lead actress and Via's former best friend, pretends to fall ill. Via takes her place and gives a performance that earns her a standing ovation. After the play, everyone, including Miranda and Justin, go home to the Pullmans and eat pizza to celebrate.
During a school trip to a nature reserve, when Auggie and Jack are accosted and threatened by a group of seventh graders from another school, several of their classmates come to their defense. At the year's end during the graduation ceremony, Tushman announces that Auggie has been selected for the Henry Ward Beecher Medal for standing out; Auggie receives a standing ovation, and the movie ends with everyone applauding Auggie, and Isabel commenting on him being a wonder.
Cast[edit]
Main cast members[edit]
Julia Roberts as Isabel Pullman
Owen Wilson as Nate Pullman
Jacob Tremblay as August "Auggie" Pullman
Izabela Vidovic as Olivia "Via" Pullman
Maccie Margaret Chbosky as Young Olivia
Noah Jupe as Jack Will
Bryce Gheisar as Julian Albans
Elle McKinnon as Charlotte Cody
Millie Davis as Summer Dawson
Ty Consiglio as Amos Conti
Kyle Harrison Breitkopf as Miles Noury
James A. Hughes as Henry Joplin
Mandy Patinkin as Mr. Tushman
Daveed Diggs as Mr. Browne
Ali Liebert as Ms. Petosa
Danielle Rose Russell as Miranda Navas
Nadji Jeter as Justin
Gidget as Darth-Daisy "Daisy", Auggie and Via's dog
Other cast members[edit]
Nicole Oliver as Mrs. Will
Rachel Hayward as Mrs. Navas
Crystal Lowe as Mrs. Albans
Steve Bacic as Mr. Albans
Erika McKitrick as Ella
Lucia Thain as Savanna Wittenberg
Sasha Neuhaus as Maya Markowitz
Izzy Lieberman as Reid Kingsley
Hannah Hoberman as Rebecca
William Dickinson as Eddie
Emma Tremblay as Michelle
Lydia Jewett as Lina Annan
Armen Bagdasrov as Danny
Kaelyn Breitkopf as Angela
Victoria V. Cruz as the Science Fair judge
Benjamin Ratner as Mr. Davenport
Production[edit]
On November 27, 2012, it was announced that Lionsgate was developing the feature film adaptation of R. J. Palacio's debut novel Wonder, while in talks with John August to write the screenplay.[5] Mandeville Films' David Hoberman and Todd Lieberman would be producing the film.[5] On May 8, 2013, Jack Thorne was hired to adapt the novel, while August, who was previously reported as writer, had departed from the project.[6] In October 2014, John Krokidas was reported to be directing the film,[7] but in April 2015, Paul King was hired to take the directing duties. Steven Conrad was writing the script at that time.[8]
On April 14, 2016, Jacob Tremblay was cast in the film to play the lead role as Auggie Pullman, while Julia Roberts was in talks to play Auggie's mother.[9] On May 5, 2016, Roberts was confirmed to play the mother, with Stephen Chbosky signed on to direct the film.[10] On June 27, 2016, Owen Wilson had joined the film to play Auggie's father.[11] On July 11, 2016, newcomer Noah Jupe joined the film to play Auggie's best friend at school.[12] On July 15, 2016, Daveed Diggs was cast in the film to play Mr. Browne, an English teacher at the school.[13] On August 19, 2016, Sonia Braga joined the cast of the film, portraying the role of Roberts' character's mother.[14]
Jacob's prosthetic makeup, designed and created by Arjen Tuiten, took an hour and half to apply. It consisted of a skull cap with prosthetic ears attached, a facial prosthetic that covered Jacob's face, and a wig to tie it all together.[citation needed]
Marcelo Zarvos composed the film's score.[15]
Music[edit]
Bea Miller composed a song entitled "Brand New Eyes." It was released on August 3, 2017.
