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When Calls the Heart
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Not to be confused with When the Heart Calls.
When Calls the Heart
Genre
Family Drama
Western
Based on
When Calls the Heart
by Janette Oke
Developed by
Michael Landon Jr.
Starring
Erin Krakow
Daniel Lissing
Lori Loughlin
Martin Cummins
Jack Wagner
Pascale Hutton
Kavan Smith
Country of origin
Canada
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
5
No. of episodes
50 (list of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Michael Landon Jr.
Jimmy Townsend
Roman Viaris
Francisco Gonzalez
Brian Bird
Brad Krevoy
Producer(s)
Vicki Sotheran
Greg Malcolm
Location(s)
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Running time
42–84 minutes
Production company(s)
Believe Pictures
Brad Krevoy Television
Jordan Films
Release
Original network
Hallmark Channel (U.S.)
Super Channel (Canada)
Picture format
480i (SDTV)
1080i (HDTV)
Original release
January 11, 2014 (2014-01-11) – present (present)
External links
Website
When Calls the Heart is a Canadian-American television drama series, inspired by Janette Oke's book of the same name from her Canadian West series, and developed by Michael Landon Jr. The series began airing on the Hallmark Channel in the United States on January 11, 2014,[1] and on April 16, 2014 on Super Channel in Canada.[2]
The series originally debuted as a two-hour television movie pilot in October 2013, starring Maggie Grace as young teacher Elizabeth Thatcher and Stephen Amell as North West Mounted Police officer Wynn Delaney.[3] In the television series Erin Krakow is cast as her niece, whose name is also Elizabeth Thatcher (played by Poppy Drayton in the movie[4]), and Daniel Lissing plays a Mountie named Jack Thornton, with Lori Loughlin reprising her role as coal mine widow Abigail Stanton.[1][5]
On April 24, 2017, Krakow announced via the Hallmark Channel website that the show would return for a fifth season,[6] which premiered with a two-hour Christmas special broadcast as part of Hallmark's Countdown to Christmas event and resumed in February 2018, ending in April.[7] On March 21, 2018, Hallmark renewed the series for a sixth season.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Episodes
3 Cast
3.1 Main
3.2 Recurring
4 Characters
5 Production
6 Broadcast
7 References
8 External links
Plot[edit]
When Calls the Heart tells the story of Elizabeth Thatcher (Erin Krakow), a young teacher accustomed to her high-society life. She receives her first classroom assignment in Coal Valley, a small coal-mining town in Western Canada which is located just south of Robb, Alberta. There, life is simple—but often fraught with challenges. Elizabeth charms most everyone in Coal Valley, except Royal North West Mounted Police Constable Jack Thornton (Daniel Lissing). He believes Thatcher’s wealthy father has doomed the lawman's career by insisting he be assigned in town to protect the shipping magnate’s daughter. The town of Coal Valley was renamed Hope Valley in Episode 2, Season 2 after the coal mine was closed.
Living in this 1910 coal town, Elizabeth must learn the ways of the Canadian frontier movement if she wishes to thrive in the rural west on her own. Lori Loughlin portrays Abigail Stanton, whose husband, the foreman of the mine, and her only son—along with 45 other miners—have recently been killed in an explosion, which turns out to have been a tragic accident waiting to happen—a result of the mining-company site manager's irresponsible management and lack of due care in his management of the mine. The newly widowed women find their faith tested when they must go to work in the mine to keep a roof over their heads, food on the table, and compile a wage for the town's teacher.[9]
Episodes[edit]
Main article: List of When Calls the Heart episodes
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
First aired
Last aired
1 12 January 11, 2014 (2014-01-11) March 29, 2014 (2014-03-29)
2 7 April 25, 2015 (2015-04-25) June 13, 2015 (2015-06-13)
New Year's Wish December 26, 2015 (2015-12-26)
3 8 February 21, 2016 (2016-02-21) April 10, 2016 (2016-04-10)
Christmas December 25, 2016 (2016-12-25)
4 10 February 19, 2017 (2017-02-19) April 23, 2017 (2017-04-23)
The Christmas Wishing Tree December 25, 2017 (2017-12-25)
5 10 February 18, 2018 (2018-02-18) April 22, 2018 (2018-04-22)
Cast[edit]
Main[edit]
Erin Krakow as Elizabeth Thatcher Thornton
Daniel Lissing as Jack Thornton (Seasons 1-5)
Lori Loughlin as Abigail Stanton
Jack Wagner as Bill Avery
Martin Cummins as Henry Gowen
Pascale Hutton as Rosemary LeVeaux Coulter
Kavan Smith as Leland Coulter
Recurring[edit]
Paul Greene as Carson Shepherd
Gracyn Shinyei as Emily Montgomery
Loretta Walsh as Florence Blakeley
Erica Carroll as Dottie Ramsey
Mark Humphrey as Frank Hogan
