text:
Parallax
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Parallax (disambiguation).
A simplified illustration of the parallax of an object against a distant background due to a perspective shift. When viewed from "Viewpoint A", the object appears to be in front of the blue square. When the viewpoint is changed to "Viewpoint B", the object appears to have moved in front of the red square.
This animation is an example of parallax. As the viewpoint moves side to side, the objects in the distance appear to move more slowly than the objects close to the camera.
Parallax is a displacement or difference in the apparent position of an object viewed along two different lines of sight, and is measured by the angle or semi-angle of inclination between those two lines.[1][2] The term is derived from Ancient Greek παράλλαξις (parallaxis), meaning 'alternation'. Due to foreshortening, nearby objects show a larger parallax than farther objects when observed from different positions, so parallax can be used to determine distances.
To measure large distances, such as the distance of a planet or a star from Earth, astronomers use the principle of parallax. Here, the term parallax is the semi-angle of inclination between two sight-lines to the star, as observed when Earth is on opposite sides of the Sun in its orbit.[3] These distances form the lowest rung of what is called "the cosmic distance ladder", the first in a succession of methods by which astronomers determine the distances to celestial objects, serving as a basis for other distance measurements in astronomy forming the higher rungs of the ladder.
Parallax also affects optical instruments such as rifle scopes, binoculars, microscopes, and twin-lens reflex cameras that view objects from slightly different angles. Many animals, including humans, have two eyes with overlapping visual fields that use parallax to gain depth perception; this process is known as stereopsis. In computer vision the effect is used for computer stereo vision, and there is a device called a parallax rangefinder that uses it to find range, and in some variations also altitude to a target.
A simple everyday example of parallax can be seen in the dashboard of motor vehicles that use a needle-style speedometer gauge. When viewed from directly in front, the speed may show exactly 60; but when viewed from the passenger seat the needle may appear to show a slightly different speed, due to the angle of viewing.
Contents
[hide]
1 Visual perception
2 Astronomy
2.1 Stellar parallax
2.2 Distance measurement
2.3 Diurnal parallax
2.4 Lunar parallax
2.5 Solar parallax
2.6 Dynamic or moving-cluster parallax
2.7 Derivation
2.8 Error
2.9 Spatio-temporal parallax
3 Metrology
4 Photogrammetry
5 Photography
6 Sights
6.1 Optical sights
7 Artillery gunfire
8 Rangefinders
9 As a metaphor
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 External links
Visual perception[edit]
Main articles: stereopsis, depth perception, binocular vision, and Binocular disparity
This image demonstrates parallax. The Sun is visible above the streetlight. The reflection of the Sun on the water's surface offers a different vantage point of the sun, which appears to be shifted relative to the streetlight.
As the eyes of humans and other animals are in different positions on the head, they present different views simultaneously. This is the basis of stereopsis, the process by which the brain exploits the parallax due to the different views from the eye to gain depth perception and estimate distances to objects.[4] Animals also use motion parallax, in which the animals (or just the head) move to gain different viewpoints. For example, pigeons (whose eyes do not have overlapping fields of view and thus cannot use stereopsis) bob their heads up and down to see depth.[5]
The motion parallax is exploited also in wiggle stereoscopy, computer graphics which provide depth cues through viewpoint-shifting animation rather than through binocular vision.
Astronomy[edit]
Parallax is an angle subtended by a line on a point. In the upper diagram, the earth in its orbit sweeps the parallax angle subtended on the sun. The lower diagram shows an equal angle swept by the sun in a geostatic model. A similar diagram can be drawn for a star except that the angle of parallax would be minuscule.
Parallax arises due to change in viewpoint occurring due to motion of the observer, of the observed, or of both. What is essential is relative motion. By observing parallax, measuring angles, and using geometry, one can determine distance. Astronomers also use the word "parallax" as a synonym for "distance measurement" by other methods: see parallax (disambiguation)#Astronomy.
Stellar parallax[edit]
Main article: Stellar parallax
Stellar parallax created by the relative motion between the Earth and a star can be seen, in the Copernican model, as arising from the orbit of the Earth around the Sun: the star only appears to move relative to more distant objects in the sky. In a geostatic model, the movement of the star would have to be taken as real with the star oscillating across the sky with respect to the background stars.
Stellar parallax is most often measured using annual parallax, defined as the difference in position of a star as seen from the Earth and Sun, i. e. the angle subtended at a star by the mean radius of the Earth's orbit around the Sun. The parsec (3.26 light-years) is defined as the distance for which the annual parallax is 1 arcsecond. Annual parallax is normally measured by observing the position of a star at different times of the year as the Earth moves through its orbit. Measurement of annual parallax was the first reliable way to determine the distances to the closest stars. The first successful measurements of stellar parallax were made by Friedrich Bessel in 1838 for the star 61 Cygni using a heliometer.[6] Stellar parallax remains the standard for calibrating other measurement methods. Accurate calculations of distance based on stellar parallax require a measurement of the distance from the Earth to the Sun, now based on radar reflection off the surfaces of planets.[7]
The angles involved in these calculations are very small and thus difficult to measure. The nearest star to the Sun (and thus the star with the largest parallax), Proxima Centauri, has a parallax of 0.7687 ± 0.0003 arcsec.[8] This angle is approximately that subtended by an object 2 centimeters in diameter located 5.3 kilometers away.
Hubble Space Telescope - Spatial scanning precisely measures distances up to 10,000 light-years away (10 April 2014).[9]
The fact that stellar parallax was so small that it was unobservable at the time was used as the main scientific argument against heliocentrism during the early modern age. It is clear from Euclid's geometry that the effect would be undetectable if the stars were far enough away, but for various reasons such gigantic distances involved seemed entirely implausible: it was one of Tycho's principal objections to Copernican heliocentrism that in order for it to be compatible with the lack of observable stellar parallax, there would have to be an enormous and unlikely void between the orbit of Saturn (then the most distant known planet) and the eighth sphere (the fixed stars).[10]
In 1989, the satellite Hipparcos was launched primarily for obtaining improved parallaxes and proper motions for over 100,000 nearby stars, increasing the reach of the method tenfold. Even so, Hipparcos is only able to measure parallax angles for stars up to about 1,600 light-years away, a little more than one percent of the diameter of the Milky Way Galaxy. The European Space Agency's Gaia mission, launched in December 2013, will be able to measure parallax angles to an accuracy of 10 microarcseconds, thus mapping nearby stars (and potentially planets) up to a distance of tens of thousands of light-years from Earth.[11][12] In April 2014, NASA astronomers reported that the Hubble Space Telescope, by using spatial scanning, can now precisely measure distances up to 10,000 light-years away, a ten-fold improvement over earlier measurements.[9]
Distance measurement[edit]
Main article: Distance measurement
Stellar parallax motion
Distance measurement by parallax is a special case of the principle of triangulation, which states that one can solve for all the sides and angles in a network of triangles if, in addition to all the angles in the network, the length of at least one side has been measured. Thus, the careful measurement of the length of one baseline can fix the scale of an entire triangulation network. In parallax, the triangle is extremely long and narrow, and by measuring both its shortest side (the motion of the observer) and the small top angle (always less than 1 arcsecond,[6] leaving the other two close to 90 degrees), the length of the long sides (in practice considered to be equal) can be determined.
Assuming the angle is small (see derivation below), the distance to an object (measured in parsecs) is the reciprocal of the parallax (measured in arcseconds): d ( p c ) = 1 / p ( a r c s e c ) . {\displaystyle d(\mathrm {pc} )=1/p(\mathrm {arcsec} ).} For example, the distance to Proxima Centauri is 1/0.7687=1.3009 parsecs (4.243 ly).[8]
Diurnal parallax[edit]
Diurnal parallax is a parallax that varies with rotation of the Earth or with difference of location on the Earth. The Moon and to a smaller extent the terrestrial planets or asteroids seen from different viewing positions on the Earth (at one given moment) can appear differently placed against the background of fixed stars.[13][14]
Lunar parallax[edit]
Lunar parallax (often short for lunar horizontal parallax or lunar equatorial horizontal parallax), is a special case of (diurnal) parallax: the Moon, being the nearest celestial body, has by far the largest maximum parallax of any celestial body, it can exceed 1 degree.[15]
The diagram (above) for stellar parallax can illustrate lunar parallax as well, if the diagram is taken to be scaled right down and slightly modified. Instead of 'near star', read 'Moon', and instead of taking the circle at the bottom of the diagram to represent the size of the Earth's orbit around the Sun, take it to be the size of the Earth's globe, and of a circle around the Earth's surface. Then, the lunar (horizontal) parallax amounts to the difference in angular position, relative to the background of distant stars, of the Moon as seen from two different viewing positions on the Earth: one of the viewing positions is the place from which the Moon can be seen directly overhead at a given moment (that is, viewed along the vertical line in the diagram); and the other viewing position is a place from which the Moon can be seen on the horizon at the same moment (that is, viewed along one of the diagonal lines, from an Earth-surface position corresponding roughly to one of the blue dots on the modified diagram).
The lunar (horizontal) parallax can alternatively be defined as the angle subtended at the distance of the Moon by the radius of the Earth[16]—equal to angle p in the diagram when scaled-down and modified as mentioned above.
The lunar horizontal parallax at any time depends on the linear distance of the Moon from the Earth. The Earth–Moon linear distance varies continuously as the Moon follows its perturbed and approximately elliptical orbit around the Earth. The range of the variation in linear distance is from about 56 to 63.7 Earth radii, corresponding to horizontal parallax of about a degree of arc, but ranging from about 61.4' to about 54'.[15] The Astronomical Almanac and similar publications tabulate the lunar horizontal parallax and/or the linear distance of the Moon from the Earth on a periodical e.g. daily basis for the convenience of astronomers (and formerly, of navigators), and the study of the way in which this coordinate varies with time forms part of lunar theory.
Diagram of daily lunar parallax
Parallax can also be used to determine the distance to the Moon.
One way to determine the lunar parallax from one location is by using a lunar eclipse. A full shadow of the Earth on the Moon has an apparent radius of curvature equal to the difference between the apparent radii of the Earth and the Sun as seen from the Moon. This radius can be seen to be equal to 0.75 degree, from which (with the solar apparent radius 0.25 degree) we get an Earth apparent radius of 1 degree. This yields for the Earth–Moon distance 60.27 Earth radii or 384,399 kilometres (238,854 mi) This procedure was first used by Aristarchus of Samos[17] and Hipparchus, and later found its way into the work of Ptolemy.[18] The diagram at the right shows how daily lunar parallax arises on the geocentric and geostatic planetary model in which the Earth is at the centre of the planetary system and does not rotate. It also illustrates the important point that parallax need not be caused by any motion of the observer, contrary to some definitions of parallax that say it is, but may arise purely from motion of the observed.
