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Science and technology in India
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This article is about modern science in India. For Indian inventions, see List of Indian inventions, and for historical development of science and technology in India, History of science and technology in India. India's recent developments in the field of Telecommunication and Information technology can be found in Communications in India and Information technology in India.
Vikram Sarabhai—a physicist considered to be 'the father of India's space program'—[1] was instrumental in the creation of both the Indian Space Research Organisation and the Physical Research Laboratory (Ahemadabad).
Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India (office: 15 August 1947 – 27 May 1964), initiated reforms to promote higher education, science, and technology in India.[2] The Indian Institutes of Technology – conceived by a 22-member committee of scholars and entrepreneurs in order to promote technical education – was inaugurated on 18 August 1951 at Kharagpur in West Bengal by the minister of education Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.[3] More IITs were soon opened in Bombay, Madras, Kanpur and Delhi as well in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Beginning in the 1960s, close ties with the Soviet Union enabled the Indian Space Research Organisation to rapidly develop the Indian space program and advance nuclear power in India even after the first nuclear test explosion by India on 18 May 1974 at Pokhran.
India accounts for about 10% of all expenditure on research and development in Asia and the number of scientific publications grew by 45% over the five years to 2007.[citation needed] However, according to former Indian science and technology minister Kapil Sibal, India is lagging in science and technology compared to developed countries.[4] India has only 140 researchers per 1,000,000 population, compared to 4,651 in the United States.[4] India invested US$3.7 billion in science and technology in 2002–2003.[5] For comparison, China invested about four times more than India, while the United States invested approximately 75 times more than India on science and technology.[5] The highest-ranked Indian university for engineering and technology in 2014 was the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay at number 16;[6] natural science ranks lower.[7] One study argued that Indian science did not suffer from lack of funds but from unethical practices, the urge to make illegal money, immense misuse of power, frivolous publications and patents, faulty promotion policies, victimisation for speaking against wrong or corrupt practices in the management, sycophancy, and brain drain.[8]
While India has increased its output of scientific papers fourfold between 2000 and 2015 overtaking Russia and France in absolute number of papers per year, that rate has been exceeded by China and Brazil; Indian papers generate fewer cites than average, and relative to its population it has few scientists.[9]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 1947–1967
1.2 1967–1987
1.3 1987–present
2 Space exploration
2.1 Mars Orbit Mission
2.2 Chandrayaan-1
2.3 Thirty Meter Telescope
3 Science academies in India
3.1 Indian Academy of Sciences
3.2 National Academy of Sciences, India
3.3 Indian National Science Academy
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
For the history of science and technology in pre-Independence India, see History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent.
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1947–1967[edit]
The office of the Hijli Detention Camp (photographed September 1951) served as the first academic building of IIT Kharagpur.
Jawaharlal Nehru aimed "to convert India’s economy into that of a modern state and to fit her into the nuclear age and do it quickly." [2] Nehru understood that India had not been at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution, and hence made an effort to promote higher education, and science and technology in India.[2]
Nehru's Planning Commission (1950) fixed investment levels, prescribed priorities, divided funds between agriculture and industry, and divided resources between the state and the federal governments.[2] The result of the efforts between 1947–1962 saw the area under irrigation increase by 45 million acres (180,000 km2), food production rise by 34 million metric tons, installed power generating capacity increase by 79 million kilowatts, and an overall increase of 94 percent in industrial production.[2] The enormous population rise, however, would balance the gains made by Nehru.[2] The economically beleaguered country was nevertheless able to build a large scientific workforce, second in numbers only to that of the United States and the Soviet Union.[2]
Education – provided by the government of India – was free and compulsory up to the Age of 14.[10] More emphasis was paid to the enhancement of vocational and technical skills.[10] J. P. Naik, member-secretary of the Indian Education Commission, commented on the educational policies of the time:[10]
The main justification for the larger outlay on educational reconstruction is the hypothesis that education is the most important single factor that leads to economic growth [based on] the development of science and technology.
India's first reactor (Apsara) and a plutonium reprocessing facility, as photographed by a US satellite on 19 February 1966
On 18 August 1951 the minister of education Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, inaugurated the Indian Institute of Technology at Kharagpur in West Bengal.[3] Possibly modeled after the Massachusetts Institute of Technology these institutions were conceived by a 22-member committee of scholars and entrepreneurs under the chairmanship of N. R. Sarkar.[3]
The Sino-Indian war (1962) came as a rude awakening to Nehru's military preparedness.[11] Military cooperation with the Soviet Union – partially aimed at developing advanced military technology – was pursued during subsequent years.[11] The Defence Research and Development Organisation was formed in 1958.
Radio broadcasting was initiated in 1927 but became state responsibility only in 1930.[12] In 1947 it was given the name All India Radio and since 1957 it has been called Akashvani.[12] Limited duration of television programming began in 1959, and complete broadcasting followed in 1965.[12]
The Indian Government acquired the EVS EM computers from the Soviet Union, which were used in large companies and research laboratories.[13]
1967–1987[edit]
The roots of nuclear power in India lie in early acquisition of nuclear reactor technology from a number of western countries, particularly the American support for the Tarapur Atomic Power Station and Canada's CANDU reactors.[14] The peaceful policies of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi may have delayed the inception of nuclear technology in India.[14]
Stanley Wolpert (2008) describes the measures taken by the Indian government to increase agricultural output:[15]
It was not until the late 1960s that chemical fertilisers and high-yield food seeds brought the Green Revolution to India. The results were mixed, as many poor or small farmers were unable to afford the seeds or the risks involved in the new technology. Moreover, as rice and, especially, wheat production increased, there was a corresponding decrease in other grain production. Farmers who benefited most were from the major wheat-growing areas of Haryāna, Punjab, and western Uttar Pradesh.
