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Republic Day (India)
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Republic Day
The original text of the Preamble to the Constitution of India. The Constitution of India came into force on 26 January 1950 (1950-01-26).
Observed by
India
Type
National
Significance
Inception of Constitution of India
Celebrations
Parades, distribution of sweets in schools, speeches and cultural dances
Date
26 January
Next time
26 January 2019 (2019-01-26)
Frequency
Annual
Republic Day honours the date on which the Constitution of India came into effect on 26 January 1950 replacing the Government of India Act (1935) as the governing document of India.[1]
The Constitution was adopted by the Indian Constituent Assembly on 26 November 1949, and came into effect on 26 January 1950 with a democratic government system, completing the country's transition towards becoming an independent republic. 26 January was chosen as the Republic day because it was on this day in 1930 when Declaration of Indian Independence (Purna Swaraj) was proclaimed by the Indian National Congress as opposed to the Dominion status offered by British Regime.
Contents
[hide]
1 History of Republic Day
2 Celebrations
2.1 Delhi Republic Day parade
2.2 Beating Retreat
3 Gallery
4 Republic Day parade chief guest
5 Notes
6 See also
7 References
History of Republic Day[edit]
India achieved independence from British Raj on 15 August 1947 following the Indian independence movement noted for largely peaceful non-violent resistance and civil disobedience led by Mahatma Gandhi. The independence came through the Indian Independence Act 1947 (10 & 11 Geo 6 c 30), an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that partitioned British India into the two new independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth (later Commonwealth of Nations).[2] India obtained its independence on 15 August 1947 as a constitutional monarchy with George VI as head of state and the Earl Mountbatten as governor-general. The country, though, did not yet have a permanent constitution; instead its laws were based on the modified colonial Government of India Act 1935. On 28 August 1947, the Drafting Committee was appointed to draft a permanent constitution, with Dr B R Ambedkar as chairman. While India's Independence Day celebrates its freedom from British Rule, the Republic Day celebrates the coming into force of its constitution. A draft constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the Assembly on 4 November 1947.[3] The Assembly met, in sessions open to public, for 166 days, spread over a period of two years, 11 months and 18 days before adopting the Constitution. After many deliberations and some modifications, the 308 members of the Assembly signed two hand-written copies of the document (one each in Hindi and English) on 24 January 1950. Two days later, it came into effect throughout the whole nation.
Celebrations[edit]
President Rajendra Prasad (in the horse-drawn carriage) readies to take part in the first Republic Day parade on Rajpath, New Delhi, in 1950.
The main Republic Day celebration is held in the national capital, New Delhi, at the Rajpath before the President of India. On this day, ceremonious parades take place at the Rajpath, which are performed as a tribute to India; its unity in diversity and rich cultural heritage.
Delhi Republic Day parade[edit]
Main article: Delhi Republic Day parade
Delhi Republic Day parade is held in the capital, New Delhi. Commencing from the gates of the Rashtrapati Bhavan (the President's residence), Raisina Hill on Rajpath past the India Gate, this event is the main attraction of India's Republic Day Celebrations lasting three days. The parade showcases India's Defence Capability, Cultural and Social Heritage.[4]
Nine to twelve different regiments of the Indian Army in addition to the Navy, and Air Force with their bands march past in all their finery and official decorations. The President of India who is the Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Armed Forces, takes the salute. Twelve contingents of various para-military forces of India and other civil forces also take part in this parade.[5]
Beating Retreat[edit]
Main article: Beating Retreat
The Beating Retreat ceremony is held after officially denoting the end of Republic Day festivities. It is conducted on the evening of 29 January, the third day after the Republic Day. It is performed by the bands of the three wings of the military, the Indian Army, Indian Navy and Indian Air Force. The venue is Raisina Hill and an adjacent square, Vijay Chowk, flanked by the North and South block of the Rashtrapati Bhavan (President's Palace) towards the end of Rajpath.[6]
The Chief Guest of the function is the President of India who arrives escorted by the (PBG), a cavalry unit. When the President arrives, the PBG commander asks the unit to give the National Salute, which is followed by the playing of the Indian National Anthem, Jana Gana Mana, by the Army. The Army develops the ceremony of display by the massed bands in which Military Bands, Pipe and Drum Bands, Buglers and Trumpeters from various Army Regiments besides bands from the Navy and Air Force take part which play popular tunes like Abide With Me, Mahatma Gandhi's favourite hymn, and Saare Jahan Se Achcha at the end.[7][8][9]
Gallery[edit]
Buildings on Raisina Hill including Rashtrapati Bhavan, lit up during Republic Day 2008.
Surya Kiran Aerobatics Team displaying tricolor.
Border Security Force personnel on Republic Day.