Another method is to take two pictures of the Moon at exactly the same time from two locations on Earth and compare the positions of the Moon relative to the stars. Using the orientation of the Earth, those two position measurements, and the distance between the two locations on the Earth, the distance to the Moon can be triangulated:
d i s t a n c e m o o n = d i s t a n c e o b s e r v e r b a s e tan  ( a n g l e ) {\displaystyle \mathrm {distance} _{\mathrm {moon} }={\frac {\mathrm {distance} _{\mathrm {observerbase} }}{\tan(\mathrm {angle} )}}}
Example of lunar parallax: Occultation of Pleiades by the Moon
This is the method referred to by Jules Verne in From the Earth to the Moon:
Until then, many people had no idea how one could calculate the distance separating the Moon from the Earth. The circumstance was exploited to teach them that this distance was obtained by measuring the parallax of the Moon. If the word parallax appeared to amaze them, they were told that it was the angle subtended by two straight lines running from both ends of the Earth's radius to the Moon. If they had doubts on the perfection of this method, they were immediately shown that not only did this mean distance amount to a whole two hundred thirty-four thousand three hundred and forty-seven miles (94,330 leagues), but also that the astronomers were not in error by more than seventy miles (≈ 30 leagues).
Solar parallax[edit]
After Copernicus proposed his heliocentric system, with the Earth in revolution around the Sun, it was possible to build a model of the whole Solar System without scale. To ascertain the scale, it is necessary only to measure one distance within the Solar System, e.g., the mean distance from the Earth to the Sun (now called an astronomical unit, or AU). When found by triangulation, this is referred to as the solar parallax, the difference in position of the Sun as seen from the Earth's centre and a point one Earth radius away, i. e., the angle subtended at the Sun by the Earth's mean radius. Knowing the solar parallax and the mean Earth radius allows one to calculate the AU, the first, small step on the long road of establishing the size and expansion age[19] of the visible Universe.
A primitive way to determine the distance to the Sun in terms of the distance to the Moon was already proposed by Aristarchus of Samos in his book On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon. He noted that the Sun, Moon, and Earth form a right triangle (with the right angle at the Moon) at the moment of first or last quarter moon. He then estimated that the Moon, Earth, Sun angle was 87°. Using correct geometry but inaccurate observational data, Aristarchus concluded that the Sun was slightly less than 20 times farther away than the Moon. The true value of this angle is close to 89° 50', and the Sun is actually about 390 times farther away.[17] He pointed out that the Moon and Sun have nearly equal apparent angular sizes and therefore their diameters must be in proportion to their distances from Earth. He thus concluded that the Sun was around 20 times larger than the Moon; this conclusion, although incorrect, follows logically from his incorrect data. It does suggest that the Sun is clearly larger than the Earth, which could be taken to support the heliocentric model.[20]
Measuring Venus transit times to determine solar parallax
Although Aristarchus' results were incorrect due to observational errors, they were based on correct geometric principles of parallax, and became the basis for estimates of the size of the Solar System for almost 2000 years, until the transit of Venus was correctly observed in 1761 and 1769.[17] This method was proposed by Edmond Halley in 1716, although he did not live to see the results. The use of Venus transits was less successful than had been hoped due to the black drop effect, but the resulting estimate, 153 million kilometers, is just 2% above the currently accepted value, 149.6 million kilometers.
Much later, the Solar System was 'scaled' using the parallax of asteroids, some of which, such as Eros, pass much closer to Earth than Venus. In a favourable opposition, Eros can approach the Earth to within 22 million kilometres.[21] Both the opposition of 1901 and that of 1930/1931 were used for this purpose, the calculations of the latter determination being completed by Astronomer Royal Sir Harold Spencer Jones.[22]
Also radar reflections, both off Venus (1958) and off asteroids, like Icarus, have been used for solar parallax determination. Today, use of spacecraft telemetry links has solved this old problem. The currently accepted value of solar parallax is 8".794 143.[23]
Dynamic or moving-cluster parallax[edit]
Main article: Moving cluster method
The open stellar cluster Hyades in Taurus extends over such a large part of the sky, 20 degrees, that the proper motions as derived from astrometry appear to converge with some precision to a perspective point north of Orion. Combining the observed apparent (angular) proper motion in seconds of arc with the also observed true (absolute) receding motion as witnessed by the Doppler redshift of the stellar spectral lines, allows estimation of the distance to the cluster (151 light-years) and its member stars in much the same way as using annual parallax.[24]
Dynamic parallax has sometimes also been used to determine the distance to a supernova, when the optical wave front of the outburst is seen to propagate through the surrounding dust clouds at an apparent angular velocity, while its true propagation velocity is known to be the speed of light.[25]
Derivation[edit]
For a right triangle,
tan  p = 1 AU d , {\displaystyle \tan p={\frac {1{\text{ AU}}}{d}},}
where p {\displaystyle p} is the parallax, 1 AU (149,600,000 km) is approximately the average distance from the Sun to Earth, and d {\displaystyle d} is the distance to the star. Using small-angle approximations (valid when the angle is small compared to 1 radian),
tan  x ≈ x radians = x ⋅ 180 π degrees = x ⋅ 180 ⋅ 3600 π arcseconds , {\displaystyle \tan x\approx x{\text{ radians}}=x\cdot {\frac {180}{\pi }}{\text{ degrees}}=x\cdot 180\cdot {\frac {3600}{\pi }}{\text{ arcseconds}},}
so the parallax, measured in arcseconds, is
p ″ ≈ 1 AU d ⋅ 180 ⋅ 3600 π . {\displaystyle p''\approx {\frac {1{\text{ AU}}}{d}}\cdot 180\cdot {\frac {3600}{\pi }}.}
If the parallax is 1", then the distance is
d = 1 AU ⋅ 180 ⋅ 3600 π ≈ 206 , 265 AU ≈ 3.2616 ly ≡ 1 parsec . {\displaystyle d=1{\text{ AU}}\cdot 180\cdot {\frac {3600}{\pi }}\approx 206,265{\text{ AU}}\approx 3.2616{\text{ ly}}\equiv 1{\text{ parsec}}.}
This defines the parsec, a convenient unit for measuring distance using parallax. Therefore, the distance, measured in parsecs, is simply d = 1 / p {\displaystyle d=1/p} , when the parallax is given in arcseconds.[26]
Error[edit]
Precise parallax measurements of distance have an associated error. However this error in the measured parallax angle does not translate directly into an error for the distance, except for relatively small errors. The reason for this is that an error toward a smaller angle results in a greater error in distance than an error toward a larger angle.
However, an approximation of the distance error can be computed by
δ d = δ ( 1 p ) = | ∂ ∂ p ( 1 p ) | δ p = δ p p 2 {\displaystyle \delta d=\delta \left({1 \over p}\right)=\left|{\partial \over \partial p}\left({1 \over p}\right)\right|\delta p={\delta p \over p^{2}}}
where d is the distance and p is the parallax. The approximation is far more accurate for parallax errors that are small relative to the parallax than for relatively large errors. For meaningful results in stellar astronomy, Dutch astronomer Floor van Leeuwen recommends that the parallax error be no more than 10% of the total parallax when computing this error estimate.[27]
Spatio-temporal parallax[edit]
From enhanced relativistic positioning systems, spatio-temporal parallax generalizing the usual notion of parallax in space only has been developed. Then, eventfields in spacetime can be deduced directly without intermediate models of light bending by massive bodies such as the one used in the PPN formalism for instance.[28]
Metrology[edit]
The correct line of sight needs to be used to avoid parallax error.
Measurements made by viewing the position of some marker relative to something to be measured are subject to parallax error if the marker is some distance away from the object of measurement and not viewed from the correct position. For example, if measuring the distance between two ticks on a line with a ruler marked on its top surface, the thickness of the ruler will separate its markings from the ticks. If viewed from a position not exactly perpendicular to the ruler, the apparent position will shift and the reading will be less accurate than the ruler is capable of.
A similar error occurs when reading the position of a pointer against a scale in an instrument such as an analog multimeter. To help the user avoid this problem, the scale is sometimes printed above a narrow strip of mirror, and the user's eye is positioned so that the pointer obscures its own reflection, guaranteeing that the user's line of sight is perpendicular to the mirror and therefore to the scale. The same effect alters the speed read on a car's speedometer by a driver in front of it and a passenger off to the side, values read from a graticule not in actual contact with the display on an oscilloscope, etc.
Photogrammetry[edit]
Aerial picture pairs, when viewed through a stereo viewer, offer a pronounced stereo effect of landscape and buildings. High buildings appear to 'keel over' in the direction away from the centre of the photograph. Measurements of this parallax are used to deduce the height of the buildings, provided that flying height and baseline distances are known. This is a key component to the process of photogrammetry.
Photography[edit]
Contax III rangefinder camera with macro photography setting. Because the viewfinder is on top of the lens and of the close proximity of the subject, goggles are fitted in front of the rangefinder and a dedicated viewfinder installed to compensate for parallax.
Parallax error can be seen when taking photos with many types of cameras, such as twin-lens reflex cameras and those including viewfinders (such as rangefinder cameras). In such cameras, the eye sees the subject through different optics (the viewfinder, or a second lens) than the one through which the photo is taken. As the viewfinder is often found above the lens of the camera, photos with parallax error are often slightly lower than intended, the classic example being the image of person with his or her head cropped off. This problem is addressed in single-lens reflex cameras, in which the viewfinder sees through the same lens through which the photo is taken (with the aid of a movable mirror), thus avoiding parallax error.
Parallax is also an issue in image stitching, such as for panoramas.
Sights[edit]
Parallax affects sights in many ways. On sights fitted to small arms, bows in archery, etc. the distance between the sighting mechanism and the weapon's bore or axis can introduce significant errors when firing at close range, particularly when firing at small targets. This difference is generally referred to as "sight height"[29] and is compensated for (when needed) via calculations that also take in other variables such as bullet drop, windage, and the distance at which the target is expected to be.[30] Sight height can be used to advantage when "sighting-in" rifles for field use. A typical hunting rifle (.222 with telescopic sights) sighted-in at 75m will be useful from 50m to 200m without further adjustment.[citation needed]
Optical sights[edit]
Further information: Telescopic sight § Parallax compensation
In optical sights parallax refers to the apparent movement of the reticle in relationship to the target when the user moves his/her head laterally behind the sight (up/down or left/right),[31] i.e. it is an error where the reticle does not stay aligned with the sight's own optical axis.
