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Of Mice and Men
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"Mice and Men" redirects here. For the 1916 film, see Mice and Men (film). For other uses, see Of Mice and Men (disambiguation).
Of Mice and Men
First edition cover
Author
John Steinbeck
Cover artist
Ross MacDonald
Country
United States
Language
English
Publisher
Covici Friede
Publication date
1937
Pages
187
Of Mice and Men is a novella[1][2] written by author John Steinbeck. Published in 1937, it tells the story of George Milton and Lennie Small, two displaced migrant ranch workers, who move from place to place in California in search of new job opportunities during the Great Depression in the United States.
Steinbeck based the novella on his own experiences working alongside migrant farm workers as a teenager in the 1910s (before the arrival of the Okies he would vividly describe in The Grapes of Wrath). The title is taken from Robert Burns' poem "To a Mouse", which reads: "The best laid schemes o' mice an' men / Gang aft agley". (The best laid schemes of mice and men / Often go awry.)
While it is a book taught in many schools,[3] Of Mice and Men has been a frequent target of censors for vulgarity and what some consider offensive and racist language; consequently, it appears on the American Library Association's list of the Most Challenged Books of 21st Century.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Characters
3 Themes
4 Development
5 Reception
6 Adaptations
6.1 Stage
6.2 Film
6.3 Radio
7 References
7.1 Notes
7.2 Bibliography
8 External links
Plot
Two migrant field workers in California on their plantation during the Great Depression—George Milton, an intelligent but uneducated man, and Lennie Small, a bulky, strong man but mentally disabled—are in Soledad on their way to another part of California. They hope to one day attain the dream of settling down on their own piece of land. Lennie's part of the dream is merely to tend and pet rabbits on the farm, as he loves touching soft animals, although he always kills them. This dream is one of Lennie's favorite stories, which George constantly retells. They had fled from Weed after Lennie touched a young woman's dress and wouldn't let go, leading to an accusation of rape. It soon becomes clear that the two are close and George is Lennie's protector, despite his antics.
After being hired at a farm, the pair are confronted by Curley—The Boss's small, aggressive son with a Napoleon complex who dislikes larger men, and starts to target Lennie. Curley's flirtatious and provocative wife, to whom Lennie is instantly attracted, poses a problem as well. In contrast, the pair also meets Candy, an elderly ranch handyman with one hand and a loyal dog, and Slim, an intelligent and gentle jerkline-skinner whose dog has recently had a litter of puppies. Slim gives a puppy to Lennie and Candy, whose loyal, accomplished sheep dog was put down by fellow ranch-hand Carlson.
In spite of problems, their dream leaps towards reality when Candy offers to pitch in $350 with George and Lennie so that they can buy a farm at the end of the month, in return for permission to live with them. The trio are ecstatic, but their joy is overshadowed when Curley attacks Lennie, who defends himself by easily crushing Curley's fist while urged on by George.
Nevertheless, George feels more relaxed, to the extent that he even leaves Lennie behind on the ranch while he goes into town with the other ranch hands. Lennie wanders into the stable, and chats with Crooks, the bitter, yet educated stable buck, who is isolated from the other workers racially. Candy finds them and they discuss their plans for the farm with Crooks, who cannot resist asking them if he can hoe a garden patch on the farm albeit scorning its possibility. Curley's wife makes another appearance and flirts with the men, especially Lennie. However, her spiteful side is shown when she belittles them and threatens Crooks to have him lynched.
The next day, Lennie accidentally kills his puppy while stroking it. Curley's wife enters the barn and tries to speak to Lennie, admitting that she is lonely and how her dreams of becoming a movie star are crushed, revealing her personality. After finding out about Lennie's habit, she offers to let him stroke her hair, but panics and begins to scream when she feels his strength. Lennie becomes frightened, and unintentionally breaks her neck thereafter and runs away. When the other ranch hands find the corpse, George realizes that their dream is at an end. George hurries to find Lennie, hoping he will be at the meeting place they designated in case he got into trouble.
George meets Lennie at the place, their camping spot before they came to the ranch. The two sit together and George retells the beloved story of the dream, knowing it is something they'll never share. He then shoots and kills Lennie, with Curley, Slim, and Carlson arriving seconds after. Only Slim realizes what happened, and consolingly leads him away. Curley and Carlson look on, unable to comprehend the subdued mood of the two men.
Characters
I was a bindlestiff myself for quite a spell. I worked in the same country that the story is laid in. The characters are composites to a certain extent. Lennie was a real person. He's in an insane asylum in California right now. I worked alongside him for many weeks. He didn't kill a girl. He killed a ranch foreman. Got sore because the boss had fired his pal and stuck a pitchfork right through his stomach. I hate to tell you how many times I saw him do it. We couldn't stop him until it was too late.
John Steinbeck, interview by The New York Times, 1937[5][6]
George Milton: A quick-witted man who is Lennie's guardian and best friend. His friendship with Lennie helps sustain his dream of a better future. He was bound in teasing Lennie since he was young. He is described by Steinbeck in the novel as "small and quick," every part of him being "defined," with small strong hands on slender arms. He has a dark face and "restless eyes" and "sharp, strong features" including a "thin, bony nose."
Lennie Small: A mentally disabled, but physically strong man who travels with George and is his constant companion.[6] He dreams of "living off the fatta' the lan'" and being able to tend to rabbits. His love for soft things conspires against him, mostly because he does not know his own strength, and eventually becomes his undoing. Steinbeck defines his appearance as George's "opposite," writing that he is a "huge man, shapeless of face, with large, pale eyes" and "wide, sloping shoulders." Lennie walks heavily, dragging his feet a little, "the way a bear drags his paws," adding that his arms do not swing at his sides, but hang loosely.
Candy: An aging ranch handyman, Candy lost his hand in an accident and worries about his future on the ranch. Fearing that his age is making him useless, he seizes on George’s description of the farm he and Lennie will have, offering his life’s savings if he can join George and Lennie in owning the land.
Slim: A "jerkline skinner," the main driver of a mule team and the "prince of the ranch". Slim is greatly respected by many of the characters and is the only character whom Curley treats with respect. His insight, intuition, kindness and natural authority draw the other ranch hands automatically towards him, and he is significantly the only character to fully understand the bond between George and Lennie.
Curley: The Boss' son, a young, pugnacious character, once a semi-professional boxer. He is described by others, with some irony, as "handy", partly because he likes to keep a glove filled with vaseline on his left hand. He is very jealous and protective of his wife and immediately develops a dislike toward Lennie. At one point, Curley loses his temper after he sees Lennie appear to laugh at him, and ends up with his hand horribly damaged after Lennie fights back against him.