Republic Day parade chief guest[edit]
Countries invited as chief guests for the Republic Day parade. Erstwhile Yugoslavia (twice invited) has not been depicted in the map.
5 times (France, UK)
4 times (Bhutan, Russia/USSR)
Thrice (Indonesia, Mauritius)
Twice (Brazil, Japan, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Singapore,Phillipines Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam)
Once
Uninvited
Since 1950, India has been hosting head of state or government of another country as the state guest of honour for Republic Day celebrations in New Delhi. During 1950–1954, Republic Day celebrations were organised at different venues (like Irwin Stadium, Kingsway, Red Fort and Ramlila Grounds). It was only starting 1955 when the parade in its present form was organised at Rajpath.[10] The guest country is chosen after a deliberation of strategic, economic and political interests. During 1950s–1970s, a number of NAM and Eastern Bloc countries were hosted by India. In 1968 and 1974, India played host to two countries on the same Republic Day.
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
Year
Guest name
Country
Note
1950 President Sukarno[11] Indonesia
1951 King Tribhuvan Bir Bikram Shah[12] Nepal
1952
1953
1954 King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck[13] Bhutan
1955 Governor General Malik Ghulam Muhammad[14] Pakistan First guest for parade at Rajpath [15]
1956 Chancellor of the Exchequer R. A. Butler United Kingdom Note[1] Two guests[16]
Chief Justice Kōtarō Tanaka Japan
1957 Minister of Defence Georgy Zhukov [17] Soviet Union
1958 Marshall Ye Jianying[18] China
1959 Duke of Edinburgh Prince Philip [19][20][21] United Kingdom 2nd invitation
1960 Chairman Kliment Voroshilov[22] Soviet Union 2nd invitation
1961 Queen Elizabeth II[23] United Kingdom 3rd invitation, Note[2]
1962 Prime Minister Viggo Kampmann[24] Denmark Note[3]
1963 King Norodom Sihanouk[25] Cambodia
1964 Chief of Defence Staff Lord Louis Mountbatten [26] United Kingdom 4th invitation, Note[4]
1965 Food and Agriculture Minister Rana Abdul Hamid Pakistan 2nd invitation
1966 No invitation No invitation Note[5]
1967 King Mohammed Zahir Shah [27] Afghanistan Note[6]
1968 Chairman Alexei Kosygin Soviet Union 3rd invitation Two guests[28]
President Josip Broz Tito Yugoslavia
1969 Prime Minister Todor Zhivkov[29] Bulgaria
1970 King of the Belgians Baudouin[30][31] Belgium Note[7]
1971 President Julius Nyerere[32] Tanzania
1972 Prime Minister Seewoosagur Ramgoolam [33] Mauritius
1973 President Mobutu Sese Seko[34] Zaire
1974 President Josip Broz Tito Yugoslavia 2nd invitation Two guests [35]
Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike Sri Lanka
1975 President Kenneth Kaunda[36] Zambia
1976 Prime Minister Jacques Chirac[37] France
1977 First Secretary Edward Gierek[38] Poland
1978 President Patrick Hillery[39] Ireland
1979 Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser[40] Australia
1980 President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing France 2nd invitation
1981 President Jose Lopez Portillo[41] Mexico
1982 King Juan Carlos I[42] Spain
1983 President Shehu Shagari[43] Nigeria
1984 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck[44] Bhutan 2nd invitation
1985 President Raúl Alfonsín[45] Argentina
1986 Prime Minister Andreas Papandreou[46] Greece
1987 President Alan Garcia[47] Peru
1988 President J. R. Jayewardene[48] Sri Lanka 2nd invitation
1989 General Secretary Nguyen Van Linh[49] Vietnam
1990 Prime Minister Anerood Jugnauth[50] Mauritius 2nd invitation
1991 President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom[51] Maldives
1992 President Mário Soares[51] Portugal
1993 Prime Minister John Major[51] United Kingdom 5th invitation
1994 Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong[51] Singapore
1995 President Nelson Mandela[52] South Africa
1996 President Fernando Henrique Cardoso[51] Brazil
1997 Prime Minister Basdeo Panday[51] Trinidad and Tobago
1998 President Jacques Chirac[51] France 3rd invitation
1999 King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev[51] Nepal 2nd invitation
2000 President Olusegun Obasanjo[51] Nigeria 2nd invitation
2001 President Abdelaziz Bouteflika[51] Algeria
2002 President Cassam Uteem[51] Mauritius 3rd invitation
2003 President Mohammed Khatami[51] Iran
2004 President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva [51] Brazil 2nd invitation
2005 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck[51] Bhutan 3rd invitation
2006 King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz al-Saud[51] Saudi Arabia
2007 President Vladimir Putin[51] Russia 4th invitation
2008 President Nicolas Sarkozy[51] France 4th invitation
2009 President Nursultan Nazarbayev[51] Kazakhstan
2010 President Lee Myung Bak[53] South Korea
2011 President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono[54][55] Indonesia 2nd invitation
2012 Prime Minister Yingluck Shinawatra[56] Thailand
