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Tug of war at the Summer Olympics
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Tug of war at the Summer Olympics
Governing body
TWIF
Events
1 (men)
Games
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
2000
2004
2008
2012
2016
2020
Medalists
Tug of war competition in 1904 Summer Olympics
Tug of war was contested as a team event in the Summer Olympics at every Olympiad from 1900 to 1920. Originally the competition was entered by groups called clubs. A country could enter more than one club in the competition, making it possible for one country to earn multiple medals. This happened in 1904, when the United States won all three medals, and in 1908 when the podium was occupied by three British teams.[1] Sweden was also among the top countries with two medals, one as a member of the mixed team.
During its time as an Olympic sport, it was considered to be part of the Olympic athletics programme, although the sports of tug of war and athletics are now considered distinct.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Medal table
2 Nations
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Medal table[edit]
Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total
1 Great Britain (GBR) 2 2 1 5
2 United States (USA) 1 1 1 3
3 Sweden (SWE) 1 0 0 1
Mixed team (ZZX) 1 0 0 1
5 France (FRA) 0 1 0 1
Netherlands (NED) 0 1 0 1
7 Belgium (BEL) 0 0 1 1
Total
5
5
3
13
Nations[edit]
Teams consisted of 6 members in 1900 (Denmark and Sweden competed together), 5 members in 1904, and 8 members in the last three appearances of the sport.
Nation
00
04
08
12
20
Belgium 8
Denmark 3
France 6
Great Britain 24 8 8
Greece 5
Italy 8
Netherlands 8
South Africa 5
Sweden 3 8 8
United States 20 8 8
No. of nations
3
3
3
2
5
No. of pullers
12
30
40
16
40
See also[edit]
List of Olympic venues in discontinued events
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Olympic Results, Gold Medalists and Official Records". olympic.org. 23 February 2017. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
Jump up ^ Past Olympic Sports. Olympics/IOC. Retrieved on 2010-08-30.
External links[edit]
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See also: Paralympic sports
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Rashidun
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The Rashidun Caliphs (Rightly Guided Caliphs; Arabic: الخلفاء الراشدون al-Khulafāʾu ar-Rāshidūn), often simply called, collectively, "the Rashidun", is a term used in Sunni Islam to refer to the 30-year reign of the first four caliphs (successors) following the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, namely: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali of the Rashidun Caliphate, the first caliphate. The concept of "Rightly Guided Caliphs" originated with the later Abbasid Caliphate based in Baghdad. It is a reference to the Sunni imperative "Hold firmly to my example (sunnah) and that of the Rightly Guided Caliphs" (Ibn Majah, Abu Dawood).[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Abu Bakr
1.2 Umar ibn al-Khattab
1.3 Uthman ibn Affan
1.4 Ali ibn Abi Talib
2 Military expansion
3 Social policies
3.1 Civil activities
3.2 Settlements
4 Muslim views
4.1 Sunni perspectives
4.2 Shi'ite tradition
5 Timeline
6 See also
7 Notes
8 External links
History[edit]
The names of the first four caliphs inscribed at the dome of Yeni Mosque in Eminönü, Istanbul. Construction was begun during the regency of Safiye Sultan and completed by Turhan Hatice Valide Sultan, the mother of Sultan Mehmed IV.
The first four Caliphs who ruled after the death of Muhammad are often described as the "Khulafāʾ Rāshidūn". The Rashidun were either elected by a council (see the election of Uthman and Islamic democracy) or chosen based on the wishes of their predecessor. In the order of succession, the Rāshidūn were:[2][3]
Abu Bakr (632–634 CE).
Umar ibn al-Khattab, (Umar І, 634–644 CE) – Umar is often spelled Omar in some Western scholarship.
Uthman ibn Affan (644–656 CE) – Uthman is often spelled Othman (or Osman) in some non-Arabic scholarship.
Ali ibn Abi Talib (656–661 CE) – During this period however, Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan (Muawiyah I) controlled the Levant and Egypt regions independently of Ali.
