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Root (chord)
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See also: Scale-step
Root, in red, of a C major chord ( Play (help·info)). Note that the root is doubled at the octave.
Root notes (blue) and bass notes (red, both=purple) from an 18th century Chorale Play (help·info)
In music theory, the concept of root is the idea that a chord can be represented and named by one of its notes. It is linked to harmonic thinking—to the idea that vertical aggregates of notes can form a single unit, a chord. It is in this sense that one speaks of a "C chord" or a "chord on C"—a chord built from "C" and of which the note (or pitch) "C" is the root. When a chord is referred to in Classical music or popular music without a reference to what type of chord it is (either major or minor, in most cases), it is assumed a major triad, which for C contains the notes C, E and G. The root need not be the bass note, the lowest note of the chord: the concept of root is linked to that of the inversion of chords, which is derived from the notion of invertible counterpoint. In this concept, chords can be inverted while still retaining their root.
In tertian harmonic theory, that is in a theory where chords can be considered stacks of third intervals (e.g. in common practice tonality), the root of a chord is the note on which the subsequent thirds are stacked. For instance, the root of a triad such as C Major is C, independently of the vertical order in which the three notes (C, E and G) are presented. A triad can be in three possible positions, a "root position" with the root in the bass (i.e., with the root as the lowest note, thus C, E, G or C, G, E, from lowest to highest notes), a first inversion, e.g. E, C, G or E, G, C (i.e., with the note which is a third interval above the root, E, as the lowest note) and a second inversion, e.g. G, C, E or G, E, C, in which the note that is a fifth interval above the root (G ) is the lowest note.
Regardless of whether a chord is in root position or in an inversion, the root remains the same in all three cases. Four-note seventh chords have four possible positions. That is, the chord can be played with the root as the bass note, the note a third above the root as the bass note (first inversion), the note a fifth above the root as the bass note (second inversion), or the note a seventh above the root as the bass note (third inversion). Five-note ninth chords know five positions, etc., but the root position always is that of the stack of thirds, and the root is the lowest note of this stack (see also Factor (chord)).
Root position, first inversion, and second inversion C major chords Play root position C major chord (help·info), Play first inversion C major chord (help·info), or Play second inversion C major chord (help·info). Chord roots (all the same) in red.
Root position, first inversion, and second inversion chords over C bass Play root position C major chord (help·info), Play first inversion A minor chord (help·info), or Play second inversion F major chord (help·info). Chord roots in red.
Contents
[hide]
1 Identifying a chord's root
2 History
3 Possible mathematical and scientific basis
4 Assumed root
4.1 In jazz
5 Root progressions in music
6 See also
7 References
Identifying a chord's root[edit]
Determining chord root from inversion Play (help·info). "Revoicing inverted triads to root position".[1]
Although the safest way to recognize a chord’s root is, after having reduced the chord to close spacing, to rearrange it as a stack of thirds, there are shortcuts to this: in inverted triads, the root is directly above the interval of a fourth, in inverted sevenths, it is directly above the interval of a second.[1] With chord types, such as chords with added sixths or chords over pedal points, more than one possible chordal analysis may be possible. For example, in a tonal piece of music, the notes C, E, G, A, sounded as a chord, could be analyzed as a C major sixth chord in root position (a major triad – C, E, G – with an added sixth – A – above the root) or as a first inversion A minor seventh chord (the A minor seventh chord contains the notes A, C, E and G, but in this example, the C note, the third of the A minor chord, is in the bass). Deciding which note is the root of this chord could be determined by considering context. If the chord spelled C, E, G, A occurs immediately before a D7 chord (spelled D, F♯, A, C), most theorists and musicians would consider the first chord a minor seventh chord in first inversion, because the progression ii7–V7 is a standard chord movement.
Various devices have been imagined to notate inverted chords and their roots:
Chord names and symbols (e.g., C major, A minor, G7 etc.)
Roman numeral analysis (e.g., I to indicate the tonic chord and V to indicate the dominant chord)
Slash chords (e.g., G/B bass, which instructs the chord-playing performer to play a G major triad with a "B" in bass voice/lowest note)
The concept of root has been extended for the description of intervals of two notes: the interval can either be analyzed as formed from stacked thirds (with the inner notes missing): third, fifth, seventh, etc., (i.e., intervals corresponding to odd numerals), and its low note considered as the root; or as an inversion of the same: second (inversion of a seventh), fourth (inversion of a fifth), sixth (inversion of a third), etc., (intervals corresponding to even numerals) in which cases the upper note is the root. See Interval.
Some theories of common-practice tonal music admit the sixth as a possible interval above the root and consider in some cases that 6
5 chords nevertheless are in root position – this is the case particularly in Riemannian theory. Chords that cannot be reduced to stacked thirds (e.g. chords of stacked fourths) may not be amenable to the concept of root, although in practice, in a lead sheet, the composer may specify that a quartal chord has a certain root (e.g., a fake book chart that indicates that a song uses an Asus4(add♭7) chord, which would use the notes A, D, G. Even though this is a quartal chord, the composer has indicated that it has a root of A.)
A major scale contains seven unique pitch classes, each of which might serve as the root of a chord:
Root position triads from C major scale[2] Play (help·info).
Chords in atonal music are often of indeterminate root, as are equal-interval chords and mixed-interval chords; such chords are often best characterized by their interval content.[3]
History[edit]
The first mentions of the relation of inversion between triads appears in Otto Sigfried Harnish’s Artis musicae (1608), which describes perfect triads in which the lower note of the fifth is expressed in its own position, and imperfect ones, in which the base (i.e., root) of the chord appears only higher. Johannes Lippius, in his Disputatio musica tertia (1610) and Synopsis musicae novae (1612), is the first to use the term "triad" (trias harmonica); he also uses the term "root" (radix), but in a slightly different meaning.[4] Thomas Campion, A New Way of Making Fowre Parts in Conterpoint, London, ca. 1618, notes that when chords are in first inversions (sixths), the bass is not "...a true base,", which is implicitly a third lower. Campion’s "true base" is the root of the chord.[5]
Full recognition of the relationship between the triad and its inversions is generally credited to Jean-Philippe Rameau and his Traité d’harmonie (1722). Rameau was not the first to discover triadic inversion,[6] but his main achievement is to have recognized the importance of the succession of roots (or of chords identified by their roots) for the construction of tonality (see below, Root progressions).
