text:
Cotton gin
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A model of a 19th-century cotton gin on display at the Eli Whitney Museum in Hamden, Connecticut.
A cotton gin is a machine that quickly and easily separates cotton fibers from their seeds, allowing for much greater productivity than manual cotton separation.[1] The fibers are then processed into various cotton goods such as linens, while any undamaged cotton is used largely for textiles like clothing. Seeds may be used to grow more cotton or to produce cottonseed oil.
Handheld roller gins had been used in the Indian subcontinent since at earliest AD 500 and then in other regions.[2] The Indian worm-gear roller gin, invented some time around the sixteenth century,[3] has, according to Lakwete, remained virtually unchanged up to the present time. A modern mechanical cotton gin was created by American inventor Eli Whitney in 1793 and patented in 1794. Whitney's gin used a combination of a wire screen and small wire hooks to pull the cotton through, while brushes continuously removed the loose cotton lint to prevent jams. It revolutionized the cotton industry in the United States, but also led to the growth of slavery in the American South as the demand for cotton workers rapidly increased. The invention has thus been identified as an inadvertent contributing factor to the outbreak of the American Civil War.[4] Modern automated cotton gins use multiple powered cleaning cylinders and saws, and offer far higher productivity than their hand-powered precursors.[5]
Eli Whitney invented his cotton gin in 1793. He began to work on this project after moving to Georgia in search of work. Given that farmers were desperately searching for a way to make cotton farming profitable, a woman named Catharine Greene provided Whitney with funding to create the first cotton gin. Whitney created two cotton gins: a small one that could be hand cranked and a large one that could be driven by a horse or water power. Thanks to the cotton gin, the amount of raw cotton yielded doubled each decade after 1800.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Purpose
1.2 Early cotton gins
1.3 Mughal India
1.4 United States
1.5 Eli Whitney's patent
1.6 McCarthy's gin
1.7 Effects in the United States
2 Modern cotton gins
3 References
4 Bibliography
5 External links
History[edit]
"The First Cotton Gin", an engraving from Harper's Magazine, 1869. This carving depicts a roller gin, which preceded Eli Whitney's invention.[6]
The Ajanta caves of India yield evidence of a single-roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century. This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made in the form of foot powered gins. The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as a charkhi, more technically the "wooden-worm-worked roller". This mechanical device was, in some parts of India, driven by water power.[citation needed]
Purpose[edit]
Cotton fibers are produced in the seed pods ("bolls") of the cotton plant where the fibers ("lint") in the bolls are tightly interwoven with seeds. To make the fibers usable, the seeds and fibers must first be separated, a task which had been previously performed manually, with production of cotton requiring hours of labor for the separation. Many simple seed-removing devices had been invented, but until the innovation of the cotton gin, most required significant operator attention and worked only on a small scale.[7]
Early cotton gins[edit]
The earliest versions of the cotton gin, which were the size of a small printer, consisted of a single roller made of iron or wood and a flat piece of stone or wood. Evidence for this type of gin has been found in Africa, Asia, and North America. The first documentation of the cotton gin by contemporary scholars is found in the fifth century AD, in the form of Buddhist paintings depicting a single-roller gin in the Ajanta Caves in western India.[2] These early gins were difficult to use and required a great deal of skill. A narrow single roller was necessary to expel the seeds from the cotton without crushing the seeds. The design was similar to that of a mealing stone, which was used to grind grain. The early history of the cotton gin is ambiguous, because archeologists likely mistook the cotton gin's parts for other tools.[2]
Between the 12th and 14th centuries, dual-roller gins appeared in India and China. The Indian version of the dual-roller gin was prevalent throughout the Mediterranean cotton trade by the 16th century. This mechanical device was, in some areas, driven by water power.[8]
Mughal India[edit]
Main article: Mughal Empire
The worm gear roller gin, which was invented in the Indian subcontinent during the early Delhi Sultanate era of the 13th–14th centuries, came into use in the Mughal Empire some time around the 16th century,[9] and is still used in the Indian subcontinent through to the present day.[2] Another innovation, the incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin, first appeared some time during the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire.[10] The incorporation of the worm gear and crank handle into the roller cotton gin led to greatly expanded Indian cotton textile production during the Mughal era.[11]
It was reported that, with an Indian cotton gin, which is half machine and half tool, one man and one woman could clean 28 pounds of cotton per day. With a modified Forbes version, one man and a boy could produce 250 pounds per day. If oxen were used to power 16 of these machines, and a few people's labour was used to feed them, they could produce as much work as 750 people did formerly.[12]
United States[edit]
The Indian roller cotton gin, known as the churka or charkha, was introduced to the United States in the mid-18th century, when it was adopted in the southern United States. The device was adopted for cleaning long-staple cotton, but was not suitable for the short-staple cotton that was more common in certain states such as Georgia. Several modifications were made to the Indian roller gin by Mr. Krebs in 1772 and Joseph Eve in 1788, but their uses remained limited to the long-staple variety, up until Eli Whitney's development of a short-staple cotton gin in 1793.[13]
Eli Whitney's patent[edit]
Eli Whitney's original cotton gin patent, dated March 14, 1794.
Eli Whitney (1765–1825) applied for a patent of his cotton gin on October 28, 1793; the patent was granted on March 14, 1794, but was not validated until 1807. Whitney's patent was assigned patent number 72X.[14] There is slight controversy over whether the idea of the modern cotton gin and its constituent elements are correctly attributed to Eli Whitney. The popular image of Whitney inventing the cotton gin is attributed to an article on the subject written in the early 1870s and later reprinted in 1910 in The Library of Southern Literature. In this article, the author claimed Catharine Littlefield Greene suggested to Whitney the use of a brush-like component instrumental in separating out the seeds and cotton. To date, Greene's role in the invention of the gin has not been verified independently.[15]
Whitney's cotton gin model was capable of cleaning 50 pounds (23 kg) of lint per day. The model consisted of a wooden cylinder surrounded by rows of slender spikes, which pulled the lint through the bars of a comb-like grid.[16] The grids were closely spaced, preventing the seeds from passing through. Loose cotton was brushed off, preventing the mechanism from jamming.
