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Employment
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Employment is a relationship between two parties, usually based on a contract where work is paid for, where one party, which may be a corporation, for profit, not-for-profit organization, co-operative or other entity is the employer and the other is the employee.[1] Employees work in return for payment, which may be in the form of an hourly wage, by piecework or an annual salary, depending on the type of work an employee does or which sector she or he is working in. Employees in some fields or sectors may receive gratuities, bonus payment or stock options. In some types of employment, employees may receive benefits in addition to payment. Benefits can include health insurance, housing, disability insurance or use of a gym. Employment is typically governed by employment laws, regulations or legal contracts.
Contents
[hide]
1 Employees and employers
2 Employer–worker relationship
2.1 Finding employees or employment
2.2 Training and development
2.3 Remuneration
2.4 Employee benefits
2.5 Organizational justice
2.6 Workforce organizing
2.7 Ending employment
3 Wage labor
3.1 Wage slavery
4 Employment contract
4.1 Australia
4.2 Bangladesh
4.3 Canada
4.4 Pakistan
4.5 India
4.6 Philippines
4.7 United Kingdom
4.8 United States
4.9 Sweden
5 Age-related issues
5.1 Younger age workers
5.2 Older age workers
6 Working poor
7 Models of the employment relationship
8 Academic literature
9 Globalization and employment relations
10 Alternatives
10.1 Subcultures
10.2 Postsecondary education
10.3 Workplace democracy
10.4 Self-employment
10.5 Social assistance
10.6 Volunteerism
10.7 Indentured servitude and slavery
11 See also
12 Notes and references
13 Bibliography
14 External links
Employees and employers[edit]
Further information: List of largest employers, List of professions, and Tradesman
An employee contributes labor and expertise to an endeavor of an employer or of a person conducting a business or undertaking (PCBU)[2] and is usually hired to perform specific duties which are packaged into a job. In a corporate context, an employee is a person who is hired to provide services to a company on a regular basis in exchange for compensation and who does not provide these services as part of an independent business.[3]
Employer–worker relationship[edit]
Employer and managerial control within an organization rests at many levels and has important implications for staff and productivity alike, with control forming the fundamental link between desired outcomes and actual processes. Employers must balance interests such as decreasing wage constraints with a maximization of labor productivity in order to achieve a profitable and productive employment relationship.
Finding employees or employment[edit]
The main ways for employers to find workers and for people to find employers are via jobs listings in newspapers (via classified advertising) and online, also called job boards. Employers and job seekers also often find each other via professional recruitment consultants which receive a commission from the employer to find, screen and select suitable candidates. However, a study has shown that such consultants may not be reliable when they fail to use established principles in selecting employees.[1] A more traditional approach is with a "Help Wanted" sign in the establishment (usually hung on a window or door[4] or placed on a store counter).[3] Evaluating different employees can be quite laborious but setting up different techniques to analyze their skill to measure their talents within the field can be best through assessments.[5] Employer and potential employee commonly take the additional step of getting to know each other through the process of job interview.
Training and development[edit]
Training and development refers to the employer's effort to equip a newly hired employee with necessary skills to perform at the job, and to help the employee grow within the organization. An appropriate level of training and development helps to improve employee's job satisfaction.[6]
Remuneration[edit]
There are many ways that employees are paid, including by hourly wages, by piecework, by yearly salary, or by gratuities (with the latter often being combined with another form of payment). In sales jobs and real estate positions, the employee may be paid a commission, a percentage of the value of the goods or services that they have sold. In some fields and professions (e.g., executive jobs), employees may be eligible for a bonus if they meet certain targets. Some executives and employees may be paid in stocks or stock options, a compensation approach that has the added benefit, from the company's point of view, of helping to align the interests of the compensated individual with the performance of the company.
Employee benefits[edit]
Employee benefits are various non-wage compensation provided to employee in addition to their wages or salaries. The benefits can include: housing (employer-provided or employer-paid), group insurance (health, dental, life etc.), disability income protection, retirement benefits, daycare, tuition reimbursement, sick leave, vacation (paid and non-paid), social security, profit sharing, funding of education, and other specialized benefits. In some cases, such as with workers employed in remote or isolated regions, the benefits may include meals. Employee benefits can improve the relationship between employee and employer and lowers staff turnover.[7]
Organizational justice[edit]
Organizational justice is an employee's perception and judgement of employer's treatment in the context of fairness or justice. The resulting actions to influence the employee-employer relationship is also a part of organizational justice.[7]
Workforce organizing[edit]
Employees can organize into trade or labor unions, which represent the work force to collectively bargain with the management of organizations about working, and contractual conditions and services.[8]
Ending employment[edit]
Usually, either an employee or employer may end the relationship at any time, often subject to a certain notice period. This is referred to as at-will employment. The contract between the two parties specifies the responsibilities of each when ending the relationship and may include requirements such as notice periods, severance pay, and security measures.[8] In some professions, notably teaching, civil servants, university professors, and some orchestra jobs, some employees may have tenure, which means that they cannot be dismissed at will. Another type of termination is a layoff.
Wage labor[edit]
Main article: Wage labor
Worker assembling rebar for a water treatment plant in Mazatlan, Sinaloa, Mexico.