In optical instruments such as telescopes, microscopes, or in telescopic sights used on small arms and theodolites, the error occurs when the optics are not precisely focused: the reticle will appear to move with respect to the object focused on if one moves one's head sideways in front of the eyepiece. Some firearm telescopic sights are equipped with a parallax compensation mechanism which basically consists of a movable optical element that enables the optical system to project the picture of objects at varying distances and the reticle crosshairs pictures together in exactly the same optical plane. Telescopic sights may have no parallax compensation because they can perform very acceptably without refinement for parallax with the sight being permanently adjusted for the distance that best suits their intended usage. Typical standard factory parallax adjustment distances for hunting telescopic sights are 100 yd or 100 m to make them suited for hunting shots that rarely exceed 300 yd/m. Some target and military style telescopic sights without parallax compensation may be adjusted to be parallax free at ranges up to 300 yd/m to make them better suited for aiming at longer ranges.[citation needed] Scopes for rimfires, shotguns, and muzzleloaders will have shorter parallax settings, commonly 50 yd/m[citation needed] for rimfire scopes and 100 yd/m[citation needed] for shotguns and muzzleloaders. Scopes for airguns are very often found with adjustable parallax, usually in the form of an adjustable objective, or AO. These may adjust down as far as 3 yards (2.74 m).[citation needed]
Non-magnifying reflector or "reflex" sights have the ability to be theoretically "parallax free." But since these sights use parallel collimated light this is only true when the target is at infinity. At finite distances eye movement perpendicular to the device will cause parallax movement in the reticle image in exact relationship to eye position in the cylindrical column of light created by the collimating optics.[32][33] Firearm sights, such as some red dot sights, try to correct for this via not focusing the reticle at infinity, but instead at some finite distance, a designed target range where the reticle will show very little movement due to parallax.[32] Some manufactures market reflector sight models they call "parallax free,"[34] but this refers to an optical system that compensates for off axis spherical aberration, an optical error induced by the spherical mirror used in the sight that can cause the reticle position to diverge off the sight's optical axis with change in eye position.[35][36]
Artillery gunfire[edit]
Because of the positioning of field or naval artillery guns, each one has a slightly different perspective of the target relative to the location of the fire-control system itself. Therefore, when aiming its guns at the target, the fire control system must compensate for parallax in order to assure that fire from each gun converges on the target.
Rangefinders[edit]
Parallax theory for finding naval distances
A coincidence rangefinder or parallax rangefinder can be used to find distance to a target.
As a metaphor[edit]
In a philosophic/geometric sense: an apparent change in the direction of an object, caused by a change in observational position that provides a new line of sight. The apparent displacement, or difference of position, of an object, as seen from two different stations, or points of view. In contemporary writing parallax can also be the same story, or a similar story from approximately the same time line, from one book told from a different perspective in another book. The word and concept feature prominently in James Joyce's 1922 novel, Ulysses. Orson Scott Card also used the term when referring to Ender's Shadow as compared to Ender's Game.
The metaphor is invoked by Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Žižek in his work The Parallax View, borrowing the concept of "parallax view" from the Japanese philosopher and literary critic Kojin Karatani. Žižek notes,
The philosophical twist to be added (to parallax), of course, is that the observed distance is not simply subjective, since the same object that exists 'out there' is seen from two different stances, or points of view. It is rather that, as Hegel would have put it, subject and object are inherently mediated so that an 'epistemological' shift in the subject's point of view always reflects an ontological shift in the object itself. Or—to put it in Lacanese—the subject's gaze is always-already inscribed into the perceived object itself, in the guise of its 'blind spot,' that which is 'in the object more than object itself', the point from which the object itself returns the gaze. Sure the picture is in my eye, but I am also in the picture.[37]
—  Slavoj Žižek, The Parallax View
See also[edit]
Disparity
Lutz Kelker bias
Parallax mapping, in computer graphics
Parallax scrolling, in computer graphics
Refraction, a visually similar principle caused by water, etc.
Spectroscopic parallax
Triangulation, wherein a point is calculated given its angles from other known points
Trilateration, wherein a point is calculated given its distances from other known points
Trigonometry
Xallarap
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. 1968. Mutual inclination of two lines meeting in an angle
Jump up ^ "Parallax". Oxford English Dictionary (Second ed.). 1989. Astron. Apparent displacement, or difference in the apparent position, of an object, caused by actual change (or difference) of position of the point of observation; spec. the angular amount of such displacement or difference of position, being the angle contained between the two straight lines drawn to the object from the two different points of view, and constituting a measure of the distance of the object.
Jump up ^ In the past diurnal parallax was also used to measure distances to celestial objects within the Solar System. This method has now been superseded by more accurate techniques.
Jump up ^ Steinman, Scott B.; Garzia, Ralph Philip (2000). Foundations of Binocular Vision: A Clinical perspective. McGraw-Hill Professional. pp. 2–5. ISBN 0-8385-2670-5.
Jump up ^ Steinman & Garzia 2000, p. 180.
^ Jump up to: a b Zeilik & Gregory 1998, p. 44.
Jump up ^ Zeilik & Gregory 1998, § 22-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Benedict, G. Fritz, et al. (1999). "Interferometric Astrometry of Proxima Centauri and Barnard's Star Using HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE Fine Guidance Sensor 3: Detection Limits for Substellar Companions". The Astronomical Journal. 118 (2): 1086–1100. arXiv:astro-ph/9905318  . Bibcode:1999astro.ph..5318B. doi:10.1086/300975.
^ Jump up to: a b Harrington, J.D.; Villard, Ray (10 April 2014). "NASA's Hubble Extends Stellar Tape Measure 10 Times Farther Into Space". NASA. Archived from the original on 12 April 2014. Retrieved 11 April 2014.
Jump up ^ See p.51 in The reception of Copernicus' heliocentric theory: proceedings of a symposium organized by the Nicolas Copernicus Committee of the International Union of the History and Philosophy of Science, Torun, Poland, 1973, ed. Jerzy Dobrzycki, International Union of the History and Philosophy of Science. Nicolas Copernicus Committee; ISBN 90-277-0311-6, ISBN 978-90-277-0311-8
Jump up ^ "Soyuz ST-B successfully launches Gaia space observatory". nasaspaceflight.com. 19 December 2013. Archived from the original on 19 December 2013. Retrieved 19 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Henney, Paul J. "ESA's Gaia Mission to study stars". Astronomy Today. Archived from the original on 2008-03-17. Retrieved 2008-03-08.
Jump up ^ Seidelmann, P. Kenneth (2005). Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac. University Science Books. pp. 123–125. ISBN 1-891389-45-9.
Jump up ^ Barbieri, Cesare (2007). Fundamentals of astronomy. CRC Press. pp. 132–135. ISBN 0-7503-0886-9.
^ Jump up to: a b Astronomical Almanac e.g. for 1981, section D
Jump up ^ Astronomical Almanac, e.g. for 1981: see Glossary; for formulae see Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, 1992, p.400
^ Jump up to: a b c Gutzwiller, Martin C. (1998). "Moon–Earth–Sun: The oldest three-body problem". Reviews of Modern Physics. 70 (2): 589. Bibcode:1998RvMP...70..589G. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.70.589.
Jump up ^ Webb, Stephen (1999), "3.2 Aristarchus, Hipparchus, and Ptolemy", Measuring the Universe: The Cosmological Distance Ladder, Springer, pp. 27–35, ISBN 9781852331061 . See in particular p. 33: "Almost everything we know about Hipparchus comes down to us by way of Ptolemy."
Jump up ^ Freedman, W.L. (2000). "The Hubble constant and the expansion age of the Universe". Physics Reports. 333 (1): 13. arXiv:astro-ph/9909076  . Bibcode:2000PhR...333...13F. doi:10.1016/S0370-1573(00)00013-2.
Jump up ^ Al-Khalili, Jim (2010), Pathfinders: The Golden Age of Arabic Science, Penguin UK, p. 270, ISBN 9780141965017, archived from the original on 2015-03-17, Some have suggested that his calculation of the relative size of the earth and sun led Aristarchus to conclude that it made more sense for the earth to be moving around the much larger sun than the other way round.
Jump up ^ Whipple 2007, p. 47.
Jump up ^ Whipple 2007, p. 117.
Jump up ^ US Naval Observatory, Astronomical Constants Archived 2011-07-20 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Vijay K. Narayanan; Andrew Gould (1999). "A Precision Test of Hipparcos Systematics toward the Hyades". The Astrophysical Journal. 515 (1): 256. arXiv:astro-ph/9808284  . Bibcode:1999ApJ...515..256N. doi:10.1086/307021.
Jump up ^ Panagia, N.; Gilmozzi, R.; MacChetto, F.; Adorf, H.-M.; et al. (1991). "Properties of the SN 1987A circumstellar ring and the distance to the Large Magellanic Cloud". The Astrophysical Journal. 380: L23. Bibcode:1991ApJ...380L..23P. doi:10.1086/186164.
Jump up ^ Similar derivations are in most astronomy textbooks. See, e. g., Zeilik & Gregory 1998, § 11-1.
Jump up ^ van Leeuwen, Floor (2007). Hipparcos, the new reduction of the raw data. Astrophysics and space science library. 350. Springer. p. 86. ISBN 1-4020-6341-5. Archived from the original on 2015-03-18.
Jump up ^ Rubin, J.L. (2015). "Relativistic Pentametric Coordinates from Relativistic Localizing Systems and the Projective Geometry of the Spacetime Manifold". Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics. 12 (32): 83–112. Archived from the original on 2015-02-08.
Jump up ^ "Ballistic Explorer Help". www.dexadine.com. Archived from the original on 2011-09-28.
Jump up ^ "Crossbows / Arrows & Bolts / Trajectory / Trajectories". www.crossbowmen.com. Archived from the original on 2011-07-08.
Jump up ^ Setting Up An Air Rifle And Telescopic Sight For Field Target - An Instruction Manual For Beginners, page 16
^ Jump up to: a b "Encyclopedia of Bullseye Pistol". www.bullseyepistol.com. Archived from the original on 2011-07-08.
Jump up ^ American rifleman: Volume 93, National Rifle Association of America - THE REFLECTOR SIGHT By JOHN B. BUTLER, page 31
Jump up ^ AFMOTGN (24 July 2008). "Aimpoint's parallax-free, double lens system... AFMO.com". Archived from the original on 2 July 2016 – via YouTube.
Jump up ^ AR15.COM. "How Aimpoints, EOTechs, And Other Parallax-Free Optics Work - AR15.COM". www.ar15.com.
Jump up ^ "Gunsight - Patent 5901452 - general description of a mangin mirror system". Archived from the original on 2012-10-07.
Jump up ^ Žižek, Slavoj (2006). The Parallax View. The MIT Press. p. 17. ISBN 0-262-24051-3.
References[edit]
Hirshfeld, Alan w. (2001). Parallax: The Race to Measure the Cosmos. New York: W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-3711-6.
Whipple, Fred L. (2007). Earth Moon and Planets. Read Books. ISBN 1-4067-6413-2. .
Zeilik, Michael A.; Gregory, Stephan A. (1998). Introductory Astronomy & Astrophysics (4th ed.). Saunders College Publishing. ISBN 0-03-006228-4. .
External links[edit]
Instructions for having background images on a web page use parallax effects
Actual parallax project measuring the distance to the moon within 2.3%
BBC's Sky at Night programme: Patrick Moore demonstrates Parallax using Cricket. (Requires RealPlayer)
Berkeley Center for Cosmological Physics Parallax
Parallax on an educational website, including a quick estimate of distance based on parallax using eyes and a thumb only
"Sun, Parallax of the". Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parallax&oldid=818410624"
Categories:
Optics
Vision
Angle
Astrometry
Geometry in computer vision
Technical factors of astrology
Astrological aspects
Trigonometry
Parallax
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from June 2012
Articles with unsourced statements from August 2011
Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from Collier's Encyclopedia
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Afrikaans
العربية
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
Български
Català
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
فارسی
Français
Gaeilge
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Ido
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
עברית
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Кыргызча
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
Bahasa Melayu
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Scots
Seeltersk
Sicilianu
Simple English
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
ไทย
Тоҷикӣ
Türkçe
Українська
Tiếng Việt
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 3 January 2018, at 11:03.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