In addition to this, there are several views regarding additional rashidun:
Hasan ibn Ali ibn Abi Talib, who was the eldest son of Fatimah the daughter of Muhammad, briefly succeeded his father Ali as caliph in 661 CE and is recognized by several historians as part of the Rashidun.[4] Hasan ibn Ali abdicated his right to the caliphate in favour of Muawiyah I in order to end the potential for ruinous civil war.[2][3]
`Umar ibn `Abdul-`Aziz, who was one of the Umayyad caliphs, has often been regarded by Sunni historians as one of the Rashidun, as quoted by Taftazani. More rarely, the Ottoman caliph Fatih Sultan Mehmed (Mehmed II) is also sometimes regarded to be among the rightly guided caliphs. In the Ibadi tradition however, only the first two caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar are considered to be the "Two Rightly Guided Caliphs".
Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani also includes the Abbassid caliphs, including Harun al-Rashid, in his enumeration.
Abu Bakr[edit]
Main article: Abu Bakr
Abu Bakr (Abdullah ibn Abi Qahafa, (Arabic: عبد الله ابن أبي قحافة, translit. `Abdullāh bin Abī Quhāfah), c. 573 CE unknown exact date 634/13 AH) was a senior companion (Sahabi) and the father-in-law of Muhammad. He ruled over the Rashidun Caliphate from 632-634 CE when he became the first Muslim Caliph following Muhammad's death.[5] As caliph, Abu Bakr succeeded to the political and administrative functions previously exercised by Muhammad, since the religious function and authority of prophethood ended with Muhammad's death according to Islam. Abu Bakr was called As-Siddiq (Arabic: اَلـصِّـدِّيْـق, "The Truthful"),[6] and was known by that title among later generations of Muslims. He prevented the recently converted Muslims from dispersing, kept the community united, and consolidated Islamic grip on the region by containing the Ridda, while extending the Dar Al Islam all the way to the Red Sea.
Umar ibn al-Khattab[edit]
Main article: Umar
Umar
Family[hide]
Family tree of Umar
Umm Kulthum bint Ali (Wife)
Abdullah ibn Umar (son)
Hafsa bint Umar (Daughter)
Asim ibn Umar (son)
Views[hide]
Sunni view of Umar
Ten Promised Paradise
Shi'a view of Umar
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Umar (Arabic: عمر ابن الخطاب, translit. `Umar ibn al-Khattāb, c. 586–590 – 644[6]:685) c. 2 Nov. (Dhu al-Hijjah 26, 23 Hijri[7]) was a leading companion and adviser to Muhammad, and became the second Muslim caliph after Muhammad's death and ruled for 10 years.[8] He succeeded Abu Bakr on 23 August 634 as the second caliph, and played a significant role in Islam. Under Umar the Islamic empire expanded at an unprecedented rate ruling the whole Sassanid Persian Empire and more than two thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire.[9] His legislative abilities, his firm political and administrative control over a rapidly expanding empire and his brilliantly coordinated multi-prong attacks against the Sassanid Persian Empire that resulted in the conquest of the Persian empire in less than two years, marked his reputation as a great political and military leader. Among his conquests are Jerusalem, Damascus, and Egypt.[10] He was killed by a Persian captive.
Uthman ibn Affan[edit]
Main article: Uthman ibn Affan
Uthman
The Generous – (Al Ghani)
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`Uthman (Arabic: عثمان ابن عفان, translit. `Uthmān ibn `Affān) (c. 579 – 17 July 656) was one of the companions of Muhammad. Uthman was born into the Umayyad clan of Mecca, a powerful family of the Quraysh tribe. He became caliph at the age of 70. Under his leadership, the empire expanded into Fars (present-day Iran) in 650 and some areas of Khorasan (present-day Afghanistan) in 651, and the conquest of Armenia was begun in the 640s.[11] His rule ended when he was assassinated.