Wage labor is the socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer, where the worker sells their labor under a formal or informal employment contract. These transactions usually occur in a labor market where wages are market determined.[6][7] In exchange for the wages paid, the work product generally becomes the undifferentiated property of the employer, except for special cases such as the vesting of intellectual property patents in the United States where patent rights are usually vested in the original personal inventor. A wage laborer is a person whose primary means of income is from the selling of his or her labor in this way.[8]
In modern mixed economies such as that of the OECD countries, it is currently the dominant form of work arrangement. Although most work occurs following this structure, the wage work arrangements of CEOs, professional employees, and professional contract workers are sometimes conflated with class assignments, so that "wage labor" is considered to apply only to unskilled, semi-skilled or manual labor.[9]
Wage slavery[edit]
Main article: Labour economics
Wage labor, as institutionalized under today's market economic systems, has been criticized,[8] especially by both mainstream socialists and anarcho-syndicalists,[9][10][11][12] using the pejorative term wage slavery.[13][14] Socialists draw parallels between the trade of labor as a commodity and slavery. Cicero is also known to have suggested such parallels.[15]
The American philosopher John Dewey posited that until "industrial feudalism" is replaced by "industrial democracy", politics will be "the shadow cast on society by big business".[16] Thomas Ferguson has postulated in his investment theory of party competition that the undemocratic nature of economic institutions under capitalism causes elections to become occasions when blocs of investors coalesce and compete to control the state.[17]
Employment contract[edit]
Main article: Employment contract
Australia[edit]
Australian employment has been governed by the Fair Work Act since 2009.[18]
Bangladesh[edit]
Bangladesh Association of International Recruiting Agencies (BAIRA) is an association of national level with its international reputation of co-operation and welfare of the migrant workforce as well as its approximately 1200 members agencies in collaboration with and support from the Government of Bangladesh.[9]
Canada[edit]
In the Canadian province of Ontario, formal complaints can be brought to the Ministry of Labour. In the province of Quebec, grievances can be filed with the Commission des normes du travail.[12]
Pakistan[edit]
Pakistan has Contract Labor, Minimum Wage and Provident Funds Acts. Contract labor in Pakistan must be paid minimum wage and certain facilities are to be provided to labor. However, the Acts are not yet fully implemented.[9]
India[edit]
India has Contract Labor, Minimum Wage, Provident Funds Act and various other acts to comply with. Contract labor in India must be paid minimum wage and certain facilities are to be provided to labor. However, there is still a large amount of work that remains to be done to fully implement the Act.[12]
Philippines[edit]
In the Philippines, private employment is regulated under the Labor Code of the Philippines by the Department of Labor and Employment.[19]
United Kingdom[edit]
In the United Kingdom, employment contracts are categorised by the government into the following types:[20]
Fixed-term contract: last for a certain length of time, are set in advance, end when a specific task is completed, ends when a specific event takes place.
Full-time or part-time contract: has no defined length of time, can be terminated by either party, is to accomplish a specific task, specified number of hours.[19]
Agency staff
Freelancers, Consultants and Contractors
Zero-hour contracts
United States[edit]
See also: United States labor law, List of largest employers in the United States, and Labor unions in the United States
All employees, private industries, by branches
For purposes of U.S. federal income tax withholding, 26 U.S.C. § 3401(c) provides a definition for the term "employee" specific to chapter 24 of the Internal Revenue Code:
"For purposes of this chapter, the term “employee” includes an officer, employee, or elected official of the United States, a State, or any political subdivision thereof, or the District of Columbia, or any agency or instrumentality of any one or more of the foregoing. The term “employee” also includes an officer of a corporation."[21] This definition does not exclude all those who are commonly known as 'employees'. “Similarly, Latham’s instruction which indicated that under 26 U.S.C. § 3401(c) the category of ‘employee’ does not include privately employed wage earners is a preposterous reading of the statute. It is obvious that within the context of both statutes the word ‘includes’ is a term of enlargement not of limitation, and the reference to certain entities or categories is not intended to exclude all others.”[22]
Employees are often contrasted with independent contractors, especially when there is dispute as to the worker's entitlement to have matching taxes paid, workers compensation, and unemployment insurance benefits. However, in September 2009, the court case of Brown v. J. Kaz, Inc. ruled that independent contractors are regarded as employees for the purpose of discrimination laws if they work for the employer on a regular basis, and said employer directs the time, place, and manner of employment.[19]
In non-union work environments, in the United States, unjust termination complaints can be brought to the United States Department of Labor.[23]
Labor unions are legally recognized as representatives of workers in many industries in the United States. Their activity today centers on collective bargaining over wages, benefits, and working conditions for their membership, and on representing their members in disputes with management over violations of contract provisions. Larger unions also typically engage in lobbying activities and electioneering at the state and federal level.[19]
Most unions in America are aligned with one of two larger umbrella organizations: the AFL-CIO created in 1955, and the Change to Win Federation which split from the AFL-CIO in 2005. Both advocate policies and legislation on behalf of workers in the United States and Canada, and take an active role in politics. The AFL-CIO is especially concerned with global trade issues.[17]
Sweden[edit]
According to Swedish law,[24] there are three types of employment.
Test employment (swe: Provanställning), where the employer hires a person for a test period of 6 months maximum. The employment can be ended at any time without giving any reason. This type of employment can be offered only once per employer and employee combination. Usually a time limited or normal employment is offered after a test employment.[25]
Time limited employment (swe: Tidsbegränsad anställning). The employer hires a person for a specified time. Usually they are extended for a new period. Total maximum two years per employer and employee combination, then it automatically counts as a normal employment.
Normal employment (swe: Tillsvidareanställning / Fast anställning), which has no time limit (except for retirement etc.). It can still be ended for two reasons: personal reason, immediate end of employment only for strong reasons such as crime, or lack of work tasks (swe: Arbetsbrist), cancellation of employment, usually because of bad income for the company. There is a cancellation period of 1–6 months, and rules for how to select employees, basically those with shortest employment time shall be cancelled first.[25]
There are no laws about minimum salary in Sweden. Instead there are agreements between employer organizations and trade unions about minimum salaries, and other employment conditions.