2013 King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck[57] Bhutan 4th invitation
2014 Prime Minister Shinzo Abe[58] Japan 2nd invitation
2015 President Barack Obama[59] United States
2016 President François Hollande France 5th invitation[60]
2017 Crown Prince Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan[61] United Arab Emirates
2018 Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Brunei Ten guests (Heads of ASEAN states)[62]
Prime Minister Hun Sen Cambodia 2nd invitation
President Joko Widodo Indonesia 3rd invitation
Prime Minister Thongloun Sisoulith Laos
Prime Minister Najib Razak Malaysia
State Counsellor Daw Aung San Suu Kyi Myanmar
President Rodrigo Roa Duterte Philippines
Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong Singapore 2nd invitation
Prime Minister Prayuth Chan-ocha Thailand 2nd invitation
Prime Minister Nguyễn Xuân Phúc Vietnam 2nd invitation
Notes[edit]
1.^ On each of these occasions, Lady Edwina Mountbatten from United Kingdom was also the official guest for the parade.[63][64]
2.^ Duke of Edinburgh Prince Philip also accompanied Queen Elizabeth II during the parade.[65]
3.^ Danish Prime Minister attended Republic Day in Madras (Chennai).[66]
4.^ No invitations were sent out possibly due to the demise of Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri on 11 January 1966 in Tashkent. The new government headed by Indira Gandhi was sworn on 24 January 1966 (only two days before the Republic Day).[67]
5.^ For the first time, the President of India (S. Radhakrishnan) could not take the salute at the Republic Day parade due to ill-health.[68] Zahir Shah arrived on 28 January.[69]
6.^ Attended only the Beating Retreat[70][71]
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Republic Day (India).
History of India
Independence Day (India)
Constitution Day (India)
References[edit]
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text:
Eyjafjallajökull
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Eyjafjallajökull
Guðnasteinn
Hámundur
Gígjökull, Eyjafjallajökull's largest outlet glacier covered in volcanic ash
Highest point
Elevation
1,651 m (5,417 ft)
Coordinates
63°37′12″N 19°36′48″W / 63.62000°N 19.61333°W / 63.62000; -19.61333Coordinates: 63°37′12″N 19°36′48″W / 63.62000°N 19.61333°W / 63.62000; -19.61333 [1]
Naming
Pronunciation
Icelandic pronunciation: [ˈeɪjaˌfjatlaˌjœːkʏtl̥]
Geography
Eyjafjallajökull
Iceland
Location
Suðurland, Iceland
Parent range
?
Geology
Mountain type
Stratovolcano
Volcanic arc/belt
East Volcanic Zone
Last eruption
March to June 2010
North view of (from left to right) Mýrdalsjökull, Fimmvörðuháls and Eyjafjallajökull on 4 April 2010, taken from an altitude of 10,000 metres (32,800 ft)
Eyjafjallajökull (Icelandic pronunciation [ˈeɪjaˌfjatlaˌjœːkʏtl̥] ( listen)), (English pronunciation: ei-ya-fyat-LA-yer-kitle), English Island Mountain Glacier,[2] is one of the smaller ice caps of Iceland, north of Skógar and west of Mýrdalsjökull. The ice cap covers the caldera of a volcano with a summit elevation of 1,651 metres (5,417 ft). The volcano has erupted relatively frequently since the last glacial period, most recently in 2010.[3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Geography
2 Etymology
3 Geology
3.1 1821 to 1823 eruptions
3.2 2010 eruptions
3.3 Relationship to Katla
4 Media
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Geography[edit]
Eyjafjallajökull consists of a volcano completely covered by an ice cap. The ice cap covers an area of about 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi), feeding many outlet glaciers. The main outlet glaciers are to the north: Gígjökull, flowing into Lónið, and Steinholtsjökull, flowing into Steinholtslón.[5] In 1967, there was a massive landslide on the Steinholtsjökull glacial tongue. On 16 January 1967 at 13:47:55 there was an explosion on the glacier. It can be timed because the seismometers at Kirkjubæjarklaustur monitored the movement. When about 15,000,000 cubic metres (530,000,000 cubic feet) of material hit the glacier a massive amount of air, ice, and water began to move out from under the glacier into the lagoon at the foot of the glacier.[5]
The mountain itself, a stratovolcano, stands 1,651 metres (5,417 ft) at its highest point, and has a crater 3–4 kilometres (1.9–2.5 mi) in diameter, open to the north. The crater rim has three main peaks (clockwise from the north-east): Guðnasteinn, 1,500 metres (4,900 ft); Hámundur, 1,651 metres (5,417 ft); and Goðasteinn, 1,497 metres (4,911 ft). The south face of the mountain was once part of Iceland's coastline, from which, over thousands of years, the sea has retreated some 5 kilometres (3 mi). The former coastline now consists of sheer cliffs with many waterfalls, of which the best known is Skógafoss. In strong winds, the water of the smaller falls can even be blown up the mountain. The area between the mountain and the present coast is a relatively flat strand, 2 to 5 km (1 to 3 miles) wide, called Eyjafjöll.
