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I Can Only Imagine (MercyMe song)
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"I Can Only Imagine"
Single by MercyMe
from the album The Worship Project and Almost There
A-side
"Word of God Speak"
Released
2001
Format
CD
digital download
Recorded
1999 and 2001 in the United States
Ivy Park
The Indigo Room
Paradise Sound
IBC Studios
Genre
Christian alternative rock
pop rock
contemporary Christian
Length
4:08
Label
INO
Curb
Songwriter(s)
Bart Millard
Producer(s)
Pete Kipley
MercyMe singles chronology
"Bless Me Indeed (Jabez's Song)"
(2001) "I Can Only Imagine"
(2001) "Spoken For"
(2002)
"Bless Me Indeed (Jabez's Song)"
(2001) "I Can Only Imagine"
(2001) "Spoken For"
(2002)
"I Can Only Imagine" (sometimes shortened to "Imagine") is a single recorded by Christian rock band MercyMe. Written and composed by lead vocalist Bart Millard, the song, based around a main piano track, was inspired by the death of Millard's father and considers what it would be like in Heaven and to be standing before God. The song was first issued as a track on MercyMe's 1999 album The Worship Project, which was released on an independent record label. The song was re-recorded and included on their 2001 major-label debut album Almost There as the fifth song on the album.
"I Can Only Imagine" was released in 2001 as the album's lead single. It gained significant airplay on Christian radio formats before crossing over to mainstream radio formats such as adult contemporary and Top 40 in late 2003 and into 2004; to aid in promotion to these markets, a double A-side physical single (combined with "Word of God Speak") was released in 2003. It charted on several formats, including the Billboard Adult Contemporary (where it peaked at No. 5) and the Hot 100 (where it peaked at No. 71). In 2002, "I Can Only Imagine" earned the Dove Awards for 'Pop/Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year' and 'Song of the Year'; Millard earned the Dove Award 'Songwriter of the Year' at the same ceremony. With 2.5 million copies sold, it is the best-selling Christian single of all time, having been certified 2x platinum by the RIAA. As of 2018, it is the only Christian song to reach that milestone.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Composition
3 Release and promotion
4 Impact
5 Music video
6 Reception
6.1 Critical response
6.2 Chart performance
6.3 Awards and accolades
7 Other versions
8 Track listing
9 Release history
10 Charts and certifications
11 Film adaptation
12 References
Background[edit]
"I Can Only Imagine" was the debut single for United States contemporary Christian and Christian rock band MercyMe. Bart Millard, the band's vocalist, lost his father, Arthur Wesley Millard Jr.[1], in 1991. Millard was 18 at the time.[2][3] Millard began writing the words "I can only imagine" on items when he was thinking about his father.[4] During the recording of the band's 1999 independent album The Worship Project, MercyMe needed one more song to fill out the album.[5] Millard, alone on a bus in the middle of the night, finally wrote the lyrics to the song by drawing on his thoughts and personal faith about what one would experience standing before God in Heaven. Millard attests that "['I Can Only Imagine'] is one of the only songs I have ever written where there wasn't any mistakes, it was just written the way it is and left at that",[5] and estimated that it took him only ten minutes to write the lyrics.[4]
In writing the music for the song, however, the band faced more difficulty; Millard noted that "at first it was a fast song... it was all these random ideas".[5] Keyboardist Jim Bryson noted that, "we were literally tearing down the stuff... [Millard] and I were talking about arranging it differently and doing a slower version, so we just tried out a piano intro... it was literally the first thing I played. It wasn't anything to do with me, I think it was just a God thing. [Millard] said 'here it is, this is what's going to happen', and we laid the song down in about five minutes."[5] At that time, the other MercyMe members were Robby Shaffer on drums and percussion, Nathan Cochran on bass guitar and Michael Scheuchzer on guitar. This line-up recorded the first version of the song for The Worship Project.[3][6] In 2006, it was included in the 'Platinum Edition' of Almost There.[7]
Composition[edit]
I Can Only Imagine
A sample of "I Can Only Imagine". MercyMe's debut single, "I Can Only Imagine" is "a passionate piano-driven ballad. The song considers what it would be like to be in the presence of God. Delivered with conviction, the song is emotionally compelling".[8]
Problems playing this file? See media help.
"I Can Only Imagine" is a ballad with a length of four minutes and eight seconds.[8] The song is set in the key of E major and has a moderately slow tempo of 80 beats per minute with a vocal range from B3–G♯5.[9] The song opens up with only a piano, and builds up to include guitar and drums.[10] Millard is credited with both the lyrics and music to the song.[11] The song was produced by Pete Kipley, who had worked with MercyMe previously[2] as well as with artists including Rebecca St. James, Phil Wickham and Lincoln Brewster.[12]
The lyrics to the song are based around the narrator wondering what it will be like in Heaven and to be standing before God.[8] Regarding this theme, Millard explained to Fox News that "I was always told that if he could choose, he would rather be in Heaven than here with me. As a Christian I believed that, but as an 18-year-old it was a little hard to swallow. So the questions in the song came from me asking God what was so great about Him that my dad would rather be there."[2]
Release and promotion[edit]
MercyMe's lead singer-songwriter, Bart Millard (left) and drummer, Robby Shaffer, performing in February 2008.
"I Can Only Imagine" was re-recorded for their major-label debut record Almost There and released as its lead single in 2001.[13] The album was recorded in various locations: Ivy Park, The Indigo Room, Paradise Sound and IBC Studios.[11] The single gained radio airplay on some contemporary Christian formats; by November, it peaked at number-one on the Radio & Records Christian AC format and in the top twenty of the Radio & Records Christian CHR chart.[14][15]
In 2003, a Dallas mainstream radio station, 100.3 Wild-FM, first played the song on its morning show, The Fitz Radio Program.[3][16][17] They had responded to a caller's repeated requests and the urgings of the program's producer, Todd Sheppard.[2][4] The song soon became the most requested and most played song on the station.[17][18] After hearing the song played on the station, Millard called-in and spoke with the crew; MercyMe then came in and played the song live.[17]
As other stations around the country caught on, MercyMe's label, INO Records, partnered with Curb Records.[17][19][20] They marketed the single to wider audiences, such as Top 40 radio.[19][20][21] In September, INO and Curb also released a double A-side physical single, "I Can Only Imagine/Word of God Speak".[13] The latter track was co-written by Millard with the band's producer, Kipley.[22] Eventually, the song cracked into secular charts, including the Billboard Hot 100[23] and the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks charts.[24]
Impact[edit]
MercyMe did not expect "I Can Only Imagine" to gain mainstream success, in part due to its explicit references to Jesus and Heaven.[16][17] Millard noted that the band joked around about "the top five songs never to cross over,[16] and they had included "I Can Only Imagine" on that list.[16][17] Millard also believed some radio stations were playing the song to prove it could not succeed on mainstream radio.[17] The song had a significant effect on the band's musical image; in an interview, Millard commented that "We were a rock band when we started 11 years ago. But we kind of became the 'adult contemporary poster child' when 'I Can Only Imagine' took off".[25]
Music video[edit]
Millard holding his father's photograph in the music video.