There is a type of employment contract which is common but not regulated in law, and that is Hour employment (swe: Timanställning), which can be Normal employment (unlimited), but the work time is unregulated and decided per immediate need basis. The employee is expected to be answering the phone and come to work when needed, e.g. when someone is ill and absent from work. They will receive salary only for actual work time and can in reality be fired for no reason by not being called anymore. This type of contract is common in the public sector.[25]
Age-related issues[edit]
Younger age workers[edit]
Youth employment rate in the US, i.e. the ratio of employed persons (15–24Y) in an economy to total labor force (15–24Y). [1]
Main article: Young worker safety and health
Young workers are at higher risk for occupational injury and face certain occupational hazards at a higher rate; this is generally due to their employment in high-risk industries. For example, in the United States, young people are injured at work at twice the rate of their older counterparts.[26] These workers are also at higher risk for motor vehicle accidents at work, due to less work experience, a lower use of seatbelts, and higher rates of distracted driving.[27][28] To mitigate this risk, those under the age of 17 are restricted from certain types of driving, including transporting people and goods under certain circumstances.[27]
High-risk industries for young workers include agriculture, restaurants, waste management, and mining.[26][27] In the United States, those under the age of 18 are restricted from certain jobs that are deemed dangerous under the Fair Labor Standards Act.[27]
Youth employment programs are most effective when they include both theoretical classroom training and hands-on training with work placements.[29]
Older age workers[edit]
Those older than the statutory defined retirement age may continue to work, either out of enjoyment or necessity. However, depending on the nature of the job, older workers may need to transition into less-physical forms of work to avoid injury. Working past retirement age also has positive effects, because it gives a sense of purpose and allows people to maintain social networks and activity levels.[30] Older workers are often found to be discriminated against by employers.[31]
Working poor[edit]
Worker, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Employment is no guarantee of escaping poverty, the International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates that as many as 40% of workers are poor, not earning enough to keep their families above the $2 a day poverty line.[25] For instance, in India most of the chronically poor are wage earners in formal employment, because their jobs are insecure and low paid and offer no chance to accumulate wealth to avoid risks.[25] According to the UNRISD, increasing labor productivity appears to have a negative impact on job creation: in the 1960s, a 1% increase in output per worker was associated with a reduction in employment growth of 0.07%, by the first decade of this century the same productivity increase implies reduced employment growth by 0.54%.[25] Both increased employment opportunities and increased labor productivity (as long as it also translates into higher wages) are needed to tackle poverty. Increases in employment without increases in productivity leads to a rise in the number of "working poor", which is why some experts are now promoting the creation of "quality" and not "quantity" in labor market policies.[25] This approach does highlight how higher productivity has helped reduce poverty in East Asia, but the negative impact is beginning to show.[25] In Vietnam, for example, employment growth has slowed while productivity growth has continued.[25] Furthermore, productivity increases do not always lead to increased wages, as can be seen in the United States, where the gap between productivity and wages has been rising since the 1980s.[25]
Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute argue that there are differences across economic sectors in creating employment that reduces poverty.[25] 24 instances of growth were examined, in which 18 reduced poverty. This study showed that other sectors were just as important in reducing unemployment, such as manufacturing.[25] The services sector is most effective at translating productivity growth into employment growth. Agriculture provides a safety net for jobs and economic buffer when other sectors are struggling.[25]
Growth, employment and poverty[25]
Number of
episodes Rising
agricultural
employment Rising
industrial
employment Rising
services
employment
Growth episodes associated with falling poverty rates 18 6 10 15
Growth episodes associated with no fall in poverty rates 6 2 3 1
Models of the employment relationship[edit]
Scholars conceptualize the employment relationship in various ways.[32] A key assumption is the extent to which the employment relationship necessarily includes conflicts of interests between employers and employees, and the form of such conflicts.[33] In economic theorizing, the labor market mediates all such conflicts such that employers and employees who enter into an employment relationship are assumed to find this arrangement in their own self-interest. In human resource management theorizing, employers and employees are assumed to have shared interests (or a unity of interests, hence the label “unitarism”). Any conflicts that exist are seen as a manifestation of poor human resource management policies or interpersonal clashes such as personality conflicts, both of which can and should be managed away. From the perspective of pluralist industrial relations, the employment relationship is characterized by a plurality of stakeholders with legitimate interests (hence the label “pluralism), and some conflicts of interests are seen as inherent in the employment relationship (e.g., wages v. profits). Lastly, the critical paradigm emphasizes antagonistic conflicts of interests between various groups (e.g., the competing capitalist and working classes in a Marxist framework) that are part of a deeper social conflict of unequal power relations. As a result, there are four common models of employment:[34]
Mainstream economics: employment is seen as a mutually advantageous transaction in a free market between self-interested legal and economic equals
Human resource management (unitarism): employment is a long-term partnership of employees and employers with common interests
Pluralist industrial relations: employment is a bargained exchange between stakeholders with some common and some competing economic interests and unequal bargaining power due to imperfect labor markets[25]
Critical industrial relations: employment is an unequal power relation between competing groups that is embedded in and inseparable from systemic inequalities throughout the socio-politico-economic system.