Uthman is perhaps best known for forming the committee which compiled the basic text of the Quran as it exists today,[12] based on text that had been gathered separately on parchment, bones and rocks during the lifetime of Muhammad and also on a copy of the Quran that had been collated by Abu Bakr and left with Muhammad's widow after Abu Bakr's death. The committee members were also reciters of the Quran and had memorised the entire text during the lifetime of Muhammad. This work was undertaken due to the vast expansion of Islam under Uthman's rule, which encountered many different dialects and languages. This had led to variant readings of the Quran for those converts who were not familiar with the language. After clarifying any possible errors in pronunciation or dialects, Uthman sent copies of the sacred text to each of the Muslim cities and garrison towns, and destroyed variant texts.[13]
Ali ibn Abi Talib[edit]
Main articles: Ali as Caliph and First Fitna
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Ali
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Ali (Arabic: علي ابن أبي طالب, translit. `Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib) was a cousin of Muhammad. He was the second companion of Muhammad after Khadijah to accept Islam. He was only 10 years old at the time of his conversion. At the age of 21, he married Fatimah, Muhammed's youngest daughter by Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, and became a son-in-law of Muhammed. He had three sons (Hasan, Husayn, and Muhsin) and two daughters (Umm Kulthum and Zaynab) with Fatimah. He was a scribe of the Quran, who kept a written copy of it, and memorized its verses as soon as they were revealed. During the Khilafat (Arabic: خِـلَافَـة, Caliphate) of Uthman, Umar and Abu Bakr, he was part of the Majlis ash-Shura (Arabic: مَـجْـلِـس الـشُّـوْرَى) and took care of Medina in their absence.[citation needed]
After the death of Uthman, Medina was in political chaos for a number of days. After four days, when the rebels who assassinated Uthman felt that it was necessary that a new Khalifa should be elected before they left Medina, Many of the companions approached Ali to take the role of caliph, which he refused to do initially.[citation needed] The rebels then offered Khilafat to Talha and Zubair, who also refused. The Ansars also declined their offer to choose a new Khalifah. Thus, the rebels threatened to take drastic measures if a new Khalifah was not chosen within 24 hours. To resolve the issue, all Muslim leaders gathered at the mosque of the Prophet. They all agreed that the best person who fit all the qualities of a Caliph was Ali. Therefore, Ali was persuaded into taking the post. Talha and Zubair and some others then performed Bayʿah (Arabic: بَـيْـعَـة, Oath of allegiance, literally a "sale" or "commercial transaction") at Ali's hand, followed by a general Bayʿah on 25th of Dhil-Hijjah, 656 CE.
After his appointment as caliph, Ali dismissed several provincial governors, some of whom were relatives of Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides such as Malik al-Ashtar. Ali then transferred his capital from Medina to Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in what is now Iraq. The capital of the province of Syria, that is Damascus, was governed by Mu'awiyah, who was a kinsman of Uthman, Ali's slain predecessor.[14]
His caliphate coincided with the First Fitna (civil war when Muslims were divided over who had the legitimate right to occupy the caliphate).[15] and which was ended, on the whole, by Mu'awiyah's assumption of the caliphate.
Ali was assassinated, and died on the 21st of Ramadan in the city of Kufa (Iraq) in 661 CE by Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam, a Kharijite who was later pardoned and left by Ali's son and successor, Hasan, according to Ali's will.[2][3]
Military expansion[edit]
Main article: Rashidun Caliphate § Military expansion
Further information: Arab–Byzantine wars
The Rashidun Caliphate greatly expanded Islam beyond Arabia, conquering all of Persia, besides Syria (637), Armenia (639), Egypt (639) and Cyprus (654).
Social policies[edit]
During his reign, Abu Bakr established the Bayt al-Mal (state treasury). Umar expanded the treasury and established a government building to administer the state finances.[16]
Upon conquest, in almost all cases, the caliphs were burdened with the maintenance and construction of roads and bridges in return for the conquered nation's political loyalty.[17]
Civil activities[edit]
Civil welfare in Islam started in the form of the construction and purchase of wells. During the caliphate, the Muslims repaired many of the aging wells in the lands they conquered.[18]
In addition to wells, the Muslims built many tanks and canals. Many canals were purchased, and new ones constructed. While some canals were excluded for the use of monks (such as a spring purchased by Talhah), and the needy, most canals were open to general public use. Some canals were constructed between settlements, such as the Saad canal that provided water to Anbar, and the Abi Musa Canal to provide water to Basra.[19]
During a famine, Umar ibn al-Khattab ordered the construction of a canal in Egypt connecting the Nile with the sea. The purpose of the canal was to facilitate the transport of grain to Arabia through a sea-route, hitherto transported only by land. The canal was constructed within a year by 'Amr ibn al-'As, and Abdus Salam Nadiv writes that "Arabia was rid of famine for all the times to come."[20]
After four floods hit Mecca after Muhammad's death, Umar ordered the construction of two dams to protect the Kaaba. He also constructed a dam near Medina to protect its fountains from flooding.[17]
Settlements[edit]
The area of Basra was very sparsely populated when it was conquered by the Muslims. During the reign of Umar, the Muslim army found it a suitable place to construct a base. Later the area was settled and a mosque was erected.[21][22][23]
Upon the conquest of Madyan, it was settled by Muslims. However, soon the environment was considered harsh, and Umar ordered the resettlement of the 40,000 settlers to Kufa. The new buildings were constructed from mud bricks instead of reeds, a material that was popular in the region, but caught fire easily.