A music video was released for "I Can Only Imagine".[26][27] Millard recalled the video's inspiration: "I just kept seeing all these people holding picture frames [at MercyMe concerts] that are empty because we all carry these people with us in some way. I've had so many people after a show pull out a picture of someone they've lost. These people embrace these photos and I just thought how can we tap into that".[27] The video features everyday people as well as several music artists including Michael Tait, Tammy Trent, Bob Herdman, and Jesse Katina, each holding an empty picture frame to signify their loss of a loved one; as the video progresses, they are holding pictures of their loved ones including Millard with his father's photograph.[27]
The video opens with a shot of an empty room and a chair, shifting to show a young boy climbing up a flight of stairs. The camera then shifts to the band before returning to the boy, now in an attic which is filled with many empty picture frames. The video alternates between shots of the boy and the band before shifting to individual shots of other people, each holding an empty picture frame. As the other instruments join in, the camera comes back to the band, focusing on them before returning to shots of the people, whose picture frames now contain pictures of deceased relatives. At the end of the video, the camera returns to the boy, now running down a street with an empty frame, climaxing with him lying down in a field with the empty frame.[26][27]
Reception[edit]
Critical response[edit]
Critical reception for "I Can Only Imagine" was positive. Steve Losey of Allmusic commented that "[the song] is a passionate piano-driven ballad. The song considers what it would be like to be in the presence of God. Delivered with conviction, the song is emotionally compelling".[8] Jesus Freak Hideout's reviewer Kevin Chamberlin felt "The lyrics for the song are amazing. If you haven't listened to the lyrics, because you're afraid of hearing pop music, get over it and listen to it."[28] Kevin McNeese of NewReleaseTuesday commented that "The definite highlight on [Almost There] is the worship/ballad 'I Can Only Imagine'... The song starts out with just piano that instantly invokes chills and builds dynamically into a powerful display of drums and guitar. But what makes the song are the lyrics, penned by Bart Millard himself. The song speaks about that day that we all dream about when we finally meet Jesus... It's a song that can't be listened to with eyes open".[10]
Chart performance[edit]
"I Can Only Imagine" debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 for the chart week of 11 October 2003 at No. 76.[23] The song peaked at No. 71 for two weeks and spent 16 non-consecutive weeks on the Hot 100.[14][23] On the Adult Contemporary chart, "I Can Only Imagine" debuted at No. 29 for the chart week of 23 May 2003, with an eventual peak of No. 5 for the chart week of 8 September 2003; in all, "I Can Only Imagine" spent 30 weeks on the chart.[14][24]
On the Adult Top 40 chart, "I Can Only Imagine" debuted at No. 39 for the chart week of 9 August 2003 and reached a peak position of No. 27, holding that spot for three consecutive weeks; in all, the song spent 26 weeks on the chart.[14][29] On the Mainstream Top 40 chart, the song debuted at No. 37 for the chart week of 12 July 2003, reaching an eventual peak of No. 33.[14][30] On the Country Songs chart, the song debuted at No. 58 for the chart week of 27 December 2003, reaching an eventual peak of No. 52, which it held for two weeks.[31] According to Mike Curb on the Curb Records website, "I Can Only Imagine" also peaked at No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 Singles Sales chart for 10 weeks, No. 1 on the Radio & Records Christian AC chart for two weeks,[14][15] and No. 15 on the Christian CHR chart.[14]
In April 2010, "I Can Only Imagine" was certified platinum by the RIAA, signifying sales of over 1,000,000 digital downloads.[32] It is the first single by any artist in the Christian music genre to go platinum.[33] The song was certified 2x platinum in 2014.[32] As of March 2018, it has sold 2.5 million copies, making it the best-selling Christian single of all time.[34]
Awards and accolades[edit]
"I Can Only Imagine" earned two GMA Dove Awards in 2002; 'Pop/Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year' and 'Song of the Year'.[35][36] Millard also won 'Songwriter of the Year' at the same ceremony.[35][36] In November 2009, the song was played on board Space Shuttle Atlantis as a wake-up call for Barry E. Wilmore during STS-129.[37]
Other versions[edit]
The original version of "I Can Only Imagine" was a track on MercyMe's 1999 independent release The Worship Project.[6] In August 2006, both an acoustic and live form (as well as the original 1999 version) were included in the 'Platinum edition' of Almost There.[7] MercyMe recorded a version of the song for their iTunes Originals album.[38][39] In 2009, two further variants were included on their compilation album 10; a 'symphony version' featuring the London Symphony Orchestra, and a live version.[40]
"I Can Only Imagine" has also been covered by several artists.[41] In 2002 Amy Grant released a reworked version of the song (titled "Imagine" and paired with "Sing the Wondrous Love of Jesus") on her album, Legacy... Hymns and Faith.[42] In 2003, Jeff Carson and Kathryn Scott each issued variants of the song;[42][43] Carson's version peaked at No. 50 on the Country Songs chart.[44] In 2005 Wynonna Judd issued her form of the song;[42] while in 2007 Emerson Drive provided theirs.[45] The song was covered again in 2010 by Marie Osmond and in 2013 by gospel artist Tamela Mann.
The song was performed live by Garwin Dobbins, a man struggling with fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva, a crippling disease referred to as Stone Man's syndrome, in which the body's repair mechanism replaces muscle with bone, causing many joints to become permanently frozen in place.[46] Dobbins, who died in 2004, sang the song on a broadcast of Austin Awakening, accompanied by pastor Randy Phillips of Phillips, Craig and Dean. Footage of the performance was featured in the finale of the Trevor Glass documentary "Suffer the Children."[47] There is also a German version "Ich kann nur davon träumen".