Many contemporary inventors attempted to develop a design that would process short staple cotton, and Hodgen Holmes, Robert Watkins, William Longstreet, and John Murray had all been issued patents for improvements to the cotton gin by 1796.[17] However, the evidence indicates Whitney did invent the saw gin, for which he is famous. Although he spent many years in court attempting to enforce his patent against planters who made unauthorized copies, a change in patent law ultimately made his claim legally enforceable – too late for him to make much money from the device in the single year remaining before the patent expired.[18]
McCarthy's gin[edit]
While Whitney's gin facilitated the cleaning of seeds from short-staple cotton, it damaged the fibers of (extra-long staple) cotton (Gossypium barbadense). In 1840 Fones McCarthy received a patent for a "Smooth Cylinder Cotton-gin", a roller gin. McCarthy's gin was marketed for use with both short-staple and extra-long staple cotton, but was particularly useful for processing long-staple cotton. After McCarthy's patent expired in 1861, McCarthy type gins were manufactured in Britain and sold around the world.[19] McCarthy's gin was adopted for cleaning the Sea Island variety of extra-long staple cotton grown in Florida, Georgia and South Carolina. It cleaned cotton several times faster than the older gins, and, when powered by one horse, produced 150 to 200 pounds of lint a day.[20] The McCarthy gin used a reciprocating knife to detach seed from the lint. Vibration caused by the reciprocating motion limited the speed at which the gin could operate. In the middle of the 20th Century gins using a rotating blade replaced ones using a reciprocating blade. These descendants of the McCarthy gin are the only gins now used for extra-long staple cotton in the United States.[21]
Effects in the United States[edit]
cotton gin at Jarrell Plantation
Prior to the introduction of the mechanical cotton gin, cotton had required considerable labor to clean and separate the fibers from the seeds.[22] With Eli Whitney’s gin, cotton became a tremendously profitable business, creating many fortunes in the Antebellum South. Cities such as New Orleans, Louisiana; Mobile, Alabama; Charleston, South Carolina; and Galveston, Texas became major shipping ports, deriving substantial economic benefit from cotton raised throughout the South. Additionally, the greatly expanded supply of cotton created strong demand for textile machinery and improved machine designs that replaced wooden parts with metal. This led to the invention of many machine tools in the early 19th century.[1]
The invention of the cotton gin caused massive growth in the production of cotton in the United States, concentrated mostly in the South. Cotton production expanded from 750,000 bales in 1830 to 2.85 million bales in 1850. As a result, the region became even more dependent on plantations and slavery, with plantation agriculture becoming the largest sector of its economy.[23] While it took a single slave about ten hours to separate a single pound of fiber from the seeds, a team of two or three slaves using a cotton gin could produce around fifty pounds of cotton in just one day.[24] The number of slaves rose in concert with the increase in cotton production, increasing from around 700,000 in 1790 to around 3.2 million in 1850.[25] By 1860, black slave labor from the American South was providing two-thirds of the world’s supply of cotton, and up to 80% of the crucial British market.[26] The cotton gin thus “transformed cotton as a crop and the American South into the globe's first agricultural powerhouse".[27]
An 1896 advertisement for the Lummus cotton gin.
Because of its inadvertent effect on American slavery, and on its ensuring that the South's economy developed in the direction of plantation-based agriculture (while encouraging the growth of the textile industry elsewhere, such as in the North), the invention of the cotton gin is frequently cited as one of the indirect causes of the American Civil War.[4][28][29]
Modern cotton gins[edit]
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Diagram of a modern cotton gin plant, displaying numerous stages of production
Modern cotton gins
In modern cotton production, cotton arrives at industrial cotton gins either in trailers, in compressed rectangular "modules" weighing up to 10 metric tons each or in polyethylene wrapped round modules similar to a bale of hay produced during the picking process by the most recent generation of cotton pickers. Cotton arriving at the gin is sucked in via a pipe, approximately 16 inches (41 cm) in diameter, that is swung over the cotton. This pipe is usually manually operated, but is increasingly automated in modern cotton plants. The need for trailers to haul the product to the gin has been drastically reduced since the introduction of modules. If the cotton is shipped in modules, the module feeder breaks the modules apart using spiked rollers and extracts the largest pieces of foreign material from the cotton. The module feeder's loose cotton is then sucked into the same starting point as the trailer cotton.
The cotton then enters a dryer, which removes excess moisture.The cylinder cleaner uses six or seven rotating, spiked cylinders to break up large clumps of cotton. Finer foreign material, such as soil and leaves, passes through rods or screens for removal. The stick machine uses centrifugal force to remove larger foreign matter, such as sticks and burrs, while the cotton is held by rapidly rotating saw cylinders.
The gin stand uses the teeth of rotating saws to pull the cotton through a series of "ginning ribs", which pull the fibers from the seeds which are too large to pass through the ribs. The cleaned seed is then removed from the gin via an auger conveyor system. The seed is reused for planting or is sent to an oil mill to be further processed into cottonseed oil and cottonseed meal. The lint cleaners again use saws and grid bars, this time to separate immature seeds and any remaining foreign matter from the fibers. The bale press then compresses the cotton into bales for storage and shipping. Modern gins can process up to 15 tonnes (33,000 lb) of cotton per hour.
Modern cotton gins create a substantial amount of cotton gin residue (CGR) consisting of sticks, leaves, dirt, immature bolls, and cottonseed. Research is currently under way to investigate the use of this waste in producing ethanol. Due to fluctuations in the chemical composition in processing, there is difficulty in creating a consistent ethanol process, but there is potential to further maximize the utilization of waste in the cotton production.[30][5]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916), English and American Tool Builders, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, LCCN 16011753 . Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (LCCN 27-24075); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois, (ISBN 978-0-917914-73-7).
^ Jump up to: a b c d Lakwete, 1–6.