Eyjafjallajökull Aerial Panorama; taken from its south in June 2017
Etymology[edit]
The Eyjafjallajökull and the aurora.
The name means "glacier" (or more properly here "ice cap") of the Eyjafjöll. The word jökull, meaning glacier or ice cap, is a cognate with the Middle English word ikel surviving in the -icle of English icicle.
Eyjafjöll is the name given to the southern side of the volcanic massif together with the small mountains which form the foot of the volcano.
The name Eyjafjöll is made up of the words eyja (genitive plural of ey, meaning eyot or island), and the plural word fjöll, meaning fells or mountains, and together literally means: "the mountains of the islands". The name probably refers to the close-by archipelago of Vestmannaeyjar.
The word fjalla is the genitive plural of fjöll, and so Eyjafjalla is the genitive form of Eyjafjöll and means: "of the Eyjafjöll". A literal part-by-part translation of Eyjafjallajökull would thus be "Islands' Mountains' ice cap".
Eyjafjallajökull is sometimes referred to by the numeronym "E15".[6]
Geology[edit]
Active volcanic areas and systems in Iceland
The stratovolcano, whose vents follow an east-west trend, is composed of basalt to andesite lavas. Most of its historical eruptions have been explosive.[7] However, fissure vents occur on both (mainly the west) sides of the volcano.[7]
The volcano is fed by a magma chamber under the mountain, which in turn derives from the tectonic divergence of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It is part of a chain of volcanoes stretching across Iceland. Its nearest active neighbours are Katla, to the northeast, and Eldfell, on Heimaey, to the southwest. The volcano is thought to be related to Katla geologically, in that eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull have generally been followed by eruptions of Katla.
Eyjafjallajökull in March 2006, viewed from a recreation area on the Sólheimajökull, a glacier on the Katla volcano
Eyjafjallajökull erupted in the years 920 and 1612.
1821 to 1823 eruptions[edit]
Some damage was caused by a minor eruption in 1821.[8] Notably, the ash released from the eruption contained a large fraction of fluoride, which in high doses may harm the bone structure of cattle, horses, sheep and humans. The eruption also caused some small and medium glacier runs and flooding in nearby rivers Markarfljót and Holtsá. The eruptive phase started on 19 and 20 December 1821 by a series of explosive eruptions and continued over the next several days. The sources describe heavy ash fall in the area around the volcano, especially to the south and west.[8]
After that event the sequence of eruptions continued on a more subdued level until June 1822.
From the end of June until the beginning of August 1822, another sequence of explosive eruptions followed. The eruption columns were shot to considerable heights, with ashfall in both the far north of the country, in Eyjafjörður, and in the southwest, on the peninsula of Seltjarnarnes near Reykjavík.
The period from August to December 1822 seemed quieter, but farmers attributed the death of cattle and sheep in the Eyjafjörður area to poisoning from this eruption, which modern analysis identifies as fluoride poisoning. Some small glacier runs occurred in the river Holtsá. A bigger one flooded the plains near the river Markarfljót. (The sources do not indicate the exact date.).[9]
In 1823, some men went hiking up on Eyjafjallajökull to inspect the craters. They discovered a fissure vent near the summit caldera a bit to the west of Guðnasteinn.
In early 1823, the nearby volcano Katla under the Mýrdalsjökull ice cap erupted and at the same time steam columns were seen on the summit of Eyjafjallajökull.
The ash of Eyjafjallajökull’s 1821 eruptions is to be found all over the south of Iceland. It is dark grey in colour, small-grained and intermediate rock containing about 28–40% silicon dioxide.