Curley's wife: A young, pretty woman, who is mistrusted by her husband. The other characters refer to her only as "Curley's wife". Steinbeck explained that she is "not a person, she's a symbol. She has no function, except to be a foil – and a danger to Lennie."[6] Curley's wife's preoccupation with her own beauty eventually helps precipitate her death: She allows Lennie to stroke her hair as an apparently harmless indulgence, only for her to upset Lennie when she yells at him to stop him 'mussing it'. Lennie tries to stop her yelling and eventually, and accidentally, kills her by breaking her neck.
Crooks: Crooks, the black stable-hand, gets his name from his crooked back. Proud, bitter, and cynical, he is isolated from the other men because of the color of his skin. Despite himself, Crooks becomes fond of Lennie, and though he claims to have seen countless men following empty dreams of buying their own land, he asks Lennie if he can go with them and hoe in the garden.
Candy's dog: A blind dog who is described as "old", "stinky", and "crippled", and is killed by Carlson.
Carlson: A "thick bodied" ranch hand, he kills Candy's dog with little sympathy.
The Boss: Curley's father, the superintendent of the ranch. The ranch is owned by "a big land company" according to Candy.
Whit: A young ranch hand.
Themes
In every bit of honest writing in the world there is a base theme. Try to understand men, if you understand each other you will be kind to each other. Knowing a man well never leads to hate and nearly always leads to love. There are shorter means, many of them. There is writing promoting social change, writing punishing injustice, writing in celebration of heroism, but always that base theme. Try to understand each other.
—  John Steinbeck in his 1938 journal entry[7]
Steinbeck emphasizes dreams throughout the book.[clarification needed] George aspires to independence, to be his own boss, to have a homestead, and most importantly to be "somebody". Lennie aspires to be with George on his independent homestead, and to quench his fixation on soft objects. Candy aspires to reassert his responsibility lost with the death of his dog, and for security for his old age—on George's homestead. Crooks aspires to a small homestead where he can express self-respect, security, and most of all, acceptance. Curley's wife dreams to be an actress, to satisfy her desire for fame lost when she married Curley, and an end to her loneliness.
Loneliness is a significant factor in several characters' lives. Candy is lonely after his dog is gone. Curley's wife is lonely because her husband is not the friend she hoped for—she deals with her loneliness by flirting with the men on the ranch, which causes Curley to increase his abusiveness and jealousy. The companionship of George and Lennie is the result of loneliness. Crooks states the theme candidly as "A guy goes nuts if he ain't got anybody. Don't make any difference who the guy is, long's he's with you."[8] The author further reinforces this theme through subtle methods by situating the story near the town of Soledad, which means "solitude" in Spanish.[9]
Despite the need for companionship, Steinbeck emphasizes how loneliness is sustained through the barriers established from acting inhuman to one another. The loneliness of Curley's wife is upheld by Curley's jealousy, which causes all the ranch hands to avoid her. Crooks's barrier results from being barred from the bunkhouse by restraining him to the stable; his bitterness is partially broken, however, through Lennie's ignorance.
Steinbeck's characters are often powerless, due to intellectual, economic, and social circumstances. Lennie possesses the greatest physical strength of any character, which should therefore establish a sense of respect as he is employed as a ranch hand. However, his intellectual handicap undercuts this and results in his powerlessness. Economic powerlessness is established as many of the ranch hands are victims of the Great Depression. As George, Candy and Crooks are positive, action- oriented characters, they wish to purchase a homestead, but because of the Depression, they are unable to generate enough money. Lennie is the only one who is basically unable to take care of himself, but the other characters would do this in the improved circumstances they seek. Since they cannot do so, the real danger of Lennie's mental handicap comes to the fore.
Regarding human interaction, evil of oppression and abuse is a theme that is illustrated through Curley and Curley's wife. Curley uses his aggressive nature and superior position in an attempt to take control of his father's farm. He constantly reprimands the farm hands and accuses some of fooling around with his wife. Curley's Napoleon complex is evidenced by his threatening of the farm hands for minuscule incidents. Curley's wife, on the other hand, is not physically but verbally manipulative. She uses her sex appeal to gain some attention, flirting with the farm hands. According to the Penguin Teacher's Guide for Of Mice and Men, Curley and Curley's wife represent evil in that both oppress and abuse the migrants in different ways.[10]
Fate is felt most heavily as the characters' aspirations are destroyed when George is unable to protect Lennie (who is a real danger). Steinbeck presents this as "something that happened" or as his friend coined for him "non-teleological thinking" or "is thinking", which postulates a non-judgmental point of view.[7]
Development
Of Mice and Men was Steinbeck's first attempt at writing in the form of novel-play termed a "play-novelette" by one critic. Structured in three acts of two chapters each, it is intended to be both a novella and a script for a play. It is only 30,000 words in length. Steinbeck wanted to write a novel that could be played from its lines, or a play that could be read like a novel.[11]
Steinbeck originally titled it Something That Happened (referring to the events of the book as "something that happened" because nobody can be really blamed for the tragedy that unfolds in the story). However, he changed the title after reading Robert Burns's poem To a Mouse.[12] Burns's poem tells of the regret the narrator feels for having destroyed the home of a mouse while plowing his field.[13]
Steinbeck wrote this book and The Grapes of Wrath in what is now Monte Sereno, California. An early draft of Of Mice and Men was eaten by Steinbeck's dog, named Max.[14]
Reception
Attaining the greatest positive response of any of his works up to that time, Steinbeck's novella was chosen as a Book of the Month Club selection before it was published. Praise for the work came from many notable critics, including Maxine Garrard (Enquirer-Sun),[15] Christopher Morley, and Harry Thornton Moore (New Republic).[16] New York Times critic Ralph Thompson described the novella as a "grand little book, for all its ultimate melodrama."[17][18]
The novella has been banned from various US public and school libraries or curricula for allegedly "promoting euthanasia", "condoning racial slurs", being "anti-business", containing profanity, and generally containing "vulgar" and "offensive language".[19] Many of the bans and restrictions have been lifted and it remains required reading in many other American, Australian, Irish, British, New Zealand and Canadian high schools. As a result of being a frequent target of censors, Of Mice and Men appears on the American Library Association's list of the Most Challenged Books of the 21st Century (number 4).[20] In the UK, it was listed at number 52 of the "nation's best loved novels" on the BBC's 2003 survey The Big Read.[21] Of Mice and Men has been challenged 54 times since it was published in 1936.[22] However, scholars like Thomas Scarseth have fought to protect the book by citing its literary value. According to Scarseth "in true great literature the pain of Life is transmuted into the beauty of Art",.[23] The book was once studied in English Literature GCSE, but was dropped because it didn't originate from England.[24]
Adaptations
See also: Of Mice and Men in popular culture
Stage
Main articles: Of Mice and Men (play) and Of Mice and Men (opera)
The first stage production was written by Steinbeck, produced by Sam H. Harris and directed by George S. Kaufman. It opened on November 23, 1937, in the Music Box Theatre on Broadway.[25] Running for 207 performances, it starred Wallace Ford as George and Broderick Crawford as Lennie.[25] The role of Crooks was performed by Leigh Whipper, the first African-American member of the Actors' Equity Association.[26] Whipper repeated this role in the 1939 film version.[27]
The production was chosen as Best Play in 1938 by the New York Drama Critics' Circle.[28]
In 1939 the production was moved to Los Angeles, still with Wallace Ford in the role of George, but with Lon Chaney, Jr., taking on the role of Lennie. Chaney's performance in the role resulted in his casting in the movie.