Jump up ^ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53&lpg=PA53&dq=Worm-Gear+Gin+India&source=bl&ots=5BkhW9ZBsQ&sig=J4OAypTaUv3Tu7nZMsk0Y9Yhqvo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiq4p_85ubLAhUJuBoKHQnsDyUQ6AEIcDAR#v=onepage&q=Worm-Gear%20Gin%20India&f=false
^ Jump up to: a b Kelly, Martin. "Top Five Causes of the Civil War: Leading up to Secession and the Civil War". About.com. Retrieved March 14, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b inventors.about.com; "Background on the Cotton Gin", retrieved October 22, 2010.
Jump up ^ Lakwete, 182.
Jump up ^ Bellis, Mary. inventors.about.com; "The Cotton Gin and Eli Whitney", retrieved March 12, 2012.
Jump up ^ Baber, Zaheer (1996). The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 57. ISBN 0-7914-2919-9.
Jump up ^ Irfan Habib (2011), Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500, page 53, Pearson Education
Jump up ^ Irfan Habib (2011), Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500, pages 53-54, Pearson Education
Jump up ^ Irfan Habib (2011), Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500, page 54, Pearson Education
Jump up ^ Karl Marx (1867). Chapter 16: "Machinery and Large-Scale Industry." Das Kapital.
Jump up ^ Hargrett, Elizabeth; Dobbs, Chris (6 June 2017). "Cotton Gins". New Georgia Encyclopedia.
Jump up ^ http://inventors.about.com/od/cstartinventions/ss/patent_X72.htm
Jump up ^ "Catharine Littlefield Greene, Brain Behind the Cotton Gin". Finding Dulcinea. March 4, 2010. Retrieved November 6, 2013.
Jump up ^ Harr, M. E. (1977). Mechanics of particulate media: A probabilistic approach. McGraw-Hill.
Jump up ^ Lakwete, 64–76.
Jump up ^ The American Historical Review by Henry Eldridge Bourne, Robert Livingston Schuyler Editors: 1895 – July 1928; J.F. Jameson and others.; Oct. 1928–Apr. 1936, H.E. Bourne and others; July 1936–Apr. 1941, R.L. Schuyler and others; July 1941– G.S. Ford and others. Published 1991, American Historical Association [etc.], pp 90–101.
Jump up ^ Lakwete, Angela. "Fones McCarthy". Encyclopedia of Alabama. Auburn University. Retrieved 13 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Shofner, Jerrel H.; Rogers, William Warren (April 1962). "Sea Island Cotton in Ante-Bellum Florida". The Florida Historical Quarterly. 40 (4): 378–79.
Jump up ^ Gillum, Marvis M.; Van Doorn, D. W.; Norman, B.M.; Owen, Charles (1994). "Roller Ginning". In Anthony, Stanley W.; Mayfield, William D. Cotton Ginner's Handbook. United States Department of Agriculture. p. 244. Retrieved 13 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Hamner, Christopher. teachinghistory.org, "The Disaster of Innovation", retrieved July 11, 2011.
Jump up ^ Pierson, Parke (September 2009). "Seeds of conflict". America's Civil War. 22 (4): 25.
Jump up ^ Woods, Robert (September 1, 2009). “A Turn of the Crank Started the Civil War." Mechanical Engineering.
Jump up ^ Smith, N. Jeremy (July 2009). "Making Cotton King". World Trade. 22 (7): 82.
Jump up ^ "Cotton – a history". New Internationalist. 399: 18–19. April 2007.
Jump up ^ Underhill, Paco (2008). "The cotton gin, oil, robots and the store of 2020". Display & Design Ideas. 20 (10): 48.
Jump up ^ Joe Ryan. "What Caused the American Civil War?" AmericanCivilWar.com. Retrieved March 14, 2011.
Jump up ^ Randy Golden, "Causes of the Civil War". About North Georgia. Retrieved March 14, 2011.
Jump up ^ https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4612-0057-4_17
Bibliography[edit]
Lakwete, Angela (2003). Inventing the Cotton Gin: Machine and Myth in Antebellum America. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9780801873942.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cotton gins.
Library resources about
Cotton gin
Online books
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Resources in other libraries
Overview of a Cotton Gin – USDA site
The Story of Cotton – National Cotton Council of America site
National Cotton Ginners Association
US Cotton Gin Industry – EH.Net Encyclopedia of Economic History
Invention of Cotton Gin – eHistory.com
Cotton: the fiber of life – includes a schematic diagram illustrating the seed removal process
Video of manual cotton gin in operation via YouTube
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Tropical rainforest climate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Worldwide zones of Tropical rainforest climate (Af).
A tropical rainforest climate, also known as an equatorial climate, is a tropical climate usually (but not always) found along the equator. Regions with this climate typically feature tropical rainforests, and it is designated Af by the Köppen climate classification.
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 Distribution
3 Notable cities with Tropical rainforest climates
4 Examples
5 See also
6 References
Description[edit]
Tropical rainforests have a type of tropical climate in which there is no dry season—all months have an average precipitation value of at least 60 mm (2.4 in). Tropical rainforests have no summer or winter; it is typically hot and wet throughout the year and rainfall is both heavy and frequent. One day in an equatorial climate can be very similar to the next, while the change in temperature between day and night may be larger than the average change in temperature during the year.[1]
Distribution[edit]
Upland rainforest in Borneo. Sabah, Malaysia
A tropical rainforest climate is usually found at latitudes within 10 degrees North and South of the equator, which are dominated by the Intertropical Convergence Zone. The climate is most commonly found in South America, Central Africa, Southeast Asia and Oceania. However, tropical rainforest microclimates are found in many other regions (e.g., far North Queensland), while not everywhere along the equatorial region features a tropical rainforest climate.
Some of the places that have these rainforests are indeed uniformly and monotonously wet throughout the year (e.g., the northwest Pacific coast of South and Central America, from Ecuador to Costa Rica, see for instance, Andagoya, Colombia), but in many cases the period of higher sun and longer days is distinctly wetter (as at Palembang, Indonesia).