2010 eruptions[edit]
Main articles: 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull, Effects of the April 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption, and Air travel disruption after the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption
A photo of Eyjafjallajökull taken from Route 1 in August 2009
On 26 February 2010, unusual seismic activity along with rapid expansion of the Earth's crust was registered by the Meteorological Institute of Iceland.[10] This gave geophysicists evidence that magma was pouring from underneath the crust into the magma chamber of the Eyjafjallajökull volcano and that pressure stemming from the process caused the huge crustal displacement at Þorvaldseyri farm.[11] In March 2010, almost three thousand small earthquakes were detected near the volcano, all having a depth of 7–10 kilometres (4.3–6.2 mi).[12] The seismic activity continued to increase and from 3–5 March, close to 3,000 earthquakes were measured at the epicenter of the volcano.
The eruption is thought to have begun on 20 March 2010, about 8 kilometres (5 mi) east of the top crater of the volcano, on Fimmvörðuháls, the high neck between Eyjafjallajökull and the neighbouring icecap, Mýrdalsjökull. This first eruption, in the form of a fissure vent, did not occur under the glacier and was smaller in scale than had been expected by some geologists. The fissure opened on the north side of Fimmvörðuháls, directly across the popular hiking trail between Skógar, south of the pass, and Þórsmörk, immediately to the north.
The eruption on 27 March 2010
The crater three years post eruption in March 2013
Eyjafjallajökull seen from the sea in summer 2014.
On 14 April 2010 Eyjafjallajökull resumed erupting after a brief pause, this time from the top crater in the centre of the glacier, causing jökulhlaup (meltwater floods) to rush down the nearby rivers, and requiring 800 people to be evacuated.[4] This eruption was explosive, due to meltwater getting into the volcanic vent. It was estimated to be ten to twenty times larger than the previous one in Fimmvörðuháls. This second eruption threw volcanic ash several kilometres up in the atmosphere, which led to air travel disruption in northwest Europe for six days from 15 April to 21 April 2010 and again, in May 2010,[clarification needed] including the closure of airspace over many parts of Europe.[13] The eruptions also created electrical storms.[14] On 23 May 2010, the London Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre declared the eruption to have stopped, but stated that they were continuing to monitor the volcano.[15] The volcano continued to have several earthquakes daily, with volcanologists watching the volcano closely.[16] As of August 2010, Eyjafjallajökull was considered dormant.[17]
Relationship to Katla[edit]
Cross section through Eyjafjöll and Katla
Eyjafjallajökull lies 25 km (16 mi) west of another subglacial volcano, Katla, under the Mýrdalsjökull ice cap, which is much more active and known for its powerful subglacial eruptions and its large magma chamber.[18] Each of the eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull in 920, 1612, and 1821–1823 has preceded an eruption of Katla.[19] Katla did not display any unusual activity (such as expansion of the crust or seismic activity) during the 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull, though geologists have been concerned about the general instability of Katla since 1999. Some geophysicists in Iceland believe that the Eyjafjallajökull eruption may trigger an eruption of Katla, which would cause major flooding due to melting of glacial ice and send up massive plumes of ash.[19][20] On 20 April 2010, Icelandic President Ólafur Grímsson said "the time for Katla to erupt is coming close...we [Iceland] have prepared...it is high time for European governments and airline authorities all over the world to start planning for the eventual Katla eruption".[21]
Volcanologists continue to monitor Katla, aware that any eruption from Katla following an eruption from Eyjafjallajökull has historically occurred within months of an Eyjafjallajökull eruption. The Icelandic Meteorological Office updates its website with reports of quakes at both Eyjafjallajökull and Katla.[16] On 8 July 2011 there was a jökulhlaup that destroyed a bridge on the Ring Road and caused cracks to appear on Katla's glacier.[22]
Media[edit]
James May drove a Toyota Hilux up the volcano in a 2010 episode of the television show Top Gear. He reached the summit mere hours before the eruption happened, although May and the camera crew had left the volcano by the time the eruption started.
Eyjafjallajökull was featured in the 2013 version of the movie, The Secret Life of Walter Mitty.
Eyjafjallajökull is featured as one of the natural wonders in the computer game Civilization VI.
Eyjafjallajökull was featured in a lyric, performed by MF DOOM, in JJ DOOM's song Guv'nor off of the album Key to the Kuffs released in 2012.
See also[edit]
List of glaciers of Iceland
List of waterfalls of Iceland
Ragnar Th. Sigurdsson who photographed the 2010 eruption
Volcanology of Iceland
Geography portal
Geology portal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Eyjafjallajökull". Peakbagger.com. Retrieved 2015-11-24.
Jump up ^ "Eyjafjallajokull | glacier, Iceland | Britannica.com". Global.britannica.com. Retrieved 2015-11-24.
Jump up ^ "Increasing signs of activity at Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland: Eruptions". Scienceblogs.com. doi:10.1016/j.jog.2006.09.005. Archived from the original on 2010-04-19. Retrieved 2010-04-17.