value: mw-page-base noprint

value: mw-head-base noprint

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attr: href class title

value:
/wiki/Parallax_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
Parallax (disambiguation)

attr: role class

value:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

tag: img

attr: href class

tag: i

attr: alt src width height class data-file-width data-file-height

tag: b

value:
/wiki/Apparent_position
mw-redirect
Apparent position

value:
/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language
mw-redirect
Ancient Greek language

value:
/wiki/Milky_Way_Galaxy
mw-redirect
Milky Way Galaxy

value:
/wiki/Gaia_mission
mw-redirect
Gaia mission

value:
/wiki/Distance_measurement
mw-redirect
Distance measurement

value:
/wiki/Reciprocal_(mathematics)
mw-redirect
Reciprocal (mathematics)

value: vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:20.675ex; height:2.843ex;

value: d (\mathrm{pc}) = 1 / p (\mathrm{arcsec}).

value:
/wiki/Orbit_of_the_moon
mw-redirect
Orbit of the moon

value: vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:34.297ex; height:6.176ex;

value: \mathrm{distance}_{\mathrm{moon}} = \frac {\mathrm{distance}_{\mathrm{observerbase}}} {\tan (\mathrm{angle})}

value:
/wiki/Heliocentric_system
mw-redirect
Heliocentric system

value:
/wiki/Age_of_the_Universe
mw-redirect
Age of the Universe

value: Edit section: Dynamic or moving-cluster parallax

value:
/wiki/Moving_cluster_method
mw-redirect
Moving cluster method

value: vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:14.821ex; height:5.509ex;

value: {\displaystyle \tan p={\frac {1{\text{ AU}}}{d}},}

value: vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.079ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;

value: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.226ex; height:2.176ex;

value: vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:65.101ex; height:5.176ex;

value: vertical-align: -2.005ex; margin-left: -0.079ex; width:24.699ex; height:5.509ex;

value: p'' \approx \frac {1 \text{ AU}} {d} \cdot 180 \cdot \frac{3600} {\pi} .

value: vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:61.337ex; height:5.176ex;

value: d = 1 \text{ AU}  \cdot 180 \cdot \frac {3600} {\pi} \approx 206,265 \text{ AU} \approx 3.2616 \text{ ly} \equiv 1 \text{ parsec} .

value: vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.861ex; height:2.843ex;

value: vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:34.724ex; height:6.176ex;

value: \delta d = \delta \left( {1 \over p} \right) =\left| {\partial \over \partial p} \left( {1 \over p} \right) \right| \delta p ={\delta p \over p^2}

value:
/wiki/Stellar_astronomy
mw-redirect
Stellar astronomy

value:
/wiki/Bullet_drop
mw-redirect
Bullet drop

value: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2012)

value:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

value: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2011)

value:
/wiki/Red_dot_sights
mw-redirect
Red dot sights

value:
/wiki/Lutz_Kelker_bias
mw-redirect
Lutz Kelker bias

value:
nofollow
external text
//arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9905318

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1086%2F300975

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.70.589

value:
nofollow
external text
//arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9909076

value:
nofollow
external text
//arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9808284

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1086%2F307021

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1086%2F186164

value:
nofollow
external text
http://www.ejtp.com/volumes.html

value:
/wiki/The_MIT_Press
mw-redirect
The MIT Press

value: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

attr: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

value: s:Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Sun, Parallax of the

value: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

value: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

value: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2012

value: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2011

value: Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from Collier's Encyclopedia

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value:
/wiki/Parallax
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

value:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

value:
/w/index.php?title=Parallax&action=edit
Edit this page [ctrl-alt-e]
e

value: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

value: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

value:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

value:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

value:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Find background information on current events

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

value:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallaks
Parallaks – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralax
Paralax – Asturian
ast
ast
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallaks
Parallaks – Azerbaijani
az
az
interlanguage-link-target

value: লম্বন – Bangla

value: Паралякса – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

value: Паралакс – Bulgarian

value:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralaxa
Paralaxa – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallaxe
Parallaxe – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallaks
Parallaks – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

value: Παράλλαξη (αστρονομία) – Greek

value:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralaje
Paralaje – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralakso
Paralakso – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

value: اختلاف‌منظر – Persian

value:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallaxe
Parallaxe – French
fr
fr
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralaxe
Paralaxe – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

value: Պարալաքս – Armenian

value: लंबन – Hindi

value:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralaksa
Paralaksa – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralaxo
Paralaxo – Ido
io
io
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralaks
Paralaks – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

value: Жылдық параллакс – Kazakh

value:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralaksi
Paralaksi – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralaks
Paralaks – Haitian Creole
ht
ht
interlanguage-link-target

value: Параллакс – Kyrgyz

value:
https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralakse
Paralakse – Latvian
lv
lv
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallax
Parallax – Luxembourgish
lb
lb
interlanguage-link-target

value: Паралакса – Macedonian

value: ദൃഗ്‌ഭ്രംശം – Malayalam

value:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallax
Parallax – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallaxi
Parallaxi – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralaksa
Paralaksa – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralaxe
Paralaxe – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

value: Параллакс – Russian

value:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallax
Parallax – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralaksa
Paralaksa – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

value: Паралакса – Serbian

value: Paralaksa (astronomija) – Serbo-Croatian

value:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallax
Parallax – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralaks
Paralaks – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

value: பார்வை இடவழு – Tamil

value: Параллакс – Tatar

value: พารัลแลกซ์ – Thai

value: Параллакс – Tajik

value: Паралакс – Ukrainian

value: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

value: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Parallax rootpage-Parallax skin-vector action-view


text:
Rice production in China
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2010)
Rice fields in Tongshan County, Hubei
Rice production in China is an important part of the national economy.[1]
China is the world's largest producer of rice, and the crop makes up a little less than half of the country's total grain output. China accounts for 30% of all world rice production. In a given year total rice output came from four different crops. The early rice crop grows primarily in provinces along the Yangtze River and in provinces in the south; it is planted in February to April and harvested in June and July and contributes about 34 percent to total rice output.[1] Intermediate and single-crop late rice grows in the southwest and along the Yangtze; it is planted in March to June and harvested in October and November and also contributed about 34 percent to total rice output in the 1980s. Double-crop late rice, planted after the early crop is reaped, is harvested in October to November and adds about 25 percent to total rice production. Rice grown in the north is planted from April to June and harvested from September to October; it contributes about 7 percent to total production.[1]
All rice cultivation is highly labour intensive. Rice is generally grown as a wetland crop in fields flooded to supply water during the growing season.[1] Transplanting seedlings requires many hours of labor, as does harvesting. Mechanization of rice cultivation is only minimally advanced. Rice cultivation also demands more of other inputs, such as fertilizer, than most other crops.
Paddy field in south-western China in Yunnan
Rice is highly prized by consumers as a food grain, especially in south China, and per capital consumption has risen through the years. Also, as incomes have risen, consumers have preferred to eat more rice and less potatoes, corn, sorghum, and millet. Large production increases in the early 1980s and poor local transportation systems combined to induce farmers to feed large quantities of lower quality rice to livestock.[1]
Gallery[edit]
Terrace paddy fields in Yunnan, China.
Plowing a paddy field with a water buffalo Bubalus bubalis in China.
Planting paddy in Ramechhap District, Nepal.
Rice Terraces in north central Bali.
Paddy fields near Palakkad, Kerala, India.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Paddy fields in China.
References[edit]
This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "China: A Country Study:Crops". Library of Congress, Washington D.C. July 1987. Retrieved March 21, 2009.
[hide]
v
t
e
World rice production
Bangladesh
Bhutan
China
Guyana
Haiti
India
Indonesia
Iran
Japan
Laos
Nepal
Pakistan
Philippines
Romania
South Korea
Sri Lanka
Thailand
United States
Vietnam
This China-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
v
t
e
This agriculture article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
v
t
e
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rice_production_in_China&oldid=827717619"
Categories:
Agriculture in China
Rice production by country
Grasses of China
China stubs
Agriculture stubs
Hidden categories:
Wikipedia articles in need of updating from November 2010
All Wikipedia articles in need of updating
Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the Library of Congress Country Studies
All stub articles
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Add links
This page was last edited on 26 February 2018, at 09:06.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