Possible mathematical and scientific basis[edit]
The concept of root has some basis in the physical properties of harmonic sounds. When two notes or more notes from the harmonic series are played at the same time, people sometimes perceive the fundamental note of the series, even if that note is not present (see Missing fundamental). This property has been used in organ building for the production of low notes by resultant tones. Andreas Werckmeister’s Harmonologia (1702) describes the major triad in root position and in first inversion in terms of the harmonic series, but this description cannot be extended to the minor triad.[7]
Hindemith, who described the chromatic scale as resulting from "the juxtaposition of vibrating units in the proportions of the simple numbers from 1 to 6", i.e. from the intervals corresponding to harmonic partials 1 to 6, called the fundamental of this harmonic series the "root" of the scale.[8] From this root, he then derived a series of notes in diminishing degree of relationship, which he called Series 1 and on which he built a system of composition. This system however has been criticized for being based generically in theory derived rules and not on perception of specific instances.[3]
Assumed root[edit]
Assumed root, Am7/B: A minor ninth chord without root and with B in the bass.[9] Play (help·info) Am9/B, Am7, then full Am9.
An assumed root (also absent, or omitted root) is, "when a chord does not contain a root ([which is] not unusual),".[10] In any context, it is the unperformed root of a performed chord. This 'assumption' may be established by the interaction of physics and perception, or by pure convention. "We only interpret a chord as having its root omitted when the habits of the ear make it absolutely necessary for us to think of the absent root in such a place."[emphasis original].[11] "We do not acknowledge omitted Roots except in cases where the mind is necessarily conscious of them...There are also cases in instrumental accompaniment in which the root having been struck at the commencement of a measure, the ear feels it through the rest of the measure."[emphasis original][12]
In guitar tablature, this may be indicated, "to show you where the root would be," and to assist one with, "align[ing] the chord shape at the appropriate fret," with an assumed root in grey, other notes in white, and a sounded root in black.[9]
A comparison of the diminished 7th Play (help·info) and dominant 7th[13] (♭9) Play (help·info) chords.
Diminished seventh chord's use in modulation: each assumed root, in parenthesis, may be used as a dominant, tonic, or supertonic.[14] Play ninth chords (help·info) Thus C, taken as dominant, would modulate to F.
An example of an assumed root is the diminished seventh chord, of which a note a major third below the chord is often assumed to be the absent root, making it a ninth chord.[15] The diminished seventh chord affords, "singular facilities for modulation," as it may be notated four ways, to represent four different assumed roots.[14]
In jazz[edit]
In jazz and jazz fusion, roots are often omitted from chords when chord-playing musicians (e.g., electric guitar, piano, Hammond organ) are improvising chords in an ensemble that includes a bass player (either double bass, electric bass, or other bass instruments), because the bass player plays the root. For example, if a band is playing a tune in the key of C major, if there is a dominant seventh chord played on the dominant chord (i.e., G7), the chord-playing musicians typically do not play the G note in their voicing of the chord, as they expect the bass player to play the root. The chord playing musicians usually play a voicing that includes the third, seventh, and additional extensions (often the ninth and thirteenth, even if they are not specified in the chord chart). Thus a typical voicing by a chord-playing musician for a G7 chord would be the notes B and F (the third and flat seventh of the chord), along with the notes A and E (the ninth and thirteenth of the G7 chord). One possible voicing for this G7 chord would be the notes B, E, F, A (the third, thirteenth, seventh and ninth of the G7 chord). [Note: the thirteenth interval is the same "pitch class" as the sixth, except that it is one octave higher; the ninth is the same "pitch class" as the second interval, except that it is one octave higher).]
Root progressions in music[edit]
The fundamental bass (basse fondamentale) is a concept proposed by Jean-Philippe Rameau, derived from the thoroughbass, to notate what would today be called the progression of chord roots rather than the actual lowest note found in the music, the bassline. From this Rameau formed rules for the progression of chords based on the intervals between their roots. Subsequently, the Viennese theory of tonal music has typically treated chordal roots as the defining feature of harmony.[16]
Roman numeral analysis may be said to derive from the theory of the fundamental bass, although it does not particularly theorize the succession of roots. The theory of the fundamental bass properly speaking has been revived in the 20th century by Arnold Schoenberg,[17] Yizhak Sadaï[18] and Nicolas Meeùs.[19]
It may be noted in passing that the expression "fundamental bass" is somewhat improper in English, and is used here as a literal translation of the French basse fondamentale. Indeed, English makes a relative distinction between the music-theoretic concept of "root" and the acoustic concept of "fundamental", a distinction that does not exist in other languages: the links to Wikipedia articles corresponding to this one in other languages link to articles titled Grundton in German or the equivalent in other Germanic languages, or (Basse) Fondamentale in French or the equivalent in other Roman languages. The literal translations of "root" as Wurzel (German) or racine (French), etc., are not common in music theory, unless in texts translated from English.
Why is it so important to know the root of the chord? Because the roots of the chords will sound whether we want them to or not, whether or not the alphabetical symbol is correct. The root progression which emerges may not coincide with what we think we have written; it may be better or it may be worse; but art does not permit chance. The root progression supports the work. The total root progression is heard as a substantive element, almost like another melody, and it determines the tonal basis of the music. And the tonal basis of a piece is very important to the construction of themes and to the orchestration.[20]
See also[edit]
Figured bass
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Wyatt and Schroeder (2002). Hal Leonard Pocket Music Theory, p.80. ISBN 0-634-04771-X.
Jump up ^ Palmer, Manus, and Lethco (1994). The Complete Book of Scales, Chords, Arpeggios and Cadences, p.6. ISBN 0-7390-0368-2. "The root is the note from which the triad gets its name. The root of a C triad is C."
^ Jump up to: a b Reisberg, Horace (1975). "The Vertical Dimension in Twentieth-Century Music", Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music, p.362-72. Wittlich, Gary (ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
Jump up ^ Joel Lester, "Root-Position and Inverted Triads in Theory around 1600", Journal of the American Musicological Society 27/1 (Spring 1974), pp. 113-116.
Jump up ^ Joel Lester, op. cit., p. 112.
Jump up ^ B. Rivera, "The Seventeenth-Century Theory of Triadic Generation and Invertibility and its Application in Contemporaneous Rules of Composition", Music Theory Spectrum, p. 67.
Jump up ^ B. Rivera, op. cit., p. 66-67.
Jump up ^ P. Hindemith, Craft of Musical Composition, A. Mendel transl., New York, 1942, p. 53. (Ein einziger Ton die Wurzel der zu ihm gehörenden Tonleiter, Unterweisung im Tonsatz, new edition, Mainz, 1940, p. 73.)
^ Jump up to: a b Latarski, Don (1999). Ultimate Guitar Chords: First Chords, p.5. ISBN 978-0-7692-8522-1.
Jump up ^ Chapman, Charles (2004). Rhythm Guitar Tutor: An Essential Guide to Becoming the Consumate [sic] Rhythm Guitarist, p.4. ISBN 978-0-7866-2022-7.