During the conquest of Egypt the area of Fustat was used by the Muslim army as a base. Upon the conquest of Alexandria, the Muslims returned and settled in the same area. Initially the land was primarily used for pasture, but later buildings were constructed.[24]
Other already populated areas were greatly expanded. At Mosul, Arfaja al-Bariqi, at the command of Umar, constructed a fort, a few churches, a mosque and a locality for the Jewish population.[25]
Muslim views[edit]
The first four caliphs are particularly significant to modern intra-Islamic debates: for Sunni Muslims, they are models of righteous rule; for Shia Muslims, the first three of the four were usurpers. It is prudent to note here that accepted traditions of both Sunni and Shia Muslims detail disagreements and tensions between the four rightly guided caliphs.[citation needed]
Sunni perspectives[edit]
They were called the "Rightly-Guided" because they have been seen as model Muslim leaders by Sunni Muslims. This terminology came into a general use around the world, since Sunni Islam has been the dominant Islamic tradition, and for a long time it has been considered the most authoritative source of information about Islam in the Western world.[citation needed]
They were all close companions of Muhammad, and his relatives: the daughters of Abu Bakr and Umar were married to Muhammad, and three of Muhammad's daughters[citation needed] were married to Uthman and Ali. Likewise, their succession was not hereditary, something that would become the custom after them, beginning with the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate. Council decision or caliph's choice determined the successor originally.
Sunnis have long viewed the period of the Rashidun as exemplary and a system of governance—based upon Islamic righteousness and merit—they seek to emulate. Sunnis also equate this system with the worldly success that was promised by Allah, in the Quran and hadith, to those Muslims who pursued His pleasure; this spectacular success has further added to the emulatory appeal of the Rashidun era.[26][27][28]
Shi'ite tradition[edit]
According to Shi'ite Islam, the first caliph should have been Ali, followed by other Shi'ite Imams, like his sons Hasan and Husayn. Shi'te Muslims support this claim with ahadith like those of Ghadir Khumm (Arabic: غَـدِيْـر خُـمّ Pond of Khumm), his relationship to Muhammad being similar to that between Hārūn (Arabic: هَـارُوْن, Aaron) and Mūsā (Arabic: مُـوْسَى, Moses).
Timeline[edit]
Note that a caliph's succession does not necessarily occur on the first day of the new year.
See also[edit]
Hadith of the ten promised paradise
The Four Companions
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ admin@inter-islam.org. "Taraweeh: 8 or 20?". Inter-islam.org. Retrieved 2014-04-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c شبارو, عصام محمد (1995). First Islamic Arab State (1 – 41 AH/ 623 – 661 CE). 3. Arab Renaissance House – Beirut, Lebanon. p. 370.
^ Jump up to: a b c Madelung, Wilferd (1997). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64696-0.
Jump up ^ "The Four Caliphs – SHAYKH AL ISLAM". Islam786.org. Retrieved 2014-04-16.
Jump up ^ "Abu Bakr - Muslim caliph".
^ Jump up to: a b Juan Eduardo Campo, "Encyclopedia of Islam", Infobase Publishing, 2009
Jump up ^ Ibn Kathir, "al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah", part 7.
Jump up ^ Ahmed, Nazeer, Islam in Global History: From the Death of Prophet Muhammad to the First World War, American Institute of Islamic History and Cul, 2001, p. 34. ISBN 0-7388-5963-X.
Jump up ^ Hourani, p. 23.
Jump up ^ "The Caliphate". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 2014-04-16.
Jump up ^ Ochsenweld, William; Fisher, Sydney Nettleton (2004). The Middle East: a history (sixth ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-244233-6.