Wonder author R.J. Palacio has often credited Natalie Merchant's song “Wonder” from her 1995 album Tigerlily as the inspiration for her best-selling book and at Merchant's invitation, the song will be featured in the soundtrack.[16]
Release[edit]
Wonder was scheduled to be released in the United States on April 7, 2017 by Lionsgate.[17][18] On February 13, 2017, it was announced that the release date for Wonder had been pushed back to November 17, 2017.[19]
Box office[edit]
As of January 4, 2018[update], Wonder has grossed $126.6 million in the United States and Canada, and $92.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $218.7 million, against a production budget of $20 million.[4]
In the United States and Canada, Wonder was released alongside Justice League and The Star and was initially projected to gross around $9 million from 3,096 theaters in its opening weekend.[20] However after grossing $740,000 from Thursday night previews and receiving a large number of group ticket sales, weekend projections were upped to $15 million.[21] Weekend projections were again increased, this time to $28 million, after the film made $9.4 million on its first day. The film went on to debut to $27.1 million, finishing second at the box office behind Justice League.[22] In its second weekend the film dropped just 17.7%, grossing $22.7 million and finishing third at the box office.[23]
Critical response[edit]
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 85% based on 154 reviews and an average rating of 7/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Wonder doesn't shy away from its bestselling source material's sentiment, but this well-acted and overall winsome drama earns its tugs at the heartstrings."[24] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 66 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[25] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A+" on an A+ to F scale, one of fewer than 80 films in the history of the service to receive such a score.[22]
Some with craniofacial disorders have criticized the film for casting an able-bodied actor as Auggie and for its inspirational message.[26][27][28]
Accolades[edit]
Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipient(s) and nominee(s)
Result
Ref.
British Academy Film Awards February 18, 2018 Best Makeup and Hair Naomi Bakstad, Robert Pandini and Arjen Tuiten Pending [29]
Casting Society of America January 18, 2018 Big Budget – Comedy Deborah Aquila, Kara Eide, Tricia Wood and Kris Woz Pending [30]
Critics' Choice Movie Awards January 11, 2018 Best Young Actor/Actress Jacob Tremblay Pending [31]
Best Adapted Screenplay Jack Thorne, Steve Conrad and Stephen Chbosky Pending
Best Hair & Makeup Wonder Pending
Heartland Film Festival December 31, 2017 Truly Moving Picture Award Stephen Chbosky Won [32]
Make-Up Artists and Hair Stylists Guild February 24, 2018 Feature Motion Picture: Best Contemporary Makeup Naomi Bakstad, Jean Black and Megan Harkness Pending [33]
Feature Motion Picture: Best Contemporary Hair Styling Robert Pandini and Alisa Macmillian Pending
Feature Motion Picture: Best Special Makeup Effects Michael Nickiforek and Arjen Tuiten Pending
Phoenix Film Critics Society December 19, 2017 Best Performance by a Youth Jacob Tremblay Nominated [34]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Film releases". Variety Insight. Retrieved June 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ "WONDER". Lionsgate Press. Retrieved 2017-07-26.
Jump up ^ "Will 'Justice League' Perform Like 'Wonder Woman' or 'Suicide Squad' at the Box Office?". TheWrap. November 14, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Wonder (2017)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved January 8, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Sneider, Jeff (November 26, 2012). "Lionsgate lining up John August to adapt 'Wonder'". Variety. Retrieved June 28, 2016.