Jump up ^ John Curwen (1872). The Standard Course of Lessons and Exercises in the Tonic Sol-Fa Method of Teaching Music, p.27. Londong: Tonic Sol-Fa Agency, 8, Warwick Lane, Paternoster Row, E.C.
Jump up ^ Curwen, John (1881). The new How to observe harmony, p.44. Tonic Sol-Fa Agency.
Jump up ^ Richard Lawn, Jeffrey L. Hellmer (1996). Jazz: Theory and Practice, p.124. ISBN 0-88284-722-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Adela Harriet Sophia Bagot Wodehouse (1890). A Dictionary of Music and Musicians: (A.D. 1450-1889), p.448. Macmillan and Co., Ltd.
Jump up ^ Schoenberg, Arnold (1983). Theory of Harmony, 197. ISBN 978-0-520-04944-4.
Jump up ^ Simon Sechter, Die Grundsätze der musikalischen Komposition, vol. I, Leipzig, 1853.
Jump up ^ A. Schoenberg, Theory of Harmony, op. cit., and Structural Functions of Harmony, ²1969, pp. 6-9 and passim.
Jump up ^ Y. Sadaï, Harmony in its Systemic and Phenomenological Aspects, Jerusalem, pp. 87-88.
Jump up ^ N. Meeùs, “Toward a Post-Schoenbergian Grammar of Tonal and Pre-tonal Harmonic Progressions”, Music Theory Online 6/1 (2000), http://www.mtosmt.org/issues/mto.00.6.1/mto.00.6.1.meeus.html. See also http://nicolas.meeus.free.fr/NMVecteurs.html
Jump up ^ Russo, William (1975). Jazz Composition and Orchestration, p.28. ISBN 0-226-73213-4.
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Pulse
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about heartbeats. For other uses, see Pulse (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Pulse sites. In bold font the more useful sites.
Pulse evaluation at the radial artery.
In medicine, a pulse represents the tactile arterial palpation of the heartbeat by trained fingertips. The pulse may be palpated in any place that allows an artery to be compressed near the surface of the body, such as at the neck (carotid artery), wrist (radial artery), at the groin (femoral artery), behind the knee (popliteal artery), near the ankle joint (posterior tibial artery), and on foot (dorsalis pedis artery). Pulse (or the count of arterial pulse per minute) is equivalent to measuring the heart rate. The heart rate can also be measured by listening to the heart beat by auscultation, traditionally using a stethoscope and counting it for a minute. The radial pulse is commonly measured using three fingers. This has a reason: the finger closest to the heart is used to occlude the pulse pressure, the middle finger is used get a crude estimate of the blood pressure, and the finger most distal to the heart (usually the ring finger) is used to nullify the effect of the ulnar pulse as the two arteries are connected via the palmar arches (superficial and deep). The study of the pulse is known as sphygmology.
Contents
[hide]
1 Physiology
2 Characteristics of pulse
2.1 Rate
2.2 Rhythm
2.3 Volume
2.3.1 Hypokinetic pulse
2.3.2 Hyperkinetic pulse
2.4 Force
2.5 Tension
2.6 Form
2.7 Equality
2.8 Condition of arterial wall
2.9 Radio-femoral delay
3 Patterns
4 Common palpable sites
4.1 Upper limb
4.2 Lower limb
4.3 Head and neck
4.4 Torso
5 History
6 See also
7 References
Physiology[edit]
Claudius Galen was perhaps the first physiologist to describe the pulse.[1] The pulse is an expedient tactile method of determination of systolic blood pressure to a trained observer. Diastolic blood pressure is non-palpable and unobservable by tactile methods, occurring between heartbeats.
Pressure waves generated by the heart in systole move the arterial walls. Forward movement of blood occurs when the boundaries are pliable and compliant. These properties form enough to create a palpable pressure wave.
The heart rate may be greater or lesser than the pulse rate depending upon physiologic demand. In this case, the heart rate is determined by auscultation or audible sounds at the heart apex, in which case it is not the pulse. The pulse deficit (difference between heart beats and pulsations at the periphery) is determined by simultaneous palpation at the radial artery and auscultation at the PMI, near the heart apex. It may be present in case of premature beats or atrial fibrillation.
Pulse velocity, pulse deficits and much more physiologic data are readily and simplistically visualized by the use of one or more arterial catheters connected to a transducer and oscilloscope. This invasive technique has been commonly used in intensive care since the 1970s.
The rate of the pulse is observed and measured by tactile or visual means on the outside of an artery and is recorded as beats per minute or BPM.
The pulse may be further indirectly observed under light absorbances of varying wavelengths with assigned and inexpensively reproduced mathematical ratios. Applied capture of variances of light signal from the blood component hemoglobin under oxygenated vs. deoxygenated conditions allows the technology of pulse oximetry.
Characteristics of pulse[edit]
Rate[edit]
Normal pulse rates at rest, in beats per minute (BPM):[2]
Infant heartbeat
Infant heartbeat
Problems playing this file? See media help.
newborn
(0–3 months old)
infants
(3 – 6 months)
infants
(6 – 12 months)
children
(1 – 10 years)
children over 10 years
& adults, including seniors
well-trained
adult athletes
99-149 89–119 79-119 69–129 59–99 39–59
The pulse rate can be used to check overall heart health and fitness level. Generally lower is better, but bradycardias can be dangerous. Symptoms of a dangerously slow heartbeat include weakness, loss of energy and fainting.[3]
Rhythm[edit]
A normal pulse is regular in rhythm and force. An irregular pulse may be due to sinus arrhythmia, ectopic beats, atrial fibrillation, paroxysmal atrial tachycardia, atrial flutter, partial heart block etc. Intermittent dropping out of beats at pulse is called "intermittent pulse". Examples of regular intermittent (regularly irregular) pulse include pulsus bigeminus, second-degree atrioventricular block. An example of irregular intermittent (irregularly irregular) pulse is atrial fibrillation.
Volume[edit]
The degree of expansion displayed by artery during diastolic and systolic state is called volume. It is also known as amplitude, expansion or size of pulse.
Hypokinetic pulse[edit]
A weak pulse signifies narrow pulse pressure. It may be due to low cardiac output (as seen in shock, congestive cardiac failure), hypovolemia, valvular heart disease (such as aortic outflow tract obstruction, mitral stenosis, aortic arch syndrome) etc.
Hyperkinetic pulse[edit]
A bounding pulse signifies high pulse pressure. It may be due to low peripheral resistance (as seen in fever, anemia, thyrotoxicosis, hyperkinetic heart syndrome (de), A-V fistula, Paget's disease, beriberi, liver cirrhosis), increased cardiac output, increased stroke volume (as seen in anxiety, exercise, complete heart block, aortic regurgitation), decreased distensibility of arterial system (as seen in atherosclerosis, hypertension and coarctation of aorta).