^ Jump up to: a b "Iceland's volcanic ash halts flights in northern Europe". BBC News. 15 April 2010. Retrieved 15 April 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Eyjafjallajokull – Iceland On The Web". Iceland.vefur.is. Retrieved 2015-11-24.
Jump up ^ Schleicher, N.; Kramar, U.; Dietze, V.; Kaminski, U.; Norra, S. (2012). "Geochemical characterization of single atmospheric particles from the Eyjafjallajökull volcano eruption event collected at ground-based sampling sites in Germany". Atmospheric Environment. 48: 113. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.05.034.
^ Jump up to: a b "Eyjafjallajökull". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
^ Jump up to: a b Larsen, G. (1999). Gosið í Eyjafjallajökli 1821–1823 [The eruption of the Eyjafjallajökull volcano in 1821–1823] (PDF) (in Icelandic). Reykjavík: Science Institute. p. 13. Research Report RH-28-99. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-11-22.
Jump up ^ ""Last Eyjafjallajökull Eruption Lasted Two Years", Iceland Review". Icelandreview.com. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
Jump up ^ "Fasteignaskrá measurement tools". Skra.is. Retrieved 2015-11-24.
Jump up ^ Morgublaðið (26.02.2010) "Innskot undir Eyjafjallajökli". Morgunblaðið.
Jump up ^ Veðurstofa Íslands (5 March 2010) "Jarðskjálftahrina undir Eyjafjallajökli". Veðurstofa Ísland (The Meteorological Institute of Iceland).
Jump up ^ "Ash chaos: Row grows over airspace shutdown costs". BBC News. 2010-04-22. Retrieved 2015-11-24.
Jump up ^ "'Dirty thunderstorm': Lightning in a volcano".
Jump up ^ "Met Office: Volcanic Ash Advisory Centres". Metoffice.gov.uk. Retrieved 2015-11-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "Iceland Meteorological office – Earthquakes Mýrdalsjökull, Iceland". En.vedur.is. Retrieved 2013-03-26.
Jump up ^ "Iceland volcano 'pauses'". Metoffice.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 2011-07-14. Retrieved 2010-07-12.
Jump up ^ "Green.view: Back into the clouds". The Economist. 2010-04-16. Retrieved 2010-04-22.
^ Jump up to: a b Roger Boyes (21 March 2010). "Iceland prepares for second, more devastating volcanic eruption". London: TimesOnline. Retrieved 21 March 2010.
Jump up ^ Kastljósið 22.3.2010, Sjónvarpið, "Viðtal við Dr. Pál Einarsson, jarðeðlisfræðing"
Jump up ^ "Newsnight – Olafur Grimsson: Eruption is only 'small rehearsal'". BBC News. 2010-04-20. Retrieved 2015-11-24.
Jump up ^ "Weekly Reports". Katla. Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eyjafjallajökull.
This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (November 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Wikinews has related news:
Ash from Iceland volcano could affect UK flights
European airspace closed by volcanic ash
Volcanic eruption starts on top of Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland
Icelandic volcanic eruption prompts evacuation, flight diversions
Europe's airline chaos: in depth
Eyjafjallajökull in the Catalogue of Icelandic Volcanoes
Photos
Satellite image of 2010 eruption by NASA
A collection of satellite images from the CIMSS Satellite Blog
Best of Photo Collection
More from Eyjafjallajökull – The Big Picture
Videos and webcams
Webcams of the eruption
A short time-lapse from April 17, 2010. About 30 minutes played in 18 second.