These models are important because they help reveal why individuals hold differing perspectives on human resource management policies, labor unions, and employment regulation.[35] For example, human resource management policies are seen as dictated by the market in the first view, as essential mechanisms for aligning the interests of employees and employers and thereby creating profitable companies in the second view, as insufficient for looking out for workers’ interests in the third view, and as manipulative managerial tools for shaping the ideology and structure of the workplace in the fourth view.[36]
Academic literature[edit]
Literature on the employment impact of economic growth and on how growth is associated with employment at a macro, sector and industry level was aggregated in 2013.[37]
Researchers found evidence to suggest growth in manufacturing and services have good impact on employment. They found GDP growth on employment in agriculture to be limited, but that value-added growth had a relatively larger impact.[25] The impact on job creation by industries/economic activities as well as the extent of the body of evidence and the key studies. For extractives, they again found extensive evidence suggesting growth in the sector has limited impact on employment. In textiles however, although evidence was low, studies suggest growth there positively contributed to job creation. In agri-business and food processing, they found impact growth to be positive.[37]
They found that most available literature focuses on OECD and middle-income countries somewhat, where economic growth impact has been shown to be positive on employment. The researchers didn't find sufficient evidence to conclude any impact of growth on employment in LDCs despite some pointing to the positive impact, others point to limitations. They recommended that complementary policies are necessary to ensure economic growth's positive impact on LDC employment. With trade, industry and investment, they only found limited evidence of positive impact on employment from industrial and investment policies and for others, while large bodies of evidence does exist, the exact impact remains contested.[37]
Researchers have also explored the relationship between employment and illicit activities. Using evidence from Africa, a research team found that a program for Liberian ex-fighters reduced work hours on illicit activities. The employment program also reduced interest in mercenary work in nearby wars. The study concludes that while the use of capital inputs or cash payments for peaceful work created a reduction in illicit activities, the impact of training alone is rather low.[38]
Globalization and employment relations[edit]
The balance of economic efficiency and social equity is the ultimate debate in the field of employment relations.[39] By meeting the needs of the employer; generating profits to establish and maintain economic efficiency; whilst maintaining a balance with the employee and creating social equity that benefits the worker so that he/she can fund and enjoy healthy living; proves to be a continuous revolving issue in westernized societies.[39]
Globalization has effected these issues by creating certain economic factors that disallow or allow various employment issues. Economist Edward Lee (1996) studies the effects of globalization and summarizes the four major points of concern that affect employment relations:
International competition, from the newly industrialized countries, will cause unemployment growth and increased wage disparity for unskilled workers in industrialized countries. Imports from low-wage countries exert pressure on the manufacturing sector in industrialized countries and foreign direct investment (FDI) is attracted away from the industrialized nations, towards low-waged countries.[39]
Economic liberalization will result in unemployment and wage inequality in developing countries. This happens as job losses in uncompetitive industries outstrip job opportunities in new industries.
Workers will be forced to accept worsening wages and conditions, as a global labor market results in a “race to the bottom”. Increased international competition creates a pressure to reduce the wages and conditions of workers.[39]
Globalization reduces the autonomy of the nation state. Capital is increasingly mobile and the ability of the state to regulate economic activity is reduced.
What also results from Lee’s (1996) findings is that in industrialized countries an average of almost 70 per cent of workers are employed in the service sector, most of which consists of non-tradable activities. As a result, workers are forced to become more skilled and develop sought after trades, or find other means of survival. Ultimately this is a result of changes and trends of employment, an evolving workforce, and globalization that is represented by a more skilled and increasing highly diverse labor force, that are growing in non standard forms of employment (Markey, R. et al. 2006).[39]
Alternatives[edit]
Subcultures[edit]
Various youth subcultures have been associated with not working, such as the hippie subculture in the 1960s and 1970s (which endorsed the idea of "dropping out" of society) and the punk subculture, in which some members live in anarchist squats (illegal housing).
Postsecondary education[edit]
One of the alternatives to work is engaging in postsecondary education at a college, university or professional school. One of the major costs of obtaining a postsecondary education is the opportunity cost of forgone wages due to not working. At times when jobs are hard to find, such as during recessions, unemployed individuals may decide to get postsecondary education, because there is less of an opportunity cost.
Workplace democracy[edit]
Main article: Workplace democracy
Workplace democracy is the application of democracy in all its forms (including voting systems, debates, democratic structuring, due process, adversarial process, systems of appeal) to the workplace.[40][41]
Self-employment[edit]
When an individual entirely owns the business for which they labor, this is known as self-employment. Self-employment often leads to incorporation. Incorporation offers certain protections of one's personal assets.[39] Individuals who are self-employed may own a small business. They may also be considered to be an entrepreneur.
Social assistance[edit]
In some countries, individuals who are not working can receive social assistance support (e.g., welfare or food stamps) to enable them to rent housing, buy food, repair or replace household goods, maintenance of children and observe social customs that require financial expenditure.
Volunteerism[edit]
Workers who are not paid wages, such as volunteers who perform tasks for charities, hospitals or not-for-profit organizations, are generally not considered employed. One exception to this is an internship, an employment situation in which the worker receives training or experience (and possibly college credit) as the chief form of compensation.[40]
Indentured servitude and slavery[edit]
Those who work under obligation for the purpose of fulfilling a debt, such as an indentured servant, or as property of the person or entity they work for, such as a slave, do not receive pay for their services and are not considered employed. Some historians suggest that slavery is older than employment, but both arrangements have existed for all recorded history. Indentured servitude and slavery are not considered compatible with human rights and democracy.[40]
See also[edit]
Alternative employment arrangements
Automation
Basic income
Domestic inquiry
Employer branding
Employment gap
Employment rate
Employment website
Equal opportunity employment
Equal pay for equal work
Ethnic Penalty
Job analysis
Job description
Jobless recovery
Labor economics
Labor power
List of largest employers
Lump of labor fallacy
Onboarding
Payroll
Personnel selection
Protestant work ethic
Reserve army of labor (Marxism)
Staffing models
Tenure
The End of Work
Notes and references[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Stephen Dakin and J. Scott Armstrong (1989). "Predicting job performance: A comparison of expert opinion and research findings" (PDF). International Journal of Forecasting. 5: 187–94. doi:10.1016/0169-2070(89)90086-1.