The strength of the pulse can also be reported:[4][5]
0 = Absent
1 = Barely palpable
2 = Easily palpable
3 = Full
4 = Aneurysmal or bounding pulse
Force[edit]
Also known as compressibility of pulse. It is a rough measure of systolic blood pressure.
Tension[edit]
It corresponds to diastolic blood pressure. A low tension pulse (pulsus mollis), the vessel is soft or impalpable between beats. In high tension pulse (pulsus durus), vessels feel rigid even between pulse beats.
Form[edit]
A form or contour of a pulse is palpatiory estimation of arteriogram. A quickly rising and quickly falling pulse (pulsus celer) is seen in aortic regurgitation. A slow rising and slowly falling pulse (pulsus tardus) is seen in aortic stenosis.
Equality[edit]
Comparing pulses and different places gives valuable clinical information.
A discrepant or unequal pulse between left and right radial artery is observed in anomalous or aberrant course of artery, coarctation of aorta, aortitis, dissecting aneurysm, peripheral embolism etc. An unequal pulse between upper and lower extremities is seen in coarctation to aorta, aortitis, block at bifurcation of aorta, dissection of aorta, iatrogenic trauma and arteriosclerotic obstruction.
Condition of arterial wall[edit]
A normal artery is not palpable after flattening by digital pressure. A thick radial artery which is palpable 7.5–10 cm up the forearm is suggestive of arteriosclerosis.
Radio-femoral delay[edit]
In coarctation of aorta, femoral pulse may be significantly delayed as compared to radial pulse (unless there is coexisting aortic regurgitation). The delay can also be observed in supravalvar aortic stenosis.
Patterns[edit]
Several pulse patterns can be of clinically significance. These include:
A dicrotic pulse is characterized by a percussion wave in systole and a prominent dicrotic wave in diastole. Physiologically, the dicrotic wave is the result of reflected waves from the lower extremities and aorta. Conditions associated with low cardiac output and high systemic vascular resistance can produce a dicrotic pulse.[6][7]
Pulsus alternans: an ominous medical sign that indicates progressive systolic heart failure. To trained fingertips, the examiner notes a pattern of a strong pulse followed by a weak pulse over and over again. This pulse signals a flagging effort of the heart to sustain itself in systole.
Pulsus bigeminus: indicates a pair of hoofbeats within each heartbeat. Concurrent auscultation of the heart may reveal a gallop rhythm of the native heartbeat.
Pulsus bisferiens: an unusual physical finding typically seen in patients with aortic valve diseases. If the aortic valve does not normally open and close, trained fingertips will observe two pulses to each heartbeat instead of one.
Pulsus tardus et parvus, also pulsus parvus et tardus, slow-rising pulse and anacrotic pulse, is a pulse with a weak/small (parvus), and late (tardus) relative to its expected characteristics. It is caused by a stiffened aortic valve that makes it progressively harder to open, thus requiring increased generation of blood pressure in the left ventricle. It is seen in aortic valve stenosis.[7][8][9][10]
Pulsus paradoxus: a condition in which some heartbeats cannot be detected at the radial artery during the inspiration phase of respiration. It is caused by an exaggerated decrease in blood pressure during this phase, and is diagnostic of a variety of cardiac and respiratory conditions of varying urgency.
Tachycardia: an elevated resting heart rate. In general an electrocardiogram (ECG) is required to identify the type of tachycardia.
Pulsatile This description of the pulse implies the intrinsic physiology of systole and diastole. Scientifically, systole and diastole are forces that expand and contract the pulmonary and systemic circulations.
A collapsing pulse is a sign of hyperdynamic circulation.
Common palpable sites[edit]
Upper limb[edit]
Front of right upper extremity
Axillary pulse: located inferiorly of the lateral wall of the axilla
Brachial pulse: located on the inside of the upper arm near the elbow, frequently used in place of carotid pulse in infants (brachial artery)
Radial pulse: located on the lateral of the wrist (radial artery). It can also be found in the anatomical snuff box.
Ulnar pulse: located on the medial of the wrist (ulnar artery).
Chinese medicine has focused on the pulse in the upper limbs for several centuries. The concept of pulse diagnosis is essentially a treatise based upon palpation and observations of the radial and ulnar volar pulses at the readily accessible wrist.
Lower limb[edit]
Femoral pulse: located in the inner thigh, at the mid-inguinal point, halfway between the pubic symphysis and anterior superior iliac spine (femoral artery).
Popliteal pulse: Above the knee in the popliteal fossa, found by holding the bent knee. The patient bends the knee at approximately 124°, and the physician holds it in both hands to find the popliteal artery in the pit behind the knee (Popliteal artery).
Dorsalis pedis pulse: located on top of the foot, immediately lateral to the extensor of hallucis longus (dorsalis pedis artery).
Tibialis posterior pulse: located on the medial side of the ankle, 2 cm inferior and 2 cm posterior to the medial malleolus (posterior tibial artery). It is easily palpable over Pimenta's Point.
Head and neck[edit]
Arteries of the neck.
Carotid pulse: located in the neck (carotid artery). The carotid artery should be palpated gently and while the patient is sitting or lying down. Stimulating its baroreceptors with low palpitation can provoke severe bradycardia or even stop the heart in some sensitive persons. Also, a person's two carotid arteries should not be palpated at the same time. Doing so may limit the flow of blood to the head, possibly leading to fainting or brain ischemia. It can be felt between the anterior border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle, above the hyoid bone and lateral to the thyroid cartilage.
Facial pulse: located on the mandible (lower jawbone) on a line with the corners of the mouth (facial artery).
Temporal pulse: located on the temple directly in front of the ear (superficial temporal artery).
Although the pulse can be felt in multiple places in the head, people should not normally hear their heartbeats within the head. This is called pulsatile tinnitus, and it can indicate several medical disorders.
Torso[edit]
Apical pulse: located in the 5th left intercostal space, 1.25 cm lateral to the mid-clavicular line. In contrast with other pulse sites, the apical pulse site is unilateral, and measured not under an artery, but below the heart itself (more specifically, the apex of the heart). See also apex beat.
History[edit]
The first person to accurately measure the pulse rate was Santorio Santorii who invented the pulsilogium, a form of pendulum, based on the work by Galileo Galilei. A century later another physician, de Lacroix, used the pulsilogium to test cardiac function.
See also[edit]
Heart rate
Pulse meter
Tempo
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pulse.