Track listing[edit]
CD release[13][48][49][50]
"I Can Only Imagine" – 4:08 (Bart Millard)[9][41]
"Word of God Speak" – 3:07 (Peter Kipley, Millard)[22][51]
Release history[edit]
Date
Territory
Label
Format
2001[13] United States INO Airplay
23 September 2003[13]
INO
Curb
CD
4 January 2005[32]
INO
Epic
Digital
Charts and certifications[edit]
Weekly charts
Chart (2001–2002)
Peak
Position
Radio and Records Christian AC[14][15] 1
Radio and Records Christian CHR[14] 15
Chart (2003–2004)
Peak
Position
US Adult Contemporary (Billboard)[52] 5
US Adult Top 40 (Billboard)[53] 27
US Billboard Hot 100[54] 71
US Mainstream Top 40 (Billboard)[55] 33
Chart (2012)
Peak
Position
France (SNEP)[56] 65
Chart (2017)
Peak
Position
US Christian Digital Song Sales (Billboard)[57] 1
Chart (2018)
Peak
Position
US Christian Songs (Billboard)[58] 1
US Digital Songs (Billboard)[59] 10
Year-end charts
Chart (2003)
Position
Billboard Adult Contemporary[60][61] 20
Billboard Hot 100 Singles Sales[62][63] 24
Chart (2010)
Position
Billboard Christian/Gospel Digital Songs[64] 9
Chart (2011)
Position
Billboard Christian/Gospel Digital Songs[65] 7
Certifications
Country
Certifications
(sales thresholds)
United States 2x Platinum[32]
Film adaptation[edit]
Main article: I Can Only Imagine (film)
The story behind the song was made into a feature film starring J. Michael Finley and Dennis Quaid. The film was released on March 16, 2018.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Brad Schmitt, "MercyMe's Bart Millard thought his father was going to kill him", Tennessean, February 13, 2018. Retrieved March 15, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Adams, Ramsay (6 July 2003). "Christian Rock Crosses Over". Fox News (News Corporation). Archived from the original on 31 October 2011. Retrieved 11 April 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b c Jenison, David. "A Severe Mercy". Today'sChristianMusic. CCM Magazine. Salem Publishing (Salem Communications). Archived from the original on 31 October 2011. Retrieved 18 September 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c Correa, Karen (Fall 2003). "The Quality of MercyMe". American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP). Archived from the original on 31 October 2011. Retrieved 11 April 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bart Millard, Jim Bryson (interviewees) (2007). Faith & Fame – MercyMe. NME. UK: IPC Media (Time Inc.). Event occurs at a-d. 12:13–13:07. Retrieved 11 August 2011. Note: video may not be available in your region, e.g. Australia. Supplied by INO Records/Columbia Records.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Worship Project – MercyMe". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved 16 September 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "iTunes – Music – Almost There (Platinum Edition) by MercyMe". iTunes. Apple Inc. 2006. Archived from the original on 31 October 2011. Retrieved 11 September 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Losey, Steve. ""Almost There" – MercyMe (Review)". Allmusic. Rovi Corporation. Archived from the original on 31 October 2011. Retrieved 9 August 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "MercyMe – "I Can Only Imagine" Sheet Music". Musicnotes, Inc. (Kathleen Marsh). Archived from the original on 31 October 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2011. Note: To access archive, user must click 'bypass' and then, on the next screen, click 'please click here'.
^ Jump up to: a b McNeese, Kevin (30 January 2008). "Almost There by MercyMe (Review)". NewReleaseTuesday.com (NRT Media (Kevin McNeese)). Archived from the original on 31 October 2011. Retrieved 29 September 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Almost There (CD liner). MercyMe. INO Records. 2001. 39972.
Jump up ^ "Pete Kipley (Credits)". Allmusic. Rovi Corporation. Archived from the original on 31 October 2011. Retrieved 27 October 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e ""I Can Only Imagine/Word of God Speak", MercyMe, Music CD Single – Barnes & Noble". Barnes & Noble. Archived from the original on 31 October 2011. Retrieved 21 August 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Curb, Mike. "Billboard Charted Singles" (PDF). Mikecurb.com. Curb Records. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 October 2011. Retrieved 21 August 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c Curb, Mike. "Number One Records" (PDF). Mikecurb.com. Curb Records. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 October 2011. Retrieved 21 August 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Farris, Christa (September 2003). ""I Can Only Imagine" Is Still The Little Song That Could" (PDF). CCM Magazine. Salem Publishing (Salem Communications). 26 (3): 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 November 2011. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Gillespie, Natalie Nichols (2 June 2003). ""I Can Only Imagine" Impacts Mainstream Radio". Crosswalk.com. Salem Web Network (Salem Communications). p. 1. Archived from the original on 1 November 2011. Retrieved 18 September 2011.
Jump up ^ MercyMe (interviewees) (2004). The Story Behind "I Can Only Imagine". INO Records. Event occurs at 5:55–6:20. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b Cusic, Don (2010). "Curb, Mike". In Cusic, Don. Encyclopedia of contemporary Christian music: pop, rock, and worship. ABC-CLIO. pp. 97–98. ISBN 978-0-313-34425-1. Retrieved 11 September 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Price, Deborah Evans (25 October 2003). "A Yearning for More Meaning". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media: 3, 76. Retrieved 11 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Bronson, Fred. "Chart Beat Chat". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "ACE Title Search "Word of God Speak"". American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP). Archived from the original on 1 November 2011. Retrieved 27 October 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c "MercyMe Album & Song Chart History – Hot 100". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved 12 August 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "MercyMe Album & Song Chart History – Adult Contemporary Songs". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved 12 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Thompson, John J. (9 December 2005). "Well Mercy Me, Children!". Today'sChristianMusic. CCM Magazine. Salem Publishing (Salem Communications). Archived from the original on 1 November 2011. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b ""I Can Only Imagine" – MercyMe (VEVO)". Vevo (Universal Music Group, Sony Music Entertainment, Abu Dhabi Media Company, E1 Entertainment). Retrieved 15 September 2011. Note: video may not be available in your region, e.g. Australia.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Nentwig, Wendy Lee (23 September 2003). "Song Story: "I Can Only Imagine"". Crosswalk.com (Salem Web Communications (Salem Communications)). Archived from the original on 1 November 2011. Retrieved 18 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Chamberlin, Kevin (9 September 2002). "MercyMe, Almost There review". Jesus Freak Hideout. John DiBiase. Archived from the original on 1 November 2011. Retrieved 9 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "MercyMe Album & Song Chart History – Adult Pop Songs". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved 12 August 2011.