The play was revived in a 1974 Broadway production in the Brooks Atkinson Theatre starring Kevin Conway as George and James Earl Jones as Lennie.[29] Noted stage actress Pamela Blair played Curley's Wife in this production.
In 1970 Carlisle Floyd wrote an opera based on this novella. One departure between Steinbeck's book and Floyd's opera is that the opera features The Ballad Singer, a character not found in the book.[30]
A new version of the play opened on Broadway at The Longacre Theater on March 19, 2014 for a limited 18-week engagement, starring James Franco, Chris O'Dowd, Leighton Meester and Jim Norton.[31][32]
Film
Poster for the 1939 film
The first adaptation was in 1939, two years after the publication of the novella, and starred Lon Chaney Jr. as Lennie, with Burgess Meredith as George, and was directed by Lewis Milestone.[27] It was nominated for four Academy Awards.[27]
A TV version, produced by David Susskind in 1968, starred George Segal as George, Nicol Williamson as Lennie, Will Geer as Candy, Moses Gunn as Crooks, and Don Gordon and Joey Heatherton as Curley and his wife.[33]
A 1972 Iranian film, Topoli, directed by Reza Mirlohi was adapted from and dedicated to John Steinbeck and his story.[citation needed]
In 1981 a TV movie version was made, starring Randy Quaid as Lennie, and Robert Blake as George, and directed by Reza Badiyi.[34]
Another theatrical film version was made in 1992, directed by Gary Sinise, who was nominated for the Palme d'Or at Cannes.[35] Sinise also played George in the film, and the role of Lennie was played by John Malkovich. For this adaptation, both men reprised their roles from the 1980 Steppenwolf Theatre Company production.[36]
The 1992 Malayalam film Soorya Manasam directed by Viji Thampi is also based on the novel.[37]
Radio
Of Mice and Men was adapted by Donna Franceschild as a radio play directed by Kirsty Williams starring David Tennant broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on 7 March 2010.[38]
References
Notes
Jump up ^ Of Mice and Men Key Facts on Sparknotes
Jump up ^ Who, what, why: Why do children study Of Mice and Men? on BBC
Jump up ^ Stephen Maunder (March 25, 2011). "Who, what, why: Why do children study Of Mice and Men?". BBC News. Retrieved March 26, 2011.
Jump up ^ "American Library Association Top 100 Banned/Challenged Books: 2000–2009". web page. American Library Association. 2011. Retrieved July 1, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Mice, Men, and Mr. Steinbeck". The New York Times: 7. 1937-12-05.
^ Jump up to: a b c Parini, Jay (1992-09-27). "FILM; Of Bindlestiffs, Bad Times, Mice and Men". The New York Times. Retrieved June 17, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b Tracy Barr; Greg Tubach,, eds. (2001) [2001]. Cliff Notes: On Steinbeck's Of Mice and men. 909 Third Avenue, New York City, New York: Wiley Publishing. ISBN 0-7645-8676-9.
Jump up ^ Of Mice and Men, p. 71
Jump up ^ Kirk, Susan Van (2001) [2001]. Tracy Barr; Greg Tubach,, eds. Cliff Notes: On Steinbeck's Of Mice and men. 909 Third Avenue, New York City, New York: Wiley Publishing. ISBN 0-7645-8676-9.
Jump up ^ Reed, Ph.D, Arthea J.S. A Teacher's Guide to the Penguin Edition of John Steinbeck's Of Mice and Men (PDF). Penguin Group (USA).
Jump up ^ Burning Bright – in the foreword Steinbeck states that Of Mice and Men and The Moon Is Down were his first two play yo man Shillinglaw "John Steinbeck, American Writer". The Martha Heasley Cox Center for Steinbeck Studies. January 18, 2004. Archived from the original on September 8, 2006. Retrieved December 28, 2006.
Jump up ^ Dr. Susan Shillinglaw (January 18, 2004). "John Steinbeck, American Writer". The Martha Heasley Cox Center for Steinbeck Studies. Archived from the original on September 8, 2006. Retrieved December 28, 2006.
Jump up ^ Coyer, Megan. "More About This Poem". Robert Burns - To a Mouse. BBC. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Robert McCrum (January 18, 2004). "First drafts". The Guardian. UK. Retrieved December 27, 2006.
Jump up ^ ""John Steinbeck – The Contemporary Reviews"". Retrieved 10 December 2017. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "goldenbooksgroup.co.uk". www.goldenbooksgroup.co.uk. Retrieved 10 December 2017.
Jump up ^ McElrath, Joseph R.; Jesse S. Crisler; Susan Shillinglaw (1996). John Steinbeck: The Contemporary Reviews. Cambridge University Press. pp. 71–94. ISBN 978-0-521-41038-0. Retrieved October 8, 2007.
Jump up ^ CliffNotes: Of Mice and Men : About the Author. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2000–2007. pp. 71–94. Archived from the original on October 14, 2007. Retrieved October 8, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Banned and/or Challenged Books from the Radcliffe Publishing Course Top 100 Novels of the 20th Century". American Library Association. 2007. Retrieved October 8, 2007.
