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Elizabeth Swann
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Elizabeth Swann
Pirates of the Caribbean character
Keira Knightley as Elizabeth Swann in Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End
Portrayed by
Keira Knightley (adult),
Lucinda Dryzek
(pre-adolescent)
Appearance(s)
The Curse of the Black Pearl
Dead Man's Chest
At World's End
Dead Men Tell No Tales
Information
Gender
Female
Occupation
Mother
Pirate Captain of the Empress (formerly)
Pirate Lord of the South China Sea
Pirate King
Family
Will Turner (husband)
Henry Turner (son)
Weatherby Swann (father, deceased)
Mrs. Swann (mother, deceased)
Bootstrap Bill Turner (father-in-law)
Weaponry
Cutlass
Pistol
Musket
Grenades
Bounty
Wanted for abetting the pirate, Jack Sparrow (formerly)
Elizabeth Swann (later Elizabeth Turner) is a fictional character in the Pirates of the Caribbean film series. She appears in The Curse of the Black Pearl (2003) and three of its sequels, Dead Man's Chest (2006), At World's End (2007) and Dead Men Tell No Tales (2017). She is portrayed by Keira Knightley (and as a child by Lucinda Dryzek in the prologue of The Curse of the Black Pearl). She is known to use the alias "Elizabeth Turner", but this later becomes her married name when she weds the character Will Turner (played by Orlando Bloom).
Contents
[hide]
1 Personality
2 Appearance
3 Fictional biography
3.1 The Curse of the Black Pearl
3.2 Dead Man's Chest
3.3 At World's End
3.4 Dead Men Tell No Tales
4 Character development
5 Other appearances
6 References
7 External links
Personality[edit]
Elizabeth is a spirited, intelligent, and independent-minded character whose beauty attracted Will Turner, James Norrington, Sao Feng, and Captain Jack Sparrow. Only Will Turner's affections were reciprocated, although she struggled with a subtle attraction and kiss with Sparrow, and a compassionate friendship with Norrington. Throughout the three films, she transforms from a young girl to a proper lady and finally into a courageous pirate. Elizabeth has always been fascinated by piracy, but she is often revolted by pirates' aggressive, wild nature. Even after becoming a pirate, Elizabeth retains her refined ways, as well as her loyalty and compassion for loved ones (including Will Turner, her father, and later, Jack Sparrow and James Norrington).
Elizabeth adapts easily to piracy, having natural leadership abilities. She learns seamanship quickly, and finds that she has an innate talent for battle strategy. She learns swordsmanship from Will, and is soon capable of defending herself against multiple opponents, fighting with two swords simultaneously. She later uses a Chinese Jian sword and also carries a multitude of other weapons on her person including knives, firearms, and what appears to be a small grenade.
She freely speaks her mind even if it offends others; for example, she calls a potentially dangerous enemy, Sao Feng, a coward. During her reign as Pirate King, Elizabeth proves to be a charismatic leader and inspires the other pirate lords to battle Cutler Beckett's fleet. Elizabeth's darker side is shown when she sacrifices Jack Sparrow to the Kraken so she and the crew can escape. However, she feels so guilty about it that she later helps rescue Sparrow from Davy Jones' Locker.
Appearance[edit]
Following the film's prologue, Elizabeth Swann is approximately 19 years old , about 5' 7" tall with a slender figure, brown eyes, and dark blonde hair. Having been raised in upper-class society as a governor's daughter, Elizabeth is a refined and elegant young lady.
In The Curse of the Black Pearl, she wears a dress style known as a Robe a L'Anglaise. As a young girl, she wears a blue dress in this style, and, eight years later, her father presents her with a gold-colored frock to wear at Commodore Norrington's promotion ceremony. Elizabeth is kidnapped wearing a long, floral cream-colored dressing gown, though Captain Barbossa later insists she wear a red dress, previously owned by another lady; she is forced to return it prior to walking the plank and being marooned on a deserted island, clad only in a long white chemise . After being rescued by Commodore Norrington, Elizabeth is loaned a Royal Navy uniform, the first time she is seen in men's attire. At Jack Sparrow's execution, she is once again fashionably attired, wearing a peach-colored gown and a picture hat.
In Dead Man's Chest, as Elizabeth's character and circumstances change, so does her wardrobe. Although she is first seen in an elegant wedding gown and a long lace veil, Elizabeth later disguises herself as a cabin boy, wearing brown breeches, a white shirt, brown boots, a red waistcoat, a black belt, and a brown tricorne hat. She wears this garb throughout the film. Exposure to the sun tans her skin and lightens her hair.
In Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End, Elizabeth first appears in Chinese peasant clothing and a coolie hat while paddling a small boat through Singapore's waters. She is forced to wear only a short robe upon entering Sao Feng's bathhouse. Later, Elizabeth wears a long armored coat while traveling. As a captive aboard Sao Feng's ship, Elizabeth has been dressed in a long red cheongsam, a sleeveless full-length blue overcoat (both probably silk), and a studded turquoise phoenix crown. She later dons Chinese battle dress. During her one-day on the island with Will, she is clad in a black tunic. In the scene set ten years later, she is wearing a long skirt and a double-breasted brocade waistcoat over a white puffy-sleeved shirt, probably cotton or linen.
Fictional biography[edit]
The Curse of the Black Pearl[edit]
Main article: Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl
Throughout the trilogy, Elizabeth Swann is portrayed as a spirited, intelligent, and independent-minded character who often chafes at the restrictions imposed on her gender and social rank. Early on in the first movie she often fantasizes about pirates and life at sea. This may have been fueled somewhat by her association with another character, Will Turner, who eleven-year-old Elizabeth met when she and her father, Governor Weatherby Swann were en route to Port Royal eight years earlier. Will, also about eleven, was found adrift at sea, the sole survivor of a pirate attack. During his rescue, Elizabeth briefly glimpsed a mysterious ship slipping into the mist—a vessel foreshadowing her destiny.
The story continues eight years later, and Elizabeth is now a marriageable age. Back then matrimony was a common means to forge strategic political alliances and advantageous social connections rather than loving unions, she is expected to wed a respectable and prosperous man equal or superior to her in rank. Elizabeth prefers marrying for love, and she may secretly harbor feelings for Will Turner. But Will, a common blacksmith, is an unsuitable match for such a well-born lady. And although Will secretly loves Elizabeth, he knows his place and keeps his feelings deeply hidden. Governor Swann, meanwhile, desires that his daughter marry Commodore James Norrington, a respected Royal Navy officer who Elizabeth admires but does not love. Ironically, it is Norrington who sets events into motion that not only alter Elizabeth's fate, but also his own and Will's. During Norrington's marriage proposal, Elizabeth, whose tightly laced corset nearly suffocates her, faints and falls off a rampart and into the bay. Her unlikely rescuer, and the catalyst for her transformation from a demure lady into a daring pirate, is the notorious Captain Jack Sparrow, newly arrived in Port Royal to commandeer a ship. Despite Sparrow's gallant actions and against Elizabeth's protests, he is promptly jailed for piracy and sentenced to hang. That night, a pirate ship, the Black Pearl, raids Port Royal. It is the same ship Elizabeth spied in the fog eight years earlier. When she is taken hostage it is discovered that she possesses Will's gold medallion that she took from him after his rescue, fearing it marked him as a pirate. Invoking parley, Elizabeth negotiates with Captain Barbossa to leave Port Royal in exchange for the coin. He agrees but keeps her captive on a technicality after she identifies herself as Elizabeth "Turner", mistakenly believing her blood can break an ancient Aztec curse the pirates are under. Their true forms — immortal skeletons —can only be seen in moonlight.