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^ Jump up to: a b c d "RIAA Gold and Platinum". RIAA. 14 April 2010. Retrieved 21 October 2011. Note: Requires user to input artist, e.g. MercyMe.
Jump up ^ "Mercyme makes history as "I Can Only Imagine" surpasses 1 million downloads". Christian Today. Andrew Clark. 21 April 2010. Archived from the original on 1 November 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
Jump up ^ "How did 'I Can Only Imagine' become the biggest Christian hit ever (and inspire a movie)?".
^ Jump up to: a b "Dove Awards History Year (searchable database)". GMA Dove Award. Gospel Music Association (GMA). Archived from the original on 20 August 2011. Retrieved 12 September 2011. Note: Search for either MercyMe or Bart Millard.
^ Jump up to: a b Losey, Steven Douglas (26 December 2002). "Real People, Real Worship". CCM Magazine. Salem Publishing (Salem Communications). Archived from the original on 1 November 2011. Retrieved 18 September 2011.
Jump up ^ "STS-129 Wakeup Calls". NASA. Archived from the original on 1 November 2011. Retrieved 12 August 2011. Curator: Kim Dismukes; responsible official: Amiko Kauderer.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Matt (8 June 2008). "MercyMe, iTunes Originals Review". Jesus Freak Hideout. John DiBiase. Retrieved 13 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "iTunes Originals by MercyMe". iTunes. Apple Inc. Archived from the original on 1 November 2011. Retrieved 13 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Matt (7 April 2009). "MercyMe, "10" Review". Jesus Freak Hideout. John DiBiase. Archived from the original on 1 November 2011. Retrieved 13 August 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "ACE Title Search "I Can Only Imagine"". American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP). Archived from the original on 1 November 2011. Retrieved 27 October 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c Jones, Kim. "Who Sings "I Can Only Imagine"?". About.com. About.com (The New York Times Company). Archived from the original on 1 November 2011. Retrieved 11 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Breimeier, Russ. "Satisfy, Christian Music Reviews". The Fish. Christianity Today International (Salem Communications). Archived from the original on 1 November 2011. Retrieved 14 September Demi Lovato has also covered the song. 2011. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
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Jump up ^ "Emerson Drive". Emerson Drive. 22 August 2008. Archived from the original on 1 November 2011. Retrieved 14 September 2011.
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[show]
v
t
e
MercyMe singles
Discography
Almost There
"Bless Me Indeed (Jabez's Song)"
"I Can Only Imagine"
Spoken For
"Spoken For"
"Word of God Speak"
"The Change Inside Of Me"
Undone
"Here with Me"
"Homesick"
"In the Blink of an Eye"
Coming Up to Breathe
"So Long Self"
"Hold Fast"
"Bring the Rain"
All That Is Within Me
"God with Us"
"You Reign"
"Finally Home"
The Generous Mr. Lovewell
"All of Creation"
"Beautiful"
"Move"
The Hurt & The Healer
"The Hurt & The Healer"
Welcome to the New
"Shake"
Lifer
"Even If"
Other charted songs
"O Holy Night"
"Silent Night"
"Rockin' Around the Christmas Tree"
"God Rest Ye Merry Gentlemen"
"The Little Drummer Boy"
"It Came Upon a Midnight Clear"
"Go Tell it on the Mountain"
"Sleigh Ride"
[show]
v
t
e
Jeff Carson
Studio albums
Jeff Carson
Butterfly Kisses
Real Life
Singles
"Not on Your Love"
"The Car"
"Holdin' Onto Somethin'"
"Butterfly Kisses"
"Real Life (I Never Was the Same Again)"
"I Can Only Imagine"
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Columbian Exchange
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
New World native plants. Clockwise, from top left: 1. Maize (Zea mays) 2. Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) 3. Potato (Solanum tuberosum) 4. Vanilla (Vanilla) 5. Pará rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) 6. Cacao (Theobroma cacao) 7. Tobacco (Nicotiana rustica)
Old World native plants. Clockwise, from top left: 1. Citrus (Rutaceae); 2. Apple (Malus domestica); 3. Banana (Musa); 4. Mango (Mangifera); 5. Onion (Allium); 6. Coffee (Coffea); 7. Wheat (Triticum spp.); 8. Rice (Oryza sativa)
The Columbian Exchange was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World in the 15th and 16th centuries, related to European colonization and trade after Christopher Columbus's 1492 voyage.[1] Invasive species, including communicable diseases, were a byproduct of the Exchange. The changes in agriculture significantly altered and changed global populations. However, the most significant immediate impact of the Columbian Exchange was the cultural exchanges and the transfer of people between continents. Furthermore, a byproduct of the Columbian Exchange was the Atlantic slave trade, where as many as 12.5 million enslaved African people were forcibly transferred as a labor source to other regions.[2]
The new contact between the global population circulated a wide variety of crops and livestock, which supported increases in population in both hemispheres, although diseases initially caused precipitous declines in the numbers of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Traders returned to Europe with maize, potatoes, and tomatoes, which became very important crops in Europe by the 18th century.
The term was first used in 1972 by American historian Alfred W. Crosby in his environmental history book The Columbian Exchange.[3] It was rapidly adopted by other historians and journalists and has become widely known.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin of the term
2 Influence
2.1 Crops
2.1.1 Tomatoes
2.2 Livestock
2.3 Disease
2.4 Columbian Exchange and the trans-Atlantic slave trade
2.4.1 Context and relevant history
2.4.2 The beginning of the trans-Atlantic slave trade
2.5 Cultural exchanges
3 Organism examples
4 Later history
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Origin of the term[edit]
In 1972 Alfred W. Crosby, an American historian at the University of Texas at Austin, published The Columbian Exchange.[3] This book covers the environmental impact of Columbus' landing in the new world.[4]
The term has become popular among historians and journalists, such as Charles C. Mann, whose book 1493 expands and updates Crosby's original research.[5]
Influence[edit]
Inca-era terraces on Taquile are used to grow traditional Andean staples such as quinoa and potatoes, alongside wheat, a European introduction.