Jump up ^ "American Library Association list of the Most Challenged Books of 21st Century". American Library Association. 2007. Retrieved August 25, 2009.
Jump up ^ "The Big Read", BBC, April 2003. Retrieved January 12, 2014
Jump up ^ Doyle, Robert. "Banned And/or Challenged Books from the Radcliffe Publishing Course Top 100 Novels of the 20th Century." ALA.org. American Library Association, 2010. Web. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-01-19. Retrieved 2012-04-25. .
Jump up ^ Scarseth, Thomas. "A Teachable Good Book: Of Mice and Men." Censored Books: Critical Viewpoints. Ed. Nicholas J. Karolides, Lee Burress, and John M. Kean. Scarecrow Press, 1993. 388–394. Rpt. in Novels for Students. Ed. Diane Telgen. Vol. 1. Detroit: Gale, 1998. Literature Resource Center. Web.
Jump up ^ Kennedy, Maev (25 May 2014). "To Kill a Mockingbird and Of Mice and Men axed as Gove orders more Brit lit". Retrieved 10 December 2017 – via www.theguardian.com.
^ Jump up to: a b "Internet Broadway Database: Of Mice and Men". The League of American Theatres and Producers. 2001–2007. Retrieved October 8, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Internet Broadway Database: Leigh Whipper". 2001–2007. Retrieved October 8, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Of Mice and Men (1939)". Internet Movie Database Inc. 1990–2007. Retrieved October 8, 2007.
Jump up ^ "National Steinbeck Center: About John Steinbeck : Facts, Awards, & Honors". National Steinbeck Center. Retrieved October 8, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Internet Broadway Database: Of Mice and Men (1974)". The League of American Theatres and Producers. 2001–2007. Retrieved October 8, 2007.
Jump up ^ Henahan, Donal (October 14, 1983). "NY Times Review of 1983 City Opera production". The New York Times. Retrieved July 17, 2009.
Jump up ^ Dzieemianowicz, Joe (March 6, 2013). "James Franco Says He's Coming to Broadway to Star in 'Of Mice and Men'". Daily News. New York City. Archived from the original on October 29, 2013. Retrieved March 10, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Leighton Meester on Broadway". Yahoo! Philippines. December 8, 2013. Retrieved December 8, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Of Mice and Men (1968)". Turner Entertainment Networks, Inc. Retrieved January 21, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Of Mice and Men (1981)". Internet Movie Database Inc. 1990–2007. Retrieved October 8, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Of Mice and Men (1992)". Internet Movie Database Inc. 1990–2007. Retrieved October 8, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Of Mice and Men (1992)". Rotten Tomatoes / IGN Entertainment, Inc. 1998–2007. Retrieved October 8, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Sooryam Manasam". Retrieved 29 May 2015.
Jump up ^ BBC – Classic Serial – Of Mice and Men
Bibliography
"Of Mice and Men Factsheet". English Resources. 2002. Archived from the original on September 16, 2007. Retrieved October 8, 2007.
External links
Novels portal
Photos of the first edition of Of Mice and Men
1953 Best Plays radio adaptation of play version at Internet Archive
[show]
v
t
e
Works by John Steinbeck
Novels and
novellas
Cup of Gold (1929)
The Red Pony (1933)
To a God Unknown (1933)
Tortilla Flat (1935)
In Dubious Battle (1936)
Of Mice and Men (1937)
The Grapes of Wrath (1939)
The Moon Is Down (1942)
Cannery Row (1945)
The Wayward Bus (1947)
The Pearl (1947)
Burning Bright (1950)
East of Eden (1952)
Sweet Thursday (1954)
The Short Reign of Pippin IV: A Fabrication (1957)
The Winter of Our Discontent (1961)
The Acts of King Arthur and His Noble Knights (1976)
Short story
collections
The Pastures of Heaven (1932)
The Long Valley (1938)
Screenplays
The Forgotten Village (1941)
The Pearl (1947)
The Red Pony (1949)
Viva Zapata! (1952)
Adaptations
Of Mice and Men
Of Mice and Men (1937 play)
Of Mice and Men (1939 film)
Of Mice and Men (1969 opera)
Of Mice and Men (1992 film)
Best Laid Plans (2012 film)
The Grapes of Wrath
The Grapes of Wrath (1940 film)
The Grapes of Wrath (1988 play)
The Grapes of Wrath (2007 opera)
The Red Pony
The Red Pony (1949 film)
The Red Pony (1949 film score)
The Red Pony (1973 film)
Other
Tortilla Flat (1942 film)
The Moon Is Down (1943 film)
La perla (The Pearl) (1947 film)
East of Eden (1955 film)
The Wayward Bus (1957 film)
East of Eden (1981 miniseries)
Cannery Row (1982 film)
The Winter of Our Discontent (1983 film)
In Dubious Battle (2016 film)
Non-fiction
Sea of Cortez: A Leisurely Journal of Travel and Research (1941)
Bombs Away: The Story of a Bomber Team (1942)
A Russian Journal (1948)
The Log from the Sea of Cortez (1951)
Once There Was a War (1958)
Travels with Charley (1962)
America and Americans (1966)
Journal of a Novel: The East of Eden Letters (1969)
[show]
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John Steinbeck's Of Mice and Men (1937)
Film
Of Mice and Men (1939)
Of Mice and Men (1992)
Best Laid Plans (2012)
Stage
Of Mice and Men (1937 play)
Of Mice and Men (1969 opera)
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Category talk:Birds by common name
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WikiProject Birds
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BirdsWikipedia:WikiProject BirdsTemplate:WikiProject Birdsbird articles
Birds portal
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Birds by common name is part of WikiProject Birds, an attempt at creating a standardized, informative and easy-to-use ornithological resource. If you would like to participate, visit the project page, where you can join the discussion and see a list of open tasks. Please do not substitute this template.
Category This category does not require a rating on the project's quality scale.