tag: div

attr: id class

value: mw-page-base noprint

key: html

type: local

value: mw-head-base noprint

tag: a

attr: id class lang

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

tag: td

tag: span

tag: small

tag: tr

tag: tbody

tag: table

attr: class role

value: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update

attr: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

value:
/wiki/Tongshan_County,_Hubei
mw-redirect
Tongshan County, Hubei

attr: href title

value:
/wiki/Yangtze_River
mw-redirect
Yangtze River

value:
/wiki/Labor_intensive
mw-redirect
Labor intensive

value:
/wiki/Bubalus_bubalis
mw-redirect
Bubalus bubalis

value: Copyright status of work by the U.S. government

value:
nofollow
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/
external text

value:
/wiki/Washington_D.C.
mw-redirect
Washington D.C.

value:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

value:
/wiki/Rice_production_in_Iran
mw-redirect
Rice production in Iran

value:
/wiki/Rice_production_in_Nepal
mw-redirect
Rice production in Nepal

value:
navbox-image
1
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

value: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value: position: absolute; right: 15px; display: none;

value:
metadata plainlinks stub
presentation
background:transparent

value: Category:Wikipedia articles in need of updating from November 2010

value: Category:All Wikipedia articles in need of updating

value: Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the Library of Congress Country Studies

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value:
/wiki/Rice_production_in_China
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

value:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

value: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

value: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

value:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

value:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

value:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Find background information on current events

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

value:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

value: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

value: Permanent link to this revision of the page

value: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

value: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

value: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

value:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Rice_production_in_China rootpage-Rice_production_in_China skin-vector action-view