Additionally, while tropical rainforest climates are typically located near the equator (hence the alternate name “equatorial climate”), there are a number of instances where the climate is found some distance away from the equator. For instance, Santos, Brazil and Fort Lauderdale, United States are not only far removed from the equator, but are actually located just outside the tropics. Yet both of these cities feature a tropical rainforest climate, albeit with noticeably cooler and warmer periods of the year.
Notable cities with Tropical rainforest climates[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Africa
Kribi, Cameroon
Moroni, Comoros
Kisumu, Kenya
Harper, Liberia
Antalaha, Madagascar
Manakara, Madagascar
Toamasina, Madagascar
Kampala, Uganda
North America
Punta Gorda, Belize
Limón, Costa Rica
Higüey, Dominican Republic
Puerto Barrios, Guatemala
La Ceiba, Honduras
Port Antonio, Jamaica
Bluefields, Nicaragua
Changuinola, Panama
Freeport, The Bahamas
West Palm Beach, Florida, United States
South America
Rurrenabaque, Bolivia
Belém, Brazil
Macaé, Brazil
Salvador, Brazil
Florencia, Colombia
Medellín, Colombia
Puyo, Ecuador
Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni, French Guiana
Georgetown, Guyana
Iquitos, Peru
Paramaribo, Suriname
Santa Elena de Uairén, Venezuela
Asia
Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei
Hualien, Taiwan
Jayapura, Indonesia
Padang, Indonesia
Tangerang, Indonesia
Johor Bahru, Malaysia
Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia
Malacca City, Malaysia
Singapore
Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
Su-ngai Kolok, Thailand
Davao City, Philippines
Polomolok, Philippines
Tacloban, Leyte, Philippines
Colombo, Sri Lanka
Ishigaki, Japan
Oceania
Innisfail, Australia
Suva, Fiji
Tabubil, Papua New Guinea
Lae, Papua New Guinea
Honiara, Solomon Islands
Apia, Samoa
Pago Pago, American Samoa
Port Vila, Vanuatu
Funafuti, Tuvalu
Nuku’alofa, Tonga
Majuro, Marshall Islands
Palikir, Federated States of Micronesia
Tarawa, Kiribati
Examples[edit]
Western Samoa
Climate chart (explanation)
J F M A M J J A S O N D
450
30
23
380
29
24
350
30
23
250
30
23
260
29
23
120
29
23
80
29
23
80
28
23
130
28
23
170
29
23
260
30
23
370
29
23
Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
Precipitation totals in mm
Source: [1]
[show]Imperial conversion
J F M A M J J A S O N D
18
86
73
15
84
75
14
86
73
9.8
86
73
10
84
73
4.7
84
73
3.1
84
73
3.1
82
73
5.1
82
73
6.7
84
73
10
86
73
15
84
73
Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
Precipitation totals in inches
Paramaribo, Suriname
Climate chart (explanation)
J F M A M J J A S O N D
200
30
22
140
30
22
150
30
22
210
31
22
290
30
23
290
31
22
230
31
22
170
32
23
90
32
23
90
33
23
120
32
23
180
30
22
Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
Precipitation totals in mm
Source: [2]
[show]Imperial conversion
J F M A M J J A S O N D
7.9
86
72
5.5
86
72
5.9
86
72
8.3
88
72
11
86
73
11
88
72
9.1
88
72
6.7
90
73
3.5
90
73
3.5
91
73
4.7
90
73
7.1
86
72
Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
Precipitation totals in inches
Mbandaka, DR Congo
Climate chart (explanation)
J F M A M J J A S O N D
80
31
19
100
32
20
150
32
20
140
31
20
130
31
20
110
30
19
100
30
17
100
29
17
200
30
19
210
30
19
190
30
19
120
30
19
Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
Precipitation totals in mm
Source: [3]
[show]Imperial conversion
J F M A M J J A S O N D
3.1
88
66
3.9
90
68
5.9
90
68
5.5
88
68
5.1
88
68
4.3
86
66
3.9
86
63
3.9
84
63
7.9
86
66
8.3
86
66
7.5
86
66
4.7
86
66
Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
Precipitation totals in inches
Biak, Indonesia
Climate chart (explanation)
J F M A M J J A S O N D
250
29
25
240
28
25
250
29
25
200
29
25
250
29
25
230
29
25
250
28
25
240
29
25
220
29
25
180
29
25
190
30
25
230
29
25
Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
Precipitation totals in mm
Source: [4]
[show]Imperial conversion
J F M A M J J A S O N D
9.8
84
77
9.4
82
77
9.8
84
77
7.9
84
77
9.8
84
77
9.1
84
77
9.8
82
77
9.4
84
77
8.7
84
77
7.1
84
77
7.5
86
77
9.1
84
77
Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
Precipitation totals in inches
Kuching, Malaysia
Climate chart (explanation)
J F M A M J J A S O N D
466
30
23
445
29
23
465
30
23
251
32
23
347
33
24
310
32
23
184
31
23
326
32
23
208
32
23
307
32
23
482
32
24
516
30
23
Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
Precipitation totals in mm
Source: Monthly Statistical Bulletin Sarawak
[show]Imperial conversion
J F M A M J J A S O N D
18
87
73
18
84
74
18
87
73
9.9
90
74
14
91
74
12
89
73
7.2
88
74
13
89
73
8.2
90
74
12
89
74
19
89
74
20
87
74
Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
Precipitation totals in inches
Quibdó, Colombia
Climate chart (explanation)
J F M A M J J A S O N D
579
30
23
505
30
23
526
30
23
655
31
23
776
31
23
762
31
23
803
31
23
852
31
23
702
31
23
654
30
23
728
30
23
589
30
23
Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
Precipitation totals in mm
Source: [5]
[show]Imperial conversion
J F M A M J J A S O N D
23
86
73
20
86
74
21
87
74
26
87
74
31
88
74
30
88
73
32
88
73
34
88
73
28
87
73
26
87
73
29
86
73
23
85
73
Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
Precipitation totals in inches
See also[edit]
Tropics
Köppen climate classification
References[edit]
Jump up ^ McKnight, Tom L; Hess, Darrel (2000). "Climate Zones and Types". Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pretice Hall. pp. 205–8. ISBN 0-13-020263-0.