Jump up ^ "Hisorical Quranic Menuscript attributed to Hazrat Usman Ibn Afffan - Australian Islamic Library". Australian Islamic Library. Retrieved 2016-05-07.
Jump up ^ https://archive.org/download/MaarifulQuran/Introduction.pdf
Jump up ^ Shi'a: 'Ali Archived 2008-03-29 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Ref:
Lapidus (2002), p. 47
Holt (1977a), pp. 70–72
Tabatabaei (1979), pp.50–57
Jump up ^ Nadvi (2000), pg. 411
^ Jump up to: a b Nadvi (2000), pg. 408
Jump up ^ Nadvi (2000), pg. 403-4
Jump up ^ Nadvi (2000), pg. 405-6
Jump up ^ Nadvi (2000), pg. 407-8
Jump up ^ Netton, Ian Richard (2013-12-19). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Routledge. ISBN 9781135179601.
Jump up ^ Fidai, Rafi Ahmad; Shaikh, N. M. (2002-01-01). THE COMPANION OF THE HOLY PROPHET. Adam Publishers & Distributors. ISBN 9788174352231.
Jump up ^ Bennison, Amira K. (2011-07-30). The Great Caliphs: The Golden Age of the 'Abbasid Empire. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 9780857720269.
Jump up ^ Nadvi (2000), pg. 416-7
Jump up ^ Nadvi (2000), pg. 418
Jump up ^ Jeffry R. Halverson (27 Apr 2010). Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam: The Muslim Brotherhood, Ash'arism, and Political Sunnism. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 69. ISBN 9780230106581.
Jump up ^ Didier Fassin (31 Dec 2014). A Companion to Moral Anthropology (reprint ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 235. ISBN 9781118959503.
Jump up ^ Cristoffel A. O. van Nieuwenhuijze (1997). Paradise Lost: Reflections on the Struggle for Authenticity in the Middle East. BRILL. p. 28. ISBN 9789004106727.
External links[edit]
Media related to Rashidun Caliphs at Wikimedia Commons
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Bartholomew the Apostle
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"Bartholomew" redirects here. For other uses, see Bartholomew (disambiguation).
Saint Bartholomew the Apostle
Saint John and Saint Bartholomew (right) by Dosso Dossi, 1527
Apostle and martyr
Born
1st century AD
Cana, Judaea, Roman Empire
Died
1st century AD
Albanopolis, Armenia
Venerated in
Assyrian Church of the East
Roman Catholic Church
Maronite Catholic Church
Eastern Orthodox Church
Oriental Orthodoxy
Anglican Communion
Lutheran Church
Islam (named in Muslim exegesis as one of the disciples)
Major shrine
Saint Bartholomew Monastery in historical Armenia, Relics at Basilica of San Bartolomeo in Benevento, Italy, Saint Bartholomew-on-the-Tiber Church, Rome, the Canterbury Cathedral, the Cathedral in Frankfurt, and the San Bartolomeo Cathedral in Lipari
Feast
August 24 (Western Christianity)
June 11 (Eastern Christianity)
Attributes
Knife and his flayed skin
Patronage
Armenia; bookbinders; butchers; Florentine cheese and salt merchants; Gambatesa, Italy; Catbalogan, Samar; Għargħur, Malta; leather workers; neurological diseases; plasterers; shoemakers; curriers; tanners; trappers; twitching; whiteners ; Los Cerricos (Spain)
Bartholomew (Ancient Greek: Βαρθολομαῖος, translit. Bartholomaíos, Latin: Bartholomaeus) was one of the twelve apostles of Jesus. He has been identified with Nathanael or Nathaniel,[1] who appears in the Gospel of John as being introduced to Jesus by Philip (who would also become an apostle),[Jn 1:43-51] although some modern commentators reject the identification of Nathanael with Bartholomew.[2]
According to the Synaxarium of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, his martyrdom is commemorated on the first day of the Coptic calendar (i.e. the first day of the month of Thout), which currently falls on September 11 (corresponding to August 29 in the Julian calendar). His feast is June 11 in Eastern Christianity and August 24 in the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod, Anglican Communion and both forms of the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church.