Will's love for Elizabeth motivates his actions and helps drive the story; he will do anything to save her, including piracy. And though the peaceful and law-abiding Will despises pirates and distrusts Sparrow, he frees him, knowing only Sparrow can locate Isla de Muerta, the secret island where Elizabeth is being held. Will is unaware, however, that Jack Sparrow is the Black Pearl's former captain and that he has an ulterior motive for helping him: Turner blood and the gold medallion can break the Aztec curse—Sparrow intends to barter Will to Barbossa in exchange for the Black Pearl.
When Will and Elizabeth escape Isla de Muerta, Barbossa pursues and captures their ship, sinking it. Will and the crew are thrown in the Pearl's brig, while Elizabeth and Sparrow are marooned on a deserted island. Elizabeth's feisty, self-sufficient nature propels her into taking action for their rescue by burning a cache of smugglers' rum. The towering smoke column is spotted by Commodore Norrington aboard Dauntless. To rescue Will, Elizabeth convinces Norrington to attack Isla de Muerta by impulsively accepting his previous marriage proposal. The commodore doubts her sincerity, though Elizabeth apparently intends to honor her promise, sacrificing her own happiness to save Will. She says nothing about the curse while Sparrow provides the bearings to Isla de Muerta, setting his own plan into motion.
At Isla de Muerta, Elizabeth frees Sparrow's crew from the Pearl's brig, naively believing they will rescue Will and Sparrow. Abiding by the pirate code that, "any man who falls behind, is left behind," they instead commandeer the Black Pearl and set sail, leaving a disgusted Elizabeth to rescue Will and Sparrow alone. As the navy battles the pirates, Sparrow duels Barbossa inside the treasure cave, while Elizabeth joins Will in fighting the remaining cursed crew. Sparrow fatally shoots Barbossa, who, upon reverting to mortal form as the curse is lifted, falls dead. The surviving now-mortal pirates surrender. Will, Elizabeth, and Sparrow are rescued, although Sparrow is later condemned to hang.
In Port Royal, Elizabeth attends Sparrow's execution. Will, who has been pardoned, approaches and proclaims his love for her before attempting to rescue Sparrow. Will frees Sparrow, but they are quickly captured, though Norrington and Governor Swann are reluctant to arrest Will or resume Sparrow's execution. Elizabeth intervenes and declares her love for Will. Norrington releases Will and concedes Elizabeth's hand to him. Sparrow, meanwhile, falls off the rampart and into the bay just as the Black Pearl sails into view. He is hauled aboard, captain once again. Apparently impressed by the wily pirate, Norrington allows the Black Pearl one day's head start before giving chase.
Dead Man's Chest[edit]
Main article: Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest
The film opens a year later, and Elizabeth is seen waiting at the altar where she and Will Turner were to be wed. Lord Cutler Beckett and the British Navy arrive, bringing Will, who is shackled in irons. Elizabeth and Will are charged with aiding Sparrow's escape; the punishment is death. Former Commodore James Norrington is also implicated, although he has since resigned his commission and disappeared. Lord Beckett offers clemency if Will agrees to search for Jack Sparrow and bring him back his magical compass. Beckett, a ruthless East India Trading Company agent, is extending the company's monopolistic stronghold over the entire Caribbean. Honest merchants and traders are forced to pay exorbitant fees and surcharges to ply their goods in EITC-controlled ports, an action amounting to little more than legal piracy. With Jack's compass, Becket can eradicate all pirates, thus securing and expanding the company's territory and increasing its profits while consolidating his own power and wealth. Beckett implies he has a personal score to settle with Jack Sparrow, though it is never revealed in the series what this is. However, it is revealed that Beckett was responsible for branding Sparrow for piracy.
Once again, Elizabeth's freedom is dependent upon Will procuring Sparrow's help. Will finally locates Sparrow and the Black Pearl crew on Pelegosto hiding from the Kraken, a voracious leviathan controlled by Davy Jones, the mythical captain of the Flying Dutchman and ruler of the seas. Jones is hunting Sparrow to collect a blood debt, while Sparrow has been searching for the Dead Man's Chest containing Jones' beating heart. Whoever possesses the heart, controls Davy Jones and the oceans. Unfortunately, Sparrow's magic compass seems to fail him, though it may be pointing to something he unknowingly desires more than the Dead Man's Chest.
When Elizabeth escapes jail and discovers Beckett is only pardoning Sparrow, she confronts Beckett at gunpoint, forcing him to validate a Letters of Marque to free Will. Disguised as a cabin boy, Elizabeth tricks a merchant crew into making port in Tortuga. She jumps ship and encounters Sparrow and Gibbs in a pub recruiting sailors in an attempt to pay off Sparrows's debt to Davy Jones, who demands one hundred souls in exchange for his. Another man applies — James Norrington, now a disgraced, drunken wretch. Blaming Sparrow for his ruination, Norrington attempts to shoot him, igniting a brawl, but Elizabeth knocks him out to save him. At the pier, Sparrow claims Will was press ganged into Davy Jones' crew, insisting he was blameless; Norrington is skeptical, but Elizabeth places her faith in Sparrow when he claims she can save Will by finding the Dead Man's Chest. Using his magical compass, she gets a bearing.
On Isla Cruces, Jack, Elizabeth, and Norrington find the Dead Man's Chest. When Will arrives with Davy Jones' stolen key, Elizabeth learns that Sparrow tricked Will onto the Dutchman. A conflict erupts: Will wants to kill Jones by stabbing the heart, freeing his father from Jones' servitude; Sparrow fears the Kraken will continue hunting him if Jones is dead; Norrington plots to barter back his naval career with the heart. As a triple threat duel erupts, Jones' crew arrive. Sparrow obtains the key and opens the chest, but it is Norrington who ultimately escapes with the heart and the Letters of Marque.