Johannah Newmarch as Molly Sullivan
Mitchell Kummen as Gabe Montgomery
Logan Williams as Miles Montgomery
Ben Rosenbaum as Hickam
Carter Ryan Evancic as Cody Hastings
Chelah Horsdal as Cat Montgomery
Steve Bacic as Charles Spurlock
Kristina Wagner as Nora Avery
Aren Buchholz as Jesse Flynn
Charlotte Hegele as Julie Thatcher
Andrea Brooks as Faith Carter
Eva Bourne as Clara Stanton
Ava Grace Cooper as Opal
Max Lloyd-Jones as Tom Thornton
Brooke Shields as Charlotte Thornton
Devon Weigel as Viola Thatcher
Marcus Rosner as Charles Kensington
Mamie Laverock as Rosaleen Sullivan
Adrian Hough as Reverend Anderson
Lynda Boyd as Grace Thatcher
Will Verchere-Gopaulsingh as Caleb Dunbar
Ali Skovbye as Becky Hastings
Garwin Sanford as William Thatcher
Laura Bertram as Mary Dunbar
Derek Hamilton as Dewitt Graves
Niall Matter as Shane Cantrell (season 4)
Spencer Drever as Cyrus Rivera (season 4)
Josie Bissett as AJ Foster
Characters[edit]
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Elizabeth Thatcher Thornton is an independent, strong-minded, passionate and dedicated young teacher from the city. The middle daughter of William and Grace Thatcher, Elizabeth has two sisters, older sister Viola and younger sister Julie. Elizabeth finds herself in Coal Valley, a small community on the Canadian frontier in need of a teacher, and quickly discovers it is not an easy place to live, lacking the creature comforts and luxuries of her privileged life with her family. She soon meets the newly appointed and charismatic Mountie Jack Thornton and develops an immediate dislike for him. However, over time they become good friends, and develop an obvious attraction to one another. In the final episode of season 1, "Prelude to a Kiss," (also titled as "Final Adieu"), after overcoming many obstacles throughout the season, Jack tells Elizabeth, "You're the one, you're the only one" and they share a kiss. Throughout season 2, Elizabeth's feelings for Jack are high at times as well as low. Finally, in the season 2 finale, she admits that his job as a Mountie scares her. After being comforted both admitting that they love each other, Jack and Elizabeth kiss.
Jack Thornton is a laid back country boy. Jack is the son of Mountie Thomas Thornton and his wife Charlotte Thornton. Jack has a younger brother, Tom (named after his father). As a Mountie and a man of stout character and integrity, he often finds himself protecting and saving people. In season 1's "A Telling Silence," Jack finds a basset hound whom he names Rip (after Rip Van Winkle) and takes home with him. A source of comfort and companion in the small town, Jack often goes to Rip when times in his life are difficult. In season 2's "With All My Heart," Rip, who's afraid of thunder, hides in the mine shafts during a storm. Jack and Elizabeth search for him; in their search, their relationship grows stronger. Upon his first meeting of Elizabeth, he developed an instant dislike and it appeared she irritated him. However, he grew to like and then fall madly and completely in love with her over time. In "Rules of Engagement" (S.1), it is revealed that Jack was briefly engaged to Rosemary LeVeaux when she comes looking for him. However, they have both changed and realize that they cannot have a relationship as they once did ever again. In "Prelude to a Kiss" (S.1), Jack found out that Elizabeth may be leaving Coal Valley. Taking her on a walk and giving her a framed picture of them that he had sketched, he asks her not to leave Coal Valley and tells her, "You're the one, you're the only one." She replied that she was "not going anywhere", Coal Valley was where she belonged before they share a kiss. In season 2, Elizabeth and Jack share a hot-and-cold relationship until the finale, "With All My Heart." They both admit that they love each other and share another kiss. Jack's brother, Tom, is introduced season 2's "Trials of the Heart," and their rocky relationship continues until "Coming Together, Coming Apart." Jack gently reminds his younger brother how their father was so proud of him, but he wouldn't be proud of the way he was currently living. Both in tears, Jack tells his younger brother that he believes in him and that he can turn his life around. More recently, Jack has become good friends with the sawmill operator, Lee Coulter. In season 3, Jack begins the new year knowing that Elizabeth only has eyes for him and that her relationship with Charles is over for good. In "Hearts In Question," Jack's mother Charlotte shows up unexpectedly. She meets Elizabeth and is suspicious of her, but through staying her sees Elizabeth for who she really is: a trustworthy, dedicated teacher. In the season finale, "Prayers From The Heart," Jack is injured in a flood. But he miraculously recovers in time to serve as Lee's best man at his wedding.