Jump up ^ Temkin 165;BBC[a]
Jump up ^ U.S. Department of Health and Human Services - National Ites of Health Pulse
Jump up ^ "Pulse Rate Measurement". Healthwise. WebMD. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "www.meddean.luc.edu". Retrieved 2009-05-20.
Jump up ^ "Vascular Surgery, University of Kansas School of Medicine". Retrieved 2009-05-20.
Jump up ^ Dennis, Mark; Bowen, William Talbot; Cho, Lucy (2016). Mechanisms of Clinical Signs - EPub3. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 177. ISBN 9780729585613.
^ Jump up to: a b McGee, Steven (2016). Evidence-Based Physical Diagnosis E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 105–106. ISBN 9780323508711.
Jump up ^ Li JC, Yuan Y, Qin W, et al. (April 2007). "Evaluation of the tardus-parvus pattern in patients with atherosclerotic and nonatherosclerotic renal artery stenosis". J Ultrasound Med. 26 (4): 419–26. PMID 17384038.
Jump up ^ Toy, Eugene, et al. Case Files: Internal Medicine. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 2007. Page 43. ISBN 0-07-146303-8.
Jump up ^ Sanders, Roger C.; Winter, Thomas Charles (2007). Clinical Sonography: A Practical Guide. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 219. ISBN 9780781748698.
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text:
V sign
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the V sign of dermatomyositis, see Shawl sign.
Not to be confused with V (symbol).
A Malaysian woman showing the V sign at the 2009 Moscow Spring Fest
The V sign is a hand gesture in which the index and middle fingers are raised and parted, while the other fingers are clenched. It has various meanings, depending on the cultural context and how it is presented.
When displayed with the palm inward towards the signer, it has long been an offensive gesture in some Commonwealth nations. In the 1940s, during the Second World War, a campaign by the Western Allies to use the sign with the back of the hand towards the signer (U+270C ✌ Victory hand[1] in Unicode) as a "V for Victory" sign proved quite effective. During the Vietnam War, in the 1960s, the "V sign" was widely adopted by the counterculture as a symbol of peace. Shortly thereafter, it also became adopted as a gesture used in photographs, especially in Japan.
Contents
[hide]
1 Usage
2 As an insult
2.1 Origins
3 Victory sign
3.1 Second World War: V for Victory campaign
3.2 Vietnam War, victory and peace
4 As a photography pose
4.1 Japan
4.2 Other East Asian countries
4.3 Elsewhere
5 Specific uses
6 Footnotes
7 References
8 External links
Usage[edit]
The meaning of the V sign is partially dependent on the manner in which the hand is positioned:
Singer Robbie Williams using a V sign with palm facing himself as an insult to the observer.
If the palm of the hand faces the signer (i.e., the back of the hand faces the observer), the sign can mean:
An insulting gesture in Australia, the Republic of Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa and the United Kingdom.[2][3]
The number '2' in American Sign Language.
With the back of the hand facing the signer (palm of the hand facing the observer), it can mean:
The number '2'.
Victory – in a setting of wartime or competition. It was first popularised in January 1941 by Victor de Laveleye, a Belgian politician in exile, who suggested it as a symbol of unity in a radio speech and the subsequent "V for Victory" campaign by the BBC.[4] It is sometimes made using both hands with upraised arms as United States President Dwight Eisenhower, and in imitation of him, Richard Nixon, used to do.
American actor Steve McQueen flashing the V sign for a mugshot, after being arrested for drunk driving.
Peace, or friend – used around the world by peace and counter-culture groups; popularized in the American peace movement of the 1960s. The commonality with the symbol's use from the 1940s was its meaning the "end of war".[5]
V (the letter) – used when spelling in American Sign Language.[6]
When used with movement, it can mean:
Air quotes – flexing fingers, palm out, both hands.[7]
This hand shape is also used in a number of signs in many sign languages, including (in American Sign Language) "to look" (with the palm down) or "to see" (palm up). When the pointer and middle fingers are pointed at the signer's eyes then turned and the pointer finger is pointed at someone it means "I am watching you." [8]
The ordinal "second" in American Sign Language has the V-sign palm forward, then the hand turns (yaws) until the palm faces backward.[9]
As an insult[edit]
The use of the V sign ("the forks") as an insulting gesture, including the use of the upwards swing at the elbow.
The insulting version of the gesture (with the palm inwards U+1F594 🖔 Reversed victory hand)[10] is often compared to the offensive gesture known as "the finger". The "two-fingered salute" (also "the forks" in Australia[11]) is commonly performed by flicking the V upwards from wrist or elbow. The V sign, when the palm is facing toward the person giving the sign, has long been an insulting gesture in England,[12] and later in the rest of the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, India, Pakistan and New Zealand.[2] It is frequently used to signify defiance (especially to authority), contempt, or derision.[13]
As an example of the V sign (palm inward) as an insult, on November 1, 1990, The Sun, a British tabloid, ran an article on its front page with the headline "Up Yours, Delors" next to a large hand making a V sign protruding from a Union Jack cuff. The Sun urged its readers to stick two fingers up at then President of the European Commission, Jacques Delors, who had advocated an EU central government. The article attracted a number of complaints about its alleged racism, but the now defunct Press Council rejected the complaints after the editor of The Sun stated that the paper reserved the right to use vulgar abuse in the interests of Britain.[14][15]
On April 3, 2009, Scottish football players Barry Ferguson and Allan McGregor were permanently banned from the Scottish national squad for showing the V sign while sitting on the bench during the game against Iceland. Both players were in their hotel bar drinking alcohol after the Scottish defeat to The Netherlands until around 11 am the next morning, meaning that both of the players breached the SFA discipline code before the incident as well, but the attitude shown by the V sign was considered to be so rude that the SFA decided never to include these players in the national line-up again.[16][17] Ferguson also lost the captaincy of Rangers as a result of the controversy.[18] McGregor's ban was lifted by then SFA manager Craig Levein and he returned to Scotland national squad in 2010.[19][20]
Steve McQueen gives the sign in the closing scene of the 1971 motorsport movie, Le Mans. A still picture of the gesture[21] was recorded by photographer Nigel Snowdon and has become an icon of both McQueen and the film itself. The gesture was also flashed by Spike (played by James Marsters) in "Hush", a Season 4 episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer. The scene was also featured in the series' opening credits for all of Season 5. It was censored by BBC Two only in its early-evening showings of the program.[22][23]
For a time in the UK, "a Harvey (Smith)" became a way of describing the insulting version of the V sign, much as "the word of Cambronne" is used in France, or "the Trudeau salute" is used to describe the one-fingered salute in Canada. This happened because, in 1971, show-jumper Harvey Smith was disqualified for making a televised V sign to the judges after winning the British Show Jumping Derby at Hickstead. His win was reinstated two days later.[24]
Harvey Smith pleaded that he was using a Victory sign, a defence also used by other figures in the public eye.[25] Sometimes foreigners visiting the countries mentioned above use the "two-fingered salute" without knowing it is offensive to the natives, for example when ordering two beers in a noisy pub, or in the case of the United States president George H. W. Bush, who, while touring Australia in 1992, attempted to give a "peace sign" to a group of farmers in Canberra—who were protesting about U.S. farm subsidies—and instead gave the insulting V sign.[26]
Origins[edit]
A commonly repeated legend claims that the two-fingered salute or V sign derives from a gesture made by longbowmen fighting in the English and Welsh[27] archers at the Battle of Agincourt (1415) during the Hundred Years' War, but no historical primary sources support this contention.[28] This origin legend states that archers who were captured by the French had their index and middle fingers cut off so that they could no longer operate their longbows, and that the V sign was used by uncaptured and victorious archers in a display of defiance against the enemy. However, it was common practice in warfare of that period to summarily execute common soldiers, since they held no ransom value.