The Indian space program received only financial support from the Soviet Union, which helped the Indian Space Research Organisation achieve aims such as establishing the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station, launching remote sensing satellites, developing India’s first satellite—Aryabhatta, and sending astronauts into space.[11] India sustained its nuclear program during the aftermath of Operation Smiling Buddha, the country's first nuclear tests.[11]
Though the roots of the Steel Authority of India Ltd. lie in Hindustan Steel Private Limited (1954), the events leading up to the formation of the modern avatar are described below:[16]
The Ministry of Steel and Mines drafted a policy statement to evolve a new model for managing industry. The policy statement was presented to the Parliament on December 2, 1972. On this basis the concept of creating a holding company to manage inputs and outputs under one umbrella was mooted. This led to the formation of Steel Authority of India Ltd. The company, incorporated on January 24, 1973 with an authorised capital of Rs. 2000 crore, was made responsible for managing five integrated steel plants at Bhilai, Bokaro, Durgapur, Rourkela and Burnpur, the Alloy Steel Plant and the Salem Steel Plant. In 1978 SAIL was restructured as an operating company.
In 1981, the Indian Antarctic Programme was started when the first Indian expedition was flagged off for Antarctica from Goa. More missions were subsequently sent each year to India's base Dakshin Gangotri.[17]
1987–present[edit]
Infosys Media Centre in Bangalore
Indian agriculture benefited from the developments made in the field of biotechnology, for which a separate department was created in 1986 under the Ministry of Science and Technology.[18] Both the Indian private sector and the government have invested in the medical and agricultural applications of biotechnology.[18] Massive biotech parks were established in India while the government provided tax deduction for research and development under biotechnological firms.[18]
The Indian economy underwent economic reforms in 1991, leading to a new era of globalisation and international economic integration.[19] Economic growth of over 6% annually was seen between 1993–2002.[19] Same year a new permanent Antarctic base Maitri was founded and continues to remain in operation till date.[17] On 25 June 2002 India and the European Union agreed to bilateral cooperation in the field of science and technology.[20] A joint EU-India group of scholars was formed on 23 November 2001 to further promote joint research and development.[20] India holds observer status at CERN while a joint India-EU Software Education and Development Centre is due at Bangalore.[20] Certain scientists and activists, such as MIT systems scientist VA Shiva Ayyadurai, blame caste for holding back innovation and scientific research in India, making it difficult to sustain progress while regressive social organisation prevails.[21] In addition, corruption and inefficiencies in the research sector and have resulted in corruption scandals and undermine innovation initiatives.[22]
Bangalore is considered to be the technological capital of India. IT, Biotechnology, Aerospace, Nuclear science, manufacturing technology, automobile engineering, chemical engineering, ship building, space science, electronics, computer science and other medical science related research and development are occurring on a large scale in the country. The southern part of India is responsible for the majority of technology and advancements the country has made. The golden triangle of IT and technology (Hyderabad, Bangalore and Chennai) forms the backbone of Indian manufacturing, R&D, science and technology.
In 2017, India became an associate member of European Organization for Nuclear Research.
Space exploration[edit]
Mars Orbit Mission[edit]
Main article: Mars Orbiter Mission
The Mars Orbiter Mission, also called "Mangalyaan",[23] was launched on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).[24][25][26][27] It is India's first interplanetary mission,[28] making ISRO the fourth space agency to reach Mars, after the Soviet space program, NASA, and the European Space Agency,[29][30] the first Asian nation to reach Mars orbit, and the first nation to do so on its first attempt.[31][32][33][34]
Chandrayaan-1[edit]
On 18 November 2008, the Moon Impact probe was released from Chandrayaan-1 at a height of 100 km (62 mi). During its 25-minute decent, Chandra's Altitudinal Composition Explorer (CHACE) recorded evidence of water in 650 mass spectra readings gathered during this time.[35] On 24 September 2009 Science journal reported that the Chandrayaan-1 had detected water ice on the Moon.[36]
Thirty Meter Telescope[edit]
Main article: Thirty Meter Telescope
The Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) is a planned, eighteen story, astronomical observatory and extremely large telescope to be built on the summit of Mauna Kea in the state of Hawaii. The TMT is designed for near-ultraviolet to mid-infrared (0.31 to 28 μm wavelengths) observations, featuring adaptive optics to assist in correcting image blur. The TMT will be at the highest altitude of all the proposed ELTs. The telescope has government-level support from several R&D spending nations: China, Japan, Canada and India.
Science academies in India[edit]
The idea of science academies in India has evolved along with the Indian independence movement. The three major science academies Indian National Science Academy, Indian Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Sciences, India were all founded in the pre-independence era (pre-1947) between 1930 and 1935. The countries resulting from partition of the sub-content have subsequently founded their own academies, namely Pakistan which founded Pakistan Academy of Sciences in 1953 and later Bangladesh with the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences founded in 1973.
Indian Academy of Sciences[edit]
Also referred to colloquially as the "Bangalore Academy", Indian Academy of Sciences (IAS) was founded in 1934 by C. V. Raman, the eminent physicist of his time in Bangalore (now Bengalooru), Karnataka (formerly known as the State of Mysore), India.[37]
National Academy of Sciences, India[edit]
The founder and first president of the National Academy of Sciences, India (NASI) was Dr. Meghnad Saha in 1930 in Allahabad (Prayag), Uttar Pradesh, India.[38]
Indian National Science Academy[edit]
Founded in 1935 based on a proposal by the Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA) and National Institute of Science of India (NISI) with Dr. Meghnad Saha's blessings,[39] Indian National Science Academy (INSA) is based in New Delhi, India. According to its charter, the historical aim of the INSA was to be similar to the Royal Society, London, a gathering of learned people to exchange ideas and further science.
See also[edit]
Biotechnology in India
History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent
Science and Engineering Research Board
Science and Technology Studies in India
Open access in India
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Burleson, D. (2008). Space Programs Outside the United States: All Exploration and Research Efforts, Country by Country. McFarland. 136. ISBN 0-7864-1852-4
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Nanda 2006
^ Jump up to: a b c Vrat 2006
^ Jump up to: a b "India lagging behind in S&Tt: Govt".