Jump up ^ Archer, Richard; Borthwick, Kerry; Travers, Michelle; Ruschena, Leo (2017). WHS: A Management Guide (4 ed.). Cengage Learning Australia. pp. 30–31. ISBN 9780170270793. Retrieved 2016-03-30. The most significant definitions are 'person conducting a business or undertaking' (PCBU). 'worker' and 'workplace'. [...] 'PCBU' is a wider ranging term than 'employer', though this will be what most people understand by it.
^ Jump up to: a b Robert A. Ristau (2010). Intro to Business. Cengage Learning. p. 74. ISBN 0538740663.
Jump up ^ J. Mayhew Wainwright (chairman); et al. (1910). Report to the Legislature of the State of New York by the Commission appointed under Chapter 518 of the laws of 1909 to inquire into the question of employers' liability and other matters (Report). J. B. Lyon Company. pp. 11,50,144.
Jump up ^ Industrial & Organizational Assessment
^ Jump up to: a b Deakin & Wilkinson 2005.
^ Jump up to: a b c Marx 1847, Chapter 2.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Ellerman 1992.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Ostergaard 1997, p. 133.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1966, p. 599.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1966, p. 912.
^ Jump up to: a b c Lazonick 1990, p. 37.
Jump up ^ "wage slave". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "wage slave". dictionary.com. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "...vulgar are the means of livelihood of all hired workmen whom we pay for mere manual labour, not for artistic skill; for in their case the very wage they receive is a pledge of their slavery." – De Officiis [2]
Jump up ^ "As long as politics is the shadow cast on society by big business, the attenuation of the shadow will not change the substance", in "The Need for a New Party" (1931), Later Works 6, p163
^ Jump up to: a b Ferguson 1995.
Jump up ^ "House of Reps seals 'death' of WorkChoices". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 2008-03-19. Retrieved 2014-02-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Brown v. J. Kaz, Inc., No. 08-2713 (3d Cir. Sept. 11, 2009)". Retrieved 2010-01-23.
Jump up ^ "Contract types and employer responsibilities". gov.uk. Retrieved 21 May 2014.
Jump up ^ 26 U.S.C. § 3401(c)
Jump up ^ United States v. Latham, 754 F.2d 747, 750 (7th Cir. 1985).
Jump up ^ "Termination". United States Department of Labor. Retrieved 27 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Lag om anställningsskydd (1982:80)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Claire Melamed, Renate Hartwig and Ursula Grant 2011. Jobs, growth and poverty: what do we know, what don't we know, what should we know? Archived May 20, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. London: Overseas Development Institute
^ Jump up to: a b "Young Worker Safety and Health". www.cdc.gov. CDC NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic. Retrieved 2015-06-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Work-Related Motor Vehicle Crashes" (PDF). NIOSH Publication 2013-153. NIOSH. September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Work-Related Motor Vehicle Crashes: Preventing Injury to Young Drivers" (PDF). NIOSH Publication 2013-152. NIOSH. September 2013.
Jump up ^ Joseph Holden, Youth employment programmes – What can be learnt from international experience with youth employment programmes? Economic and private sector professional evidence and applied knowledge services https://partnerplatform.org/?fza26891
Jump up ^ Chosewood, L. Casey (May 3, 2011). "When It Comes to Work, How Old Is Too Old?". NIOSH: Workplace Safety and Health. Medscape and NIOSH.
Jump up ^ Baert, Stijn (February 20, 2016). "Getting Grey Hairs in the Labour Market: An Alternative Experiment on Age Discrimination". Journal of Economic Psychology. 57: 86–101. doi:10.1016/j.joep.2016.10.002.
Jump up ^ Kaufman, Bruce E. (2004) Theoretical Perspectives on Work and the Employment Relationship, Industrial Relations Research Association.
Jump up ^ Fox, Alan (1974) Beyond Contract: Work, Power and Trust Relations, Farber and Farber.
Jump up ^ Budd, John W. and Bhave, Devasheesh (2008) "Values, Ideologies, and Frames of Reference in Industrial Relations," in Sage Handbook of Industrial Relations, Sage.
Jump up ^ Befort, Stephen F. and Budd, John W. (2009) Invisible Hands, Invisible Objectives: Bringing Workplace Law and Public Policy Into Focus, Stanford University Press.
Jump up ^ Budd, John W. and Bhave, Devasheesh (2010) "The Employment Relationship," in Sage Handbook of Handbook of Human Resource Management, Sage.
^ Jump up to: a b c Yurendra Basnett and Ritwika Sen, What do empirical studies say about economic growth and job creation in developing countries? Economic and private sector professional evidence and applied knowledge services https://partnerplatform.org/?7ljwndv4
Jump up ^ Blattman, Christopher; Annan, Jeannie (2016-02-01). "Can Employment Reduce Lawlessness and Rebellion? A Field Experiment with High-Risk Men in a Fragile State". American Political Science Review. 110 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1017/S0003055415000520. ISSN 0003-0554.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Budd, John W. (2004) Employment with a Human Face: Balancing Efficiency, Equity, and Voice, Cornell University Press.