Alternatively, there is evidence against this interpretation as the chronicler Jean de Wavrin, contemporary of the battle of Agincourt, reports that the captured archers would have three fingers cut, and not two.[29][30] Wielding an English longbow requires three fingers, as is the case for modern bows.[31]
The first unambiguous evidence of the use of the insulting V sign in the United Kingdom dates to 1901, when a worker outside Parkgate ironworks in Rotherham used the gesture (captured on the film) to indicate that he did not like being filmed.[32][33] Peter Opie interviewed children in the 1950s and observed in The Lore and Language of Schoolchildren that the much-older thumbing of the nose (cocking a snook) had been replaced by the V sign as the most common insulting gesture used in the playground.[32]
Between 1975 and 1977 a group of anthropologists including Desmond Morris studied the history and spread of European gestures and found the rude version of the V-sign to be basically unknown outside the British Isles. In his Gestures: Their Origins and Distribution, published in 1979, Morris discussed various possible origins of this sign but came to no definite conclusion:
because of the strong taboo associated with the gesture (its public use has often been heavily penalised). As a result, there is a tendency to shy away from discussing it in detail. It is "known to be dirty" and is passed on from generation to generation by people who simply accept it as a recognised obscenity without bothering to analyse it... Several of the rival claims are equally appealing. The truth is that we will probably never know...[32]
Victory sign[edit]
Second World War: V for Victory campaign[edit]
Winston Churchill, British prime minister, giving a V sign in 1943.
On 14 January 1941, Victor de Laveleye, former Belgian Minister of Justice and director of the Belgian French-language broadcasts on the BBC (1940–44), suggested in a broadcast that Belgians use a V for victoire (French: “victory”) and vrijheid (Dutch: "freedom") as a rallying emblem during the Second World War.
In the BBC broadcast, de Laveleye said that "the occupier, by seeing this sign, always the same, infinitely repeated, [would] understand that he is surrounded, encircled by an immense crowd of citizens eagerly awaiting his first moment of weakness, watching for his first failure." Within weeks chalked up Vs began appearing on walls throughout Belgium, the Netherlands and Northern France.[34]
Buoyed by this success, the BBC started the "V for Victory" campaign, for which they put in charge the assistant news editor Douglas Ritchie posing as “Colonel Britton”. Ritchie suggested an audible V using its Morse code rhythm (three dots and a dash). As the rousing opening bars of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony had the same rhythm, the BBC used this as its call-sign in its foreign language programmes to occupied Europe for the rest of the war. The more musically educated also understood that it was the Fate motif "knocking on the door" of the Third Reich. ( Listen to this call-sign. (help·info)).[34][35] The BBC also encouraged the use of the V gesture introduced by de Laveleye.[36]
By July 1941, the emblematic use of the letter V had spread through occupied Europe. On 19 July, Prime Minister Winston Churchill referred approvingly to the V for Victory campaign in a speech,[37] from which point he started using the V hand sign. Early on he sometimes gestured palm in (sometimes with a cigar between the fingers).[38] Later in the war, he used palm out.[39] After aides explained to the aristocratic Churchill what the palm in gesture meant to other classes, he made sure to use the appropriate sign.[25][40] Yet the double-entendre of the gesture might have contributed to its popularity, "for a simple twist of hand would have presented the dorsal side in a mocking snub to the common enemy".[41] Other allied leaders used the sign as well.
The Germans could not remove all the signs, so adopted the V Sign as a German symbol, sometimes adding laurel leaves under it, painting their own V's on walls, vehicles and adding a massive V on the Eiffel Tower.
In 1942, Aleister Crowley, a British occultist, claimed to have invented the usage of a V-sign in February 1941 as a magical foil to the Nazis' use of the Swastika. He maintained that he passed this to friends at the BBC, and to the British Naval Intelligence Division through his connections in MI5, eventually gaining the approval of Winston Churchill. Crowley noted that his 1913 publication Magick featured a V-sign and a swastika on the same plate.[42]
Resistance graffiti on a Norwegian road, depicting the V-sign together with the initials of King Haakon VII.
A German V-sign and slogan on the Palais Bourbon in occupied Paris. The banner beneath the "V" reads "Germany is Victorious on All Fronts".
The V-sign (and its morse code equivalent) incorporated on an American propaganda poster for the War Production Board, 1942 or 1943.
Vietnam War, victory and peace[edit]
Nixon departing the White House on 9 August 1974
U.S. President Richard Nixon used the gesture to signal victory in the Vietnam War, an act which became one of his best-known trademarks. He also used it on his departure from public office following his resignation in 1974.
Protesters against the Vietnam War (and subsequent anti-war protests) and counterculture activists adopted the gesture as a sign of peace. Because the hippies of the day often flashed this sign (palm out) while saying "Peace", it became popularly known (through association) as the peace sign.[43]
As a photography pose[edit]
Japan[edit]
Young Japanese women giving V gesture in Tokyo (2006)
The V sign, primarily palm-outwards, is very commonly made by Japanese people, especially younger people, when posing for informal photographs, and is known as pīsu sain (ピースサイン, peace sign), or more commonly simply pīsu (ピース, peace). As the name reflects, this dates to the Vietnam War era and anti-war activists, though the precise origin is disputed. The V sign was known in Japan from the post-World War II Allied occupation of Japan, but did not acquire the use in photographs until later.