^ Jump up to: a b "India lagging in science and technology, says official". scidev.net. 29 August 2006.
Jump up ^ http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings-articles/asian-university-rankings/top-universities-asia-engineering-technology-2014
Jump up ^ http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings-articles/asian-university-rankings/top-universities-asia-natural-sciences-2014
Jump up ^ Akhila, Anand (25 March 2007). "Indian science is not short of money" (PDF). Current Science. 92 (6): 709. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
Jump up ^ http://www.nature.com/news/india-by-the-numbers-1.17519
^ Jump up to: a b c Prabhu 2006
^ Jump up to: a b c d Khan 2006
^ Jump up to: a b c Schwartzberg 2008
Jump up ^ Desai 2006
^ Jump up to: a b Raja 2006
Jump up ^ Wolpert 2008
Jump up ^ SAIL (2008). Background and History.
^ Jump up to: a b "Maitri". 70south.com. Archived from the original on 6 October 2008. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sharma 2006, Biotechnology Revolution
^ Jump up to: a b Sharma 2006 Globalization
^ Jump up to: a b c Ketkar 2006
Jump up ^ "Scientist blames caste for India's backwardness in research". Times of India. 25 July 2013. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Reddy, Prashant (20 May 2012). "CSIR Tech. Pvt. Ltd: Its controversial past and its uncertain future". SpicyIP.com. Retrieved 11 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "Mangalyaan". ISRO. NASA. 2013. Retrieved 27 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Walton, Zach (15 August 2012). "India Announces Mars Mission One Week After Landing". Web Pro News. Retrieved 8 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Manmohan Singh formally announces India's Mars mission". The Hindu. 15 August 2012. Retrieved 31 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Bal, Hartosh Singh (30 August 2012). "BRICS in Space". New York Times. Retrieved 31 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Patairiya, Pawan Kumar (23 November 2013). "Why India Is Going to Mars". New York Times. Retrieved 23 November 2013.
Jump up ^ "India's Mars Shot". New York Times. 25 September 2014. Retrieved 27 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "India Launches Mars Orbiter Mission". Retrieved 6 November 2013.
Jump up ^ "India's low-cost space mission reaches Mars orbit". Retrieved 24 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "India's Mars satellite successfully enters orbit, bringing country into space elite". The Guardian. 24 September 2014. Retrieved 24 September 2014. India has become the first nation to send a satellite into orbit around Mars on its first attempt, and the first Asian nation to do so.
Jump up ^ "India becomes first Asian nation to reach Mars orbit, joins elite global space club". The Washington Post. 24 September 2014. Retrieved 24 September 2014. India became the first Asian nation to reach the Red Planet when its indigenously made unmanned spacecraft entered the orbit of Mars on Wednesday
Jump up ^ "India's spacecraft reaches Mars orbit ... and history". CNN. 24 September 2014. Retrieved 24 September 2014. India's Mars Orbiter Mission successfully entered Mars' orbit Wednesday morning, becoming the first nation to arrive on its first attempt and the first Asian country to reach the Red Planet.
Jump up ^ Harris, Gardiner (24 September 2014). "On a Shoestring, India Sends Orbiter to Mars on Its First Try". New York Times. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
Jump up ^ http://www.planetary.org/blogs/emily-lakdawalla/2010/2430.html
Jump up ^ "Character and Spatial Distribution of OH/H2O on the Surface of the Moon Seen by M3 on Chandrayaan-1". Science Mag. 15 September 2009. Retrieved 26 September 2009.
Jump up ^ Home Page of the Indian Academy of Sciences
Jump up ^ Home Page of the National Academy of Sciences India
Jump up ^ Home Page of the Indian National Science Academy
References[edit]
Alexander, Steve. E-Commerce. (2006: from Computers and Information Systems). Encyclopædia Britannica 2008.
Desai, Ashok V. (2006). "Information and other Technology Development" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 269–273. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31351-0.
Ketkar, Prafulla (2006). "European Union, Relations with (Science and technology)" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 48–51. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31351-0
Khan, Sultanat Aisha (2006). "Russia, relations with" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 3), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 419–422. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31352-9.
Nanda, B. R. (2007). "Nehru, Jawaharlal" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 3), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 222–227. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31352-9.
Prabhu, Joseph (2006). "Institutions and Philosophies, Traditional and Modern" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 23–27. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31351-0
Raja, Rajendran (2006). "Nuclear weapons testing and development" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 3), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 253–254. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31352-9.
Sankar, U.(2007). The Economics of India's Space Programme, Oxford University Press, New Delhi. ISBN 978-0-19-568345-5.
Sharma. Shalendra D.(2006). "Biotechnology Revolution" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 1), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 154–157. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31350-2.
Sharma, Shalendra D. (2006). "Globalization" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 146–149. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31351-0
Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (2008). India. Encyclopædia Britannica.
Vrat, Prem (2006). "Indian Institutes of Technology" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 229–231. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31351-0
Wolpert, Stanley (2008). India. Encyclopædia Britannica.
External links[edit]
Innovation Demands freedom
System defeats scientist return
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Science and technology in India.
India: Science and technology. U.S. Library of Congress.
Indian National Science Academy (2001). Pursuit and promotion of science: The Indian Experience. Indian National Science Academy.
Geek Nation: How Indian Science is Taking Over the World by Angela Saini (2011)
Special report: Physics in India, Matin Durrani, Physics World, 2012.
History of Science in South Asia (hssa-journal.org). HSSA is a peer-reviewed, open-access, online journal for the history of science in India.