Bartholomew (Greek: Βαρθολομαῖος, transliterated "Bartholomaios") comes from the Aramaic: בר-תולמי bar-Tolmay "son of Talmai"[3] or "son of the furrows".[citation needed] Bartholomew is listed among the Twelve Apostles of Jesus in the three synoptic gospels: Matthew,[10:1–4] Mark,[3:13–19] and Luke,[6:12–16] and also appears as one of the witnesses of the Ascension[Acts 1:4,12,13]; on each occasion, however, he is named in the company of Philip. He is not mentioned by the name Bartholomew in the Gospel of John, nor are there any early acta,[4] the earliest being written by a pseudepigraphical writer, Pseudo-Abdias, who assumed the identity of Abdias of Babylon and to whom is attributed the Saint-Thierry (Reims, Bibl. mun., ms 142) and Pseudo-Abdias manuscripts.[5][6]
Contents
[hide]
1 New Testament references
2 Tradition
2.1 Mission to India
2.2 In Armenia
3 Bartholomew's relics
4 Miracles
5 Art and literature
6 Culture
7 See also
8 References
9 Sources
10 External links
New Testament references[edit]
In the East, where Bartholomew's evangelical labours were expended, he was identified as Nathanael, in works by Abdisho bar Berika (often known as Ebedjesu in the West), the 14th century Nestorian metropolitan of Soba, and Elias, the bishop of Damascus.[7] Nathanael is mentioned only in the Gospel of John. In the Synoptic Gospels, Philip and Bartholomew are always mentioned together, while Nathanael is never mentioned; in John's gospel, on the other hand, Philip and Nathanael are similarly mentioned together. Giuseppe Simone Assemani specifically remarks, "the Chaldeans confound Bartholomew with Nathaniel".[8] Some Biblical scholars reject this identification, however.[9]
Tradition[edit]
Eusebius of Caesarea's Ecclesiastical History (5:10) states that after the Ascension, Bartholomew went on a missionary tour to India, where he left behind a copy of the Gospel of Matthew. Other traditions record him as serving as a missionary in Ethiopia, Mesopotamia, Parthia, and Lycaonia.[10] Popular traditions and legends say that Bartholomew preached the Gospel in India, then went to Greater Armenia.[3]
Mission to India[edit]
Two ancient testimonies exist about the mission of Saint Bartholomew in India. These are of Eusebius of Caesarea (early 4th century) and of Saint Jerome (late 4th century). Both of these refer to this tradition while speaking of the reported visit of Pantaenus to India in the 2nd century.[11] The studies of Fr A.C. Perumalil SJ and Moraes hold that the Bombay region on the Konkan coast, a region which may have been known as the ancient city Kalyan, was the field of Saint Bartholomew's missionary activities.[11]
In Armenia[edit]
Saint Bartholomew Monastery at the site of the Apostle's martyrdom in historical Armenia
Along with his fellow apostle Jude "Thaddeus", Bartholomew is reputed to have brought Christianity to Armenia in the 1st century. Thus, both saints are considered the patron saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church.
He is said to have been martyred in Albanopolis, Caucasia. According to one account, he was beheaded, but a more popular tradition holds that he was flayed alive and crucified, head downward. He is said to have converted Polymius, the king of Armenia, to Christianity. Astyages, Polymius' brother, consequently ordered Bartholomew's execution.[12]
The 13th century Saint Bartholomew Monastery was a prominent Armenian monastery constructed at the site of the martyrdom of Apostle Bartholomew in Vaspurakan, Greater Armenia (now in southeastern Turkey).[13]
Bartholomew's relics[edit]
Altar of San Bartolomeo Basilica in Benevento, containing the relics of Bartholomew
The 6th-century writer in Constantinople, Theodorus Lector, averred that in about 507, the Byzantine emperor Anastasius I Dicorus gave the body of Bartholomew to the city of Dura-Europos, which he had recently refounded.[14] The existence of relics at Lipari, a small island off the coast of Sicily, in the part of Italy controlled from Constantinople, was explained by Gregory of Tours[15] by his body having miraculously washed up there: a large piece of his skin and many bones that were kept in the Cathedral of St Bartholomew the Apostle, Lipari, were translated to Benevento in 838, where they are still kept now in the Basilica San Bartolomeo.[16] A small part of the relics was given in 983 by Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor, to Rome, where it is conserved at San Bartolomeo all'Isola, which was founded on the temple of Asclepius, an important Roman medical centre. This association with medicine in course of time caused Bartholomew's name to become associated with medicine and hospitals.[17] Some of Bartholomew's alleged skull was transferred to the Frankfurt Cathedral, while an arm was venerated in Canterbury Cathedral.