In Japan, it is generally believed to have been influenced by Beheiren's anti-Vietnam War activists in the late 1960s and Konica's advertisement in 1971.[44][45] A more colorful account of this practice claims it was influenced by the American figure skater Janet Lynn during the 1972 Winter Olympics in Sapporo, Hokkaidō. She fell during a free-skate period, but continued to smile even as she sat on the ice. Though she placed third in the competition, her cheerful diligence and persistence resonated with many Japanese viewers. Lynn became an overnight foreign celebrity in Japan. A peace activist, Lynn frequently flashed the V sign when she was covered in Japanese media, and she is credited by some Japanese for having popularized its use since the 1970s in amateur photographs.[43]
Because of its popularity in Japan, it exists as an Emoji and is in Unicode, as the sequence U+270C, or ✌.
Other East Asian countries[edit]
In Mainland China, Hong Kong, South Korea and Taiwan, the V sign is a popular pose in photographs. It is used in both casual and formal settings. For the most part in these countries, the gesture is divorced from its previous meanings as a peace sign or as an insult; for most the meaning of the sign is "victory" or "yeah", implying a feeling of happiness. It is used in both directions (palm facing the signer and palm facing forward). In certain contexts the sign simply means "two", such as when ordering or boarding a bus.
The pose is gaining significant popularity in South Korea due to the common usage amongst Kpop idols and young people – especially in selfies. V signing is commonly linked with aegyo, a popular trend in Korea meaning 'acting cutely'.
Elsewhere[edit]
An investigator flashes V-for-victory signs upon the 2006 arrival of material gathered by the Stardust spacecraft at the Johnson Space Center in Texas.
In the United States, the usage of the V sign as a photography gesture is known but not widely used. The original poster for the 2003 film What a Girl Wants showed star Amanda Bynes giving a V sign as an American girl visiting London. In the US, the poster was altered to instead show Bynes with both arms down, to avoid giving the perception that the film was criticizing the then-recently commenced Iraq War.[46]
Specific uses[edit]
In Argentina, the V sign, besides "victory", is linked to a political movement, Peronism.
In South Africa after the Nationalist Party won the 1948 election with less voters than the opposition, V's appeared as graffiti representing the word "Volkswil" (will of the people) and questioning thus the results.
University of Southern California, University of Virginia, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, and Villanova University students, alumni, and fans "throw their Vs up" in tradition and as a sign of pride of their university and athletic teams. The V sign in this form frequently accompanies the motto "Fight on!" at USC.
V sign, especially when printed in green, is a sign of the Iranian Green Movement.
After the first elections in Iraq after the U.S. Invasion, a well known photo was circulated of a woman showing the V sign with one of her fingers dipped in purple ink. The ink is used to identify individuals who have already voted.
In Poland during the Solidarity movement, protesters showed the V sign meaning they would defeat Communism.[47] After partially free elections, when Tadeusz Mazowiecki was chosen as prime minister (August 24, 1989), he went to the MPs with the V sign, which was transmitted on TV.[48] It is sometimes shown during debates about the fall of Communism.
In Romania the sign represents victory and has been used as an extension of the Roman salute to announce that victory has been achieved. It was used heavily during the Romanian revolution after the ousting of Nicolae Ceaușescu. Mircea Dinescu is appearing in the first transmission of the Romanian Television after the revolutionaries occupied it shouting "We won!" and flashing the victory sign.
During the Yugoslav Wars, Croatian and Bosnian troops and paramilitary militia used the sign as a greeting or an informal salute. U.S. and NATO peacekeepers stationed in Bosnia were forbidden to use the V-sign (peace symbol) to avoid upsetting or offending Serbs they might encounter.[49]
In Vietnam, the V sign means "hello" since the Vietnamese word for the number "2" sounds like the English pronunciation of the greeting "hi".
Ringo Starr of the Beatles uses the V sign extensively while quoting the phrase "Peace and Love" as a sort of catchphrase.
A variation is to put the V sign with the fingers on either side of the mouth (usually with the knuckles facing the observer) and to stick the tongue out. Most of the time the tongue is wriggled around. This is used to signify cunnilingus and the gesture is often off-colour.
A partially obscured V sign can be added to someone else's head to produce devil's horns or "bunny ears" for an amusing photo. In September 2013, Manu Tuilagi apologised to Prime Minister David Cameron after making a "bunny ears" sign behind his head in a photo taken during a visit by the British and Irish Lions squad to Downing Street.[50]
In Indonesia, candidate of presidential election Joko Widodo use that sign for political campaign. The sign called "Salam Dua Jari".[citation needed]
In Belgium, the New Flemish Alliance (N-VA) political party uses it as a rallying gesture. During the taking the oath of the actual Belgian federal government, three N-VA ministers used the V sign instead of the formal three-fingers sign.[51]
Lech Wałęsa and George H. W. Bush, July 1989
Singer Rihanna using the V sign, 2011.
2009 Iranian election protests
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Victory Hand". emojipedia.org Emojipedia.org.
^ Jump up to: a b V sign as an insult:
UK: Staff. No ban for speeding V-sign biker BBC 14 March 2008
UK: Staff. Two fingers Prescott BBC, 22 May 2001
IE: Staff. Shambolic Irish give two fingers to the past Irish Independent
AU: Keim, Tony (18 November 2008). "Long tradition of flipping the bird". Courier Mail. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
AU: Karl S. Kruszelnicki. Arrow Up Yours & Plague 1 www.abc.net.au. Accessed 23 April 2008
NZ: Glyn Harper Just the Answer Alumni Magazine [Massey University] November 2002.
Jump up ^ Eric Patridge, Tom Dalzell, Terry Victor. (2008.) The Concise New Partridge Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English, Routledge, p. 683. ISBN 0-203-96211-7
Jump up ^ "20th July 1941: 'V for Victory' widespread across Europe". ww2today.com.
Jump up ^ Zelinsky, Nathaniel (18 March 2011). "From Churchill to Libya: How the V symbol went viral". Washington Post. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Staff. American Manual Alphabet Chart Center for Disability Information & Referral (CeDIR), Indiana Institute on Disability and Community at Indiana University
Jump up ^ Gary Martin. "Air quotes". phrases.org.uk.
Jump up ^ ""see" American Sign Language (ASL)". lifeprint.com.
Jump up ^ ""numbers" ASL American Sign Language". lifeprint.com.
Jump up ^ "The Unicode Standard, Version 8.0, range 2700–27BF" (PDF). unicode.org.
Jump up ^ Tony Keim "Long tradition of flipping the bird", Courier Mail, November 18, 2008, accessed April 14, 2011.
Jump up ^ Staff Henry V, British Shakespeare Company.Accessed 23 April 2008
Jump up ^ Defiance, contempt or derision:
Staff, V-sign, encyclopedia.com cites The Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English 2008 "Brit. a similar sign made with the first two fingers pointing up and the back of the hand facing outward, used as a gesture of abuse or contempt." Accessed 9 May 2008.