[show]WikiProject Birds To-do:
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Figure skate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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American Athletic Figure skates
Figure skates are a type of ice skate used by figure skaters. The skates consist of a boot and a blade that is attached with screws to the sole of the boot. Inexpensive sets for recreational skaters are available, but most figure skaters purchase boots and blades separately and have the blades mounted by a professional skate technician.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Boots
3 Blades
3.1 Blade types
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
During the 19th century, new forms of ice skates were developed to allow for even more control and safer gliding. Specific figure skates were created in response to the rise of figure skating's popularity in the 19th century, coinciding with the beginnings of formalized competitions such as the World Figure Skating Championships. The name "figure" skating arises from the compulsory portion of the competition, dropped in the 1990s, requiring skaters to trace out precise figures on the ice, including perfect figure 8 circles.[1] Figure skates are now manufactured with extreme precision for use in competitive sports. Blades are specifically designed to include various types of toe picks that allow for skaters to reach new heights for jumps and spins, depending on the skater's level.[2]
Boots[edit]
Ice skating in Graz in 1909
Figure skating boots are traditionally made by hand from many layers of leather. The design of figure skating boots changed significantly during the 20th century. Old photographs of skaters such as Sonja Heine from the 1920s and 1930s show them wearing thin, supple boots reaching to mid-calf. Modern skating boots, on the other hand, are extremely rigid to support the foot and ankle in jumps, and are cut much lower—just over ankle height—to allow the foot to flex. Because the stiffness of the boots makes good fit essential, many skaters either order custom boots or have their boots "bumped out" over pressure points by a skate technician.
In recent[clarification needed] years, boots made of synthetic materials with heat-modifiable linings have become popular with many skaters because they combine strength with lighter weight than leather boots, and are easier to "break in." The latest development in boot technology is a boot that is hinged at the ankle to provide lateral support while allowing more flexibility. Boots used in ice dance are usually slightly lower in the back to allow for greater bend in the ankle. Some boots also come with a flexible elastic back.
The typical colors for boots are black for men and white for women, although other colors are available.
Blades[edit]
Close-up of a figure skating blade, showing the toe picks, the hollow (groove) on the bottom surface of the blade, and screw attachment to the boot.
Figure skates differ most visibly from hockey skates in having a set of large, jagged teeth called toe picks on the front of the blade. The toe picks are used primarily in jumping, footwork and spins and should not be used for stroking. Toe pick designs have become quite elaborate and sometimes include additional picks on the sides of the blade, often referred to as a k-pick.
The skate blades are typically made of tempered carbon steel, coated with a high-quality chrome. Lightweight aluminum and stainless steel blades are becoming more popular with skaters. Blades are about 3/16 inch (4 mm) thick and may have a slightly tapered cross-section. There are different blades for different levels of skaters which often correspond to a skater's age, size and skill level. Blades for advanced skaters often have larger toe picks and different curves than blades for beginner, intermediate and recreational levels.[3]
When viewed from the side, the blade of a figure skate is not flat, but curved slightly, forming an arc of a circle with a radius of 180-220 cm. This curvature is referred to as the rocker of the blade. The sweet spot of the blade is below the ball of the foot.[4] This spot is usually located near the stanchion of the blade, and is the part of the blade where all spins are spun on.
The blade is also hollow ground; a groove on the bottom of the blade that creates two distinct edges, inside and outside. In figure skating it is always desirable to skate on only one edge of the blade, never on both at the same time (which is referred to as a flat). The apparently effortless power and glide across the ice exhibited by elite figure skaters fundamentally derives from efficient use of the edges to generate speed.
Ice dancers' and synchronized skaters' blades are about an inch shorter in the rear than those used by skaters in other disciplines, to accommodate the intricate footwork and close partnering in dance. They also possess a smaller pick near the bottom to allow for better edge-work and less focus on jumping.
Blade types[edit]
Various specialty blade types exist, including:
Tapered figure skating blades have a design which causes them to be thicker at the front near the toepicks and thinner at the tail of the blade; therefore, the edges are not parallel.
Side honed figure skating blades have a concave design which causes them to be thicker at the stanchions and the edge stripe and thinner in between. They are easily recognizable because they cause reflections to be inverted.
Parabolic figure skating blades were first introduced by HD Sports[citation needed] in order to employ new scientific developments in the creation of figure skating blades. The middle section of parabolic blades is thinner than that of normal blades, while both ends are typically wider than those of regular blades.[5] This translates into less steel and a lighter blade overall. Their design is meant to improve skaters' blade stability, footwork, and edges.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Why Is Figure Skating Called "Figure Skating?". About.com.
Jump up ^ Formenti, F.; Minetti, A.E. (2007). "Human locomotion on ice: the evolution of ice-skating energetics through history". Journal of Experimental Biology. 210 (Pt 10): 1825–1833. doi:10.1242/jeb.002162. PMID 17488946.
Jump up ^ "Figure skating blades". Go Figure Skating.
Jump up ^ "Figure skating equipment". Olympic.org. Archived from the original on 2009-03-12.
Jump up ^ "Parabolic blades". Retrieved 2008-02-25.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Figure skates.
Ice skate construction
History of ice skates
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Argiope aurantia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the North American species of garden spider. For the European species, see European garden spider. For the Italian short documentary, see The Garden Spider.
Yellow garden spider
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida
Order: Araneae
Infraorder: Araneomorphae
Family: Araneidae
Genus: Argiope
Species: A. aurantia
Binomial name
Argiope aurantia
Lucas, 1833
Synonyms[citation needed]
Nephila vestita
Epeira aurantia
Epeira cophinaria
Epeira ambitoria
Epeira riparia
Epeira sutrix
Argiope riparia
Argiope personata
Argiope cophinaria
Argiope godmani
Miranda cophinaria
The spider species Argiope aurantia is commonly known as the yellow garden spider,[1][2] black and yellow garden spider,[3] golden garden spider,[4] writing spider, corn spider, or McKinley spider.[5] It is common to the contiguous United States, Hawaii, southern Canada, Mexico, and Central America. It has distinctive yellow and black markings on the abdomen and a mostly white cephalothorax. Its scientific Latin name translates to "gilded silver-face" (the genus name Argiope meaning "silver-face", while the specific epithet aurantia means "gilded"). Males range from 5–9 mm (0.20–0.35 in); females range from 19–28 mm (0.75–1.10 in). These spiders may bite if disturbed or harassed, but the venom is seemingly harmless to humans.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Habitat
2 Venom
3 Reproduction
4 Eating habits
5 Gallery
6 References
7 External links
Habitat[edit]
Yellow garden spiders often build webs in areas adjacent to open sunny fields where they stay concealed and protected from the wind. The spider can also be found along the eaves of houses and outbuildings or in any tall vegetation where they can securely stretch a web.
Female Argiope aurantia spiders tend to be somewhat local, often staying in one place throughout much of their lifetime.