Video of the first 2010 eruption
Video of the first 2010 eruption by Raw Iceland
Video of the aftermath of Eyjafjallajokull eruption. Shot on July 28, 2010
A film crew lands on Eyjafjallajokull during the 2010 eruption
Audio
Volcanic Eyjafjallajökull run off: Seljalandsfoss Waterfall (binaural recording optimized for headphones)
Geological articles
Geology of Katla and Eyjafjallajökull volcanoes, University of Iceland
Magma pathways and earthquakes at Eyjafjallajökull, Icelandic Meteorological Institute (PDF)
SI / USGS Weekly Volcanic Activity Report for Eyjafjallajökull
Aviation ash forecasts
Volcanic Ash Advisory Graphical Forecast for the North Atlantic region
Maps
contour map
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List of largest shopping malls in the United States
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List of the shopping malls in the United States of America and its territories greater than or equal to 2,000,000 total square feet of retail space (gross leasable area). The list is based in part on information provided by the International Council of Shopping Centers and by the Department of American Studies at Eastern Connecticut State University as part of its Shopping Mall Studies.[1]
#
Mall name
Location
Metro area
Retail space
Sq. feet/(m²)
Stores
Anchor Stores/Entertainment Venues
Year opened
Ownership
1 King of Prussia King of Prussia, Pennsylvania Philadelphia 2,900,000 square feet (270,000 m2) 450 Macy's, Nordstrom, Primark, Dick's Sporting Goods, Bloomingdale's, Lord & Taylor, Neiman Marcus 1963 King of Prussia Associates, Simon Property Group
2 Aventura Mall Aventura, Florida Miami 2,700,000 square feet (250,000 m2)[2]
300+[3]
Nordstrom, Bloomingdale’s, Macy's (2 Stores), JCPenney, AMC Theaters 1983 Turnberry Associates, Simon Property Group
3 Mall of America Bloomington, Minnesota Minneapolis 2,500,000 square feet (230,000 m2) 500 Macy's, Sears, Nordstrom (Rack), Best Buy, Forever21, Marshall's, Nickelodeon Universe, LEGO World, American Girl, Sea Life Minnesota Aquarium, FlyOver America, JW Marriott, Radisson Blu 1992 Triple Five Group
4 South Coast Plaza Costa Mesa, California Los Angeles 2,600,000 square feet (240,000 m2)[4]
280 Macy's (3 stores – Main, Men's, Home), Sears, Nordstrom, Saks Fifth Avenue, Bloomingdale's 1967 Segerstrom family
5 Del Amo Fashion Center Torrance, California Los Angeles 2,600,000 square feet (240,000 m2) 200+ Nordstrom, Macy's (2 stores – Main and Men, Home, and Furniture), JCPenney, Sears, T.J. Maxx, Marshalls, Burlington Coat Factory, JO-ANN Fabric and Craft, AMC Theaters 1961 Simon Property Group
6 Destiny USA Syracuse, New York Syracuse 2,450,000 square feet (228,000 m2)[5]
250+ Macy's, JCPenney, Best Buy, Lord & Taylor, H&M, Dave & Buster's, Off Broadway Shoes, Nordstrom Rack, Saks Off Fifth, DSW Shoe Warehouse, DICK'S Sporting Goods, Forever 21, Old Navy, Burlington Coat Factory, At Home, T.J. Maxx, Sears Outlet, Pole Position Raceway, Regal IMAX theater, Regal Cinemas, Destiny USA Hotel 1990 (expanded in 2012 which added 40+ stores) The Pyramid Companies
7 The Galleria Houston, Texas Houston 2,400,000 square feet (220,000 m2)[6]
375 Nordstrom, Macy's, Neiman Marcus, Saks Fifth Avenue 1970 Simon Property Group, Walton Street Real Estate Funds, Sony Corporation & CalPERS
8 Ala Moana Center Honolulu, Hawaii Honolulu 2,400,000 square feet (220,000 m2)[7] 330+ Macy’s, Nordstrom, Neiman Marcus, Shirokiya, Bloomingdale's, Forever 21, Saks Fifth Avenue Off 5th 1959 General Growth Properties
9 Tysons Corner Center McLean, Virginia Washington, D.C. 2,400,000 square feet (220,000 m2)[8]
300 Bloomingdale’s, Macy’s, Nordstrom, Lord & Taylor, AMC Theatres, L. L. Bean, Barnes and Noble, American Girl 1968 Macerich
10 Roosevelt Field Garden City, New York New York City 2,400,000 square feet (220,000 m2)[9] 294 Macy’s, Bloomingdale’s, Nordstrom, JCPenney, Dick's Sporting Goods, Neiman Marcus, AMC, X Sport Fitness, Capital Grill, Season's 52, Grande Lux Café, Havana Central, Le Pain Quotidien, Game Stop, Hot Topic 1956 Simon Property Group
11 Sawgrass Mills Sunrise, Florida Fort Lauderdale 2,383,906 square feet (221,472.1 m2)[10]
350 P.F. Chang's China Bistro, Villago, Grand Lux Cafe, Matchbox, Last Call by Neiman Marcus, Marshalls, Dick's Sporting Goods, Bloomingdale's - The Outlet Store, Rainforest Cafe, Century 21 Department Store, Off 5th Saks Fifth Avenue, Gap Outlet, Forever 21, Super Target, Brandsmart USA, Trendmax Outlet Store, Burlington Coat Factory, Regal Cinemas, IMAX. 1990 Simon Property Group
12 Woodfield Mall Schaumburg, Illinois Chicago 2,224,000 square feet (206,600 m2)[11]
300 Sears, JCPenney, Macy's, Nordstrom, Lord & Taylor 1971 Simon Property Group number 1
13 Palisades Center West Nyack, New York New York City 2,217,322 square feet (205,996.0 m2)[12]
400 Lord & Taylor, Barnes & Noble, Macy's, Target, AMC Theaters 1998 The Pyramid Companies
14 Millcreek Mall Erie, Pennsylvania Erie County 2,200,000 square feet (200,000 m2)[13]
175 Macy's, JCPenney, Boscov's, Bon-Ton, H&M 1975 Cafaro Company
15 Plaza Las Américas San Juan, Puerto Rico San Juan 2,173,000 square feet (201,900 m2)[14]
300+ Macy's, Sears, JCPenney, Old Navy, Caribbean Cinemas, Kmart, Toys "R" Us, Forever 21 1968 Plaza Las Américas, Inc, Empresas Fonalledas, Inc.