Crops[edit]
Portuguese trading animals in Japan; detail of Nanban panel (1570–1616)
Before 1500, potatoes were not grown outside of South America. By the 1840s, Ireland was so dependent on the potato that the proximate cause of the Great Famine was a potato disease.[6] Potatoes eventually became an important staple of the diet in much of Europe. Many European rulers, including Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia, encouraged the cultivation of the potato.[7]
Maize and cassava, introduced to the Portuguese from South America in the 16th century,[8] have replaced sorghum and millet as Africa's most important food crops.[9] 16th-century Spanish colonizers introduced new staple crops to Asia from the Americas, including maize and sweet potatoes, and thereby contributed to population growth in Asia.[10]
Tomatoes, which came to Europe from the New World via Spain, were initially prized in Italy mainly for their ornamental value (see below). From the 19th century tomato sauces became typical of Neapolitan cuisine and, ultimately, Italian cuisine in general.[11] Coffee (introduced in the Americas circa 1720) from Africa and the Middle East and sugarcane (introduced from South Asia) from the Spanish West Indies became the main export commodity crops of extensive Latin American plantations. Introduced to India by the Portuguese, chili and potatoes from South America have become an integral part of Indian cuisine.[12]
Before the Columbian Exchange, there were no oranges in Florida, no bananas in Ecuador, no paprika in Hungary, no potatoes in Ireland, no coffee in Colombia, no pineapples in Hawaii, no rubber trees in Africa, no chili peppers in Thailand, no tomatoes in Italy, and no chocolate in Switzerland.
Tomatoes[edit]
It took three centuries after their introduction in Europe for tomatoes to become widely accepted. Of all the New World plants introduced to Italy, only the potato took as long as the tomato to gain acceptance. In large part this was due to 16th-century physicians believing that this native Mexican fruit was poisonous and the generator of "melancholic humours." In 1544, Pietro Andrea Mattioli, a Tuscan physician and botanist, suggested that tomatoes might be edible, but no record exists of anyone consuming them at this time. On October 31, 1548 the tomato was given its first name anywhere in Europe when a house steward of Cosimo I de' Medici, Duke of Florence, wrote to the De' Medici's private secretary that the basket of pomi d'oro "had arrived safely." At this time, the label pomi d'oro was also used to refer to figs, melons, and citrus fruits in treatises by scientists.[13]
In the early years, tomatoes were mainly grown as ornamentals in Italy. For example, the Florentine aristocrat Giovan Vettorio Soderini wrote how they "were to be sought only for their beauty" and were grown only in gardens or flower beds. Tomatoes were grown in elite town and country gardens in the fifty years or so following their arrival in Europe and were only occasionally depicted in works of art. However, in 1592 the head gardener at the botanical garden of Aranjuez near Madrid, under the patronage of Philip II of Spain wrote, "it is said [tomatoes] are good for sauces." Besides this account, tomatoes remained exotic plants grown for ornamental purposes, but rarely for culinary use. The combination of pasta with tomato sauce was developed only in the late nineteenth century. Today around 32,000 acres (12,950 ha) of tomatoes are cultivated in Italy, although there are still areas where relatively few tomatoes are grown and consumed.[13]
Livestock[edit]
Further information: Plains Indians § The horse
Initially, at least, the Columbian exchange of animals largely went through one route, from Europe to the New World, as the Eurasian regions had domesticated many more animals. Horses, donkeys, mules, pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, chickens, large dogs, cats and bees were rapidly adopted by native peoples for transport, food, and other uses.[14] One of the first European exports to the Americas, the horse, changed the lives of many Native American tribes in the mountains. They shifted to a nomadic lifestyle, as opposed to agriculture, based on hunting bison on horseback and moved down to the Great Plains. The existing Plains tribes expanded their territories with horses, and the animals were considered so valuable that horse herds became a measure of wealth.[15]
Still, the effects of the introduction of European livestock on the environments and peoples of the New World were not always positive. In the Caribbean, the proliferation of European animals had large effects on native fauna and undergrowth and damaged conucos, plots managed by indigenous peoples for subsistence.[16]
Disease[edit]
Further information: Influx of disease in the Caribbean
European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New World discovery of quinine, the first effective treatment for malaria. Europeans suffered from this disease, but some indigenous populations had developed at least partial resistance to it. In Africa, resistance to malaria has been associated with other genetic changes among sub-Saharan Africans and their descendants, which can cause sickle-cell disease.[1]:164
Before regular communication had been established between the two hemispheres, the varieties of domesticated animals and infectious diseases that jumped to humans, such as smallpox, were substantially more numerous in the Old World than in the New due to more extensive long-distance trade networks. Many had migrated west across Eurasia with animals or people, or were brought by traders from Asia, so diseases of two continents were suffered by all occupants. While Europeans and Asians were affected by the Eurasian diseases, their endemic status in those continents over centuries resulted in many people gaining acquired immunity.