The web of the yellow garden spider is distinctive: a circular shape up to 2 feet (60 cm) in diameter, with a dense zigzag of silk, known as a stabilimentum, in the center. The purpose of the stabilimentum is disputed. It is possible that it acts as camouflage for the spider lurking in the web's center, but it may also attract insect prey, or even warn birds of the presence of the otherwise difficult-to-see web. Only those spiders that are active during the day construct stabilimenta in their webs.
To construct the web, several radial lines are stretched among four or five anchor points that can be more than three feet apart. The radial lines meet at a central point. The spider makes a frame with several more radial lines and then fills the center with a spiral of silk, leaving a 5⁄16-to-3⁄8-inch (7.9 to 9.5 mm) gap between the spiral rings, starting with the innermost ring and moving outward in a clockwise motion. To ensure that the web is taut, the spider bends the radial lines slightly together while applying the silk spiral. The female builds a substantially larger web than the male's small zigzag web, often found nearby. The spider occupies the center of the web, usually facing straight down, waiting for prey to become ensnared in it. If disturbed by a possible predator, she may drop from the web and hide on the ground nearby. The web normally remains in one location for the entire summer, but spiders can change locations usually early in the season, perhaps to find better protection or better hunting.
The yellow garden spider can oscillate her web vigorously while she remains firmly attached in the center.[7] This action might prevent predators like wasps and birds from drawing a good bead, and also to fully entangle an insect before it cuts itself loose. However, in a case observed in Georgia, Davis witnessed a Vespa crabro fly into the spider’s web and get tangled up. Upon looking closer it was found that V. crabro was actually cutting free prey that had been caught in the A. aurantia web. In this case, A. aurantia did not interfere or fight with the European hornet, probably because it dropped from the web and hid nearby.[8]
In a nightly ritual, the spider consumes the circular interior part of the web and then rebuilds it each morning with fresh new silk. The radial framework and anchoring lines are not usually replaced when the spider rebuilds the web. The spider may be recycling the chemicals used in web building. Additionally, the fine threads that she consumes appear to have tiny particles of what may be minuscule insects and organic matter that may contain nutrition.[9]
The yellow garden spider does not live in very dense location clusters like other orb spiders such as the golden orb web spider. The yellow garden spider keeps a clean orderly web in comparison to the cluttered series of webs built and abandoned by groups of golden orb spiders.
Venom[edit]
Argiope spiders are not aggressive. They might bite if grabbed, but other than for defense they do not attack large animals. Their venom often contains a library of polyamine toxins with potential as therapeutic medicinal agents. Notable among these is the argiotoxin ArgTX-636.[10]
A bite by Argiope aurantia is comparable to a bee sting with redness and swelling. For a healthy adult, a bite is not considered an issue. Though they are not aggressive spiders, the very young, elderly, and those with compromised immune systems should exercise caution, just as they would around a beehive.[11]
Reproduction[edit]
Yellow garden spiders breed twice a year. The males roam in search of a female, building a small web near or actually in the female's web, then court the females by plucking strands on her web. Often, when the male approaches the female, he has a safety drop line ready, in case she attacks him. The male uses the palpal bulbs on his pedipalps to transfer sperm to the female. After inserting the second palpal bulb, the male dies, and is sometimes then eaten by the female.[12]
She lays her eggs at night on a sheet of silky material, then covers them with another layer of silk, then a protective brownish silk. She then uses her legs to form the sheet into a ball with an upturned neck. Egg sacs range from 5/8" to 1" in diameter. She often suspends the egg sac right on her web, near the center where she spends most of her time. Each spider produces from one to four sacs with perhaps over a thousand eggs inside each. She guards the eggs against predation as long as she is able. However, as the weather cools, she becomes more frail, and dies around the time of the first hard frost.[6]
In the spring, the young spiders exit the sac. They are so tiny that they look like dust gathered inside the silk mesh. Some of the spiderlings remain nearby, but others exude a strand of silk that gets caught by the breeze, carrying the spiderling to a more distant area.[6]
Eating habits[edit]
Females of the species are the most commonly seen in gardens. Their webs are usually characterized by a zigzag shaped stabilimentum (an extra thick line of silk) in the middle extending vertically. The spiders spend most of their time in their webs, waiting for prey to become ensnared. When prey becomes caught in the web, the spider may undulate the web back and forth to further trap the insect. When the prey is secure, the spider kills it by injecting its venom and then wraps the prey in a cocoon of silk for later consumption (typically 1–4 hours later). Prey includes small vertebrates, such as geckos and green anoles, as well as insects.[6][13]
Gallery[edit]
Female
Underside
Male
Yellow garden spider zig zag web
Egg sac
Argiope aurantia spiderlings
Writing spider eating a swallowtail butterfly in Holly Springs, North Carolina
Female consuming a moth
Play media
Capturing and wrapping several honey bees
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Pictures of yellow garden spider A. aurantia (free for noncommercial use)
Jump up ^ Weber, Larry (2003). Spiders of the North Woods. Duluth, MN: Kollath-Stensons. pp. 76–77.
Jump up ^ Black and Yellow Garden Spider - Argiope aurantia Creative Commons Licensed
Jump up ^ Eaton, E. R. & K. Kaufman (2007). Kaufman Field Guide to Insects of North America. New York: Houghton Mifflin. p. 22.
Jump up ^ Rotary International (July 1951). The Rotarian. Rotary International. pp. 41–. ISSN 0035-838X.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Hammond, George. "Argiope aurantia at the University of Michigan's Animal Diversity Web". Archived from the original on 11 July 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-30.
Jump up ^ Garden Spider Oscillating Web - Video
Jump up ^ Davis, M. (2011). "A Hornet (Vespa crabro) Steals Prey from a Spider (Argiope aurantia)". Southeastern Naturalist. 10 (1): 191–192. doi:10.1656/058.010.0119.
Jump up ^ Streed, Janelle L. (August 30, 2012). "Black and Yellow Garden Spider, Writing Spider, or Corn Spider Argiope aurantia". Project Noah. Networked Organisms. Archived from the original on August 21, 2017. Retrieved August 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ Nentwig, Wolfgang (2013-02-15). Spider Ecophysiology. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9783642339899.
Jump up ^ Hawkinson, Candice. "Beneficials in the Garden: Black-and-Yellow Argiope Spider". Texas A&M University. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Hickey, Georgina; Lee, Michael (2004). "Loved to Death". Nature Australia. 12: 11–13.
Jump up ^ Gorham, J. R. and T. B. Rheney. 1968. Envenomation by the spiders Chiracanthium inclusum and Agriope aurantia. JAMA 206 (9): 1958–1962.