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Elektrobank
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Elektrobank"
Single by The Chemical Brothers
from the album Dig Your Own Hole
Released
8 September 1997 (1997-09-08)
Format
CD
12" vinyl
Recorded
1996
Genre
Big beat
Label
Freestyle Dust
Virgin
Songwriter(s)
Tom Rowlands
Ed Simons
George Clinton
William Earl Collins
Robert M. James
Producer(s)
The Chemical Brothers
The Chemical Brothers singles chronology
"Block Rockin' Beats"
(1997) "Elektrobank"
(1997) "The Private Psychedelic Reel"
(1997)
"Block Rockin' Beats"
(1997) "Elektrobank"
(1997) "The Private Psychedelic Reel"
(1997)
"Elektrobank" is a song by English electronic music duo The Chemical Brothers. It was released as a single from their second album, Dig Your Own Hole, on September 1997. It peaked at number 17 on the UK Singles Chart.[1] Spike Jonze directed the music video, which depicted a mixed artistic gymnastics / rhythmic gymnastics competition with his future wife Sofia Coppola as one of the competitors. It has been called "arguably Jonze's greatest music video".[2] Despite reaching number 17 in the UK Singles Chart, the single does not feature on either of the duo's singles compilations, Singles 93–03 and Brotherhood.
Contents
[hide]
1 Samples
2 Track listing
3 Personnel
4 Charts
4.1 Weekly charts
5 References
6 External links
Samples[edit]
The vocals "Who is dis doin' this synthetic type of alpha beta psychedelic funkin'?" are taken from the song "This That Shit" by Keith Murray. The bass line is performed by "Ali Friend". It should be noted that the voice of the introduction is from Kool Herc and was taken live at the Irving Plaza in autumn of 1996.
Track listing[edit]
UK and Europe CD 1
No.
Title
Length
1. "Elektrobank" 8:01
2. "Not Another Drugstore" (featuring Justin Warfield) 5:33
3. "Don't Stop the Rock (Electronic Battle Weapon Version)" 7:15
UK and Europe CD 2
No.
Title
Length
1. "Elektrobank (Radio Edit)" 3:56
2. "Elektrobank (Dust Brothers Remix)" 3:55
3. "These Beats Are Made for Breakin'" 2:48
US CD
No.
Title
Length
1. "Elektrobank" 8:01
2. "Not Another Drugstore" 5:33
3. "Elektrobank (The Dust Brothers Remix)" 3:55
4. "Don't Stop the Rock (Electronic Battle Weapon Version)" 7:15
5. "These Beats Are Made for Breakin'" 2:48
6. "Elektrobank (Radio Edit)" 3:56
Personnel[edit]
Tom Rowlands, Ed Simons - keyboards, synths, programming, samples
Keith Murray - raps (sampled)
Simon Phillips - drums
Charts[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (1997)
Peak
position
Finland (Suomen virallinen lista)[3]
16
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[4]
44
Scotland (Official Charts Company)[5]
17
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[6]
17
UK Dance (Official Charts Company)[7]
7
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "1997-09-20 Top 40 Official UK Singles Archive - Official Charts". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 15 July 2013.
Jump up ^ Eric Henderson (26 October 2003). "The Work of Spike Jonze". Slant Magazine. Retrieved 9 October 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Chemical Brothers: Elektrobank" (in Finnish). Musiikkituottajat – IFPI Finland. Retrieved January 20, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Charts.org.nz – The Chemical Brothers – Elektrobank". Top 40 Singles. Retrieved January 20, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Official Scottish Singles Sales Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved January 20, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Official Singles Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved January 20, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Official Dance Singles Chart Top 40". Official Charts Company. Retrieved January 20, 2017.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
[hide]
v
t
e
The Chemical Brothers songs
Discography
Exit Planet Dust
"Leave Home"
"Life Is Sweet"
"Song to the Siren"
Dig Your Own Hole
"Block Rockin' Beats"
"Elektrobank"
"Setting Sun"
"The Private Psychedelic Reel"
"Where Do I Begin"
Surrender
"Hey Boy Hey Girl"
"Let Forever Be"
"Music:Response"
"Out of Control"
Come with Us
"Come with Us"
"It Began in Afrika"
"Star Guitar"
"The Test"
Singles 93–03
"Get Yourself High"
"The Golden Path"
Push the Button
"Believe"
"Galvanize"
"The Boxer"
We Are the Night
"Do It Again"
"The Salmon Dance"
Brotherhood
"Midnight Madness"
Further
"Escape Velocity"
"Swoon"
"Another World"
"Horse Power"
Born in the Echoes
"Sometimes I Feel So Deserted"
"Go"
"Under Neon Lights"
Other songs
"Electronic Battle Weapon" series
"Only 4 the K People"
Category
Template
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elektrobank&oldid=785074960"
Categories:
Music videos directed by Spike Jonze
1997 singles
The Chemical Brothers songs
1997 songs
Virgin Records singles
Astralwerks singles
Songs written by Tom Rowlands
Songs written by Ed Simons
Songs written by Bootsy Collins
Songs written by George Clinton (musician)
Hidden categories:
Use dmy dates from November 2012
Use British English from November 2012
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This page was last edited on 11 June 2017, at 14:28.
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Heart and Soul (T'Pau song)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Heart and Soul"
Single by T'Pau
from the album Bridge of Spies
B-side
"On the Wing"
Released
20 April 1987 (USA)
August 1987 (UK)
Recorded
1987
Genre
Pop, new wave[1]
Length
3:42 (7" version)
4:15 (LP version)
Label
Siren, Virgin
Songwriter(s)
Carol Ann Decker, Ronald Phillip "Ron" Rogers
Producer(s)
Roy Thomas Baker
T'Pau singles chronology
"Heart and Soul"
(1987) "Intimate Strangers"
(1987)
"Heart and Soul"
(1987) "Intimate Strangers"
(1987)
T'Pau singles chronology
"Intimate Strangers"
(1987) Intimate Strangers1987 "Heart and Soul"
(reissue)
(1987) Heart and Soul1987 "China in Your Hand"
(1987) China in Your Hand1987
"Heart and Soul" is a song by British pop band T'Pau. Featuring vocalist Carol Decker performing overlapping lyrics, the song was released as the group's first single in 1987 from their debut album Bridge of Spies. Following its inclusion in a Pepe Jeans advert, the single reached No. 4 in both the US and UK charts.