The Black Pearl outruns the pursuing Flying Dutchman. Undeterred, Jones summons the Kraken, but the crew temporarily fight it off. To save himself, Sparrow escapes in the remaining longboat, prompting Elizabeth to brand him a coward. But as Elizabeth once predicted, Sparrow, unable to desert his crew, heroically returns to rescue them, reaffirming her faith in him. During the Kraken's brief retreat, Jack orders all hands to abandon ship. Realizing that Sparrow is the Kraken's sole target, Elizabeth distracts him with a passionate kiss while handcuffing him to the mast. Insisting she has no regrets, her overwhelming guilt belies her true feelings. She tells the others that Sparrow stayed behind to aid their escape, unaware Will witnessed their encounter and mistakenly believes she loves Sparrow.
The Kraken returns for a final assault, dragging the Pearl and Jack Sparrow to the Locker as the crew watches from the longboat. It is during this final battle that Sparrow's and Elizabeth's contrasting, yet also similar, underlying characters emerge: Jack shows heroism and loyalty by returning to the ship to save his crew; Elizabeth becomes more pirate-like to save herself and the others. Even Sparrows acknowledges this by calling her "pirate" in an almost admiring tone, as if praising her cleverness and heralding her passage into his realm.
Norrington arrives in Port Royal and presents the heart and the Letters of Marque to Cutler Beckett in a bid to reclaim his commission. Meanwhile, Will, Elizabeth, and the grieving crew make their way upriver to Tia Dalma, the voodoo priestess who helped Sparrow find the Dead Man's Chest. As the crew drink a somber toast to their fallen captain, Elizabeth is wracked with guilt over secretly sacrificing Sparrow to the Kraken. This reinforces Will's belief that Elizabeth loves Sparrow. He despondently comforts her, prompting Tia Dalma to ask if they are willing to rescue Sparrow and the Pearl from Davy Jones' Locker. When all say, "aye," Dalma says they will need a captain who knows those waters. Incredibly, a very alive Captain Barbossa descends the stairs.
At World's End[edit]
Main article: Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End
Jack Sparrow, Captain Barbossa, and seven other pirate lords have been summoned to a Brethren Court at Shipwreck Island to address Lord Beckett's assault on piracy. Jack, eternally imprisoned aboard the Black Pearl in Davy Jones' Locker, lacks a successor and possesses one of the nine "pieces of eight" that each pirate lord carries and must bring to the meeting; Jack must attend. Elizabeth joins Will Turner, Captain Barbossa, Tia Dalma, and Sparrow's crew on a rescue mission, but they must first obtain a navigational chart leading to World's End, the gateway to the Locker. Each character also has a self-serving motive for retrieving Jack, and, to succeed, must maintain an uneasy alliance despite distrusting one another. For Elizabeth, it is an opportunity to alleviate her guilt for sacrificing Jack to the Kraken to spare herself and the crew.
In Singapore, Sao Feng, the Pirate Lord of the South China Sea, provides the chart and a ship, but Will negotiates a secret accord with Feng: Jack Sparrow in exchange for the Black Pearl. Unknown to Will, Elizabeth's lingering anguish over causing Jack's demise torments her, and during the voyage to World's End and Davy Jones Locker, she distances herself from Will. Though she claims everything will eventually be alright between them, her assurance seems uncertain and forced, leaving Will troubled and doubting her love for him. It is only when Will learns that Elizabeth sacrificed Jack to the Kraken that he comprehends her despair, though not why she concealed her actions. When Will confronts her, she says it was her burden to bear, though her secrecy has deeply wounded Will. If she makes choices alone, he asks, and they are unable to trust one another, then how can their relationship survive? Though Elizabeth apparently still cares for Will, her pain and guilt are unabated, and she despondently responds that he cannot trust her, and abruptly leaves. Their future together may be jeopardized if these issues remain unresolved. Meanwhile, as Jack and Barbossa squabble over who is the Black Pearl's captain, the crew navigate their way back to the living world. Before escaping the Locker, Elizabeth sees her father's soul being ferried to the "next world," murdered by Cutler Beckett; she vows to avenge his death.
After returning to the living world, Will's clandestine bargain with Sao Feng is exposed. But Feng has already betrayed Will for another deal with Beckett. While Elizabeth may understand that Will's motive is to rescue his father, she does not believe it justifies double-crossing the Pearl's crew. When she insists he explain why he withheld this, Will retorts that it was his, "burden to bear." When Feng demands Elizabeth in exchange for the Pearl, she agrees in order to protect the crew. Elizabeth ignores Will's protests, telling him, "You got us into this mess. If this is what frees us, then done!" As their rift widens, Will, secretly torn between saving his father and being with Elizabeth, fears she is slipping away. He laments later to Sparrow, "I'm losing her Jack."
When Jones attacks the Empress, Feng, mortally wounded, hands over his "piece of eight" to Elizabeth and names her as captain and Pirate Lord of the South China Sea, mistakenly believing she is the sea goddess, Calypso. Elizabeth and her new crew are taken prisoner aboard the Flying Dutchman where she is reunited with Admiral Norrington, who is overjoyed she is alive. Elizabeth is hostile, however, accusing him of complicity in her father's murder, though Norrington denies knowing anything about the governor's death, and believed he returned to England. Elizabeth, hardly appeased, rebukes him for serving Lord Beckett, the man who ordered her father's murder. In the brig, Elizabeth encounters "Bootstrap" Bill Turner, who is gradually being absorbed into the ship's hull, losing his senses. He says Will cannot save both Elizabeth and himself—he will only choose her. Elizabeth finally understands Will's terrible dilemma and his motives: he must sacrifice one to save the other. That night, Norrington, shamed by his past deeds, frees Elizabeth and the crew. Elizabeth forgives Norrington, who again swears he was uninvolved in her father's death. She implores him to go with them, but he refuses to leave the ship. As she flees, he gives her one last kiss, saying, "Our fates have been entwined, Elizabeth, but never joined" hence acknowledging that they were never meant to be together. As Elizabeth and her crew escape to the towed Empress, "Bootstrap" Bill Turner, his mind addled by Jones' cruel punishment, sounds an alarm and fatally stabs Norrington as he attempts to hold Bootstrap off. Elizabeth witnesses his murder and cries "James!"
The Black Pearl and the Empress race to Shipwreck Island for the Brethren Court. The pirate lords dispute how to oppose Beckett and the East India Trading Company; Elizabeth favors fighting while the Court prefers sequestering themselves inside the impenetrable Shipwreck Cove. This causes Sparrow to predict that confining themselves would likely result in them mass murdering each other. Jack unexpectedly breaks a stalemate to elect a pirate king by casting his ballot for Elizabeth; going to battle serves his own secret plan. "King" Elizabeth declares war. During a parley session with Beckett and Jones, Elizabeth tells the captive Will that having been aboard the Dutchman, she now understands his burden, but fears that course (saving his father) is lost, though Will disagrees. Jack is exchanged for Will.