By contrast, "Old World" diseases had a devastating effect when introduced to Native American populations via European carriers, as the people in the Americas had no natural immunity to the new diseases. Measles caused many deaths. The smallpox epidemics are believed to have caused the largest death tolls among Native Americans, surpassing any wars[17] and far exceeding the comparative loss of life in Europe due to the Black Death.[1]:164 It is estimated that upwards of 80–95 percent of the Native American population died in these epidemics within the first 100–150 years following 1492. Many regions in the Americas lost 100%.[1]:165 The beginning of demographic collapse on the North American continent has typically been attributed to the spread of a well-documented smallpox epidemic from Hispaniola in December 1518.[16] At that point in time, approximately only 10,000 indigenous people were still alive in Hispaniola.[16]
Similarly, yellow fever is thought to have been brought to the Americas from Africa via the Atlantic slave trade. Because it was endemic in Africa, many people there had acquired immunity. Europeans suffered higher rates of death than did African-descended persons when exposed to yellow fever in Africa and the Americas, where numerous epidemics swept the colonies beginning in the 17th century and continuing into the late 19th century. The disease caused widespread fatalities in the Caribbean during the heyday of slave-based sugar plantation.[16] The replacement of native forests by sugar plantations and factories facilitated its spread in the tropical area by reducing the number of potential natural predators.[16] Yet, the means of the transmission was unknown until 1881, when Carlos Finlay suggested that the disease was transmitted through mosquitoes, now known to be female mosquitoes of the species Aedes aegypti.[16]
The history of syphilis has been well-studied, but the exact origin of the disease is unknown and remains a subject of debate.[18] There are two primary hypotheses: one proposes that syphilis was carried to Europe from the Americas by the crew of Christopher Columbus in the early 1490s, while the other proposes that syphilis previously existed in Europe but went unrecognized.[19] These are referred to as the "Columbian" and "pre-Columbian" hypotheses.[19] The first written descriptions of the disease in the Old World came in 1493.[20] The first large outbreak of syphilis in Europe occurred in 1494/1495 in Naples, Italy, among the army of Charles VIII, during their invasion of Naples.[19][21][22][23]
Columbian Exchange and the trans-Atlantic slave trade[edit]
Context and relevant history[edit]
Main article: Atlantic slave trade
Prior to the trans-Atlantic slave trade, Columbus directly participated in and championed the slave trade. Upon landing in what is now known and assumed to be San Salvador Island, Columbus encountered the Taíno. In his journal of 1492, Columbus noted that
It appears to me, that the people are ingenious and would be good servants and I am of opinion that they would very readily become Christians, as they appear to have no religion. They very quickly learn such words as are spoken to them. If it please our Lord, I intend at my return to carry home six of them to your Highnesses, that they may learn our language.[24]
The idea of enslaving the Tainos had instantly struck Columbus as plausible, even desirable. "They ought to be good servants," he continued, "and of good skill, for I see they repeat very quickly whatever was said to them."[25] As part of his journey,
Columbus had planned to inaugurate a regular slave trade between the Indies and Spain. With gold in short supply, the slave trade gradually took on greater urgency. Portugal and Genoa had their slave trade, why not Spain? Columbus set about establishing a slave trade including both Caribs and Tainos.[26]
However, it was not until the colonized lands emerged as profitable plantation lands that the use of West African people as slaves transformed the globe.
Following Columbus were a series of Spaniards seeking to expand the Spanish empire while at the same time increasing their own power and wealth. Such an example was explorer Hernán Cortés. Cortés was interested in expanding the Spanish-controlled lands and often disobeyed his rulers in the process. However, the Spanish royalty was struggling to accurately define the policy related to the enslavement of the Taínos and other Caribbean people. Mann notes that "obtaining the wealth of the Americas would involve subjugating people who had committed no offense against Spain".[27] Like Cortez, Columbus angered the Spanish royalty through subjugating and enslaving the native people. For example, Columbus sent 550 Taíno to Seville in 1495.[28] The parade of enslaved Taíno in Seville angered Queen Isabella to the point that she ordered the Spanish to send the enslaved people back to the Americas.[citation needed] By 1503, the Spanish solidified their policy through the implementation of the encomienda system. This system was supposed to ensure the safety and freedom of the Taíno and other indigenous populations, while also converting them to Christianity. To achieve these goals, Spaniards were appointed as trustees who oversaw the religious instruction and treatment of the people. However, the trustees did not like working with the Taíno, and the Taíno resisted the efforts of the Spaniards. For the Taíno, this system represented a "legal justification for slavery" and the Spaniards justified the enslavement of the people through arguing that the Taíno were "less human than Europeans".[29]
These earlier forays into the enslavement of people laid the foundation for the future trans-Atlantic slave trade. Like other enslaved people, the Taíno and other enslaved Indians had periods of rebellion. Indigenous peoples in what is now known as New Mexico resisted early Spanish colonization and enslavement, resulting in the Acoma Massacre under Juan de Oñate at Acoma Pueblo. In recounting this event, it was said,
[W]hat had happened was that the Indians, as soon as they saw that the forces were divided, began to attack and kill. So this witness fell back immediately with his soldiers to rejoin the maese de campo, followed by the Indians who had hitherto accompanied this witness. They paused the Spaniards in large groups, and began to hurl countless stones, arrows, and clubs, not only from the ground but from the terraces, both men and women participating in the attack.[30]
When the colonized lands emerged as profitable plantation lands, the Spanish and other colonizers increased the importation of Africans as enslaved laborers, altering global demographics.
The beginning of the trans-Atlantic slave trade[edit]
The trans-Atlantic Slave Trade represents the largest migration in human history. While many Europeans migrated to the Americas, it was enslaved Africans that dominated the North and South American continents. The Columbian Exchange saw the rise of luxury goods which necessitated cheap or free labor to produce the largest potential profit. One of these luxury goods was sugar. In the early history of sugar, Islamic and European-owned plantations paid relatively high wages for this labor-intensive and profitable crop. However, as time progressed the European-sugar plantation owners reconsidered the use of highly paid labor and made the transition to the exploitation of people to meet the growing global sugar demand.[31] In the 1440s, the Portuguese discovered that the Madeira Islands were suited not to the growth of wheat but rather sugarcane. It was in Madeira that the early system of Iberian slavery was transformed. Originally, the enslaved people who worked on the Madeira sugarcane plantations were convicts, Guanches (persons from the Canary Islands), Berbers (individuals from Northwest Africa), and Conversos (Iberian Jewish people). As time passed, these early enslaved people were replaced by enslaved Africans from the West-Central African regions [32]). Eventually, by the 1560s and 1570s sugarcane plantations in Brazil dominated the sugar industry and Madeira switched from sugarcane production to wine.
The use of slave labor was not regulated to only the sugarcane plantations. Rather, slave labor was used in coffee, tobacco and even grains such as rice. In these systems, the enslaved people had little power, however, they did have some influence in agricultural methods. For example, in the rice production there is some evidence that slaves from Africa utilized traditional methods in the production of rice. Furthermore, enslaved Africans were responsible for growing their own food. In these cases, the enslaved people preferred rice that was part of their culture as opposed to the European preference for Carolina rice. However, in a system of power and control the slaves were eventually banned from using their preferred rice [33] Therefore, the system of slavery transmitted not only the people but also their cultures to new regions.