[show]
v
t
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Climate types under the Köppen climate classification
Class A
Tropical rainforest (Af)
Tropical monsoon (Am)
Tropical savanna (Aw, As)
Class B
Desert (BWh, BWk, BWn)
Semi-arid (BSh, BSk, BSn)
Class C
Humid subtropical (Cfa, Cwa)
Oceanic (Cfb, Cwb, Cfc, Cwc)
Mediterranean (Csa, Csb, Csc)
Class D
Humid continental (Dfa, Dwa, Dfb, Dwb, Dsa, Dsb)
Subarctic (Dfc, Dwc, Dfd, Dwd, Dsc, Dsd)
Class E
Tundra (ET)
Ice cap (EF)
Alpine (ET, EF)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tropical_rainforest_climate&oldid=837534576"
Categories:
Climate
Köppen climate classifications
Rainforests
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
Tropical rainforests
Tropics
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The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Real Housewives of
Beverly Hills
Genre
Reality
Starring
Taylor Armstrong
Camille Grammer
Adrienne Maloof
Kim Richards
Kyle Richards
Lisa Vanderpump
Brandi Glanville
Yolanda Hadid
Carlton Gebbia
Joyce Giraud de Ohoven
Eileen Davidson
Lisa Rinna
Erika Girardi
Kathryn Edwards
Dorit Kemsley
Teddi Mellencamp Arroyave
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
8
No. of episodes
172 (list of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Alex Baskin
Dave Rupel
Douglas Ross
Christopher Cullen
Toni Gallagher
Producer(s)
Christopher Cullen
Anthony McLemore
Ken Schoech
Kimberly Goodman
Juile Murphy
Sally-Anne King
Camera setup
Multiple
Running time
41–43 minutes
Production company(s)
Evolution Media
Distributor
NBCUniversal International Television Production
Release
Original network
Bravo
Picture format
NTSC (480i)
HDTV (1080i)
Original release
October 14, 2010 (2010-10-14) – present
Chronology
Preceded by
The Real Housewives of D.C.
Followed by
The Real Housewives of Miami
Related shows
Vanderpump Rules
Vanderpump Rules After Show
External links
Website
The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills (abbreviated RHOBH) is an American reality television series that premiered on October 14, 2010 on Bravo. Developed as the sixth installment of The Real Housewives franchise following The Real Housewives of Orange County, New York City, Atlanta, New Jersey and D.C., it has aired eight seasons and focuses on the personal and professional lives of several women residing in Beverly Hills, California.[1]
The series originally focused on Taylor Armstrong, Camille Grammer, Adrienne Maloof, Kim Richards, Kyle Richards and Lisa Vanderpump. The cast currently consists of Kyle Richards, Vanderpump, Lisa Rinna, Erika Girardi, Dorit Kemsley and Teddi Mellencamp Arroyave. Of the original housewives, Grammer left after the second season, Armstrong and Maloof left after the third, and Kim Richards left after the fifth. The remaining housewives joined in later seasons: Rinna in the fifth, Girardi in the sixth, Kemsley in the seventh and Mellencamp Arroyave in the eighth. Other housewives include Brandi Glanville (seasons 3–5), Yolanda Hadid (seasons 3–6), Carlton Gebbia (season 4), Joyce Giraud de Ohoven (season 4), Eileen Davidson (seasons 5–7), and Kathryn Edwards (season 6).
The success of the show has resulted in the conception of the spin-off Vanderpump Rules.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview and casting
1.1 Season 1–4
1.2 Season 5–present
1.3 Timeline of housewives
2 Episodes
3 References
4 External links
Overview and casting[edit]
Season 1–4[edit]
The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills was announced in March 2010 as the sixth installment of The Real Housewives franchise.[2] The first season premiered on October 14, 2010, and starred Kim Richards, Kyle Richards, Adrienne Maloof, Lisa Vanderpump, Camille Grammer and Taylor Armstrong.[3] The series received a 2011 Critics Choice Award for best reality series.[4]
The second season premiered on September 5, 2011, with Brandi Glanville and Dana Wilkey introduced as a friend of the housewives.[5] The second season was re-edited after the death of Taylor Armstrong's husband, Russell Armstrong, who committed suicide on August 15, 2011.[6] Grammer left the main cast after the second season.