Contents
[hide]
1 Cultural references
2 Composition
3 Chart performance
3.1 Heart and Soul '97 Chart Performance
4 References
5 External links
Cultural references[edit]
The song was featured on the soundtrack for the video game Grand Theft Auto: Episodes from Liberty City.
The single's B-side, "On the Wing," had yet to appear on CD until the release of an expanded edition of Bridge of Spies in 2015.
Composition[edit]
The song is notable for its usage of various vocal overdubs. This makes the song, in its initial studio form, impossible to perform live without additional backup singers. Instead, Decker often performs what she calls a "basic" version,[2] explaining to Songfacts: "I rap the first two verses then cut to the melody for the verse before the chorus. No one really notices or minds as I cover the essential dynamics of the song. It works well."[2]
Chart performance[edit]
Chart (1987–88)
Peak
position
Total
weeks
Australia (Kent Music Report)[3] 18 22
Belgian Singles Chart 16 5
Canada (RPM)[4] 1 25
Dutch Singles Chart[5] 37 10
France (SNEP)[6] 10
Germany (Media Control Charts)[7] 10 15
Ireland (IRMA)[8] 4 4
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[9] 9 13
Polish Singles Chart 36 2
South African Singles Chart[10] 18 4
Sweden (Sverigetopplistan) [11] 20 1
Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[12] 9 14
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[13] 4 14
US Billboard Hot 100[14] 4 27
US Radio & Records CHR/Pop Airplay Chart[15] 4 15
US Hot Dance Club Play (Billboard)[14] 13
US Hot Dance Music Sales (Billboard)[16] 15
Preceded by
"Alone" by Heart Canadian RPM Singles Chart number-one single
22 August 1987 Succeeded by
"Who's That Girl" by Madonna
Heart and Soul '97 Chart Performance[edit]
Chart (1997)
Peak
position
Total
weeks
UK Singles Chart[17] 186 1
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Oberhofer Talks Totally Tubular Covers of Cars, Cyndi Lauper, Wang Chung for 'Table 19' Soundtrack". "...a mixtape of classic 1980s new wave tunes from Cyndi Lauper, A Flock of Seagulls, General Public and Modern English"
^ Jump up to: a b Wiser, Carl. "CAROL DECKER OF T'PAU". Songfacts. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
Jump up ^ Kent, David (1993). Australian Chart Book 1970–1992 (Illustrated ed.). St. Ives, N.S.W.: Australian Chart Book. p. 312. ISBN 0-646-11917-6. N.B. The Kent Report chart was licensed by ARIA between mid 1983 and 19 June 1988.
Jump up ^ "Canada Singles Chart". Collectionscanada.gc.ca. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
Jump up ^ Steffen Hung (31 December 2011). "Dutch charts portal". dutchcharts.nl. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
Jump up ^ Steffen Hung. "Les charts français". lescharts.com. Archived from the original on 1 April 2008. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "Die ganze Musik im Internet: Charts, News, Neuerscheinungen, Tickets, Genres, Genresuche, Genrelexikon, Künstler-Suche, Musik-Suche, Track-Suche, Ticket-Suche". musicline.de. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
Jump up ^ Jaclyn Ward (1 October 1962). "The Irish Charts – All there is to know". Irishcharts.ie. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
Jump up ^ Steffen Hung. "New Zealand charts portal". charts.org.nz. Archived from the original on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
Jump up ^ Brian Currin & Stephen Segerman. "The South African Rock Encyclopedia". Rock.co.za. Retrieved 6 January 2012. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Steffen Hung. "Swedish Charts Portal". swedishcharts.com. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
Jump up ^ Steffen Hung. "Die Offizielle Schweizer Hitparade und Music Community". swisscharts.com. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "UK Singles & Albums Chart Archive". Chart Stats. Archived from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Music News, Reviews, Articles, Information, News Online & Free Music". Billboard. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
Jump up ^ http://wweb.uta.edu/faculty/gghunt/charts/tpau.html
Jump up ^ "Heart and Soul - T'Pau". AllMusic. Allmusic. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "Chart Log UK: DJ T – Tzant". Zobbel.de. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
External links[edit]
"Heart And Soul" at Discogs (list of releases)
[hide]
v
t
e
T'Pau
Carol Decker
Ronnie Rogers
Tim Burgess
Michael Chetwood
Paul Jackson
Taj Wyzgowski
Dean Howard
Jez Ashurst
Dave Hattee
Dan McKinna
Studio albums
Bridge of Spies
Rage
The Promise
Red
Pleasure & Pain
Compilations
Heart and Soul: The Very Best of T'Pau
Singles
"Heart and Soul"
"China in Your Hand"
"Valentine"
"I Will Be with You"
"Secret Garden"
"Road to Our Dream"
"Only the Lonely"
"Whenever You Need Me"
"Walk on Air"
"Soul Destruction"
"Valentine"
"Heart and Soul '97"
"With a Little Luck"
Related singles
"Just Dream"
This 1980s pop song-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
v
t
e
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heart_and_Soul_(T%27Pau_song)&oldid=825754243"
Categories:
1987 singles
T'Pau (band) songs
RPM Top Singles number-one singles
Song recordings produced by Roy Thomas Baker
Songs written by Carol Decker
Songs written by Ron Rogers
Debut singles
1980s pop song stubs
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Seafloor spreading
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Age of oceanic lithosphere; youngest (red) is along spreading centers.
Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge.