Staff. Hooligan grandson of legend, Daily Mirror, 20 December 2007
Staff. V-sign led to assault on school bus teens The Press (York), 1 March 2008
Jump up ^ "Up Yours Delors". The Sun. Archived from the original on 2011-10-26. Retrieved 2011-10-31.
Jump up ^ Wheeler, Brian (2005-06-24). "BBC NEWS | Politics | From two jags to two fingers". Newswww.bbc.net.uk. Retrieved 2011-10-31.
Jump up ^ "Finished: Furious Walter tells disgraced pair their Rangers days are over". Daily Mail. London. 3 April 2009.
Jump up ^ Barry Ferguson and Allan McGregor banned for life by Scotland, The Guardian, Friday 3 April 2009
Jump up ^ "Gers strip Ferguson of captaincy". BBC News. 1 January 2007. Retrieved 27 May 2010.
Jump up ^ "Allen McGregor recalled to Scotland squad to face Sweden". The Daily Mail. August 2, 2010. Retrieved 6 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "Sweden 3-0 Scotland". BBC. August 11, 2010. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
Jump up ^ http://stvmcqueen.tripod.com/salute.jpg
Jump up ^ Radar: Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Season 4 – TV Tropes
Jump up ^ Still photograph of the gesture in the Season 5 opening credits of Buffy the Vampire Slayer
Jump up ^ Staff On this Day 15 August 1971: 'V-sign' costs rider victory "BBC The infamous gesture won him an entry in the Chambers dictionary which defined 'a Harvey Smith' as 'a V-sign with the palm inwards, signifying derision and contempt'". Accessed 23 April 2008
^ Jump up to: a b Staff. The V sign, www.icons.org.uk. Accessed 23 April 2008
Jump up ^ Webster Griffin Tarpley and Anton Chaitkin (2004). George Bush: The Unauthorized Biography, Progressive Press paperback edition (2004), p. 651(web link to Chapter -XXV- Thyroid Storm). Tarpley & Chaitkin cite the Washington Post, 3 January 1992.
Jump up ^ "The Hundred Years War: Battle of Agincourt". britishbattles.com.
Jump up ^ David Wilton, Word Myths: Debunking Linguistic Urban Legends, Oxford University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-19-537557-2.
Jump up ^ "Two fingers up to English history…". The BS Historian. 2007-07-02. Retrieved 2017-05-21.
Jump up ^ Wavrin, Jean de (1400?-1474?). A collection of the chronicles and ancient histories of Great Britain, now called England. 2. From A. D. 1399 to A. D. 1422 / by John de Wavrin, lord of Forestel ; transl. by William Hardy,... and Edward L. C. P. Hardy,... London: Longman. p. 203.
Jump up ^ "Traditional English Draw". www.primitivearcher.com. Retrieved 2017-05-21.
^ Jump up to: a b c Staff. The V sign, www.icons.org.uk web.archive.org
Jump up ^ "Parkgate Iron and Steel Co., Rotherham (1901)". YouTube. British Film Institute. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b The V-campaign, Virtual Radiomuseum
Jump up ^ C. Sterling, 2003, Encyclopedia of Radio London: Taylor and Francis, page 359. at Google Books
Jump up ^ "The V sign at BBC's H2G2 website". Bbc.co.uk. 1990-11-01. Retrieved 2011-10-31.
Jump up ^ "Newswatch 1940s". news.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 27 May 2010.
Jump up ^ "Churchill outside Downing Street". Number-10.gov.uk. Archived from the original on December 2, 2007. Retrieved 2011-10-31.
Jump up ^ "Churchill's famous victory sign". Number-10.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 2007-06-13. Retrieved 2011-10-31.
Jump up ^ Staff. "The V Sign". The British Postal Museum & Archive (BPMA).
Jump up ^ James Jerman, Anthony Weir, Images of Lust: Sexual Carvings on Medieval Churches London: Routledge, 2013, page 145.
Jump up ^ Kaczynski, Richard. Perdurabo: The Life of Aleister Crowley. North Atlantic Books, 2010, p. 511.
^ Jump up to: a b Staff. The Japanese Version (the Sign of Peace) ICONS. A portrait of England. Accessed 1 June 2008
Jump up ^ "雑誌に載ったわたし。". 日刊「きのこ」　skipのブログ.
Jump up ^ 1971's buzzwords[permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Ascher-Walsh, Rebecca (Apr 11, 2003). "Sign of the Times". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved February 27, 2014.
Jump up ^ Francisco, Ronald (2010). Collective Action Theory and Empirical Evidence (1 ed.). Springer. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-4419-1475-0. Subtle gestures, noise, and artwork are additional symbolic signs that dissidents use in coercive countries. Poland's Solidarity's signal was two fingers held up in the form of the letter V. This gesture diffused widely in Eastern Europe and now it is used in Palestine as a symbol of unity and nationalism.
Jump up ^ "End to 45 years of Red rule". New Straits Times. 1989-09-13. Retrieved 2012-01-29. Tadeusz Mazowlecki, who nearly fainted during his opening speech, flashed a V-for-victory sign as deputies voted his Cabinet into office by 402–0 with 13 abstentions.
Jump up ^ "A Soldier's Guide: Bosnia-Herzegovina". Dtic.mil. Retrieved 2011-10-31.
Jump up ^ "Manu Tuilagi forced to apologise for playing prank on Prime Minister David Cameron in No 10 visit". Daily Telegraph. 17 September 2013. Retrieved 17 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Prestation de serment: trois N-VA font le 'V', signe de la victoire et de ralliement de leur parti (vidéo)". RTL Newmedia.
References[edit]
Desmond Morris with Peter Collett, Peter Marsh and Marie O'Shaughnessy. Gestures: Their Origins and Distribution. London: Jonathan Cape, 1979. ISBN 0-224-01570-2; NY: Stein and Day, ISBN 0-8128-2607-8
Armstrong, Nancy; Wagner, Melissa (2003). "The 'V'". Field Guide to Gestures: How to Identify and Interpret Virtually Every Gesture Known to Man. Philadelphia: Quirk Books. pp. 227–30. ISBN 978-1-931686-20-4.
Lefevre, Romana (2011). "V". Rude Hand Gestures of the World: A Guide to Offending Without Words. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. pp. 122–3. ISBN 978-0-8118-7807-4.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to V-sign.
Photos of the V sign:
Churchill Outside no. 10
Churchill Victory Sign
Nixon departing office
Paavo Väyrynen after Finnish Centre party named him foreign trade and development minister
Need4Peace
The V sign in the news:
Guardian 6 June 2002: In pictures the V sign
Sky News 18 June 2004: OAP fined £100 for V sign
BBC 3 April 2009: Scottish footballers dropped for V sign
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