Whether Elizabeth's decision to declare war is brilliant or rash, her actions reflect her daring and bravery. As Beckett's fleet looms upon the horizon, Elizabeth, refusing to surrender or retreat, delivers a rousing speech. During the climatic sea battle, Will proposes to Elizabeth, claiming it may be their only chance to wed; Realizing how much she loves Will, Elizabeth orders Barbossa to marry them amidst the fighting. As the Pearl and the Dutchman clash, Elizabeth and Will board Jones' ship. When Jones mortally wounds Will, Jack relinquishes his bid for immortality to instead save Will, killing Jones. "Bootstrap" Bill Turner, having regained his senses, carves out his dead son's heart and places it in the Dead Man's Chest. Jack forces the grief-stricken Elizabeth to escape the ship with him as the Dutchman is sucked into the massive whirlpool. The ship quickly resurfaces with the resurrected Captain Will Turner at the helm and the crew restored to human form. With the Flying Dutchman now their ally, the pirates destroy Cutler Beckett's flagship Endeavour, killing him, and causing the navy to retreat, thus ending the war.
Elizabeth bids Jack, Barbossa, and the pirates farewell before reuniting with Will for their "one day" on a deserted island where their marriage is consummated. Before returning to the Flying Dutchman at sunset for his ten years in the Netherworld, Will gives Elizabeth the Dead Man's Chest containing his beating heart for safekeeping. In a post-credits scene set ten years later, Elizabeth and Will's son, Henry Turner , stand atop a cliff searching the horizon. As the sun sets, the Flying Dutchman appears with the Green Flash, Captain Will Turner aboard. While film dialogue and the leaflet inside the special edition 2-Disc DVD state that any captain of the Flying Dutchman is eternally bound to the ship, and may only step on land once every ten years.
Dead Men Tell No Tales[edit]
See also: Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales
Elizabeth Swann reunites with Will and Henry, after the Trident of Poseiden is destroyed, ending Will's curse to the Flying Dutchman.
In a post-credits scene, Elizabeth is seen sleeping next to Will, as the dark silhouette of Davy Jones enters the room, leaving water and barnacles at the foot of their bed.
Character development[edit]
According to actress Keira Knightley, Swann is "a 21st century girl trapped in an 18th century world. She . . . starts out as a damsel in distress and then kicks butt, so what's not to like?" While she appreciates her role, she was disappointed that her character did not carry a sword in The Black Pearl: "I didn't have a sword. Am I angry about that? Yes, very! ... I asked every single day, anyone I could ask, if I could have a sword but I didn't get one."[1] In the sequel Dead Man's Chest, she added that, "we went off into a grungier look for her. That was really exciting actually, to take the character and make her grow up... I think they really liked the more action-based side of Elizabeth from the first film and apparently that's what little girls really responded to, so they decided to take her off in that direction".[2] She adds she was relieved to finally be able to brandish a sword, although according to Knightley, most of her sword fighting scenes were cut.[2] Knightley also stated how glad she was that by At World's End, she was finally able to shed the elaborate dresses and only wear pirate's clothing: "Actually I am really glad, it's so hot in there it is unbelievable, and everybody else has got their proper pirate stuff on and I am a little less dressed than everyone else and I am very glad, so that's good. The rest of the time I've got kind of the Pirate look instead of the corset and frilly dresses."[3]
Behind-the-scenes footage included on the DVD and Blu-ray releases of Dead Man's Chest reveals that Knightley wore wigs when playing Elizabeth in that film, as her real hair had been cropped short at the time (she is shown rehearsing numerous scenes without her wig in several production featurettes)
For the toyline for At World's End an Action figure was made for Elizabeth Swann.[4]
Other appearances[edit]
Elizabeth Swann appears in the Pirates of the Caribbean world, Port Royal, of the Disney/Square Enix game Kingdom Hearts II, voiced by Eliza Schneider in the English version (like the other original actors, Keira Knightley was unavailable due to filming Dead Man's Chest and At World's End) and by Saori Yumiba in the Japanese version. Elizabeth Swann also appears in the video game "Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest (video game)" as well as "Lego Pirates of the Caribbean: The Video Game" as a playable character in both video games. Schneider also performs the voice of Elizabeth Swann again in the video game Pirates of the Caribbean: The Legend of Jack Sparrow and in the video game adaptation of Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End. The character also appeared in Pirates of the Caribbean Online.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Interview - Keira Knightley - Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl. BBC.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-01-14.
^ Jump up to: a b Exclusive Interview with Keira Knightley - Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest. FilmFocus.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-01-14.
Jump up ^ Pirates Of The Caribbean, Keira Knightley. LondonNet.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-01-14.
Jump up ^ [1]
External links[edit]
Elizabeth Swann on IMDb
Elizabeth Swann at the Pirates of the Caribbean Wiki
[hide]
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X chromosome
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Human X chromosome
Human X chromosome (after G-banding).
X chromosome in human male karyogram.
Features
Length (bp)
156,040,895 bp
(GRCh38)[1]
No. of genes
804 (CCDS)[2]
Type
Allosome
Centromere position
Submetacentric[3]
(61.0 Mbp[4])
External map viewers
Ensembl
Chromosome X
Entrez
Chromosome X
NCBI
Chromosome X
UCSC
Chromosome X
Full DNA sequences
RefSeq
NC_000023 (FASTA)
GenBank
CM000685 (FASTA)
The X chromosome is one of the two sex-determining chromosomes (allosomes) in many organisms, including mammals (the other is the Y chromosome), and is found in both males and females. It is a part of the XY sex-determination system and X0 sex-determination system. The X chromosome was named for its unique properties by early researchers, which resulted in the naming of its counterpart Y chromosome, for the next letter in the alphabet, after it was discovered later.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Discovery
2 Inheritance pattern
3 Humans
3.1 Function
3.2 Genes
3.3 Structure
3.4 Role in diseases
3.4.1 Numerical abnormalities
3.4.2 Other disorders
3.4.3 Role in mental abilities and intelligence
3.5 Cytogenetic band
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Discovery[edit]
It was first noted that the X chromosome was special in 1890 by Hermann Henking in Leipzig. Henking was studying the testicles of Pyrrhocoris and noticed that one chromosome did not take part in meiosis. Chromosomes are so named because of their ability to take up staining. Although the X chromosome could be stained just as well as the others, Henking was unsure whether it was a different class of object and consequently named it X element,[6] which later became X chromosome after it was established that it was indeed a chromosome.[7]
The idea that the X chromosome was named after its similarity to the letter "X" is mistaken. All chromosomes normally appear as an amorphous blob under the microscope and only take on a well defined shape during mitosis. This shape is vaguely X-shaped for all chromosomes. It is entirely coincidental that the Y chromosome, during mitosis, has two very short branches which can look merged under the microscope and appear as the descender of a Y-shape.[8]
It was first suggested that the X chromosome was involved in sex determination by Clarence Erwin McClung in 1901 after comparing his work on locusts with Henking's and others. McClung noted that only half the sperm received an X chromosome. He called this chromosome an accessory chromosome and insisted, correctly, that it was a proper chromosome, and theorized, incorrectly, that it was the male determining chromosome.[6]
Inheritance pattern[edit]
The number of possible ancestors on the X chromosome inheritance line at a given ancestral generation follows the Fibonacci sequence. (After Hutchison, L. "Growing the Family Tree: The Power of DNA in Reconstructing Family Relationships".[9])
Luke Hutchison noticed that a number of possible ancestors on the X chromosome inheritance line at a given ancestral generation follows the Fibonacci sequence.[9] A male individual has an X chromosome, which he received from his mother, and a Y chromosome, which he received from his father. The male counts as the "origin" of his own X chromosome ( F 1 = 1 {\displaystyle F_{1}=1} ), and at his parents' generation, his X chromosome came from a single parent ( F 2 = 1 {\displaystyle F_{2}=1} ). The male's mother received one X chromosome from her mother (the son's maternal grandmother), and one from her father (the son's maternal grandfather), so two grandparents contributed to the male descendant's X chromosome ( F 3 = 2 {\displaystyle F_{3}=2} ). The maternal grandfather received his X chromosome from his mother, and the maternal grandmother received X chromosomes from both of her parents, so three great-grandparents contributed to the male descendant's X chromosome ( F 4 = 3 {\displaystyle F_{4}=3} ). Five great-great-grandparents contributed to the male descendant's X chromosome ( F 5 = 5 {\displaystyle F_{5}=5} ), etc. (Note that this assumes that all ancestors of a given descendant are independent, but if any genealogy is traced far enough back in time, ancestors begin to appear on multiple lines of the genealogy, until eventually, a population founder appears on all lines of the genealogy.)