Contents
[hide]
1 Significance
2 Spreading center
3 Incipient spreading
4 Continued spreading and subduction
5 Debate and search for mechanism
6 Sea floor global topography: half-space model
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Significance[edit]
Seafloor spreading helps explain continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics. When oceanic plates diverge, tensional stress causes fractures to occur in the lithosphere. The motivating force for seafloor spreading ridges is tectonic plate pull rather than magma pressure, although there is typically significant magma activity at spreading ridges.[1] At a spreading center basaltic magma rises up the fractures and cools on the ocean floor to form new seabed. Hydrothermal vents are common at spreading centers. Older rocks will be found farther away from the spreading zone while younger rocks will be found nearer to the spreading zone. Additionally spreading rates determine if the ridge is a fast, intermediate, or slow. As a general rule, fast ridges have spreading (opening) rates of more than 9 cm/year. Intermediate ridges have a spreading rate of 5–9 cm/year while slow spreading ridges have a rate less than 5 cm/year.[2][3]:2
Earlier theories (e.g. by Alfred Wegener and Alexander du Toit) of continental drift postulated that continents "ploughed" through the sea. The idea that the seafloor itself moves (and also carries the continents with it) as it expands from a central axis was proposed by Harry Hess from Princeton University in the 1960s.[4] The theory is well accepted now, and the phenomenon is known to be caused by convection currents in the asthenosphere, which is ductile, or plastic, and the brittle lithosphere (crust and upper mantle).[5][clarification needed]
Spreading center[edit]
Seafloor spreading occurs at spreading centers, distributed along the crests of mid-ocean ridges. Spreading centers end in transform faults or in overlapping spreading center offsets. A spreading center includes a seismically active plate boundary zone a few kilometers to tens of kilometers wide, a crustal accretion zone within the boundary zone where the ocean crust is youngest, and an instantaneous plate boundary - a line within the crustal accretion zone demarcating the two separating plates.[6] Within the crustal accretion zone is a 1-2 km-wide neovolcanic zone where active volcanism occurs.[7][8]
Incipient spreading[edit]
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Plates in the crust of the earth, according to the plate tectonics theory
In the general case, sea floor spreading starts as a rift in a continental land mass, similar to the Red Sea-East Africa Rift System today.[9] The process starts by heating at the base of the continental crust which causes it to become more plastic and less dense. Because less dense objects rise in relation to denser objects, the area being heated becomes a broad dome (see isostasy). As the crust bows upward, fractures occur that gradually grow into rifts. The typical rift system consists of three rift arms at approximately 120 degree angles. These areas are named triple junctions and can be found in several places across the world today. The separated margins of the continents evolve to form passive margins. Hess' theory was that new seafloor is formed when magma is forced upward toward the surface at a mid-ocean ridge.
If spreading continues past the incipient stage described above, two of the rift arms will open while the third arm stops opening and becomes a 'failed rift'. As the two active rifts continue to open, eventually the continental crust is attenuated as far as it will stretch. At this point basaltic oceanic crust begins to form between the separating continental fragments. When one of the rifts opens into the existing ocean, the rift system is flooded with seawater and becomes a new sea. The Red Sea is an example of a new arm of the sea. The East African rift was thought to be a "failed" arm that was opening somewhat more slowly than the other two arms, but in 2005 the Ethiopian Afar Geophysical Lithospheric Experiment[10] reported that in the Afar region, September 2005, a 60 km fissure opened as wide as eight meters.[11] During this period of initial flooding the new sea is sensitive to changes in climate and eustasy. As a result, the new sea will evaporate (partially or completely) several times before the elevation of the rift valley has been lowered to the point that the sea becomes stable. During this period of evaporation large evaporite deposits will be made in the rift valley. Later these deposits have the potential to become hydrocarbon seals and are of particular interest to petroleum geologists.
Sea floor spreading can stop during the process, but if it continues to the point that the continent is completely severed, then a new ocean basin is created. The Red Sea has not yet completely split Arabia from Africa, but a similar feature can be found on the other side of Africa that has broken completely free. South America once fit into the area of the Niger Delta. The Niger River has formed in the failed rift arm of the triple junction.
Continued spreading and subduction[edit]
Spreading at a mid-ocean ridge
As new seafloor forms and spreads apart from the mid-ocean ridge it slowly cools over time. Older seafloor is therefore colder than new seafloor, and older oceanic basins deeper than new oceanic basins due to isostasy. If the diameter of the earth remains relatively constant despite the production of new crust, a mechanism must exist by which crust is also destroyed. The destruction of oceanic crust occurs at subduction zones where oceanic crust is forced under either continental crust or oceanic crust. Today, the Atlantic basin is actively spreading at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Only a small portion of the oceanic crust produced in the Atlantic is subducted. However, the plates making up the Pacific Ocean are experiencing subduction along many of their boundaries which causes the volcanic activity in what has been termed the Ring of Fire of the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific is also home to one of the world's most active spreading centers (the East Pacific Rise) with spreading rates of up to 13 cm/yr. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a "textbook" slow-spreading center, while the East Pacific Rise is used as an example of fast spreading. Spreading centers at slow and intermediate rates exhibit a rift valley while at fast rates an axial high is found within the crustal accretion zone.[2] The differences in spreading rates affect not only the geometries of the ridges but also the geochemistry of the basalts that are produced.[12]
Since the new oceanic basins are shallower than the old oceanic basins, the total capacity of the world's ocean basins decreases during times of active sea floor spreading. During the opening of the Atlantic Ocean, sea level was so high that a Western Interior Seaway formed across North America from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean.
Debate and search for mechanism[edit]
At the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (and in other areas), material from the upper mantle rises through the faults between oceanic plates to form new crust as the plates move away from each other, a phenomenon first observed as continental drift. When Alfred Wegener first presented a hypothesis of continental drift in 1912, he suggested that continents ploughed through the ocean crust. This was impossible: oceanic crust is both more dense and more rigid than continental crust. Accordingly, Wegener's theory wasn't taken very seriously, especially in the United States.
Since then, it has been shown that the motion of the continents is linked to seafloor spreading by the theory of plate tectonics. In the 1960s, the past record of geomagnetic reversals was noticed by observing the magnetic stripe "anomalies" on the ocean floor.[13] This results in broadly evident "stripes" from which the past magnetic field polarity can be inferred by looking at the data gathered from simply towing a magnetometer on the sea surface or from an aircraft. The stripes on one side of the mid-ocean ridge were the mirror image of those on the other side. The seafloor must have originated on the Earth's great fiery welts, like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise.