External links[edit]
Argiope aurantia at the Encyclopedia of Life
Garden Spider Web video CC Licensed
Garden Spider Posture During Rain - Video
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Argiope aurantia.
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q2556499
ADW: Argiope_aurantia
BugGuide: 2025
EoL: 1194666
EPPO: ARGOAU
GBIF: 5171022
iNaturalist: 67707
ITIS: 852097
NCBI: 156844
Plazi: 75882F96-6846-6E28-694F-E94B5759E94E
uBio: 2054916
WSC: urn:lsid:nmbe.ch:spidersp:015350
ZooBank: F34B45D8-C185-4FBF-8810-1145485632DB
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argiope_aurantia&oldid=834551465"
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Fission (biology)
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Fission, in biology, is the division of a single entity into two or more parts and the regeneration of those parts into separate entities resembling the original. The object experiencing fission is usually a cell, but the term may also refer to how organisms, bodies, populations, or species split into discrete parts.[1][2][3] The fission may be binary fission, in which a single entity produces two parts, or multiple fission, in which a single entity produces multiple parts.
Contents
[hide]
1 Binary fission
1.1 Fission of prokaryotes
1.1.1 Process of bacterial fission
1.1.2 Speed of bacterial fission
1.2 Fission of organelles
1.3 Types of Binary Fission
2 Multiple fission
2.1 Fission of protists
2.1.1 Fission of apicomplexans
2.1.2 Fission of green algae
2.2 Multiple fission of bacteria
3 Plasmotomy
4 Clonal fragmentation
5 Population fission
6 See also
7 References
Binary fission[edit]
Schematic diagram of cellular growth (elongation) and binary fission of bacilli. Blue and red lines indicate old and newly generated bacterial cell wall, respectively. (1) growth at the centre of the bacterial body. e.g. Bacillus subtilis, E. coli, and others. (2) apical growth. e.g. Corynebacterium diphtheriae.
Organisms in the domains of Archaea and Bacteria reproduce with binary fission. This form of asexual reproduction and cell division is also used by some organelles within eukaryotic organisms (e.g., mitochondria). Binary fission results in the reproduction of a living prokaryotic cell (or organelle) by dividing the cell into two parts, each with the potential to grow to the size of the original.
Fission of prokaryotes[edit]
The single DNA molecule first replicates, then attaches each copy to a different part of the cell membrane. When the cell begins to pull apart, the replicated and original chromosomes are separated. The consequence of this asexual method of reproduction is that all the cells are genetically identical, meaning that they have the same genetic material (barring random mutations). Unlike the process of mitosis used by eukaryotic cells, binary fission takes place without the formation of a spindle apparatus on the cell. In binary fission the parental identity is lost.
Process of bacterial fission[edit]
Binary fission in a prokaryote
The process of binary fission in bacteria involves the following steps. First, the cell's DNA is replicated. The replicated DNA copies then move to opposite poles of the cell in an energy-dependent process.[4] The cell lengthens. Then, the equatorial plane of the cell constricts and separates the plasma membrane such that each new cell has exactly the same genetic material.
More specifically, the following steps occur:
The bacterium before binary fission is when the DNA is tightly coiled.
The DNA of the bacterium has uncoiled and duplicated.
The DNA is pulled to the separate poles of the bacterium as it increases the size to prepare for splitting.
The growth of a new cell wall begins to separate the bacterium.
The new cell wall fully develops, resulting in the complete split of the bacterium.
The new daughter cells have tightly coiled DNA rods, ribosomes, and plasmids; these are now brand new organisms.
Speed of bacterial fission[edit]
Binary fission is generally rapid though its speed varies between species. For E. coli, cells typically divide about every 20 minutes at 37 °C.[5] Because the new cells will, in turn, undergo binary fission on their own, the time binary fission requires is also the time the bacterial culture requires to double in the number of cells it contains. This time period can, therefore, be referred to as the doubling time. Some species other than E. coli may have faster or slower doubling times: some strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis may have doubling times of nearly 100 hours.[6] Bacterial growth is limited by factors including nutrient availability and available space, so binary fission occurs at much lower rates in bacterial cultures once they enter the stationary phase of growth.
Fission of organelles[edit]
Some organelles in eukaryotic cells reproduce using binary fission. Mitochondrial fission occurs frequently within the cell, even when the cell is not actively undergoing mitosis, and is necessary to regulate the cell's metabolism.[7]
Types of Binary Fission[edit]
Binary fission in organisms can occur in four ways, irregular,longitudinal, transverse, oblique.
Irregular: In this fission, cytokinesis may take place along any plane but it is always perpendicular to the plane of karyokinesis. e.g. amoeba
Longitudinal: Here cytokinesis takes place along the longitudinal axis. e.g. in flagellates like Euglena.
Transverse: Here cytokinesis takes place along the transverse axis. e.g. in ciliate protzoans like paramecium.
Oblique: In this type of binary fission cytokinesis occurs obliquely. e.g. ceratium
Multiple fission[edit]
Fission of protists[edit]
Multiple fission at the cellular level occurs in many protists, e.g. sporozoans and algae. The nucleus of the parent cell divides several times by amitosis, producing several nuclei. The cytoplasm then separates, creating multiple daughter cells.[8][9][10]
Some parasitic, single-celled organisms undergo a multiple fission-like process to produce numerous daughter cells from a single parent cell. Isolates of the human parasite Blastocystis hominis were observed to begin such a process within 4 to 6 days.[11] Cells of the fish parasite Trypanoplasma borreli have also been observed participating in both binary and multiple fission.[12]
Fission of apicomplexans[edit]
In the apicomplexans, a phylum of parasitic protists, multiple fission, or schizogony, is manifested either as merogony, sporogony or gametogony. Merogony results in merozoites, which are multiple daughter cells, that originate within the same cell membrane,[13][14] sporogony results in sporozoites, and gametogony results in microgametes.
Fission of green algae[edit]
Green algae can divide into more than two daughter cells. The exact number of daughter cells depends on the species of algae and is an effect of temperature and light.[15]
Multiple fission of bacteria[edit]
Most species of bacteria primarily undergo binary reproduction. Some species and groups of bacteria may undergo multiple fission as well, sometimes beginning or ending with the production of spores.[16] The species Metabacterium polyspora, a symbiont of guinea pigs, has been found to produce multiple endospores in each division.[17] Some species of cyanobacteria have also been found to reproduce through multiple fission.[18]
Plasmotomy[edit]
Some protozoans reproduce by yet another mechanism of fission called as plasmotomy. In this type of fission, a multinucleate adult parent undergoes cytokinesis to form two multinucleate( or coenocytic) daughter cells. The daughter cells so produced undergo karyokinesis, further.