The third season aired on November 5, 2012. Glanville was upgraded to main housewife and Yolanda Foster was added to the series. Marisa Zanuck and Faye Resnick were introduced as a friend of the housewives and Grammer held the same title.[7][8] Adrienne Maloof did not return for the fourth season after she didn't attend the season three reunion.[9]
The fourth season premiered on November 4, 2013 with Carlton Gebbia and Joyce Giraud de Ohoven joining the cast. While Armstrong was demoted to a guest role.[10][11] Giraud and Gebbia were not asked after the fourth season.[12]
Season 5–present[edit]
The fifth season premiered on November 18, 2014 featuring Lisa Rinna and Eileen Davidson as the new housewives.[13] Maloof, Grammer and Armstrong appeared in the season as guests.[14] Kim Richards and Glanville were not asked back for the sixth season as regular cast members.[15][16]
Erika Girardi and Kathryn Edwards joined the show's sixth season which premiered on December 1, 2015. Kim Richards, Grammer, Armstrong, Resnick, Maloof and Glanville returned in guest appearances, alongside Bethenny Frankel of The Real Housewives of New York City.[17] The season served as the final season for Hadid and Edwards.[18][19]
The seventh season premiered on December 6, 2016 with new cast member, Dorit Kemsley. Eden Sassoon, Kim Richards and Grammer appeared in a recurring capacity.[20] Davidson and Sassoon left the series after the seventh season.[21][22]
The eighth season premiered on December 19, 2017, with the addition of Teddi Mellencamp Arroyave. Grammer returned in a friend of capacity, while Davidson, Resnick and Maloof appeared as guests.[23][24]
In April 2018, the show was renewed for a ninth season.[25]
Timeline of housewives[edit]
Taylor Armstrong
Adrienne Maloof
Kyle Richards
Lisa Vanderpump
Yolanda Hadid
Faye Resnick (left)
Joyce Giraud de Ohoven
Eileen Davidson
Lisa Rinna
Housewives
Seasons
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Taylor Armstrong Main Guest
Camille Grammer Main Friend Guest Friend
Adrienne Maloof Main Guest Guest
Kim Richards Main Guest
Kyle Richards Main
Lisa Vanderpump Main
Brandi Glanville Friend Main Guest
Yolanda Hadid Main
Carlton Gebbia Main
Joyce Giraud de Ohoven Main
Eileen Davidson Main Guest
Lisa Rinna Guest Main
Kathryn Edwards Main
Erika Girardi Main
Dorit Kemsley Main
Teddi Mellencamp Arroyave Main
Friends of the housewives
Dana Wilkey Guest Friend Guest
Faye Resnick Guest Friend Guest Guest
Marisa Zanuck Friend
Eden Sassoon Friend
Episodes[edit]
Main article: List of The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills episodes
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
First aired
Last aired
1 17 October 14, 2010 February 15, 2011
2 24 September 5, 2011 February 16, 2012
3 22 November 5, 2012 April 8, 2013
4 23 November 4, 2013 April 7, 2014
5 23 November 18, 2014 April 21, 2015
6 24 December 1, 2015 May 10, 2016
7 21 December 6, 2016 April 25, 2017
8 21 December 19, 2017 May 8, 2018
References[edit]
Jump up ^ LaPorte, Nicole (December 15, 2010). "Real Housewives of Beverly Hills: 8 Secrets". The Daily Beast. Retrieved June 27, 2015. None of the Housewives technically live in Beverly Hills.
Jump up ^ Gorman, Bill (March 10, 2010). "Bravo Adds Fifth Night Of Programming, Boosting Original Hours By 20%". TV by the Numbers (Press release). Retrieved August 25, 2013.
Jump up ^ Seidman, Robert (October 15, 2010). "Thursday Cable Ratings: Jersey Shore Still Down From Highs, But Still Highest + It's Always Sunny, The League, Project Runway + More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved May 29, 2013.
Jump up ^ "The Glitz and Glamour Returns With Bravo's "The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills" Season 2 Premiering Monday, September 5, at 9PM ET/PT". The Futon Critic (Press release). July 27, 2011. Retrieved August 25, 2013.
Jump up ^ Nededog, Jethro (July 27, 2011). "'Real Housewives of Beverly Hills' Gets a Premiere Date and Two 'Unofficial' New Cast Members". The Hollywood Reporter. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved May 29, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Source: Bravo Will Delay Premiere of 'Real Housewives' in Wake of Armstrong Death". The Hollywood Reporter. Prometheus Global Media. August 18, 2011. Retrieved February 28, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Meet the New Housewives of Beverly Hills in Season 3 Sneak Peek!". Us Weekly. Wenner Media LLC. September 20, 2012. Retrieved November 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ Harper, Jen (September 21, 2012). "'Real Housewives of Beverly Hills' Season 3 trailer brings the drama and the new ladies". Zap2it. Retrieved May 29, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Adrienne Maloof Skipping Real Housewives of Beverly Hills Reunion Taping". Us Weekly. Wenner Media LLC. March 1, 2013. Retrieved March 2, 2013.
Jump up ^ Jenna Mullins; Melanie Bromley (June 21, 2013). "Real Housewives of Beverly Hills: Carlton Gebbia And Joyce Giraud In, Taylor Armstrong Out?". E! Online. NBCUniversal. Retrieved June 22, 2013.
Jump up ^ Bibel, Sara (September 18, 2013). "Bravo Sets November Premiere Dates for 'Real Housewives of Beverly Hills & Atlanta', 'Shahs of Sunset', 'Thicker Than Water' & More". TV by the Numbers (Press release).
Jump up ^ Madeline, Boardman (June 27, 2014). "Kyle Richards Officially Returning to Real Housewives of Beverly Hills, "Not Going to Miss" Carlton Gebbia". Us Weekly. Wenner Media LLC. Retrieved June 27, 2014.
Jump up ^ Harnick, Chris (November 18, 2014). "The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills Returns with Reunions, Remorse and (Lisa) Rinna". E! Online. NBCUniversal. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
Jump up ^ Huggins, Sarah (November 19, 2014). "Camille Grammer, Adrienne Maloof and Taylor Armstrong return to 'RHOBH' Season 5 and all is right in the world". Zap2it. Retrieved January 26, 2015.
Jump up ^ Us Weekly Staff (June 4, 2015). "Kim Richards Not Returning to Real Housewives of Beverly Hills". Us Weekly. Wenner Media LLC. Wenner Media LLC. Retrieved June 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ Takeda, Allison (June 24, 2015). "Brandi Glanville Confirms Real Housewives of Beverly Hills Exit: It's Been a "Roller Coaster"". Us Weekly. Wenner Media LLC. Retrieved June 24, 2015.
Jump up ^ Vena, Joceylyn (November 5, 2015). "Real Housewives of Beverly Hills Welcomes Two New 'Wives: Get a First Look at Season 6". Bravo Media. NBCUniversal. Retrieved November 5, 2015.