text:
Fertile Crescent
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Map showing the generally defined area of the Fertile Crescent in red
The Fertile Crescent (also known as the cradle of civilization) is a crescent-shaped region containing the comparatively moist and fertile areas of what is an otherwise arid and semi-arid Western Asia, the Nile Valley and Nile Delta. It was created by the inundations of the surrounding Nile, Euphrates, and Tigris rivers. Having originated in the study of ancient history, the concept soon developed and today retains meanings in international geopolitics and diplomatic relations.
The Fertile Crescent includes Mesopotamia, the land in and around the Tigris and Euphrates rivers; and the Levant, the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The modern-day countries with significant territory within the Fertile Crescent are Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Cyprus, Jordan, Israel, Palestine, Egypt, as well as the southeastern fringe of Turkey and the western fringes of Iran.[1][2]
The region saw the development of some of the earliest human civilizations, which flourished thanks to the water supplies and agricultural resources available in the Fertile Crescent. Technological advances made in the region include the development of writing, glass, the wheel, agriculture, and the use of irrigation.
Contents
[hide]
1 Terminology
2 Geography
3 Climate and bio-diversity
4 History
4.1 Early domestications
5 Languages
6 See also
7 Notes and references
8 Bibliography
9 External links
Terminology[edit]
The term "Fertile Crescent" was popularized by University of Chicago archaeologist James Henry Breasted, beginning with his high school textbooks Outlines of European History in 1914 and Ancient Times, A History of the Early World in 1916.[3] Breasted's 1916 textbook description of the Fertile Crescent:[3]
The westernmost extension of Asia is an irregular region roughly included within the circuit of waters marked out by the Caspian and Black seas on the north, by the Mediterranean and Red seas on the west, and by the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf on the south and east. It is a region consisting chiefly of mountains in the north and desert in the south. The earliest home of men in this great arena of Western Asia is a borderland between the desert and the mountains, a kind of cultivable fringe of the desert, a fertile crescent having the mountains on one side and the desert on the other.
This fertile crescent is approximately a semicircle, with the open side toward the south, having the west end at the southeast corner of the Mediterranean, the center directly north of Arabia, and the east end at the north end of the Persian Gulf (see map, p. 100). It lies like an army facing south, with one wing stretching along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean and the other reaching out to the Persian Gulf, while the center has its back against the northern mountains. The end of the western wing is Palestine; Assyria makes up a large part of the center; while the end of the eastern wing is Babylonia.
This great semicircle, for lack of a name, may be called the Fertile Crescent.1 It may also be likened to the shores of a desert-bay, upon which the mountains behind look down—a bay not of water but of sandy waste, some eight hundred kilometres across, forming a northern extension of the Arabian desert and sweeping as far north as the latitude of the northeast corner of the Mediterranean. This desert-bay is a limestone plateau of some height—too high indeed to be watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, which have cut cañons obliquely across it. Nevertheless, after the meager winter rains, wide tracts of the northern desert-bay are clothed with scanty grass, and spring thus turns the region for a short time into grasslands. The history of Western Asia may be described as an age-long struggle between the mountain peoples of the north and the desert wanderers of these grasslands—a struggle which is still going on—for the possession of the Fertile Crescent, the shores of the desert-bay.
1 There is no name, either geographical or political, which includes all of this great semicircle (see map, p. 100). Hence we are obliged to coin a term and call it the Fertile Crescent.
In current usage, the Fertile Crescent includes Iraq, Kuwait, and surrounding portions of Iran and Turkey, as well as the rest of the Levantine coast of the Mediterranean Sea, Syria, Jordan, Israel, and Lebanon. Water sources include the Jordan River. The inner boundary is delimited by the dry climate of the Syrian Desert to the south. Around the outer boundary are the Anatolian highlands to the north and the Sahara Desert to the west.
Geography[edit]
As crucial as rivers and marshlands were to the rise of civilization in the Fertile Crescent, they were not the only factor in the area's precocity. The area is important as the "bridge" between Africa and Eurasia. This "bridging role" has allowed the Fertile Crescent to retain a greater amount of biodiversity than either Europe or North Africa, where climate changes during the Ice Age led to repeated extinction events when ecosystems became squeezed against the waters of the Mediterranean Sea. Coupled with the Saharan pump theory, this Middle Eastern land-bridge is of extreme importance to the modern distribution of Old World flora and fauna, including the spread of humanity.
The area has borne the brunt of the tectonic divergence between the African and Arabian plates and the converging Arabian and Eurasian plates, which has made the region a very diverse zone of high snow-covered mountains.
Climate and bio-diversity[edit]
The Fertile Crescent had many diverse climates, and major climatic changes encouraged the evolution of many "r" type annual plants, which produce more edible seeds than "K" type perennial plants. The region's dramatic variety of elevation gave rise to many species of edible plants for early experiments in cultivation. Most importantly, the Fertile Crescent was home to the eight Neolithic founder crops important in early agriculture (i.e. wild progenitors to emmer wheat, einkorn, barley, flax, chick pea, pea, lentil, bitter vetch), and four of the five most important species of domesticated animals—cows, goats, sheep, and pigs—and the fifth species, the horse, lived nearby.[4] The Fertile Crescent flora comprises a high percentage of plants that can self-pollinate, but may also be cross-pollinated.[5] These plants, called "selfers", were one of the geographical advantages of the area because they did not need to be dependent on other plants for their own multiplication.[6]
History[edit]
Further information: History of the Middle East
The ancient Near East
Regions and states
Fertile Crescent
Mesopotamia
Akkadian Empire
Assyria
Babylonia
Neo-Assyrian Empire
Neo-Babylonian Empire
Sumer
Egypt
Ancient Egypt
Persia
Achaemenid Empire
Elam
Medes
Anatolia
Hittites
Hurrians
Neo-Hittite states
Urartu
The Levant
Ancient Israel
Phoenicia
Archaeological periods
Chronology
Bronze Age
Bronze Age collapse
Iron Age
Languages
Akkadian
Aramaic
Assyriology
Cuneiform script
Elamite
Hebrew
Hittite
Hurrian
Phoenician
Sumerian
Urartian
Literature
Babylonian
Hittite texts
Sumerian
Mythology
Babylonian
Hittite
Mesopotamian
Egyptian
Other topics
Cradle of civilization
Assyrian law
Babylonian astronomy
Babylonian law
Babylonian mathematics
Cuneiform law
History of the Middle East
v
t
e
The Fertile Crescent has an impressive record of past human activity. As well as possessing many sites with the skeletal and cultural remains of both pre-modern and early modern humans (e.g. at Tabun and Es Skhul caves in Israel), later Pleistocene hunter-gatherers and Epipalaeolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherers (the Natufians), this area is most famous for its sites related to the origins of agriculture. The western zone around the Jordan and upper Euphrates rivers gave rise to the first known Neolithic farming settlements (referred to as Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)), which date to around 9,000 BCE (and includes sites such as Göbekli Tepe and Jericho).
This region, alongside Mesopotamia (which lies to the east of the Fertile Crescent, between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates), also saw the emergence of early complex societies during the succeeding Bronze Age. There is also early evidence from the region for writing and the formation of hierarchical statelevel societies. This has earned the region the nickname "The cradle of civilization."
It is in this region where the first libraries appeared, some 5,000 years ago. The oldest known library was found in northern Syria, in the ruins of Ebla— a major commercial center that was destroyed around 1650 BCE.[7]
Both the Tigris and Euphrates start in the Taurus Mountains of what is today Turkey. Farmers in southern Mesopotamia had to protect their fields from flooding each year, except northern Mesopotamia which had just enough rain to make some farming possible. To protect against flooding, they made levees.[8]
Since the Bronze Age, the region's natural fertility has been greatly extended by irrigation works, upon which much of its agricultural production continues to depend. The last two millennia have seen repeated cycles of decline and recovery as past works have fallen into disrepair through the replacement of states, to be replaced under their successors. Another ongoing problem has been salination — gradual concentration of salt and other minerals in soils with a long history of irrigation.
Early domestications[edit]
Prehistoric seedless figs were discovered at Gilgal I in the Jordan Valley, suggesting that fig trees were being planted some 11,400 years ago.[9] Cereals were already grown in Syria as long as 9,000 years ago.[10] Small cats (Felis silvestris) also were domesticated in this region.[11]
Languages[edit]
Linguistically, the Fertile Crescent was a region of great diversity. Historically, Semitic languages generally prevailed in the lowlands, whilst in the mountainous areas to the east and north a number of generally unrelated languages were found including Elamite, Kassite, and Hurro-Urartian. The precise affiliation of these, and their date of arrival, remain topics of scholarly discussion. However, given lack of textual evidence for the earliest era of prehistory, this debate is unlikely to be resolved in the near future.
The evidence which does exist suggests that by the third millennium BCE and into the second, several language groups already existed in the region. These included:[12][13]
Sumerian – a non-Semitic language which displays a Sprachbund-type relationship with neighbouring Akkadian
Semitic languages – Akkadian, Amorite, Aramaic, Ugaritic, Canaanite.
Hurro-Urartian languages – a small family. (The otherwise isolated Kassite language may be related.)
Hattic – a language isolate, spoken originally in central Anatolia.
Indo-European languages – generally believed to be later intrusive languages, such as Hittite and the Indo-Aryan material attested in the Mittani civilization.
Links between Hurro-Urartian and Hattic and the indigenous languages of the Caucasus have frequently been suggested, but are not generally accepted.
See also[edit]
Hilly Flanks
History of Mesopotamia
History of agriculture
Hydraulic empire
Near East
Beth Nahrain
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ Haviland, William A., et. al (2013). The Essence of Anthropology (3rd ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth. p. 104. ISBN 1111833443.
Jump up ^ Ancient Mesopotamia/India. Culver City, California: Social Studies School Service. 2004. p. 4. ISBN 1560041668.
^ Jump up to: a b Abt, Jeffrey (2011). American Egyptologist: the life of James Henry Breasted and the creation of his Oriental Institute. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 193–194, 436. ISBN 978-0-226-0011-04.
Goodspeed, George Stephen (1904). A History of the ancient world: for high schools and academies. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 5–6.
Breasted, James Henry (1914). "Earliest man, the Orient, Greece, and Rome". In Robinson, James Harvey; Breasted, James Henry; Beard, Charles A. Outlines of European history, Vol. 1 (PDF). Boston: Ginn. pp. 56–57. "The Ancient Orient" map is inserted between pages 56 and 57.
Breasted, James Henry (1916). Ancient times, a history of the early world: an introduction to the study of ancient history and the career of early man (PDF). Boston: Ginn. pp. 100–101. "The Ancient Oriental World" map is inserted between pages 100 and 101.
Clay, Albert T. (1924). "The so-called Fertile Crescent and desert bay". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 44: 186–201. doi:10.2307/593554. JSTOR 593554.
Kuklick, Bruce (1996). "Essay on methods and sources". Puritans in Babylon: the ancient Near East and American intellectual life, 1880–1930. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 241. ISBN 978-0-691-02582-7. Textbooks...The true texts brought all of these strands together, the most important being James Henry Breasted, Ancient Times: A History of the Early World (Boston, 1916), but a predecessor, George Stephen Goodspeed, A History of the Ancient World (New York, 1904), is outstanding. Goodspeed, who taught at Chicago with Breasted, antedated him in the conception of a 'crescent' of civilization.
Jump up ^ Diamond, Jared. (March 1997). Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-03891-2.
Jump up ^ Diamond, Jared. (March 1997). Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-03891-2.
Jump up ^ Diamond, Jared. (March 1997). Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-03891-2.
Jump up ^ Murray, S. (2009). The library : an illustrated history. New York, NY : Skyhorse Pub. ; Chicago : ALA Editions, 2009.
Jump up ^ Beck, Roger B.; Black, Linda; Krieger, Larry S.; Naylor, Phillip C.; Shabaka, Dahia Ibo (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN 0-395-87274-X.
Jump up ^ Norris, Scott (1 June 2006). "Ancient Fig Find May Push Back Birth of Agriculture". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 6 March 2017.
Jump up ^ Genographic Project / The Development of Agriculture Archived 2016-04-14 at the Wayback Machine. nationalgeographic.com
Jump up ^ Driscoll, et al., The near eastern origin of cat domestication. Science 2007;317:519-23
Jump up ^ Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. Ed. Steadman & McMahon. 2011. Pg 233, 522, 556.
Jump up ^ A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. Ed: T Potts, 2012. Pg 28, 570, 584.
Bibliography[edit]
Jared Diamond, Guns, germs and steel. A short history of everybody for the last 13'000 years, 1997.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fertile Crescent.
Ancient Fertile Crescent Almost Gone, Satellite Images Show – from National Geographic News, May 18, 2001.
[show]
v
t
e
Regions of the world
[show]
v
t
e
Regions of Africa
Central Africa
Guinea region
Gulf of Guinea
Cape Lopez
Mayombe
Igboland
Mbaise
Maputaland
Pool Malebo
Congo Basin
Chad Basin
Congolese rainforests
Ouaddaï highlands
Ennedi Plateau
East Africa
African Great Lakes
Albertine Rift
East African Rift
Great Rift Valley
Gregory Rift
Rift Valley lakes
Swahili coast
Virunga Mountains
Zanj