The driver for seafloor spreading in plates with active margins is the weight of the cool, dense, subducting slabs that pull them along. The magmatism at the ridge is considered to be "passive upswelling", which is caused by the plates being pulled apart under the weight of their own slabs.[14][15] This can be thought of as analogous to a rug on a table with little friction: when part of the rug is off of the table, its weight pulls the rest of the rug down with it.
Sea floor global topography: half-space model[edit]
The depth of the seafloor (or the height of a location on a mid-ocean ridge above a baselevel) is closely correlated with its age (age of the lithosphere where depth is measured). The age-depth relation can be modeled by the cooling of a lithosphere plate[16][17] or mantle half-space in areas without significant subduction.[18]
In the half-space model,[18] the seabed height is determined by the oceanic lithosphere temperature, due to thermal expansion. Oceanic lithosphere is continuously formed at a constant rate at the mid-ocean ridges. The source of the lithosphere has a half-plane shape (x = 0, z < 0) and a constant temperature T1. Due to its continuous creation, the lithosphere at x > 0 is moving away from the ridge at a constant velocity v, which is assumed large compared to other typical scales in the problem. The temperature at the upper boundary of the lithosphere (z=0) is a constant T0 = 0. Thus at x = 0 the temperature is the Heaviside step function T 1 ⋅ Θ ( − z ) {\displaystyle T_{1}\cdot \Theta (-z)} . Finally, we assume the system is at a quasi-steady state, so that the temperature distribution is constant in time, i.e. T=T(x,z).
By calculating in the frame of reference of the moving lithosphere (velocity v), which have spatial coordinate x' = x-vt, we may write T = T(x',z,t) and use the heat equation: ∂ T ∂ t = κ ∇ 2 T = κ ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 z + κ ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 x ′ {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}=\kappa \nabla ^{2}T=\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}z}}+\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}x'}}} where κ {\displaystyle \kappa } is the thermal diffusivity of the mantle lithosphere.
Since T depends on x' and t only through the combination x = x ′ + v t {\displaystyle x=x'+vt} , we have: ∂ T ∂ x ′ = 1 v ⋅ ∂ T ∂ t {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial x'}}={\frac {1}{v}}\cdot {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}}
Thus: ∂ T ∂ t = κ ∇ 2 T = κ ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 z + κ v 2 ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 t {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}=\kappa \nabla ^{2}T=\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}z}}+{\frac {\kappa }{v^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}t}}}
We now use the assumption that v {\displaystyle v} is large compared to other scales in the problem; we therefore neglect the last term in the equation, and get a 1-dimensional diffusion equation: ∂ T ∂ t = κ ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 z {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}=\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}z}}} with the initial conditions T ( t = 0 ) = T 1 ⋅ Θ ( − z ) {\displaystyle T(t=0)=T_{1}\cdot \Theta (-z)} .
The solution for z ≤ 0 {\displaystyle z\leq 0} is given by the error function erf {\displaystyle \operatorname {erf} } :
T ( x ′ , z , t ) = T 1 ⋅ erf  ( z 2 κ t ) {\displaystyle T(x',z,t)=T_{1}\cdot \operatorname {erf} \left({\frac {z}{2{\sqrt {\kappa t}}}}\right)} .
Due to the large velocity, the temperature dependence on the horizontal direction is negligible, and the height at time t (i.e. of sea floor of age t) can be calculated by integrating the thermal expansion over z:
h ( t ) = h 0 + α e f f ∫ 0 ∞ [ T ( z ) − T 1 ] d z = h 0 − 2 π α e f f T 1 κ t {\displaystyle h(t)=h_{0}+\alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }\int _{0}^{\infty }[T(z)-T_{1}]dz=h_{0}-{\frac {2}{\sqrt {\pi }}}\alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }T_{1}{\sqrt {\kappa t}}}
where α e f f {\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }} is the effective volumetric thermal expansion coefficient, and h0 is the mid-ocean ridge height (compared to some reference).
Note that the assumption the v is relatively large is equivalently to the assumption that the thermal diffusivity κ {\displaystyle \kappa } is small compared to L 2 / T {\displaystyle L^{2}/T} , where L is the ocean width (from mid-ocean ridges to continental shelf) and T is its age.
The effective thermal expansion coefficient α e f f {\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }} is different from the usual thermal expansion coefficient α {\displaystyle \alpha } due to isostasic effect of the change in water column height above the lithosphere as it expands or retracts. Both coefficients are related by:
α e f f = α ⋅ ρ ρ − ρ w {\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }=\alpha \cdot {\frac {\rho }{\rho -\rho _{w}}}}
where ρ ∼ 3.3 g / c m 3 {\displaystyle \rho \sim 3.3g/cm^{3}} is the rock density and ρ 0 = 1 g / c m 3 {\displaystyle \rho _{0}=1g/cm^{3}} is the density of water.
By substituting the parameters by their rough estimates: κ ∼ 8 ⋅ 10 − 7 {\displaystyle \kappa \sim 8\cdot 10^{-7}} m2/s, α ∼ 4 ⋅ 10 − 5 {\displaystyle \alpha \sim 4\cdot 10^{-5}} °C−1 and T1 ~1220 °C (for the Atlantic and Indian oceans) or ~1120 °C (for the eastern Pacific), we have:
h ( t ) ∼ h 0 − 350 t {\displaystyle h(t)\sim h_{0}-350{\sqrt {t}}}
for the eastern Pacific Ocean, and:
h ( t ) ∼ h 0 − 390 t {\displaystyle h(t)\sim h_{0}-390{\sqrt {t}}}
for the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean, where the height is in meters and time is in millions of years. To get the dependence on x, one must substitute t = x/v ~ Tx/L, where L is the distance between the ridge to the continental shelf (roughly half the ocean width), and T is the ocean age.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Seafloor spreading.
Divergent boundary
Morley-Vine-Matthews hypothesis
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Tan, Yen Joe; Tolstoy, Maya; Waldhauser, Felix; Wilcock, William S. D. "Dynamics of a seafloor-spreading episode at the East Pacific Rise". Nature. 540 (7632): 261–265. doi:10.1038/nature20116.