Humans[edit]
Function[edit]
Nucleus of a female amniotic fluid cell. Top: Both X-chromosome territories are detected by FISH. Shown is a single optical section made with a confocal microscope. Bottom: Same nucleus stained with DAPI and recorded with a CCD camera. The Barr body is indicated by the arrow, it identifies the inactive X (Xi).
The X chromosome in humans spans more than 153 million base pairs (the building material of DNA). It represents about 800 protein-coding genes compared to the Y chromosome containing about 70 genes, out of 20,000 - 25,000 total genes in the human genome. Each person usually has one pair of sex chromosomes in each cell. Females have two X chromosomes, whereas males have one X and one Y chromosome. Both males and females retain one of their mother's X chromosomes, and females retain their second X chromosome from their father. Since the father retains his X chromosome from his mother, a human female has one X chromosome from her paternal grandmother (father's side), and one X chromosome from her mother. This inheritance pattern follows the Fibonacci numbers at a given ancestral depth.
Genetic disorders that are due to mutations in genes on the X chromosome are described as X linked.
The X chromosome carries hundreds of genes but few, if any, of these have anything to do directly with sex determination. Early in embryonic development in females, one of the two X chromosomes is randomly and permanently inactivated in nearly all somatic cells (cells other than egg and sperm cells). This phenomenon is called X-inactivation or Lyonization, and creates a Barr body. If X-inactivation in the somatic cell meant a complete de-functionalizing of one of the X-chromosomes, it would ensure that females, like males, had only one functional copy of the X chromosome in each somatic cell. This was previously assumed to be the case. However, recent research suggests that the Barr body may be more biologically active than was previously supposed.[10]
Genes[edit]
See also: Category:Genes on human chromosome X.
The following are some of the gene count estimates of human X chromosome. Because researchers use different approaches to genome annotation their predictions of the number of genes on each chromosome varies (for technical details, see gene prediction). Among various projects, the collaborative consensus coding sequence project (CCDS) takes an extremely conservative strategy. So CCDS's gene number prediction represents a lower bound on the total number of human protein-coding genes.[11]
Estimated by Protein-coding genes Non-coding RNA genes Pseudogenes Source Release date
CCDS 804 - - [2] 2016-09-08
HGNC 825 260 606 [12] 2017-05-12
Ensembl 841 639 871 [13] 2017-03-29
NCBI 874 494 879 [14][15][16] 2017-05-19
The following are some of the genes located on chromosome X:
APOO: encoding protein Apolipoprotein O
ARMCX6: encoding protein Armadillo repeat containing X-linked 6
BEX1: encoding protein Brain-expressed X-linked protein 1
BEX2: encoding protein Brain-expressed X-linked protein 2
BEX4: encoding protein Brain expressed, X-linked 4
CCDC120: encoding protein Coiled coil domain containing protein 120
CCDC22: encoding protein Coiled-coil domain containing 22
CD99L2: CD99 antigen-like protein 2
CHRDL1: encoding protein Chordin-like 1
CMTX2 encoding protein Charcot-Marie-Tooth neuropathy, X-linked 2 (recessive)
CMTX3 encoding protein Charcot-Marie-Tooth neuropathy, X-linked 3 (dominant)
CT45A5: encoding protein Cancer/testis antigen family 45, member A5
CXorf36: encoding protein hypothetical protein LOC79742
CXorf40A: Chromosome X open reading frame 40
CXorf49: chromosome X open reading frame 49. encoding protein
CXorf66: encoding protein Chromosome X Open Reading Frame 66
CXorf67: encoding protein Uncharacterized protein CXorf67
DACH2: encoding protein Dachshund homolog 2
EFHC2: encoding protein EF-hand domain (C-terminal) containing 2
ERCC6L encoding protein ERCC excision repair 6 like, spindle assembly checkpoint helicase
F8A1: Factor VIII intron 22 protein
FAM120C: encoding protein Family with sequence similarity 120C
FAM122B: Family with sequence similarity 122 member B
FAM122C: encoding protein Family with sequence similarity 122C
FAM127A: CAAX box protein 1
FAM50A: Family with sequence similarity 50 member A
FATE1: Fetal and adult testis-expressed transcript protein
FMR1-AS1: encoding a long non-coding RNA FMR1 antisense RNA 1
FRMPD3: encoding protein FERM and PDZ domain containing 3
FUNDC1: encoding protein FUN14 domain containing 1
FUNDC2: FUN14 domain-containing protein 2
GNL3L encoding protein G protein nucleolar 3 like
GPRASP2: G-protein coupled receptor-associated sorting protein 2
GRIPAP1: encoding protein GRIP1-associated protein 1
HDHD1A: encoding enzyme Haloacid dehalogenase-like hydrolase domain-containing protein 1A
LAS1L encoding protein LAS1-like protein
MAGEA2: encoding protein Melanoma-associated antigen 2
MAGEA5 encoding protein Melanoma antigen family A, 5
MAGEA8: encoding protein Melanoma antigen family A, 8
MAGED4B: encoding protein Melanoma-associated antigen D4
MAGT1: encoding protein Magnesium transporter protein 1
MBNL3: encoding protein Muscleblind-like protein 3
MIR222: encoding microRNA MicroRNA 222
MIR361: encoding microRNA MicroRNA 361
MIR660: encoding protein MicroRNA 660
MORF4L2: encoding protein Mortality factor 4-like protein 2
MOSPD1: encoding protein Motile sperm domain containing 1
MOSPD2: encoding protein Motile sperm domain containing 2
NKRF: encoding protein NF-kappa-B-repressing factor
NRK: encoding enzyme Nik-related protein kinase
OTUD5: encoding protein OTU deubiquitinase 5
PASD1: encoding protein PAS domain-containing protein 1
PBDC1: encoding [[]] FALSE
PCYT1B: encoding enzyme Choline-phosphate cytidylyltransferase B
PIN4: encoding enzyme Peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase NIMA-interacting 4
PLAC1: encoding protein Placenta-specific protein 1
PLP2: encoding protein Proteolipid protein 2
RPA4: encoding protein Replication protein A 30 kDa subunit
RPS6KA6: encoding protein Ribosomal protein S6 kinase, 90kDa, polypeptide 6
RRAGB: encoding protein Ras-related GTP-binding protein B
SFRS17A: encoding protein Splicing factor, arginine/serine-rich 17A