Horn of Africa
Afar Triangle
Al-Habash
Barbara
Danakil Alps
Danakil Desert
Ethiopian Highlands
Gulf of Aden
Gulf of Tadjoura
Indian Ocean islands
Comoros Islands
North Africa
Maghreb
Barbary Coast
Bashmur
Ancient Libya
Atlas Mountains
Nile Valley
Cataracts of the Nile
Darfur
Gulf of Aqaba
Lower Egypt
Lower Nubia
Middle Egypt
Nile Delta
Nuba Mountains
Nubia
The Sudans
Upper Egypt
Western Sahara
West Africa
Pepper Coast
Gold Coast
Slave Coast
Ivory Coast
Cape Palmas
Cape Mesurado
Guinea region
Gulf of Guinea
Niger Basin
Guinean Forests of West Africa
Niger Delta
Inner Niger Delta
Southern Africa
Madagascar
Central Highlands (Madagascar)
Northern Highlands
Rhodesia
North
South
Thembuland
Succulent Karoo
Nama Karoo
Bushveld
Highveld
Fynbos
Cape Floristic Region
Kalahari Desert
Okavango Delta
False Bay
Hydra Bay
Macro-regions
Aethiopia
Arab world
Commonwealth realm
East African montane forests
Eastern Desert
Equatorial Africa
Françafrique
Gibraltar Arc
Greater Middle East
Islands of Africa
List of countries where Arabic is an official language
Mediterranean Basin
MENA
MENASA
Middle East
Mittelafrika
Negroland
Northeast Africa
Portuguese-speaking African countries
Sahara
Sahel
Sub-Saharan Africa
Sudan (region)
Sudanian Savanna
Tibesti Mountains
Tropical Africa
[show]
v
t
e
Regions of Asia
Central
Greater Middle East
Aral Sea
Aralkum Desert
Caspian Sea
Dead Sea
Sea of Galilee
Transoxiana
Turan
Greater Khorasan
Ariana
Khwarezm
Sistan
Kazakhstania
Eurasian Steppe
Asian Steppe
Kazakh Steppe
Pontic–Caspian steppe
Mongolian-Manchurian grassland
Wild Fields
Yedisan
Muravsky Trail
Ural
Ural Mountains
Volga region
Idel-Ural
Kolyma
Transbaikal
Pryazovia
Bjarmaland
Kuban
Zalesye
Ingria
Novorossiya
Gornaya Shoriya
Tulgas
Iranian Plateau
Altai Mountains
Pamir Mountains
Tian Shan
Badakhshan
Wakhan Corridor
Wakhjir Pass
Mount Imeon
Mongolian Plateau
Western Regions
Taklamakan Desert
Karakoram
Trans-Karakoram Tract
Siachen Glacier
North
Inner Asia
Northeast
Far East
Russian Far East
Okhotsk-Manchurian taiga
Extreme North
Siberia
Baikalia (Lake Baikal)
Transbaikal
Khatanga Gulf
Baraba steppe
Kamchatka Peninsula
Amur Basin
Yenisei Gulf
Yenisei Basin
Beringia
Sikhote-Alin
East
Japanese archipelago
Northeastern Japan Arc
Sakhalin Island Arc
Korean Peninsula
Gobi Desert
Taklamakan Desert
Greater Khingan
Mongolian Plateau
Inner Asia
Inner Mongolia
Outer Mongolia
China proper
Manchuria
Outer Manchuria
Inner Manchuria
Northeast China Plain
Mongolian-Manchurian grassland
North China Plain
Yan Mountains
Kunlun Mountains
Liaodong Peninsula
Himalayas
Tibetan Plateau
Tibet
Tarim Basin
Northern Silk Road
Hexi Corridor
Nanzhong
Lingnan
Liangguang
Jiangnan
Jianghuai
Guanzhong
Huizhou
Wu
Jiaozhou
Zhongyuan
Shaannan
Ordos Loop
Loess Plateau
Shaanbei
Hamgyong Mountains
Central Mountain Range
Japanese Alps
Suzuka Mountains
Leizhou Peninsula
Gulf of Tonkin
Yangtze River Delta
Pearl River Delta
Yenisei Basin
Altai Mountains
Wakhan Corridor
Wakhjir Pass
West
Greater Middle East
MENA
MENASA
Middle East
Red Sea
Caspian Sea
Mediterranean Sea
Zagros Mountains
Persian Gulf
Pirate Coast
Strait of Hormuz
Greater and Lesser Tunbs
Al-Faw Peninsula
Gulf of Oman
Gulf of Aqaba
Gulf of Aden
Balochistan
Arabian Peninsula
Najd
Hejaz
Tihamah
Eastern Arabia
South Arabia
Hadhramaut
Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert
Tigris–Euphrates
Mesopotamia
Upper Mesopotamia
Lower Mesopotamia
Sawad
Nineveh plains
Akkad (region)
Babylonia
Canaan
Aram
Eber-Nari
Suhum
Eastern Mediterranean
Mashriq
Kurdistan
Levant
Southern Levant
Transjordan
Jordan Rift Valley
Levantine Sea
Golan Heights
Hula Valley
Gaza Strip
West Bank
Galilee
Gilead
Judea
Samaria
Arabah
Anti-Lebanon Mountains
Sinai Peninsula
Arabian Desert
Syrian Desert
Fertile Crescent
Azerbaijan
Syria
Palestine
Iranian Plateau
Armenian Highlands
Caucasus
Caucasus Mountains
Greater Caucasus
Lesser Caucasus
North Caucasus
South Caucasus
Kur-Araz Lowland
Lankaran Lowland
Alborz
Absheron Peninsula
Anatolia
Cilicia
Cappadocia
Alpide belt
South
Greater India
Indian subcontinent
Himalayas
Hindu Kush
Western Ghats
Eastern Ghats
Ganges Basin
Ganges Delta
Pashtunistan
Punjab
Balochistan
Kashmir
Kashmir Valley
Pir Panjal Range
Thar Desert
Indus Valley
Indus River Delta
Indus Valley Desert
Indo-Gangetic Plain
Eastern coastal plains
Western Coastal Plains
Meghalaya subtropical forests
MENASA
Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests
Northwestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows
Doab
Bagar tract
Great Rann of Kutch
Little Rann of Kutch
Deccan Plateau
Coromandel Coast
Konkan
False Divi Point
Hindi Belt
Ladakh
Aksai Chin
Gilgit-Baltistan
Baltistan
Shigar Valley
Karakoram
Saltoro Mountains
Siachen Glacier
Bay of Bengal
Gulf of Khambhat
Gulf of Kutch
Gulf of Mannar
Trans-Karakoram Tract
Wakhan Corridor
Wakhjir Pass
Lakshadweep
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Andaman Islands
Nicobar Islands
Maldive Islands
Alpide belt
Southeast
Mainland
Indochina
Malay Peninsula
Maritime
Peninsular Malaysia
Sunda Islands
Greater Sunda Islands
Lesser Sunda Islands
Indonesian Archipelago
Timor
New Guinea
Bonis Peninsula
Papuan Peninsula
Huon Peninsula
Huon Gulf
Bird's Head Peninsula
Gazelle Peninsula
Philippine Archipelago
Luzon
Visayas
Mindanao
Leyte Gulf
Gulf of Thailand
East Indies
Nanyang
Alpide belt
Asia-Pacific
Tropical Asia
Ring of Fire
[show]
v
t
e
Regions of Europe
North
Nordic
Northwestern
Scandinavia
Scandinavian Peninsula
Fennoscandia
Baltoscandia
Sápmi
West Nordic
Baltic
Baltic Sea
Gulf of Bothnia
Gulf of Finland
Iceland
Faroe Islands
East
Danubian countries
Prussia
Galicia
Volhynia
Donbass
Sloboda Ukraine
Sambia Peninsula
Amber Coast
Curonian Spit
Izyum Trail
Lithuania Minor
Nemunas Delta
Baltic
Baltic Sea
Vyborg Bay
Karelia
East Karelia
Karelian Isthmus
Lokhaniemi
Southeastern
Balkans
Aegean Islands
Gulf of Chania
North Caucasus
Greater Caucasus
Kabardia
European Russia
Southern Russia
Central
Baltic
Baltic Sea
Alpine states
Alpide belt
Mitteleuropa
Visegrád Group
West
Benelux
Low Countries
Northwest
British Isles
English Channel
Channel Islands
Cotentin Peninsula
Normandy
Brittany
Gulf of Lion
Iberia
Al-Andalus
Baetic System
Pyrenees
Alpide belt
South
Italian Peninsula
Insular Italy
Tuscan Archipelago
Aegadian Islands
Iberia
Al-Andalus
Baetic System
Gibraltar Arc
Southeastern
Mediterranean
Crimea
Alpide belt
Germanic
Celtic
Slavic countries
Uralic
European Plain
Eurasian Steppe
Pontic–Caspian steppe
Wild Fields
Pannonian Basin
Great Hungarian Plain
Little Hungarian Plain
Eastern Slovak Lowland
[show]
v
t
e
Regions of North America
Canada
Eastern Canada
Western Canada
Canadian Prairies
Central Canada
Northern Canada
Atlantic Canada
The Maritimes
French Canada
English Canada
Acadia
Acadian Peninsula
Quebec City–Windsor Corridor
Peace River Country
Cypress Hills
Palliser's Triangle
Canadian Shield
Interior Alaska-Yukon lowland taiga
Newfoundland (island)
Vancouver island
Gulf Islands
Strait of Georgia
Canadian Arctic Archipelago
Labrador Peninsula
Gaspé Peninsula
Avalon Peninsula
Bay de Verde Peninsula
Brodeur Peninsula
Melville Peninsula
Bruce Peninsula
Banks Peninsula (Nunavut)
Cook Peninsula
Gulf of Boothia
Georgian Bay
Hudson Bay
James Bay
Greenland
United States
Pacific Northwest
Inland Northwest
Northeast
New England
Mid-Atlantic
Commonwealth
West
Midwest
Upper Midwest
Mountain States
Intermountain West
Basin and Range Province
Oregon Trail
Mormon Corridor
Calumet Region
Southwest
Old Southwest
Llano Estacado
Central United States
Tallgrass prairie
South
South Central
Deep South
Upland South
Four Corners
East Coast
West Coast
Gulf Coast
Third Coast
Coastal states
Eastern United States
Appalachia
Trans-Mississippi
Great North Woods
Great Plains
Interior Plains
Great Lakes
Great Basin
Great Basin Desert
Acadia
Ozarks
Ark-La-Tex
Waxhaws
Siouxland
Twin Tiers
Driftless Area
Palouse
Piedmont
Atlantic coastal plain
Outer Lands
Black Dirt Region
Blackstone Valley
Piney Woods
Rocky Mountains
Mojave Desert
The Dakotas
The Carolinas
Shawnee Hills
San Fernando Valley
Tornado Alley
North Coast
Lost Coast
Emerald Triangle
San Francisco Bay Area
San Francisco Bay
North Bay (San Francisco Bay Area)
East Bay (San Francisco Bay Area)
Silicon Valley
Interior Alaska-Yukon lowland taiga
Gulf of Mexico
Lower Colorado River Valley
Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta
Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta
Colville Delta
Arkansas Delta
Mobile–Tensaw River Delta
Mississippi Delta
Mississippi River Delta
Columbia River Estuary
Great Basin
High Desert
Monterey Peninsula
Upper Peninsula of Michigan
Lower Peninsula of Michigan
Virginia Peninsula
Keweenaw Peninsula
Middle Peninsula
Delmarva Peninsula
Alaska Peninsula
Kenai Peninsula
Niagara Peninsula
Beringia
Belt regions
Bible Belt
Black Belt
Corn Belt
Cotton Belt
Frost Belt
Rice Belt
Rust Belt
Sun Belt
Snow Belt
Mexico
Northern Mexico
Baja California Peninsula
Gulf of California
Colorado River Delta
Gulf of Mexico
Soconusco
Tierra Caliente
La Mixteca
La Huasteca
Bajío
Valley of Mexico
Mezquital Valley
Sierra Madre de Oaxaca
Yucatán Peninsula
Basin and Range Province
Central
Western Caribbean Zone
Isthmus of Panama
Gulf of Panama
Pearl Islands
Azuero Peninsula
Mosquito Coast
Caribbean
West Indies
Antilles
Greater Antilles
Lesser Antilles
Leeward
Leeward Antilles
Windward
Lucayan Archipelago
Southern Caribbean
Aridoamerica
Mesoamerica
Oasisamerica
Northern
Middle
Anglo
Latin
French
Hispanic
American Cordillera
Ring of Fire
LAC
[show]
v
t
e
Regions of Oceania
Australasia
Gulf of Carpentaria
New Guinea
Bonis Peninsula
Papuan Peninsula
Huon Peninsula
Huon Gulf
Bird's Head Peninsula
Gazelle Peninsula
New Zealand
South Island
North Island
Coromandel Peninsula
Zealandia
New Caledonia
Solomon Islands (archipelago)
Vanuatu
Kula Gulf
Australia
Capital Country
Eastern Australia
Lake Eyre basin
Murray–Darling basin
Northern Australia
Nullarbor Plain
Outback
Southern Australia
Maralinga
Sunraysia
Great Victoria Desert
Gulf of Carpentaria
Gulf St Vincent
Lefevre Peninsula
Fleurieu Peninsula
Yorke Peninsula
Eyre Peninsula
Mornington Peninsula
Bellarine Peninsula
Mount Henry Peninsula
Melanesia
Islands Region
Bismarck Archipelago
Solomon Islands Archipelago
Fiji
New Caledonia
Papua New Guinea
Vanuatu
Micronesia
Caroline Islands
Federated States of Micronesia
Palau
Guam
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Nauru
Northern Mariana Islands
Wake Island
Polynesia
Easter Island
Hawaiian Islands
Cook Islands
French Polynesia
Austral Islands
Gambier Islands
Marquesas Islands
Society Islands
Tuamotu
Kermadec Islands
Mangareva Islands
Samoa
Tokelau
Tonga
Tuvalu
Ring of Fire
[show]
v
t
e
Regions of South America
East
Amazon basin
Atlantic Forest
Caatinga
Cerrado
North
Caribbean South America
West Indies
Los Llanos
The Guianas
Amazon basin
Amazon rainforest
Gulf of Paria
Paria Peninsula
Paraguaná Peninsula
Orinoco Delta
South
Tierra del Fuego
Patagonia
Pampas
Pantanal
Gran Chaco
Chiquitano dry forests
Valdes Peninsula
West
Andes
Tropical Andes
Wet Andes
Dry Andes
Pariacaca mountain range
Altiplano
Atacama Desert
Latin
Hispanic
American Cordillera
Ring of Fire
LAC
[show]
v
t
e
Polar regions
Antarctic
Antarctic Peninsula
East Antarctica
West Antarctica
Eklund Islands
Ecozone
Extreme points
Islands
Arctic
Arctic Alaska
British Arctic Territories
Canadian Arctic Archipelago
Finnmark
Greenland
Northern Canada
Northwest Territories
Nunavik
Nunavut
Russian Arctic
Sakha
Sápmi
Yukon
North American Arctic
[show]
v
t
e
Earth's oceans and seas
Arctic Ocean
Amundsen Gulf
Barents Sea
Beaufort Sea
Chukchi Sea
East Siberian Sea
Greenland Sea
Gulf of Boothia
Kara Sea
Laptev Sea
Lincoln Sea
Prince Gustav Adolf Sea
Pechora Sea
Queen Victoria Sea
Wandel Sea
White Sea
Atlantic Ocean
Adriatic Sea
Aegean Sea
Alboran Sea
Archipelago Sea
Argentine Sea
Baffin Bay
Balearic Sea
Baltic Sea
Bay of Biscay
Bay of Bothnia
Bay of Campeche
Bay of Fundy
Black Sea
Bothnian Sea
Caribbean Sea
Celtic Sea
English Channel
Foxe Basin
Greenland Sea
Gulf of Bothnia
Gulf of Finland
Gulf of Lion
Gulf of Guinea
Gulf of Maine
Gulf of Mexico
Gulf of Saint Lawrence
Gulf of Sidra
Gulf of Venezuela
Hudson Bay
Ionian Sea
Irish Sea
Irminger Sea
James Bay
Labrador Sea
Levantine Sea
Libyan Sea
Ligurian Sea
Marmara Sea
Mediterranean Sea
Myrtoan Sea
North Sea
Norwegian Sea
Sargasso Sea
Sea of Åland
Sea of Azov
Sea of Crete
Sea of the Hebrides
Thracian Sea
Tyrrhenian Sea
Wadden Sea
Indian Ocean
Andaman Sea
Arabian Sea
Bali Sea
Bay of Bengal
Flores Sea
Great Australian Bight
Gulf of Aden
Gulf of Aqaba
Gulf of Khambhat
Gulf of Kutch
Gulf of Oman
Gulf of Suez
Java Sea
Laccadive Sea
Mozambique Channel
Persian Gulf
Red Sea
Timor Sea
Pacific Ocean
Arafura Sea
Banda Sea
Bering Sea
Bismarck Sea
Bohai Sea
Bohol Sea
Camotes Sea
Celebes Sea
Ceram Sea
Chilean Sea
Coral Sea
East China Sea
Gulf of Alaska
Gulf of Anadyr
Gulf of California
Gulf of Carpentaria
Gulf of Fonseca
Gulf of Panama
Gulf of Thailand
Gulf of Tonkin
Halmahera Sea
Koro Sea
Mar de Grau
Molucca Sea
Moro Gulf
Philippine Sea
Salish Sea
Savu Sea
Sea of Japan
Sea of Okhotsk
Seto Inland Sea
Shantar Sea
Sibuyan Sea
Solomon Sea
South China Sea
Sulu Sea
Tasman Sea
Visayan Sea
Yellow Sea
Southern Ocean
Amundsen Sea
Bellingshausen Sea
Cooperation Sea
Cosmonauts Sea
Davis Sea
D'Urville Sea
King Haakon VII Sea
Lazarev Sea
Mawson Sea
Riiser-Larsen Sea
Ross Sea
Scotia Sea
Somov Sea
Weddell Sea
Landlocked seas
Aral Sea
Caspian Sea
Dead Sea
Salton Sea
Book
Category
[show]
v
t
e
Prehistoric Asia
Paleolithic
Homo erectus georgicus
Japanese Paleolithic
Java Man
List of Paleolithic sites in China
Paleolithic Mesopotamia
Natufian culture
Peking Man
Riwat
Soanian
Sangiran
South Asian Stone Age
Ubeidiya
Xiaochangliang
Neolithic
Fertile Crescent
Early Neolithic settlements
Khiamian culture
Trialetian culture
Nemrikian culture
Zarzian culture
Neolithic China
Neolithic Tibet
Neolithic Korea
Neolithic Revolution
Neolithic South Asia
Ohalo
Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (Mesopotamia)
Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (Mesopotamia)
Chalcolithic
Daimabad
Halaf culture
Uruk period
Bronze Age
Andronovo culture
Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex
Bronze Age Anatolia
Bronze Age Caucasus
Bronze Age China
Bronze Age India
Bronze Age Korea
Bronze Age Levant
List of Bronze Age sites in China
Seima-Turbino phenomenon
List of archaeological periods
List of time periods
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 243180655
GND: 4517565-2
Coordinates: 36°N 40°E / 36°N 40°E / 36; 40
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fertile_Crescent&oldid=818532438"
Categories:
Ancient Near East
Eastern Mediterranean
History of the Mediterranean
Physiographic divisions
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Coordinates on Wikidata
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
العربية
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
تۆرکجه
বাংলা
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
Български
Català
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Latina
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
മലയാളം
Bahasa Melayu
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
پنجابی
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Tiếng Việt
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 4 January 2018, at 03:00.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