Miracles[edit]
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The Martyrdom of Saint Bartholomew by Jusepe de Ribera (1634)
Of the many miracles claimed to have been performed by Bartholomew before and after his death, two very popular ones are known by the townsfolk of the small island of Lipari.
The people of Lipari celebrated his feast day annually. The tradition of the people was to take the solid silver and gold statue from inside the Cathedral of St Bartholomew and carry it through the town. On one occasion, when taking the statue down the hill towards the town, it suddenly became very heavy and had to be set down. When the men carrying the statue regained their strength, they lifted it a second time. After another few seconds, it got even heavier. They set it down and attempted once more to pick it up. They managed to lift it but had to put it down one last time. Within seconds, walls further downhill collapsed. If the statue had been able to be lifted, all the townspeople would have been killed.
During World War II, the Fascist regime looked for ways to finance their activities. The order was given to take the silver statue of Saint Bartholomew and melt it down. The statue was weighed, and it was found to be only a few grams. It was returned to its place in the Cathedral of Lipari. In reality, the statue is made from many kilograms of silver and it is considered a miracle that it was not melted down.
Saint Bartholomew is credited with many other miracles having to do with the weight of objects.
Art and literature[edit]
Christian tradition has three stories about Bartholomew's death: "One speaks of his being kidnapped, beaten unconscious, and cast into the sea to drown. Another account states that he was crucified upside down, and another says that he was skinned alive and beheaded in Albac or Albanopolis",[18] near Başkale, Turkey.
The account of Bartholomew being skinned alive is the most represented in works of art, and consequently Bartholomew is often shown with a large knife, holding his own skin (as in Michelangelo's Last Judgment), or both. In Avezzano, in Abruzzo the image of the Saint who is holding his own skin has become the symbol of the city. Archaeological research has shown that the cult of Saint Bartholomew began in Avezzano, because the previous presence of a temple dedicated to Heracles, which is always represented in the act of holding the skin of the Nemean lion. There is, therefore, a solid relationship between the two iconographies and the re-semantization of the symbols Heracles/Physical Strength/Hero and Bartholomew/Power of Faith/Hero-Martyr.[19] Bartholomew is also the patron saint of tanners.
Bartholomew plays a part in Francis Bacon's Utopian tale New Atlantis, about a mythical isolated land, Bensalem, populated by a people dedicated to reason and natural philosophy. Some twenty years after the ascension of Christ the people of Bensalem found an ark floating off their shore. The ark contained a letter as well as the books of the Old and New Testaments. The letter was from Bartholomew the Apostle and declared that an angel told him to set the ark and its contents afloat. Thus the scientists of Bensalem received the revelation of the Word of God.[20]
In recent days especially, depictions of the saint have found daunting new forms, such as Damien Hirst's bronze statue (2006)[21] or the large-scale painting by Aris Kalaizis, created in confrontation with the relic and the depictions of Saint Bartholomew at Frankfurt Cathedral.
Saint Bartholomew displaying his flayed skin in Michelangelo's The Last Judgment.
Statue of Saint Bartholomew, with his own skin, by Marco d'Agrate, 1562 (Duomo di Milano)
Statue of Bartholomew at the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran by Pierre Le Gros the Younger.
Culture[edit]
The festival in August has been a traditional occasion for markets and fairs, such as the Bartholomew Fair held in Smithfield, London since the Middle Ages,[22] which served as the scene for Ben Jonson's homonymous comedy.
"St Bartholomew's Street Fair" is held in Crewkerne, Somerset annually at the start of September. The fair dates back to Saxon times and the major traders market was recorded in the Domesday Book. St Bartholomew's Street Fair, Crewkerne is reputed to have been granted its charter in the time of Henry III (1207–1272). The earliest surviving court record was made in 1280, which can be found in The British Museum. The associated fun fair dates from at least 1861.