^ Jump up to: a b c Rayasam, Renuka (24 April 2008). "Why Workplace Democracy Can Be Good Business". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 16 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Wolff, Richard D. (2012). Democracy at Work: A Cure for Capitalism. Haymarket Books. ISBN 978-1608462476.
Bibliography[edit]
Acocella, Nicola (2007). Social pacts, employment and growth: a reappraisal of Ezio Tarantelli’s thought. Heidelberg: Springer Verlag. ISBN 978-3-790-81915-1.
Anderson, Elizabeth (2017). Private Government: How Employers Rule Our Lives (and Why We Don't Talk about It). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691176512.
Dubin, Robert (1958). The World of Work: Industrial Society and Human Relations. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall. p. 213. OCLC 964691.
Freeman, Richard B.; Goroff, Daniel L. (2009). Science and Engineering Careers in the United States: An Analysis of Markets and Employment. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-26189-8.
Lee, Eddy (January 1996). "Globalization and Employment: Is Anxiety Justified?". International Labour Review. 135 (5): 485–98 – via Questia.
Markey, Raymond; Hodgkinson, Ann; Kowalczyk, Jo (2002). "Gender, part-time employment and employee participation in Australian workplaces". Employee Relations. 24 (2): 129–50. doi:10.1108/01425450210420884.
Stone, Raymond J. (2005). Human Resource Management (5th ed.). Milton, Qld: John Wiley. pp. 412–14. ISBN 978-0470804032.
Wood, Jack M. (2004). Organisational Behaviour: A Global Perspective (3rd ed.). Milton, Qld: Wiley. pp. 355–57. ISBN 978-0470802625.
External links[edit]
Look up employee or employment in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Employment.
"Business Link". Businesslink.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 2012-09-29.
"Labor and Employment". Government Information Library. University of Colorado at Boulder.
"Overview and topics of labour statistics". Statistics and databases. International Labour Organization.
[show]
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jungkook is against communism listen to someone with sense pls <3
[show]
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GND: 4069349-1
NDL: 00566868
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Employment&oldid=822327581"
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text:
God's Not Dead (film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
God's Not Dead
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Harold Cronk
Produced by
Michael Scott
Russell Wolfe
Anna Zielinski
Written by
Chuck Konzelman
Cary Solomon
Based on
God's Not Dead
by Rice Broocks
Starring
Kevin Sorbo
Shane Harper
David A. R. White
Dean Cain
Music by
Will Musser
Cinematography
Brian Shanley
Edited by
Vance Null
Production
company
Greg Jenkins Productions
Pure Flix Entertainment
Red Entertainment Group
Distributed by
Freestyle Releasing
Pure Flix Entertainment
Release date
March 21, 2014 (2014-03-21)
Running time
113 minutes[1]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$2 million[2]
Box office
$64.7 million[3]
God's Not Dead is a 2014 American Christian drama film directed by Harold Cronk and starring Kevin Sorbo, Shane Harper, David A. R. White, and Dean Cain. The film was released theatrically on March 21, 2014 by Pure Flix Entertainment.[4]
Written by Cary Solomon and Chuck Konzelman, and based on Rice Broocks' book God's Not Dead: Evidence for God in an Age of Uncertainty, the film follows a Christian college student (Harper) whose faith is challenged by a philosophy professor (Sorbo) who declares God a pre-scientific fiction. It received mostly negative reviews, but grossed over $62 million on a $2 million budget.[3]
The film is followed by the 2016 film God's Not Dead 2 and the 2018 film God's Not Dead: A Light in Darkness.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Reception
4.1 Box office
4.2 Critical reception
4.3 Evangelical and Roman Catholic response
5 Sequels
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
Josh Wheaton (Shane Harper), an evangelical college student, enrolls in a philosophy class taught by Professor Jeffrey Radisson (Kevin Sorbo), an atheist, who demands his students sign a declaration that "God is dead" to pass. Josh is the only student who refuses to sign. Radisson requires Josh to debate the topic with him but agrees to let the class members decide the winner. Josh's girlfriend Kara (Cassidy Gifford) demands Josh either sign the statement "God is dead" or drop Radisson's class, because standing up to Radisson will jeopardize their academic future. Kara breaks up with Josh for insisting on confessing his belief in God.
Radisson gives Josh twenty minutes at the end of the first three lecture sessions to argue that God exists. In the first session, Josh presents his evidence that God created the universe. In the second session, Josh argues that macroevolution is not as solid of a theory as it is usually presented. In the first two sessions, Radisson has counter-arguments for some of Josh's points. Ultimately, it comes down to the third and final debate between Radisson and Josh, who again both make compelling points. Josh then halts his line of debate to pose a question to Radisson: "Why do you hate God?" After Josh repeats the question twice more, Radisson explodes in rage, confirming he hates God for his mother's death that left him alone despite his prayers. Josh then casually asks Radisson how he can hate someone that does not exist. In the end, Martin (Paul Kwo), a student from China whose father had forbidden him from even talking about God to avoid jeopardizing Martin's brother's chance at overseas study, stands up and says, "God's not dead." Almost the entire class follows Martin's lead, and Radisson leaves the room in defeat.