SLITRK2: encoding protein SLIT and NTRK-like protein 2
SMARCA1: encoding protein Probable global transcription activator SNF2L1
SMS: encoding enzyme Spermine synthase
SSR4: encoding protein Translocon-associated protein subunit delta
TAF7l: encoding protein TATA-box binding protein associated factor 7-like
TCEAL1: encoding protein Transcription elongation factor A protein-like 1
TCEAL4: encoding protein Transcription elongation factor A protein-like 4
THOC2: encoding protein THO complex subunit 2
TMEM29: encoding protein Protein FAM156A
TMEM47: encoding protein Transmembrane protein 47
TMLHE: encoding enzyme Trimethyllysine dioxygenase, mitochondrial
TNMD encoding protein Tenomodulin (also referred to as tendin, myodulin, Tnmd and TeM)
TRAPPC2P1 encoding protein Trafficking protein particle complex subunit 2
TREX2: encoding enzyme Three prime repair exonuclease 2
TRO: encoding protein Trophinin
TSPYL2: encoding protein Testis-specific Y-encoded-like protein 2
USP51: encoding enzyme Ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase 51
YIPF6: encoding protein Protein YIPF6
ZC3H12B: encoding protein ZC3H12B
ZFP92: encoding protein ZFP92 zinc finger protein
ZMYM3: encoding protein Zinc finger MYM-type protein 3
ZNF157: encoding protein Zinc finger protein 157
ZNF182 encoding protein Zinc finger protein 182
ZNF275: encoding protein Zinc finger protein 275
ZNF674: encoding protein Zinc finger protein 674
Structure[edit]
It is theorized by Ross et al. 2005 and Ohno 1967 that the X chromosome is at least partially derived from the autosomal (non-sex-related) genome of other mammals, evidenced from interspecies genomic sequence alignments.
The X chromosome is notably larger and has a more active euchromatin region than its Y chromosome counterpart. Further comparison of the X and Y reveal regions of homology between the two. However, the corresponding region in the Y appears far shorter and lacks regions that are conserved in the X throughout primate species, implying a genetic degeneration for Y in that region. Because males have only one X chromosome, they are more likely to have an X chromosome-related disease.
It is estimated that about 10% of the genes encoded by the X chromosome are associated with a family of "CT" genes, so named because they encode for markers found in both tumor cells (in cancer patients) as well as in the human testis (in healthy patients).[17]
Role in diseases[edit]
Numerical abnormalities[edit]
Klinefelter syndrome:
Klinefelter syndrome is caused by the presence of one or more extra copies of the X chromosome in a male's cells. Extra genetic material from the X chromosome interferes with male sexual development, preventing the testicles from functioning normally and reducing the levels of testosterone.
Males with Klinefelter syndrome typically have one extra copy of the X chromosome in each cell, for a total of two X chromosomes and one Y chromosome (47,XXY). It is less common for affected males to have two or three extra X chromosomes (48,XXXY or 49,XXXXY) or extra copies of both the X and Y chromosomes (48,XXYY) in each cell. The extra genetic material may lead to tall stature, learning and reading disabilities, and other medical problems. Each extra X chromosome lowers the child's IQ by about 15 points,[18][19] which means that the average IQ in Klinefelter syndrome is in general in the normal range, although below average. When additional X and/or Y chromosomes are present in 48,XXXY, 48,XXYY, or 49,XXXXY, developmental delays and cognitive difficulties can be more severe and mild intellectual disability may be present.
Klinefelter syndrome can also result from an extra X chromosome in only some of the body's cells. These cases are called mosaic 46,XY/47,XXY.
Triple X syndrome (also called 47,XXX or trisomy X):
This syndrome results from an extra copy of the X chromosome in each of a female's cells. Females with trisomy X have three X chromosomes, for a total of 47 chromosomes per cell. The average IQ of females with this syndrome is 90, while the average IQ of unaffected siblings is 100.[20] Their stature on average is taller than normal females. They are fertile and their children do not inherit the condition.[21]
Females with more than one extra copy of the X chromosome (48, XXXX syndrome or 49, XXXXX syndrome) have been identified, but these conditions are rare.
Turner syndrome:
This results when each of a female's cells has one normal X chromosome and the other sex chromosome is missing or altered. The missing genetic material affects development and causes the features of the condition, including short stature and infertility.
About half of individuals with Turner syndrome have monosomy X (45,X), which means each cell in a woman's body has only one copy of the X chromosome instead of the usual two copies. Turner syndrome can also occur if one of the sex chromosomes is partially missing or rearranged rather than completely missing. Some women with Turner syndrome have a chromosomal change in only some of their cells. These cases are called Turner syndrome mosaics (45,X/46,XX).
Other disorders[edit]
Further information: X-linked recessive and X-linked dominant
XX male syndrome is a rare disorder, where the SRY region of the Y chromosome has recombined to be located on one of the X chromosomes. As a result, the XX combination after fertilization has the same effect as a XY combination, resulting in a male. However, the other genes of the X chromosome cause feminization as well.
X-linked endothelial corneal dystrophy is an extremely rare disease of cornea associated with Xq25 region. Lisch epithelial corneal dystrophy is associated with Xp22.3.
Megalocornea 1 is associated with Xq21.3-q22[medical citation needed]
Adrenoleukodystrophy, a rare and fatal disorder that is carried by the mother on the x-cell. It affects only boys between the ages of 5 and 10 and destroys the protective cell surrounding the nerves, myelin, in the brain. The female carrier hardly shows any symptoms because females have a copy of the x-cell. This disorder causes a once healthy boy to lose all abilities to walk, talk, see, hear, and even swallow. Within 2 years after diagnosis, most boys with Adrenoleukodystrophy die.