16 South Shore Plaza Braintree, Massachusetts Boston 2,165,000 square feet (201,100 m2) 225 Macy's, Lord & Taylor, SJordan Creek Town CenterWest Des Moines, Iowa-Des Moines-2,000,000 square feet-165- Dillard’s,Younkers,Scheels, and Von Maurears, Nordstrom, Target 1961 Simon Property Group
17 Westfield Garden State Plaza Paramus, New Jersey New York City 2,132,112 square feet (198,079.7 m2)[15]
346 Macy’s, Nordstrom, Neiman Marcus, Lord & Taylor, AMC Theatres 1957 Westfield Corporation
18 Lakewood Center Lakewood, California Los Angeles 2,092,710 square feet (194,419 m2)[16]
255 Macy's, Target, Forever 21, JCPenney, Pacific Theatres, Costco 1951 Macerich
19 Scottsdale Fashion Square Scottsdale, Arizona Phoenix 2,049,169 square feet (190,374.0 m2)[17]
250+ Macy’s, Dick's Sporting Goods, Dillard's, Forever 21, H&M, Nordstrom, Neiman Marcus 1961 Macerich
20 Oakbrook Center Oak Brook, Illinois Chicago 2,018,000 square feet (187,500 m2)[18]
175 Macy’s, Sears, Nordstrom, Neiman Marcus, Lord & Taylor 1962 General Growth Properties, CalPERS
21 NorthPark Center Dallas, Texas Dallas 2,000,000 square feet (190,000 m2) 225 Dillard's Macy's, Bloomingdale's, Sears, Lord & Taylor, Neiman Marcus, Nordstrom 1965 NorthPark Development Company
(Von Maur Opening 2022)
See also[edit]
List of largest shopping malls in the world
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Largest Shopping Malls in the United States". American Studies at Eastern Connecticut State University. April 25, 2009. Archived from the original on June 23, 2011. Retrieved 2009-04-28.
Jump up ^ International Council of Shopping Centers: Aventura Mall Archived 2012-10-14 at the Wayback Machine., accessed August 28, 2007
Jump up ^ "Expanded Aventura Mall would be nation's second largest". Miami Today. Retrieved 17 September 2015.
Jump up ^ South Coast Plaza Archived 2012-10-11 at the Wayback Machine.. Accessed June 18, 2010.
Jump up ^ : Destiny USA, accessed July 4, 2012
Jump up ^ http://www.simon.com/mall/the-galleria/about
Jump up ^ [1], accessed November 12, 2015
Jump up ^ International Council of Shopping Centers: Tysons Corner Center Archived 2001-01-16 at the Wayback Machine., accessed August 28, 2007
Jump up ^ "Simon Property Group Fights to Reinvent the Shopping Mall". Fortune.com. Retrieved 2018-01-12.
Jump up ^ International Council of Shopping Centers: Sawgrass Mills Archived 2012-10-14 at the Wayback Machine., accessed August 28, 2007
Jump up ^ http://www.simon.com/Mall/LeasingSheet/Woodfield.pdf Woodfield Mall – Leasing (Simon)
Jump up ^ International Council of Shopping Centers: Palisades Center Archived 2012-10-14 at the Wayback Machine., accessed August 28, 2007
Jump up ^ International Council of Shopping Centers: Del Amo Fashion Center Archived 2012-10-11 at the Wayback Machine., accessed November 24, 2012
Jump up ^ International Council of Shopping Centers: Plaza Las Américas Archived 2012-10-14 at the Wayback Machine., accessed July 25, 2009
Jump up ^ Westfield Group: Property Portfolio – Garden State Plaza Archived 2008-08-01 at the Wayback Machine., accessed June 16, 2008
Jump up ^ International Council of Shopping Centers: Lakewood Center Archived 2012-10-14 at the Wayback Machine., accessed August 28, 2007
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-05-14. Retrieved 2007-04-08. , accessed February 1, 2008
Jump up ^ International Council of Shopping Centers: Oakbrook Shopping Center Archived 2012-10-14 at the Wayback Machine., accessed August 28, 2007
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