^ Jump up to: a b Macdonald, K. C. (1982). "Mid-Ocean Ridges: Fine Scale Tectonic, Volcanic and Hydrothermal Processes Within the Plate Boundary Zone". Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 10 (1): 155–190. doi:10.1146/annurev.ea.10.050182.001103.
Jump up ^ Searle, Roger (2013). Mid-ocean ridges. New York: Cambridge. ISBN 9781107017528. OCLC 842323181.
Jump up ^ Hess, H. H. (November 1962). "History of Ocean Basins" (PDF). In A. E. J. Engel; Harold L. James; B. F. Leonard. Petrologic studies: a volume to honor A. F. Buddington. Boulder, CO: Geological Society of America. pp. 599–620. Retrieved 8 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Elsasser, Walter M. (1971). "Sea-Floor Spreading as Thermal Convection". Journal of Geophysical Research. 76: 1101. Bibcode:1971JGR....76.1101E. doi:10.1029/JB076i005p01101.
Jump up ^ Luyendyk, Bruce P.; Macdonald, Ken C. (1976-06-01). "Spreading center terms and concepts". Geology. 4 (6). doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1976)4%3C369:sctac%3E2.0.co;2. ISSN 0091-7613.
Jump up ^ Daignieres, Marc; Courtillot, Vincent; Bayer, Roger; Tapponnier, Paul (1975). "A model for the evolution of the axial zone of mid-ocean ridges as suggested by icelandic tectonics". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 26 (2): 222–232. doi:10.1016/0012-821x(75)90089-8.
Jump up ^ McClinton, J. Timothy; White, Scott M. (2015-03-01). "Emplacement of submarine lava flow fields: A geomorphological model from the Niños eruption at the Galápagos Spreading Center". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 16 (3): 899–911. doi:10.1002/2014gc005632. ISSN 1525-2027.
Jump up ^ Makris, J.; Ginzburg, A. (1987-09-15). "Sedimentary basins within the Dead Sea and other rift zones The Afar Depression: transition between continental rifting and sea-floor spreading". Tectonophysics. 141 (1): 199–214. doi:10.1016/0040-1951(87)90186-7.
Jump up ^ Bastow, Ian D.; Keir, Derek; Daly, Eve (2011-06-01). "The Ethiopia Afar Geoscientific Lithospheric Experiment (EAGLE): Probing the transition from continental rifting to incipient seafloor spreading". Geological Society of America Special Papers. 478: 51–76. doi:10.1130/2011.2478(04). ISSN 0072-1077.
Jump up ^ Grandin, R.; Socquet, A.; Binet, R.; Klinger, Y.; Jacques, E.; Chabalier, J.-B. de; King, G. C. P.; Lasserre, C.; Tait, S. (2009-08-01). "September 2005 Manda Hararo-Dabbahu rifting event, Afar (Ethiopia): Constraints provided by geodetic data". Journal of Geophysical Research. 114 (B8). doi:10.1029/2008jb005843. ISSN 2156-2202.
Jump up ^ Bhagwat, S.B. (2009). Foundation of Geology Vol 1. Global Vision Publishing House. p. 83. ISBN 9788182202764.
Jump up ^ Vine, F. J.; Matthews, D. H. (1963). "Magnetic Anomalies Over Oceanic Ridges". Nature. 199: 947–949. doi:10.1038/199947a0.
Jump up ^ Forsyth, Donald; Uyeda, Seiya (1975-10-01). "On the Relative Importance of the Driving Forces of Plate Motion". Geophysical Journal International. 43 (1): 163–200. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246x.1975.tb00631.x. ISSN 0956-540X.
Jump up ^ Patriat, Philippe; Achache, José (1984). "India–Eurasia collision chronology has implications for crustal shortening and driving mechanism of plates". Nature. 311 (5987): 615. Bibcode:1984Natur.311..615P. doi:10.1038/311615a0.
Jump up ^ Sclater, John G.; Anderson, Roger N.; Bell, M. Lee (1971-11-10). "Elevation of ridges and evolution of the central eastern Pacific". Journal of Geophysical Research. 76 (32): 7888–7915. doi:10.1029/jb076i032p07888. ISSN 2156-2202.
Jump up ^ Parsons, Barry; Sclater, John G. (1977-02-10). "An analysis of the variation of ocean floor bathymetry and heat flow with age". Journal of Geophysical Research. 82 (5): 803–827. doi:10.1029/jb082i005p00803. ISSN 2156-2202.
^ Jump up to: a b Davis, E.E; Lister, C. R. B. (1974). "Fundamentals of Ridge Crest Topography". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. North-Holland Publishing Company. 21: 405–413. Bibcode:1974E&PSL..21..405D. doi:10.1016/0012-821X(74)90180-0.
External links[edit]
The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Seafloor spreading
Animation of a mid-ocean ridge
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value: {\displaystyle T(t=0)=T_{1}\cdot \Theta (-z)}

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value: T(x',z,t) = T_1 \cdot \operatorname{erf} \left(\frac{z}{2\sqrt{\kappa t}}\right)

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value: h(t) = h_0 + \alpha_\mathrm{eff} \int_0^{\infty} [T(z)-T_1]dz = h_0 - \frac{2}{\sqrt{\pi}}\alpha_\mathrm{eff}T_1\sqrt{\kappa t}

value: {\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }}

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/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridges
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Mid-ocean ridges

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value: \alpha_\mathrm{eff} = \alpha \cdot \frac{\rho}{\rho-\rho_w}

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value: {\displaystyle \kappa \sim 8\cdot 10^{-7}}

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value: {\displaystyle \alpha \sim 4\cdot 10^{-5}}

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value: {\displaystyle h(t)\sim h_{0}-350{\sqrt {t}}}

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value: {\displaystyle h(t)\sim h_{0}-390{\sqrt {t}}}

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