Jump up ^ Harnick, Chris (June 15, 2016). "Yolanda Hadid Leaving The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills". E! News. United States: NBCUniversal. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ "'Kathryn Edwards Will Not Be Returning to Real Housewives of Beverly Hills". People. July 7, 2016. Retrieved 7 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Bravo. November 1, 2016 http://www.bravotv.com/the-daily-dish/the-real-housewives-of-beverly-hills-season-7-premiere-date-trailer. Retrieved November 1, 2016. More than one of |URL= and |url= specified (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ Bricker, Tierney (May 3, 2017). "Eden Sassoon Not Returning to RHOBH: #Grateful". E! Online. United States: NBCUniversal. Retrieved May 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Eileen Davidson Off The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills". Soap Opera Digest. United States: American Media, Inc. Odyssey Magazine Publishing Group Inc. June 7, 2017. Retrieved June 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ Quinn, Dave (November 16, 2017). "'You Have to Cut the Head Off the Devil!' War Erupts on RHOBH Season 8 Trailer". People. United States: Time Inc. Archived from the original on November 17, 2017. Retrieved November 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Eileen Davidson Returns to The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills & Can't Believe There's No Dorit Drama". E! Online. United States: NBCUniversal. January 31, 2018. Retrieved January 31, 2018.
Jump up ^ Otterson, Joe (April 11, 2018). "Bravo Renews 'Vanderpump Rules' and 19 Other Shows, Expands to Seven Nights a Week". Retrieved April 12, 2018.
External links[edit]
Television in the United States portal
Official website
The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills on IMDb
The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills at TV Guide
[show]
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Gun laws in Pennsylvania
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Gun laws in Pennsylvania regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in the United States.[1][2][3]
Subject/Law
Long guns
Handguns
Relevant statutes
Notes
State permit to purchase? No No
Firearm registration? No No (18 Pa.C.S. § 6111.4) All handgun buyers in the state must undergo a PICS check at the point of sale, a record of which is maintained by the state police in a "sales database". The Pennsylvania Supreme Court has ruled that this is legal under 18 Pa.C.S. § 6111.4, as it is not a comprehensive record of all handgun ownership within the state, as gun owners moving into the state are not required to register their firearms.
Assault weapon law? No No
Owner license required? No No
Concealed carry permit required? Yes Yes 18 Pa.C.S. § 6109 License to Carry Firearms issued on a "shall-issue" basis. A LTCF is required to carry a firearm concealed on one's person, in a vehicle, or during a declared state of emergency.
Open carry? Yes Yes Unlicensed open-carry, except license required in Philadelphia (City of the First Class) and when within a vehicle.
Castle Law/Stand Your Ground? Yes Yes [1] Castle Law. No duty to retreat inside castle. No duty to retreat outside castle if confronted with a deadly weapon or an object that appears to be one in a place where the person has a right to be.
State preemption of local restrictions? Yes Yes 18 Pa.C.S. § 6120
NFA weapons restricted? No No
Peaceable Journey laws? Yes Yes [2] Non-residents may carry in a vehicle if in possession of a valid carry permit from any state. Otherwise, federal rules observed.
Background checks required for private sales? No Yes All private party transfers of handguns must be processed through a licensed dealer, or at a county sheriff's office. In either case a background check is required.
Contents
[hide]
1 Purchasing a firearm
1.1 Definition of a firearm[5]
1.2 Dealer requirements
2 Concealed carry and transport
3 Laws and regulations
4 See also
5 References
Purchasing a firearm[edit]
To purchase a firearm, you must be at least 18 years of age. You also can never have been convicted of a violent crime, must not be an undocumented immigrant, declared mentally ill by the court, a drug addict or habitual drunkard, a fugitive from justice, have been convicted of three separate DUI charges within a five-year period or are subject to an active protection from abuse order.[4]
No firearms are known to be prohibited by state law. Private sales of handguns must go through a licensed dealer, though long guns may be sold privately without the use of a licensed dealer. Licensed dealers must provide locking devices with handguns unless the handgun has a locking device incorporated in its design.
In Pennsylvania, there are more than 2,500 federally licensed firearm dealers where one may make a purchase. Individuals interested in purchasing a firearm must first fill out an application with their basic information. Once the application has been completed, the firearms dealer will input the information into the Pennsylvania Instant Check System to check the if individual is legally allowed to own a firearm. On average in Pennsylvania, this background check costs $20.00 for handgun purchases and $25.00 for a long gun purchase.
Residents in Pennsylvania may also purchase firearms from gun shows and private dealers. When purchasing from a federally licensed dealer, the process remains the same. However, when purchasing a long gun from a private dealer, an individual is exempt from obtaining a background check. When purchasing a handgun from a private dealer, the individual is legally required to complete a firearm transfer at a federally licensed dealer. There is a $2 fee for the instant check and a $3 firearm sale surcharge to cover telephone costs.[5]
Transfers of handguns between spouses, parent and child, grandparent and grandchild or between active law enforcement officers are exempt from the above requirements. Rifles and shotguns may be transferred between unlicensed individuals. Antique firearms are exempt from the requirements regarding transfer of firearms through dealers.[5]
Definition of a firearm[5][edit]
The Pennsylvania Uniform Firearms Act defines “firearm” as “any pistol or revolver with a barrel less than 15 inches, any shotgun with a barrel less than 18 inches, any rifle with a barrel of less than 16 inches or any pistol, revolver, rifle or shotgun with an overall length of less than 26 inches.” However, several sections of the law include a broader definition that includes all firearms, i.e. handguns, rifles and shotguns, and pertains to that section only. The distinction should be closely noted when interpreting the statutes.
Dealer requirements[edit]
Dealers are prohibited from transferring the firearm if the Pennsylvania State Police has issued a “temporary delay” in order to investigate whether the person has been convicted of a domestic violence misdemeanor that disqualifies the person from firearm possession.
To sell a handgun or short-barreled rifle or shotgun, a dealer must also:[6]
Require the purchaser to complete a purchase application, which includes a statement that the purchaser is the actual buyer of the firearm. The dealer must retain a copy of the application for at least 20 years, mail the original to Pennsylvania State Police within 14 days of the sale, and provide one copy to the purchaser;
Record the approval number on the application; and
If the purchaser passes the background check, deliver the firearm to the purchaser securely wrapped and unloaded.[7]
Concealed carry and transport[edit]
Individuals in Pennsylvania are permitted to open carry firearms as long as the firearm is in plain view. When concealing a firearm, individuals must obtain a Concealed Carry Permit from the local sheriffs' office. An individual must have a Concealed Carry Permit to carry loaded firearm in Pennsylvania.