See also[edit]
Book: Apostle (Christian)
Saints portal
St. Bartholomew's Day massacre
St Bartholomew's Hospital
Bertil
Bartholomeus
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Green, Joel B.; Scot McKnight; I. Howard Marshall (1992). Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels. The IVP Bible Dictionary Series. InterVarsity Press. p. 180. ISBN 0-8308-1777-8.
Jump up ^ Smith, D. Moody. Abingdon New Testament Commentaries: John. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1999. ISBN 0687058120
^ Jump up to: a b Butler, Alban and Burns, Paul. "St. Bartholomew", Butler's Lives of the Saints: August, A&C Black, 1998 ISBN 9780860122579
Jump up ^ William Smith and Samuel Cheetham, A Dictionary of Christian Antiquities (1875) noted the "absence of any great amount of early trustworthy tradition."
Jump up ^ These Acta were published by Johann Albert Fabricius, Codex Apocryphus Novi Testimenti i. 341ff.
Jump up ^ Meredith Parsons Lillich (1 September 2011). The Gothic Stained Glass of Reims Cathedral. Penn State Press. pp. 46–. ISBN 978-0-271-03777-6.
Jump up ^ Both noted, Ebedjesu as "Ebedjesu Sobiensis", in Smith and Cheetham, who give their source, Giuseppe Simone Assemani Bibliotheca Orientalis iii.i. pp. 30ff.
Jump up ^ Bartholomaeum cum Nathaniel confundunt Chaldaei Assemani, Bibliotheca Orientalis, iii, pt 2, p. 5 (noted by Smith and Cheetham).
Jump up ^ John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew Volume 3, Doubleday, 2001. pp. 199–200. ISBN 0-385-46993-4; for the identification see Benedict XVI, Udienza generale 4 October 2006 Archived March 24, 2009, at the Wayback Machine..
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Micropædia. vol. 1, p. 924. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1998. ISBN 0-85229-633-9.
^ Jump up to: a b "Mission of Saint Bartholomew, the Apostle in India". Nasranis.
Jump up ^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: St. Bartholomew".
Jump up ^ "THE CONDITION OF THE ARMENIAN HISTORICAL MONUMENTS IN TURKEY". Research on Armenian Architecture. 2008-10-01. Retrieved 2009-06-01.
Jump up ^ Noted in Smith and Cheetham.
Jump up ^ Gregory, De Gloria Martyrum, i.33.
Jump up ^ www.netkosmos.com, NetKosmos S.r.l. "Basilica San Bartolomeo apostolo Benevento".
Jump up ^ Attwater, Donald and Catherine Rachel John. The Penguin Dictionary of Saints. 3rd edition. New York: Penguin Books, 1993. ISBN 0-14-051312-4.
Jump up ^ D. A. Teunis. Satan's Secret: Exposing the Master of Deception and the Father of Lies. AuthorHouse, 2003. ISBN 978-1-4107-3580-5. Page 306
Jump up ^ Thomas Frederick Crane, Marco Lazzarotti, Ed. Tales From Italy: When Christianity Met Italy, M&J, 2014. ISBN 9791195174942. Page 5
Jump up ^ Bacon, Francis (1 December 2000). "New Atlantis" – via Project Gutenberg.
Jump up ^ Saint Bartholomew, Exquisit Pain.
Jump up ^ Cavendish, Richard. "London’s Last Bartholomew Fair", History Today, Vol.55, Issue 9, 2005
Sources[edit]
Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897.
Encyclopedia Anglicana, 1911
Dictionary of First Names, Patrick Hanks and Flavia Hodges. Oxford University Press, 1996
Attwater, Donald and Catherine Rachel John. The Penguin Dictionary of Saints. 3rd edition. New York: Penguin Books, 1993. ISBN 0-14-051312-4.
The Apostles in India by Fr. A.C. Perumalil, SJ, 1952
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bartholomew the Apostle.
The Martyrdom of the Holy and Glorious Apostle Bartholomew, attributed to Pseudo-Abdias, one of the minor Church Fathers
St. Bartholomew's mission in India
St. Bartholomew's Connections in India
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bartholomew, Saint". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
St. Bartholomew at the Christian Iconography web site.'
"The Life of St. Bartholomew the Apostle" in the Caxton translation of the Golden Legend
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This page was last edited on 25 December 2017, at 09:34.
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Apostle (Christian)

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