Cultural exchanges[edit]
One of the influences related to the migration of people were cultural exchanges. For example, in the article "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500–1800" Pieter Remmer makes the point that "from 1500 onward, a 'clash of cultures' had begun in the Atlantic".[34] This clash of culture transferred European values to indigenous cultures. For example, the emergence of private property in regions where there were little to no rights to lands, the concepts of monogamy and the nuclear family, the role of women and children in the family system, and the "superiority of free labor".[35] An example of this type of cultural exchange occurred during the 1500s in North America. When these early European colonizers first entered North America, they encountered fence-less lands which indicated to them that this land was unimproved. For these Europeans, they were seeking economic opportunities, therefore, land and resources were important for the success of the mission. When these colonizers entered North America they encountered a fully established culture of people called the Powhatan. The Powhatan farmers in Virginia scattered their farm plots within larger cleared areas. These larger cleared areas were a communal place for naturally growing and useful plants. As the Europeans viewed fences as "hallmarks of civilization" they set about transforming "the land into something more suitable for themselves".[36] In implementing their practices, the Europeans enslaved, murdered, and exploited indigenous populations. Furthermore, in cases of enslaved peoples (and in particular, enslaved Africans) the Europeans simultaneously implemented their value system while at the same time justifying enslaving people through a philosophy which reduced the enslaved people to property. Thus, the slave traders and some of the plantation owners used the concept of family to exploit and control the enslaved people. In other subtle ways, which had a large impact the cultural exchanges involved sharing practices and traditions. An example of this can be found in the Tobacco industry.
Tobacco was one of the luxury goods which was spread as a direct result of the Columbian Exchange. As is discussed in regard to the trans-Atlantic Slave trade, the Tobacco Industry resulted in increased demands for free labor and the spread of Tobacco worldwide. In discussing the widespread uses of tobacco, the Spanish physician Nicolas Monardes (1493–1588) noted that "The black people that have gone from these parts to the Indies, has taken the same manner and use of the Tobacco, that the Indians have".[37] As the European colonizers and enslaved Africans traveled the globe and came into contact with indigenous people they took the cultural practices related to tobacco, adopted them, and then spread them to additional regions. As such, there were growing demands for tobacco which were linked to the cultural exchanges and increased contact between people.
Organism examples[edit]
See also: New World crops, Agriculture in Mesoamerica, and Muisca agriculture
Post-Columbian transfers of native organisms with close ties to humans
Type of organism
Old World to New World
New World to Old World
Domesticated animals
cat (domestic – wild species already present)
cattle
chicken
donkey
goat (the goats of the Old World, genus Capra, are different from the mountain goat of the New World, genus Oreamnos)
guineafowl
honey bee (European honey bee – other wild and domesticated species already present)
horse
rabbit (domestic)
pig
sheep (domestic)
water buffalo
alpaca
guinea pig
llama
Muscovy duck
turkey
Cultivated plants
almond
apple
apricot
asparagus
banana (including cooking banana)
barley
basil
beetroot
Brassica oleracea-derived vegetables
broccoli
Brussels sprout
cabbage
cauliflower
collard greens
kale
cantaloupe
carrot
celery
chickpea
citrus (orange, lemon, etc.)
coffee
common fig
coriander (also known as cilantro)
cucumber
cumin
eggplant
Elaeis (oil palm)
fennel
flax
garlic
ginger
hemp (including cannabis)
leek
lentil
lettuce
mango
millet
Momordica charantia (bitter melon)
oat
okra
olive
onion
opium
oregano
pea
peach
pear
pistachio
pomegranate
radish
rice
rye
sesame
sorghum
soybean
spinach
sugarcane and sugar beet
turmeric
turnip
watermelon
wheat
yam (sometimes misnamed "sweet potato")
Acca sellowiana (feijoa, pineapple guava, Brazilian guava, guavasteen)
Annona reticulata (custard apple)
agave
allspice
amaranth (as grain)
arrowroot or Maranta arundinacea
avocado
bell pepper
Calathea allouia (leren)
Canna indica (achira)
cashew
cassava (manioc, tapioca, yuca)
chili pepper
cherimoya
cocoa bean
cotton (long-staple species)
cranberry (large cranberry, or bearberry species)
cucurbita (squash)
Eryngium foetidum (culantro, Mexican coriander)
guava (common)
Helianthus (sunflower)
Jerusalem artichoke
Pachyrhizus erosus (jícama)
maize (corn)
Manilkara zapota (sapodilla)
Opuntia ficus-indica (prickly pear)
papaya
passionfruit
peanut
pecan
Phaseolus vulgaris (beans: pinto, lima, kidney, etc.)
pineapple
pitaya (dragon fruit)
potato
pumpkin
quinoa
soursop
stevia
strawberry (commercial varieties)
sugar-apple
sweet potato
tobacco
tomato
vanilla
yerba mate
yucca
zucchini (courgette)
Infectious diseases
bubonic plague
chickenpox
cholera
diphtheria
influenza
leprosy
malaria
measles
pertussis
scarlet fever
smallpox
typhoid fever
typhus
yaws
yellow fever
Chagas disease
Nonvenereal endemic syphilis
pinta
syphilis (disputed)
Later history[edit]
Further information: Introduced species, Invasive species, and Lists of invasive species
Plants that arrived by land, sea, or air in the times before 1492 are called archaeophytes, and plants introduced to Europe after those times are called neophytes. Invasive species of plants and pathogens also were introduced by chance, including such weeds as tumbleweeds (Salsola spp.) and wild oats (Avena fatua). Some plants introduced intentionally, such as the kudzu vine introduced in 1894 from Japan to the United States to help control soil erosion, have since been found to be invasive pests in the new environment.
Fungi have also been transported, such as the one responsible for Dutch elm disease, killing American elms in North American forests and cities, where many had been planted as street trees. Some of the invasive species have become serious ecosystem and economic problems after establishing in the New World environments.[38][39] A beneficial, although probably unintentional, introduction is Saccharomyces eubayanus, the yeast responsible for lager beer now thought to have originated in Patagonia.[40]
In addition to these, many animals were introduced to new habitats on the other side of the world either accidentally or incidentally. These include such animals as brown rats, earthworms (apparently absent from parts of the pre-Columbian New World), and zebra mussels, which arrived on ships.[41] Escaped and feral populations of non-indigenous animals have thrived in both the Old and New Worlds, often negatively impacting or displacing native species. In the New World, populations of feral European cats, pigs, horses and cattle are common, and Burmese pythons are considered problematic. In the Old World, Eastern gray squirrel have been particularly successful in colonising Great Britain and populations of raccoons can now be found in some regions of Germany, the Caucasus and Japan. Fur farm escapees such as coypu and American mink have extensive populations. Canada geese are also common.
See also[edit]
Agriculture and agronomy portal
Indigenous peoples of the Americas portal
New Spain portal
Alfred W. Crosby
Domestication
Great American Interchange
Glossary of invasion biology terms
Guns, Germs, and Steel
Indian Givers: How the Indians of the Americas Transformed the World
List of food plants native to the Americas
Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas
Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories
Transformation of culture
1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created
1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Nunn, Nathan; Qian, Nancy (2010). "The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 24 (2): 163–188. JSTOR 25703506. doi:10.1257/jep.24.2.163.