In first-class cities, such as Philadelphia, a permit is required for both concealed carry, and open carry. A total of 31 states recognized Pennsylvania's permit to concealed carry.[8]
When transporting firearms in Pennsylvania without a Concealed Carry Permit, the firearm and ammunition must be in two separate containers within the vehicle.[4]
To apply for a license to carry in Pennsylvania, individuals must be at least 21 years of age. The application process requires submitting the Pennsylvania License to Carry Firearms application to the sheriff of the county in which they reside. Individuals who are not residents of Pennsylvania but are 21 years of age or older may submit the Application for a Pennsylvania License to Carry Firearms to any Pennsylvania County Sheriff’s office along with the required fee. [9]
Firearms are prohibited from certain places, including federal court facilities; all other court facilities must provide a locker to secure your firearm while conducting business within the court facility as per 18 Pa.C.S 913 (e). Concealed carry on school property used to be an unsettled area of the law with many in law enforcement arguing that the practice is absolutely prohibited and firearms right supporters arguing that 18 Pa.C.S. 912(c) permits those who have a concealed carry license to carry on school grounds as an "other lawful purpose." On February 16, 2017, the Superior Court ruled in the case of Commonwealth v. Goslin that the "other lawful purpose" clause is a valid defense for people who are otherwise carrying a weapon legally on school grounds regardless of any connection to a school activity.[10][11] Carrying a handgun on public streets and public property of Philadelphia, or in a vehicle anywhere in the state, or concealed on or about one's person anywhere in the state is prohibited without a "License To Carry Firearms" (LTCF) or a license or permit issued by another state which is honored by Pennsylvania for that purpose.[1][2] A LTCF is generally not required to openly carry a firearm on or about one's person, except in a vehicle or in Philadelphia, or during a declared State of Emergency.[12] A bill proposed in September 2014 would allow teachers and school employees carry guns.[13]
Pennsylvania shall issue a LTCF to resident and non-resident applicants if no good cause exists to deny the license. Non-resident applicants must first obtain a license from their home state, unless their home state does not issue licenses.[1][2]
Laws and regulations[edit]
Location of Pennsylvania in the United States
Article 1, section 21 of the Constitution of Pennsylvania states, "The right of the citizens to bear arms in defense of themselves and the State shall not be questioned."[14]
Pennsylvania has state preemption for regulation of the lawful ownership, possession, transfer or transportation of firearms, ammunition, or ammunition components. That is, only state laws, not local laws, can regulate those matters.[1][2]
Most items that are required to be registered under the National Firearms Act such as machine guns, suppressors, short barreled rifles and shotguns, are prohibited in Pennsylvania as “offensive weapons” unless they are registered under the NFA.[5]
There are no regulating laws for the sale, purchase, or possession of ammunition, however armor-piercing ammunition is illegal in the state.[15]
Pennsylvania law requires that information received by the Pennsylvania State Police pursuant to a sale is destroyed within 72 hours of the completion of the background check.[1][2] The Pennsylvania Firearm Owners Association notes that the Pennsylvania State Police nonetheless keep a "sales database" of all handguns purchased within the state.[16] The database was challenged based on what was asserted as the unambiguous text of the statute, specifically "nothing... ...shall be construed to allow any government or law enforcement agency or any agent thereof to create, maintain or operate any registry of firearm ownership within this Commonwealth" (full statute text above), the Pennsylvania Supreme Court nonetheless ruled in Allegheny County Sportsmen’s League v. Rendell, 860 A.2d 10 (Pa. 2004), that Pennsylvania’s database of handgun sales is not prohibited by state law because the registration was only of handgun sales and not of all guns.[17]
See also[edit]
Law of Pennsylvania
Uniform Firearms Act
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Pennsylvania State Law Summary", Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence. Retrieved January 2, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "State Gun Laws: Pennsylvania", National Rifle Association – Institute for Legislative Action. Retrieved December 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives – State Laws and Published Ordinances – Firearms" (PDF). Retrieved January 2, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "How to buy a gun in Pennsylvania". PennLive.com. Retrieved 2017-12-06.
^ Jump up to: a b c d NRA-ILA. "NRA-ILA | Pennsylvania Gun Laws". NRA-ILA. Retrieved 2017-12-06.
Jump up ^ "Background Checks in Pennsylvania | Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence". Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence. 2017-11-27. Retrieved 2017-12-06.
Jump up ^ 18 Pa. Cons. Stat. Ann. § 6111(a), (b); 37 Pa. Code § 33.111. For more information about the procedures that licensed dealers must follow to complete the sale, please see the administrative regulations of PSP available at 37 Pa. Code §§ 33.102-33.113.
Jump up ^ "'Constitutional carry' in Pennsylvania challenged by gun control advocates". York Dispatch. Retrieved 2017-12-07.
Jump up ^ "Carrying Firearms in Pennsylvania". www.psp.pa.gov. Retrieved 2017-12-06.
Jump up ^ Prince, Joshua; Esq. (2017-02-16). "The Goslin Decision's Impact on Possessing Weapons on School Property". Prince Law Offices, P.C. Retrieved 2017-06-30.
Jump up ^ "Commonwealth v. Goslin" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Pennsylvania Firearm Owners Association – Open Carry". Pafoa.org. 2007-10-02. Retrieved 2012-05-22.
Jump up ^ Gautz, Chris. "Response mixed on bill to let teachers carry guns". The Daily Item.
Jump up ^ "The Constitution of Pennsylvania". Pennsylvania General Assembly. Retrieved January 17, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Ammunition Regulation in Pennsylvania | Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence". Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence. 2017-11-27. Retrieved 2017-12-07.
Jump up ^ "Pennsylvania Firearm/Gun Law". Pafoa.org. 2007-10-02. Retrieved 2012-07-09.
Jump up ^ "LCAV. Registration of Firearms. In Regulating Guns in America: An Evaluation and Comparative Analysis of Federal, State, and Selected Local Gun Laws (2008). Retrieved July 8, 2011" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-05-22.
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