Such a type of reproduction is shown by opalina and pelomyxa.
Clonal fragmentation[edit]
Main article: Fragmentation (reproduction)
Fragmentation in multicellular or colonial organisms is a form of asexual reproduction or cloning where an organism is split into fragments. Each of these fragments develop into mature, fully grown individuals that are clones of the original organism. In echinoderms, this method of reproduction is usually known as fissiparity.[19]
Population fission[edit]
Any splitting of a single population of individuals into discrete parts may be considered fission. A population may undergo fission for a variety of reasons, including migration or geographic isolation. Because the fission leads to genetic variance in the newly isolated, smaller populations, population fission is a precursor to speciation.[20][21]
See also[edit]
Cytokinesis, cell division in eukaryotes
Divisome (protein complex that initiates cell division in bacteria)
Fission-fusion society, a type of social organization that is notable among primates
Paratomy
Speciation
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Carlson, B. M. (2007). Principals of regenerative biology. Elsevier Academic Press. p. 379. ISBN 0-12-369439-6.
Jump up ^ Boulay, R. L.; Galarza, J. A.; Che, B.; Hefetz, A.; Lenoir, A.; van Oudenhove, L.; Cerda, X. (2010). "Intrafotmobcompetition affects population size and resource allocation in an ant dispersing by colony fission". Ecology. 91 (11): 3312–3321. doi:10.1890/09-1520.1.
Jump up ^ Hubbell, S. (2003). "Modes of speciation and the lifespans of species under neutrality: a response to the comment of Robert E. Ricklefs". Oikos. 100 (1): 193–199. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2003.12450.x.
Jump up ^ Rokney, Assaf; Shagan, Merav; Kessel, Martin; Smith, Yoav; Rosenshine, Ilan; Oppenheim, Amos B. (September 2009). "E. coli Transports Aggregated Proteins to the Poles by a Specific and Energy-Dependent Process". Journal of Molecular Biology. 392 (3): 589–601. doi:10.1016/j.jmb.2009.07.009. PMID 19596340.
Jump up ^ Sezonov, G.; Joseleau-Petit, D.; D'Ari, R. (28 September 2007). "Escherichia coli (E coli) Physiology in Luria-Bertani Broth". Journal of Bacteriology. 189 (23): 8746–8749. doi:10.1128/JB.01368-07.
Jump up ^ North, R. J. (1 June 1993). "Mycobacterial virulence. Virulent strains of Mycobacteria tuberculosis have faster in vivo doubling times and are better equipped to resist growth-inhibiting functions of macrophages in the presence and absence of specific immunity". Journal of Experimental Medicine. 177 (6): 1723–1733. doi:10.1084/jem.177.6.1723.
Jump up ^ van der Bliek, A. M.; Shen, Q.; Kawajiri, S. (3 June 2013). "Mechanisms of Mitochondrial Fission and Fusion". Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. 5 (6): a011072–a011072. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a011072.
Jump up ^ "Cell reproduction". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Jump up ^ Britannica Educational Publishing (2011). Fungi, Algae, and Protists. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-61530-463-9. Retrieved 2016-12-21.
Jump up ^ P.Puranik, Asha Bhate (2007). Animal Forms And Functions: Invertebrata. Sarup & Sons. ISBN 978-81-7625-791-6. Retrieved 2016-12-21.
Jump up ^ Suresh, K.; Howe, J.; Ng, G. C.; Ho, L. C.; Ramachandran, N. P.; Loh, A. K.; Yap, E. H.; Singh, M. (1994). "A multiple fission-like mode of asexual reproduction inBlastocystis hominis". Parasitology Research. 80 (6): 523–527. doi:10.1007/BF00932701.
Jump up ^ Pecková, H.; Lom, J. (1990). "Growth, morphology and division of flagellates of the genusTrypanoplasma (Protozoa, Kinetoplastida) in vitro". Parasitology Research. 76 (7): 553–558. doi:10.1007/BF00932559.
Jump up ^ Lynn Margulis; Heather I. McKhann; Lorraine Olendzenski (1993). Illustrated glossary of protoctista: vocabulary of the algae, apicomplexa, ciliates, foraminifera, microspora, water molds, slime molds, and the other protoctists. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-86720-081-2. Retrieved 2016-12-21.
Jump up ^ Yoshinori Tanada; Harry K. Kaya (1993). Insect pathology. Gulf Professional Publishing. ISBN 978-0-12-683255-6. Retrieved 2016-12-21.
Jump up ^ Bišová, K.; Zachleder, V. (17 January 2014). "Cell-cycle regulation in green algae dividing by multiple fission" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Botany. 65 (10): 2585–2602. doi:10.1093/jxb/ert466. PMID 24441762. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Angert, Esther R. (March 2005). "Alternatives to binary fission in bacteria" (PDF). Nature Reviews Microbiology. 3 (3): 214–224. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1096. PMID 15738949. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Angert, E. R.; Losick, R. M. (18 August 1998). "Propagation by sporulation in the guinea pig symbiont Metabacterium polyspora". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 95 (17): 10218–10223. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.17.10218.
Jump up ^ Stanier, Roger Y.; Deruelles, Josette; Rippka, Rosmarie; Herdman, Michael; Waterbury, John B. (1 March 1979). "Generic Assignments, Strain Histories and Properties of Pure Cultures of Cyanobacteria". Microbiology. 111 (1): 1–61. doi:10.1099/00221287-111-1-1.
Jump up ^ Helen Nilsson Sköld; Matthias Obst; Mattias Sköld; Bertil Åkesson (2009). "Stem Cells in Asexual Reproduction of Marine Invertebrates". In Baruch Rinkevich; Valeria Matranga. Stem Cells in Marine Organisms. Springer. p. 125. ISBN 978-90-481-2766-5. Retrieved 2016-12-21.
Jump up ^ Whitlock, Michael C. (May 1994). "Fission and the Genetic Variance Among Populations: The Changing Demorgraphy of Forked Fungus Beetle Populations". The American Naturalist. 143 (5): 820–829. doi:10.1086/285634. JSTOR 2462878.
Jump up ^ Thompson, EA (October 1979). "Fission models of population variability". Genetics. 93 (2): 479–95. PMC 1214094  . PMID 535728.
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