Radisson dates Mina, an evangelical whom he belittles in front of his fellow atheist colleagues. Her brother Mark (Dean Cain), a successful businessman and atheist, refuses to visit their mother, who suffers from dementia. Mark's girlfriend Amy is a left-wing blogger who writes articles critical of Duck Dynasty. When she is diagnosed with cancer, Mark dumps her. A Muslim student named Ayisha (Hadeel Sittu) secretly converts to Christianity and is disowned by her infuriated father when he finds out.
After the final debate, Josh invites Martin to attend a concert by Christian pop rock group the Newsboys. Radisson reads a letter from his late mother, and is moved to reconcile with Mina. Amy confronts the Newsboys in their dressing room, only to ask them to help guide her in converting to Christianity. While on his way to find Mina, Radisson is struck by a car and fatally injured. Reverend Dave, who is waiting at the intersection, tends to Radisson and helps him become a Christian as he dies.
The film's main characters all convene at the Newsboys concert, where they play a video clip of Willie Robertson congratulating Josh. The Newsboys play their song "God's Not Dead", dedicating it to Josh.[5]
Cast[edit]
Shane Harper as Josh Wheaton
Kevin Sorbo as Professor Jeffery Radisson
David A. R. White as Reverend Dave
Trisha LaFache as Amy Ryan
Hadeel Sittu as Ayisha
Marco Khan as Misrab
Cory Oliver as Mina
Dean Cain as Mark
Jim Gleason as Ward Wheaton
Benjamin Onyango as Reverend Jude
Cassidy Gifford as Kara
Paul Kwo as Martin Yip
Newsboys as themselves
Willie Robertson as himself
Korie Robertson as herself
Production[edit]
The film was shot from October to November 2012, in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, with the concert scene done in Houston, Texas.[6]
Russell Wolfe, the CEO of Pure Flix Entertainment, stated that:
the inspiration behind the setting of the movie dates back a few years ago. I was in a meeting at Pinnacle Forum and Alan Sears from Alliance Defending Freedom, was speaking. He was speaking about a young girl who was asked to do some things that went against her faith and got in trouble for not doing them. That story put my jaw on the floor and made me think about how many students go to college as a Christian and how few stay a Christian after they finish their four years. It was that story that inspired me to set the movie on a college campus.[7]
The film soundtrack was released on March 3, 2014, by Inpop Records.[8]
Reception[edit]
Box office[edit]
The film became a surprise success at the box office. In its first weekend of release, the film earned $8.6 million from 780 theaters, causing Entertainment Weekly's Adam Markovitz to refer to it as "the biggest surprise of the weekend".[9] During that week, it finished third behind Divergent and Muppets Most Wanted in the box office, with $9.2 million.[10]
The film began its international roll out in Mexico on April 4, 2014, where the movie grossed $89,021 its opening weekend. God's Not Dead grossed $60.8 million in North America and $3.9 million in other territories for a total of $64.7 million, against a budget of $2 million.[3] At the end of 2014, God's Not Dead was ranked 93rd in terms of worldwide gross, and finished with $64.7 million worldwide.[11]
Critical reception[edit]
On Rotten Tomatoes the film received a rating of 15%, based on 20 reviews, with an average rating of 2.8/10.[12] On Metacritic, the film received a score of 16 out of 100, based on 6 critics, indicating "overwhelming dislike".[13]
Writing for The A.V. Club, Todd Van Der Werff gave the film a "D–," saying, "Even by the rather lax standards of the Christian film industry, God's Not Dead is a disaster. It's an uninspired amble past a variety of Christian-email-forward bogeymen that feels far too long at just 113 minutes".[14] Reviewer Scott Foundas of Variety wrote "...even grading on a generous curve, this strident melodrama about the insidious efforts of America's university system to silence true believers on campus is about as subtle as a stack of Bibles falling on your head...."[15] Some sources and blogs have cited the film's similarities to a popular urban legend. The basic premise of an evangelical student debating with an atheist professor and winning in front of the class (who then applauds) has been the subject of a popular Chick tract.[16][17][18]
Evangelical and Roman Catholic response[edit]
The Alliance Defending Freedom, American Heritage Girls, Faith Driven Consumer, Denison Forum on Truth and Culture, Trevecca Nazarene University, The Dove Foundation and Ratio Christi have all endorsed the film.[19]
On the other hand, the young Earth creationist apologetics ministry, Answers in Genesis, would not endorse the film because of the promotion of several elements which they deemed to be "unbiblical".[20]
Dave Hartline of The American Catholic gave God's Not Dead a positive review and hoped that other films like it will follow.[21] Nick Olszyk of Catholic World Report gave it his highest rating of five reels, calling the film "a tremendously entertaining film that leads to God, not in addition to its quality but through its quality."[22] Vincent Funaro of The Christian Post praised the film for being "a hit for believers and may even appeal to skeptics searching for answers."[23]
Evangelical Michael Gerson, however, was highly critical of the film and its message, writing "The main problem with God's Not Dead is not its cosmology or ethics but its anthropology. It assumes that human beings are made out of cardboard. Academics are arrogant and cruel. Liberal bloggers are preening and snarky. Unbelievers disbelieve because of personal demons. It is characterization by caricature."[24] John Mulderig echoed similar concerns in his review for the Catholic News Service, stating: "There might be the kernel of an intriguing documentary buried within director Harold Cronk's stacked-deck drama, given the extent of real-life academic hostility toward religion. But even faith-filled moviegoers will sense the claustrophobia of the echo chamber within which this largely unrealistic picture unfolds."[25]
Writing for Christian Reviews, Roger Patterson of Answers in Genesis gave the film 3 1/2 out of 5 stars and noted that "clichés die hard", but concluded that "an astute and mature Christian can use the film as a teaching opportunity".[26]
Sequels[edit]
Pure Flix Entertainment produced a sequel, God's Not Dead 2,[27] with a release date of April 1, 2016,[28][29] several days after Easter.[30] A third God's Not Dead film, God's Not Dead: A Light in Darkness, came out on March 30, 2018.[31][32]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "God's Not Dead (PG)". British Board of Film Classification. April 7, 2014. Retrieved April 8, 2014.