value: mw-page-base noprint

value: mw-head-base noprint

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attr: class style

value:
/wiki/Nile_Valley
mw-redirect
Nile Valley

value:
/wiki/Diplomatic_relations
mw-redirect
Diplomatic relations

tag: p

value:
/wiki/Tigris_river
mw-redirect
Tigris river

value:
/wiki/Euphrates_river
mw-redirect
Euphrates river

value:
/wiki/Sahara_Desert
mw-redirect
Sahara Desert

value:
/wiki/Saharan_pump_theory
mw-redirect
Saharan pump theory

value:
/wiki/Tectonic_plates
mw-redirect
Tectonic plates

value:
/wiki/R/K_strategy
mw-redirect
R/K strategy

value:
/wiki/Neo-Hittite_states
mw-redirect
Neo-Hittite states

value:
/wiki/Ancient_Israel
mw-redirect
Ancient Israel

value:
/wiki/Bronze_Age_collapse
mw-redirect
Bronze Age collapse

value:
/wiki/Babylonian_literature
mw-redirect
Babylonian literature

value:
/wiki/Babylonian_mythology
mw-redirect
Babylonian mythology

value:
/wiki/Hittite_mythology
mw-redirect
Hittite mythology

value:
/wiki/Mesopotamian_mythology
mw-redirect
Mesopotamian mythology

value: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

value:
/wiki/Modern_humans
mw-redirect
Modern humans

value:
/wiki/Origins_of_agriculture
mw-redirect
Origins of agriculture

value:
/wiki/Soil_salination
mw-redirect
Soil salination

value:
/wiki/Akkadian_language
mw-redirect
Akkadian language

value:
/wiki/Ugaritic_language
mw-redirect
Ugaritic language

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F593554

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/593554

value: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

value:
/wiki/Indian_Ocean_islands
mw-redirect
Indian Ocean islands

value:
/wiki/Comoros_Islands
mw-redirect
Comoros Islands

value: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value:
/wiki/Asian_Steppe
mw-redirect
Asian Steppe

value:
/wiki/Inner_Manchuria
mw-redirect
Inner Manchuria

value:
/wiki/Pirate_Coast
mw-redirect
Pirate Coast

value:
/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia
mw-redirect
Lower Mesopotamia

value: Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests

value: Northwestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows

value:
/wiki/Indonesian_Archipelago
mw-redirect
Indonesian Archipelago

value:
/wiki/Philippine_Archipelago
mw-redirect
Philippine Archipelago

value: Template talk:Regions of Europe (page does not exist)

value: Template talk:Regions of North America (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Vancouver_island
mw-redirect
Vancouver island

value: List of belt regions of the United States

value: Latin America and the Caribbean (region)

value:
/wiki/Mangareva_Islands
mw-redirect
Mangareva Islands

value: Template talk:Regions of South America (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Antarctic_ecozone
mw-redirect
Antarctic ecozone

value: List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands

value:
/wiki/Extreme_North
mw-redirect
Extreme North

value:
/wiki/Gulf_of_Sidra
mw-redirect
Gulf of Sidra

attr: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

value: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

value:
/wiki/Homo_erectus_georgicus
mw-redirect
Homo erectus georgicus

value:
/wiki/Neolithic_China
mw-redirect
Neolithic China

value:
/wiki/Neolithic_South_Asia
mw-redirect
Neolithic South Asia

value:
/wiki/Bronze_Age_Anatolia
mw-redirect
Bronze Age Anatolia

value:
/wiki/Bronze_Age_Caucasus
mw-redirect
Bronze Age Caucasus

value:
/wiki/Bronze_Age_China
mw-redirect
Bronze Age China

value:
/wiki/Bronze_Age_Korea
mw-redirect
Bronze Age Korea

value:
/wiki/Bronze_Age_Levant
mw-redirect
Bronze Age Levant

value:
nofollow
external text
https://viaf.org/viaf/243180655

value:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4517565-2

value: Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location

value: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

value: Category:Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers

value: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value:
/wiki/Fertile_Crescent
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

value:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

value: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

value: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

value:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

value:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

value:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Find background information on current events

value:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

value: الهلال الخصيب – Arabic

value: উর্বর চন্দ্রকলা – Bangla

value: Урадлівы паўмесяц – Belarusian

value: Урадлівы паўмесяц – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

value: Плодороден полумесец – Bulgarian

value: interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle

value: هلال حاصل‌خیز – Persian

value: 비옥한 초승달 지대 – Korean

value: Բարեբեր մահիկ – Armenian

value: उर्वर अर्धचंद्र – Hindi

value: הסהר הפורה – Hebrew

value: ഫെർറ്റൈൽ ക്രസന്റ് – Malayalam

value: လခြမ်းရပ်ဝန်းဒေသ – Burmese

value: 肥沃な三日月地帯 – Japanese

value: interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

value: Den fruktbare halvmånen – Norwegian Nynorsk

value: Плодородный полумесяц – Russian

value: Плодни полумесец – Serbian

value: พระจันทร์เสี้ยวอันอุดมสมบูรณ์ – Thai

value: Родючий Півмісяць – Ukrainian

value: زرخیز ہلال – Urdu

value: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

value: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Fertile_Crescent rootpage-Fertile_Crescent skin-vector action-view