Jump up ^ Jr, Mike Fleming (May 8, 2013). "Lionsgate Taps Jack Thorne To Adapt R.J. Palacio Novel 'Wonder'". Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Ford, Rebecca; Kit, Borys (October 7, 2014). "'Kill Your Darlings' Director to Helm YA Adaptation 'Wonder' (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (April 23, 2015). "'Paddington' Director Books Lionsgate's YA Adaptation 'Wonder' (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Geier, Thom (April 14, 2016). "'Room' Star Jacob Tremblay in Talks for Lionsgate's 'Wonder'". TheWrap. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys; Ford, Rebecca (May 5, 2016). "Julia Roberts to Play Jacob Tremblay's Mother in 'Wonder'". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kroll, Justin (June 27, 2016). "Owen Wilson to Co-Star With Julia Roberts in 'Wonder' (EXCLUSIVE)". Variety. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (July 11, 2016). "'Night Manager' Actor Joins Julia Roberts, Jacob Tremblay in 'Wonder' (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Lincoln, Ross A. (July 15, 2016). "Tony Winner Daveed Diggs Joins Lionsgate's 'Wonder' In First Post-'Hamilton' Film Role". Deadline. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (August 19, 2016). "Sonia Braga Playing Julia Roberts' Mother in 'Wonder' (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved November 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Marcelo Zarvos to Score Steven Chbsoky's 'Wonder'". FilmMusicReporter. January 11, 2017. Retrieved January 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Wonder the Film". Natalie Merchant. Retrieved 6 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Julia Roberts, Jacob Tremblay's Wonder gets spring 2017 release date". Entertainment Weekly. Time Inc. June 8, 2016. Retrieved August 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ "First Look! Julia Roberts and Jacob Tremblay Will Melt Your Heart in Wonder". People. August 10, 2016. Retrieved August 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Julia Roberts' Drama 'Wonder' Pushed to November". The Hollywood Reporter. Prometheus Global Media, LLC. February 13, 2017. Retrieved February 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ Anita Busch (November 14, 2017). "The Tale Of Two Films: Walden Media's 'The Star' & 'Wonder' Bow On Same Day".
Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (November 17, 2017). "'Justice League' Powers To $13M Thursday Night; Beats 'Wonder Woman' – Friday AM Update". Deadline.com. Retrieved November 17, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b D'Alessandro, Anthony (November 18, 2017). "'Justice League' Encounters Kryptonite At The B.O. With $93M+ Opening: Why The DC Movie Weakened". Deadline.com. Retrieved November 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (November 26, 2017). "Thanksgiving B.O. At $268M, +3% Over 2016 Spurred By 'Coco' & Holdovers". Deadline.com. Retrieved November 28, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Wonder (2017)". Rotten Tomatoes. Fandango. Retrieved December 28, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Wonder reviews". Metacritic. CBS Interactive Inc. Retrieved December 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ Henley, Ariel. "Hollywood's Approach to Disabled Characters Is Still a Disaster". Vice. Vice. Retrieved 16 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Steussy, Lauren. "What it's really like to have the rare disease in 'Wonder'". New York Post. New York Post. Retrieved 16 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Barack, Lauren. "Critics Question the Representation of Disability in 'Wonder'". School Library Journal. School Library Journal. Retrieved 16 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Ritman, Alex (January 8, 2018). "BAFTA Awards: 'Shape of Water,' 'Three Billboards,' 'Darkest Hour' Lead Pack of Nominations". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved January 8, 2018.
Jump up ^ Ford, Rebecca (January 2, 2018). "Artios Awards: Casting Society Reveals Film Nominees (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved January 3, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Critics' Choice Awards: 'The Shape of Water' Leads With 14 Nominations". The Hollywood Reporter. December 6, 2017. Retrieved December 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Truly Moving Picture Award". Heartland film. Archived from the original on February 10, 2017. Retrieved February 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (January 5, 2018). "Makeup Artists and Hair Stylists Guild Awards: 'Darkest Hour,' 'Wonder' Lead Feature Nominees". Deadline.com. Retrieved January 5, 2018.
Jump up ^ Amidi, Amid (December 14, 2017). "Phoenix Film Critics Society". 2017 Awards NOMINATIONS. Retrieved December 14, 2017.
External links[edit]
Wonder on IMDb
Wonder at AllMovie
Wonder at Box Office Mojo
Wonder at Metacritic
Wonder at Rotten Tomatoes
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Films by Stephen Chbosky
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The Four Corners of Nowhere (1995)
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