Jump up ^ Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database (2013). Accessed June 29, 2017. http://www.slavevoyages.org/
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/alfred-w-crosby-on-the-columbian-exchange-98116477/?no-ist
Jump up ^ Crosby, Alfred W. The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492, Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972
Jump up ^ de Vorsey, Louis (2001). "The Tragedy of the Columbian Exchange". In McIlwraith, Thomas F; Muller, Edward K. North America: The Historical Geography of a Changing Continent. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 27. Thanks to…Crosby's work, the term 'Columbian exchange' is now widely used…
Jump up ^ "The Impact of the Potato", History Magazine
Jump up ^ Crosby, Alfred (2003). The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. p. 184.
Jump up ^ "Super-Sized Cassava Plants May Help Fight Hunger In Africa" Archived December 8, 2013, at the Wayback Machine., The Ohio State University
Jump up ^ "Maize Streak Virus-Resistant Transgenic Maize: an African solution to an African Problem", Scitizen, August 7, 2007
Jump up ^ "China's Population: Readings and Maps", Columbia University, East Asian Curriculum Project
Jump up ^ Riley, Gillian, ed. (2007). "Tomato". The Oxford Companion to Italian Food. Oxford University Press. pp. 529–530. ISBN 978-0-19-860617-8.
Jump up ^ Collingham, Lizzie (2006). "Vindaloo: the Portuguese and the chilli pepper". Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 47–73. ISBN 978-0-19-988381-3.
^ Jump up to: a b A History of the Tomato in Italy Pomodoro!, David Gentilcore (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2010).
Jump up ^ Michael Francis, John, ed. (2006). "Columbian Exchange—Livestock". Iberia and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History: a Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 303–308. ISBN 978-1-85109-421-9.
Jump up ^ This transfer reintroduced horses to the Americas, as the species had died out there prior to the development of the modern horse in Eurasia.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Palmié, Stephan (2011). The Caribbean: A History of the Region and Its Peoples. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226645087.
Jump up ^ "The Story Of... Smallpox – and other Deadly Eurasian Germs", Guns, Germs and Steel, PBS Archived 17 January 2010 at WebCite
Jump up ^ Kent ME, Romanelli F (February 2008). "Reexamining syphilis: an update on epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and management". Ann Pharmacother. 42 (2): 226–36. PMID 18212261. doi:10.1345/aph.1K086.
^ Jump up to: a b c Farhi, D; Dupin, N (Sep–Oct 2010). "Origins of syphilis and management in the immunocompetent patient: facts and controversies.". Clinics in dermatology. 28 (5): 533–8. PMID 20797514. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2010.03.011.
Jump up ^ Smith, Tara C. (December 23, 2015). "Thanks Columbus! The true story of how syphilis spread to Europe". Quartz. Retrieved 1 September 2016. The first cases of the disease in the Old World were described in 1493.
Jump up ^ Franzen, C (December 2008). "Syphilis in composers and musicians—Mozart, Beethoven, Paganini, Schubert, Schumann, Smetana.". European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases. 27 (12): 1151–7. PMID 18592279. doi:10.1007/s10096-008-0571-x.
Jump up ^ A New Skeleton and an Old Debate About Syphilis; The Atlantic; Cari Romm; February 18, 2016
Jump up ^ Choi, Charles Q. (December 27, 2011). "Case Closed? Columbus Introduced Syphilis to Europe". Scientific American. Retrieved 1 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Columbus, Christopher. "Journal of 1492." Fordham University. Accessed June 1, 2017. https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/columbus1.asp, par. 28
Jump up ^ Bergreen p. 14
Jump up ^ Bergreen p. 196
Jump up ^ Mann, loc. 5518
Jump up ^ Thomas, Hugh (2005). Rivers of Gold: The Rise of the Spanish Empire, from Columbus to Magellan (2005 Random House Trade pbk. ed.). New York: Random House Trade paperbacks. p. 155. ISBN 0812970551. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
Jump up ^ Mann, loc. 5553
Jump up ^ Hammond, George P. and Agapito Rey (editors and translators). Don Juan de Oñate, Colonizer of New Mexico, 1595–1628. (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1953). Volume 5, pages 428–479
Jump up ^ Mann, Charles. 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created. New York, New York: Vintage Books, 2011. loc. 5359)
Jump up ^ Mann, Charles. 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created. New York, New York: Vintage Books, 2011. 5407-54239)
Jump up ^ Hawthorne, Walter "Labor Over 'Brown' Rice", in From Africa to Brazil, p. 137-72
Jump up ^ Emmer, Pieter. "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500–1800." European Review 11, no. 1. Feb. 2003. p. 45-46
Jump up ^ Emmer, Pieter. "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500–1800." European Review 11, no. 1. Feb. 2003. p. 46
Jump up ^ Mann, Charles. 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created. New York, New York: Vintage Books, 2011. loc. 1094 and 1050
Jump up ^ Monardes, Nicholas. "Of the Tabaco and of his Greate Vertues." Frampton, John trans, Wolf, Michael, ed. Taboacco.org. Accessed June 1, 2017 http://archive.tobacco.org/History/monardes.html
Jump up ^ Simberloff, Daniel (2000). "Introduced Species: The Threat to Biodiversity & What Can Be Done". American Institute of Biological Sciences: Bringing biology to informed decision making.
Jump up ^ Fernández Pérez, Joaquin and Ignacio González Tascón (eds.) (1991). La agricultura viajera. Barcelona, Spain: Lunwerg Editores, S. A.
Jump up ^ Elusive Lager Yeast Found in Patagonia, Discovery News, August 23, 2011
Jump up ^ Hoddle, M. S. "Quagga & Zebra Mussels". Center for Invasive Species Research, University of California, Riverside . Retrieved June 29, 2010.
External links[edit]
The Columbian Exchange: Plants, Animals, and Disease between the Old and New Worlds by Alfred W. Crosby (2009)
Worlds Together, Worlds Apart by Jeremy Adelman, Stephen Aron, Stephen Kotkin, et al.
Foods that Changed the World by Steven R. King from the Wayback Machine
The Columbian Exchange video, study guide, analysis, and teaching guide
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