Role in mental abilities and intelligence[edit]
The X-chromosome has played a crucial role in the development of sexually selected characteristics for over 300 million years. During that time it has accumulated a disproportionate number of genes concerned with mental functions. For reasons that are not yet understood, there is an excess proportion of genes on the X-chromosome that are associated with the development of intelligence, with no obvious links to other significant biological functions.[22][23] .In other words, a significant proportion of genes associated with intelligence are passed on to the male offspring from the maternal side and to the female offspring from either/both maternal and paternal side.There has also been interest in the possibility that haploinsufficiency for one or more X-linked genes has a specific impact on development of the Amygdala and its connections with cortical centres involved in social–cognition processing or the ‘social brain'.[22][24][clarification needed]
Cytogenetic band[edit]
G-banding ideograms of human X chromosome
G-banding ideogram of human X chromosome in resolution 850 bphs. Band length in this diagram is proportional to base-pair length. This type of ideogram is generally used in genome browsers (e.g. Ensembl, UCSC Genome Browser).
G-banding patterns of human X chromosome in three different resolutions (400,[25] 550[26] and 850[4]). Band length in this diagram is based on the ideograms from ISCN (2013).[27] This type of ideogram represents actual relative band length observed under a microscope at the different moments during the mitotic process.[28]
G-bands of human X chromosome in resolution 850 bphs[4]
Chr.
Arm[29]
Band[30]
ISCN
start[31]
ISCN
stop[31]
Basepair
start
Basepair
stop
Stain[32]
Density
X p 22.33 0 323 7000100000000000000♠1 7006440000000000000♠4,400,000 gneg
X p 22.32 323 504 7006440000100000000♠4,400,001 7006610000000000000♠6,100,000 gpos 50
X p 22.31 504 866 7006610000100000000♠6,100,001 7006960000000000000♠9,600,000 gneg
X p 22.2 866 1034 7006960000100000000♠9,600,001 7007174000000000000♠17,400,000 gpos 50
X p 22.13 1034 1345 7007174000010000000♠17,400,001 7007192000000000000♠19,200,000 gneg
X p 22.12 1345 1448 7007192000010000000♠19,200,001 7007219000000000000♠21,900,000 gpos 50
X p 22.11 1448 1577 7007219000010000000♠21,900,001 7007249000000000000♠24,900,000 gneg
X p 21.3 1577 1784 7007249000010000000♠24,900,001 7007293000000000000♠29,300,000 gpos 100
X p 21.2 1784 1862 7007293000010000000♠29,300,001 7007315000000000000♠31,500,000 gneg
X p 21.1 1862 2120 7007315000010000000♠31,500,001 7007378000000000000♠37,800,000 gpos 100
X p 11.4 2120 2430 7007378000010000000♠37,800,001 7007425000000000000♠42,500,000 gneg
X p 11.3 2430 2624 7007425000010000000♠42,500,001 7007476000000000000♠47,600,000 gpos 75
X p 11.23 2624 2948 7007476000010000000♠47,600,001 7007501000000000000♠50,100,000 gneg
X p 11.22 2948 3129 7007501000010000000♠50,100,001 7007548000000000000♠54,800,000 gpos 25
X p 11.21 3129 3206 7007548000010000000♠54,800,001 7007581000000000000♠58,100,000 gneg
X p 11.1 3206 3297 7007581000010000000♠58,100,001 7007610000000000000♠61,000,000 acen
X q 11.1 3297 3491 7007610000010000000♠61,000,001 7007638000000000000♠63,800,000 acen
X q 11.2 3491 3620 7007638000010000000♠63,800,001 7007654000000000000♠65,400,000 gneg
X q 12 3620 3827 7007654000010000000♠65,400,001 7007685000000000000♠68,500,000 gpos 50
X q 13.1 3827 4137 7007685000010000000♠68,500,001 7007730000000000000♠73,000,000 gneg
X q 13.2 4137 4292 7007730000010000000♠73,000,001 7007747000000000000♠74,700,000 gpos 50
X q 13.3 4292 4447 7007747000010000000♠74,700,001 7007768000000000000♠76,800,000 gneg
X q 21.1 4447 4732 7007768000010000000♠76,800,001 7007854000000000000♠85,400,000 gpos 100
X q 21.2 4732 4809 7007854000010000000♠85,400,001 7007870000000000000♠87,000,000 gneg
X q 21.31 4809 5107 7007870000010000000♠87,000,001 7007927000000000000♠92,700,000 gpos 100
X q 21.32 5107 5184 7007927000010000000♠92,700,001 7007943000000000000♠94,300,000 gneg
X q 21.33 5184 5430 7007943000010000000♠94,300,001 7007991000000000000♠99,100,000 gpos 75
X q 22.1 5430 5701 7007991000010000000♠99,100,001 7008103300000000000♠103,300,000 gneg
X q 22.2 5701 5843 7008103300001000000♠103,300,001 7008104500000000000♠104,500,000 gpos 50
X q 22.3 5843 6050 7008104500001000000♠104,500,001 7008109400000000000♠109,400,000 gneg
X q 23 6050 6322 7008109400001000000♠109,400,001 7008117400000000000♠117,400,000 gpos 75
X q 24 6322 6619 7008117400001000000♠117,400,001 7008121800000000000♠121,800,000 gneg
X q 25 6619 7059 7008121800001000000♠121,800,001 7008129500000000000♠129,500,000 gpos 100
X q 26.1 7059 7253 7008129500001000000♠129,500,001 7008131300000000000♠131,300,000 gneg
X q 26.2 7253 7395 7008131300001000000♠131,300,001 7008134500000000000♠134,500,000 gpos 25
X q 26.3 7395 7602 7008134500001000000♠134,500,001 7008138900000000000♠138,900,000 gneg
X q 27.1 7602 7808 7008138900001000000♠138,900,001 7008141200000000000♠141,200,000 gpos 75
X q 27.2 7808 7886 7008141200001000000♠141,200,001 7008143000000000000♠143,000,000 gneg
X q 27.3 7886 8145 7008143000001000000♠143,000,001 7008148000000000000♠148,000,000 gpos 100
X q 28 8145 8610 7008148000001000000♠148,000,001 7008156040895000000♠156,040,895 gneg
See also[edit]
List of X-STR markers
Sex linkage
X-inactivation
Pseudoautosomal region
Y chromosome
References[edit]
Earlier versions of this article contain material from the National Library of Medicine (https://web.archive.org/web/20081122151614/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/copyright.html), a part of the National Institutes of Health (USA,) which, as a US government publication, is in the public domain.
Jump up ^ "Human Genome Assembly GRCh38 - Genome Reference Consortium". National Center for Biotechnology Information. 2013-12-24. Retrieved 2017-03-04.