Jump up ^ Busch, Anita (April 3, 2014). "'God's Not Dead's Kevin Sorbo Takes Hollywood & Media To Task As He Backs Crowdfunding Campaign For Telefilm On Convicted Abortion Doctor Kermit Gosnell". Deadline.com. Retrieved April 5, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c "God's Not Dead (2014)". Box Office Mojo. Amazon.com. Retrieved August 14, 2014.
Jump up ^ Farber, Stephen (March 21, 2014). "God's Not Dead: Film Review". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved April 26, 2014.
Jump up ^ "GOD'S NOT DEAD - Synopsis". godsnotdeadthemovie.com. Milk Money Promotions. Archived from the original on July 29, 2015. Retrieved July 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ Schoen, Taylor (November 12, 2012). "Christian movie filming on campus". The Daily Reveille. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University. Retrieved August 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Exclusive Interview With Pure Flix Entertainment for God's Not Dead Movie". Alliance Defending Freedom. February 14, 2014. Archived from the original on April 7, 2014. Retrieved April 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ "God's Not Dead (The Motion Picture Soundtrack)". iTunes. Retrieved December 5, 2016.
Jump up ^ Highfill, Samantha (March 23, 2014). "Box office report: 'Divergent' heads straight for $56 million win | Inside Movies | EW.com". Insidemovies.ew.com. Retrieved April 26, 2014.
Jump up ^ Brevet, Brad. "Weekend Box Office: Breaking Down 'Divergent' at #1, 'Muppets 2' is Weak & 'God's Not Dead' Surprises". ComingSoon.net. Retrieved March 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ "2014 Worldwide Grosses". Box Office Mojo. 2014.
Jump up ^ Rotten Tomatoes, "God's Not Dead". Accessed April 17, 2014.
Jump up ^ "God's Not Dead Reviews". Metacritic. Retrieved October 12, 2014.
Jump up ^ Van Der Werff, Todd (March 24, 2014). "God's Not Dead is a mess even by Christian film standards". The A.V. Club. Retrieved April 26, 2014.
Jump up ^ Foundas, Scott (March 22, 2014). "'God's Not Dead' Review: A Ham-Fisted Christian Melodrama". Variety. Retrieved April 26, 2014.
Jump up ^ Seemayer, Zach (March 30, 2014). "'Noah' Washes Away Competition At The Box Office". ETonline.com.
Jump up ^ Noble, Alan (October 25, 2013). ""God's Not Dead," But this Trope Is". Patheos.
Jump up ^ Mehta, Hemant (September 10, 2013). "If an anti-atheist story on Snopes were made into a film, it'd be this one". Patheos.
Jump up ^ "God's Not Dead – Endorsements". Pure Flix Entertainment. Retrieved April 1, 2014.
Jump up ^ Patterson, Roger (February 25, 2014). "God's Not Dead Movie Review". Answers in Genesis. Retrieved August 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ "God's not dead; There's something happening here". American Catholic. Retrieved April 2, 2014. Slowly but surely with movies like God's Not Dead, others will follow, and the old secular guard will not like it and force us to endure some trials and tribulations.
Jump up ^ Olszyk, Nick. "Crash Meets Mere Christianity". Catholic World Report. Retrieved April 4, 2014.
Jump up ^ Funaro, Vincent. "'God's Not Dead' Review: Encouragement for Believers Facing Secular Hostility". The Christian Post. Retrieved August 5, 2014.
Jump up ^ Gerson, Michael (March 21, 2014). "Michael Gerson: 'Noah,' 'God's Not Dead' are movies lacking grace – The Washington Post". The Washington Post. The Washington Post. Retrieved April 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ Mulderig, John. "God's Not Dead". Catholic News Service. Retrieved April 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ Patterson, Roger. "God's Not Dead (2014)". Christian Reviews. Retrieved January 14, 2018.
Jump up ^ "'God's Not Dead 2' Getting Ready to Rock Atheists' World". Charisma News. October 22, 2014. Retrieved July 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ Endriga, Jomar (October 17, 2015). "God's Not Dead 2 Teaser Trailer Released in Time for Woodlawn Movie; NFL Star Tim Tebow Comments on Woodlawn Sneak Peek". The Gospel Herald. Retrieved October 19, 2015.
Jump up ^ "God's Not Dead 2: Coming April 1, 2016". God's Not Dead Blog. August 25, 2015. Retrieved October 19, 2015.
Jump up ^ Morefield, Kenneth R. (July 8, 2015). "Pureflix Sets Release Date for God's Not Dead 2: He is Surely Alive". 1More Film Blog. Retrieved October 19, 2015.
Jump up ^ Judge, Mark (October 27, 2016). "Confirmed: There Will be a 'God's Not Dead 3'". CNSNews.com. Retrieved November 2016
Jump up ^ God's Not Dead: A Light in Darkness (2018) at Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved January 14, 2018.
External links[edit]
Official website
God's Not Dead on IMDb
[show]
v
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God's Not Dead films
God's Not Dead (2014)
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Newsboys
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Duncan Phillips
Michael Tait
Vernon Bishop
Paul Colman
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Jonathan Geange
John James
Phil Joel
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Videos
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