^ Jump up to: a b "Search results - X[CHR] AND "Homo sapiens"[Organism] AND ("has ccds"[Properties] AND alive[prop]) - Gene". NCBI. CCDS Release 20 for Homo sapiens. 2016-09-08. Retrieved 2017-05-28.
Jump up ^ Tom Strachan; Andrew Read (2 April 2010). Human Molecular Genetics. Garland Science. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-136-84407-2.
^ Jump up to: a b c Genome Decoration Page, NCBI. Ideogram data for Homo sapience (850 bphs, Assembly GRCh38.p3). Last update 2014-06-03. Retrieved 2017-04-26.
Jump up ^ Angier, Natalie (2007-05-01). "For Motherly X Chromosome, Gender Is Only the Beginning". New York Times. Retrieved 2007-05-01.
^ Jump up to: a b James Schwartz, In Pursuit of the Gene: From Darwin to DNA, pages 155-158, Harvard University Press, 2009 ISBN 0674034910
Jump up ^ David Bainbridge, 'The X in Sex: How the X Chromosome Controls Our Lives, pages 3-5, Harvard University Press, 2003 ISBN 0674016211.
Jump up ^ Bainbridge, pages 65-66
^ Jump up to: a b Hutchison, Luke (September 2004). "Growing the Family Tree: The Power of DNA in Reconstructing Family Relationships" (PDF). Proceedings of the First Symposium on Bioinformatics and Biotechnology (BIOT-04). Retrieved 2016-09-03.
Jump up ^ Carrel L, Willard H (2005). "X-inactivation profile reveals extensive variability in X-linked gene expression in females". Nature. 434 (7031): 400–4. doi:10.1038/nature03479. PMID 15772666.
Jump up ^ Pertea M, Salzberg SL (2010). "Between a chicken and a grape: estimating the number of human genes". Genome Biol. 11 (5): 206. doi:10.1186/gb-2010-11-5-206. PMC 2898077  . PMID 20441615.
Jump up ^ "Statistics & Downloads for chromosome X". HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. 2017-05-12. Retrieved 2017-05-19.
Jump up ^ "Chromosome X: Chromosome summary - Homo sapiens". Ensembl Release 88. 2017-03-29. Retrieved 2017-05-19.
Jump up ^ "Search results - X[CHR] AND "Homo sapiens"[Organism] AND ("genetype protein coding"[Properties] AND alive[prop]) - Gene". NCBI. 2017-05-19. Retrieved 2017-05-20.
Jump up ^ "Search results - X[CHR] AND "Homo sapiens"[Organism] AND ( ("genetype miscrna"[Properties] OR "genetype ncrna"[Properties] OR "genetype rrna"[Properties] OR "genetype trna"[Properties] OR "genetype scrna"[Properties] OR "genetype snrna"[Properties] OR "genetype snorna"[Properties]) NOT "genetype protein coding"[Properties] AND alive[prop]) - Gene". NCBI. 2017-05-19. Retrieved 2017-05-20.
Jump up ^ "Search results - X[CHR] AND "Homo sapiens"[Organism] AND ("genetype pseudo"[Properties] AND alive[prop]) - Gene". NCBI. 2017-05-19. Retrieved 2017-05-20.
Jump up ^ Ross M, et al. (2005). "The DNA sequence of the human X chromosome". Nature. 434 (7031): 325–37. doi:10.1038/nature03440. PMC 2665286  . PMID 15772651.
Jump up ^ Harold Chen; Ian Krantz; Mary L Windle; Margaret M McGovern; Paul D Petry; Bruce Buehler (2013-02-22). "Klinefelter Syndrome Pathophysiology". Medscape. Retrieved 2014-07-18.
Jump up ^ Visootsak J, Graham JM (2006). "Klinefelter syndrome and other sex chromosomal aneuploidies". Orphanet J Rare Dis. 1: 42. doi:10.1186/1750-1172-1-42. PMC 1634840  . PMID 17062147.
Jump up ^ Bender B, Puck M, Salbenblatt J, Robinson A (1986). Smith S, ed. Cognitive development of children with sex chromosome abnormalities. San Diego: College Hill Press. pp. 175–201.
Jump up ^ "Triple X syndrome". Genetics Home Reference. 2014-07-14. Retrieved 2014-07-18.
^ Jump up to: a b Skuse, David H. (2005-04-15). "X-linked genes and mental functioning". Human Molecular Genetics. 14 Spec No 1: R27–32. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddi112. ISSN 0964-6906. PMID 15809269.
Jump up ^ Zhao, Min; Kong, Lei; Qu, Hong (2014-02-25). "A systems biology approach to identify intelligence quotient score-related genomic regions, and pathways relevant to potential therapeutic treatments". Scientific Reports. 4. doi:10.1038/srep04176. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 3933868  . PMID 24566931.
Jump up ^ Startin, Carla M.; Fiorentini, Chiara; de Haan, Michelle; Skuse, David H. (2015-01-01). "Variation in the X-linked EFHC2 gene is associated with social cognitive abilities in males". PLOS ONE. 10 (6): e0131604. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0131604. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4481314  . PMID 26107779.
Jump up ^ Genome Decoration Page, NCBI. Ideogram data for Homo sapience (400 bphs, Assembly GRCh38.p3). Last update 2014-03-04. Retrieved 2017-04-26.
Jump up ^ Genome Decoration Page, NCBI. Ideogram data for Homo sapience (550 bphs, Assembly GRCh38.p3). Last update 2015-08-11. Retrieved 2017-04-26.
Jump up ^ International Standing Committee on Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature (2013). ISCN 2013: An International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature (2013). Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers. ISBN 978-3-318-02253-7.
Jump up ^ Sethakulvichai, W.; Manitpornsut, S.; Wiboonrat, M.; Lilakiatsakun, W.; Assawamakin, A.; Tongsima, S. (2012). "Estimation of band level resolutions of human chromosome images" (PDF). In Computer Science and Software Engineering (JCSSE), 2012 International Joint Conference on: 276–282. doi:10.1109/JCSSE.2012.6261965.
Jump up ^ "p": Short arm; "q": Long arm.
Jump up ^ For cytogenetic banding nomenclature, see article locus.
^ Jump up to: a b These values (ISCN start/stop) are based on the length of bands/ideograms from the ISCN book, An International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature (2013). Arbitrary unit.
Jump up ^ gpos: Region which is positively stained by G banding, generally AT-rich and gene poor; gneg: Region which is negatively stained by G banding, generally CG-rich and gene rich; acen Centromere. var: Variable region; stalk: Stalk.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to X chromosomes.
National Institutes of Health. "X chromosome". Genetics Home Reference. Retrieved 2017-05-06.
"X chromosome". Human Genome Project Information Archive 1990–2003. Retrieved 2017-05-06.
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