Abigail Stanton is a Coal Valley woman who tragically lost her husband and son in the mining accident. Abigail is a very kind woman, and she stands strongly for the things she believes in. She is one of the first women to welcome Elizabeth and the two women quickly become friends. When Elizabeth accidentally burns down the little teacherage, Abigail gladly welcomes her into her home to live. After being complimented on her cooking, Abigail decides to open a cafe in Coal Valley. Together, Abigail and Elizabeth move into the rooms above the cafe. At the end of season 1, Abigail enjoys the company of Bill Avery, a Mountie, serving as a Forensic Investigator and friend of Jack Thornton's. In season 2, Abigail takes in her daughter-in-law, Clara, the wife of her late son Peter whom Abigail sees as the daughter she never had. With Bill's past being revealed, Abigail ends their friendship and spends more time with the new pastor, Frank Hogan. Also, she is a strong independent woman that is set on doing the things that are right and tries to help Elizabeth.
Bill Avery is a mysterious, quiet man. He first appears in season 1's "Rules of Engagement," in order to help Jack expose Mr. Gowen's wrongdoings. Bill is immediately attracted to widow Abigail Stanton. Things are going well until Abigail discovers a picture of Bill's family and his wedding ring. He later tells her that his son died, as well as his wife. However, his wife, Nora, comes to confront him in season 2's "Heart's Desire."
Henry Gowen is a cold, cynical man who formerly owned the coal mine. After the mine was shut down, Henry became the mayor of Hope Valley and still creates a cold, cynical presence whenever people are around him. Henry is highly disliked and feared in the town. He frequently uses bribery to get what he wants, which is never for the good of the town.
Rosemary "Rosie" LeVeaux Coulter is a flamboyant, enthusiastic actress from New York. She was briefly engaged to Jack Thornton, but they both realized that it wouldn't work out. Rosie immediately disliked Elizabeth and viewed her as "the competition," but eventually came to really care about Elizabeth, even if she has a hard time showing it. At the beginning of season 2, Rosemary began working at the cafe with Abigail and the two quickly became friends. Spending time with Abigail helped tone down some of Rosemary's enthusiasm and made her a more likable person. Rosemary even came to like Elizabeth, even if only on an acquaintance level. Truthfully, she cares about everyone in Hope Valley, especially Lee, with whom she shares an mutual attraction. When Rosie is not spending time with Lee, talking to Abigail, or dreaming about the glamorous life of an actress, she can often be found somewhere writing her weekly advice column for Hope Valley's newspaper! In season 3, Rosemary's friendship with Elizabeth deepened. Instead of viewing her as an adversary, she finds a friend in Elizabeth. Throughout season 3, Rosemary's relationship with Lee becomes more romantic. In "Heart Of A Hero," seeing that Lee needs to spend more time at the sawmill to help the new settlers find jobs, Rosemary tells Lee that the theatre doesn't have to be built. He insists, but she says how important his job is. He smiles and tells her he will one day build her theatre, telling her that she is "the best part of his life." The couple shares in their first kiss. In "A Gentle Heart," Lee is injured. Thinking he is asleep, Rosemary pours out her heart to him, telling how much she loves him. In "Heartbreak," Rosemary is offered a job in Hollywood filming. This has always been Rosemary's dream, to be an actress. Lee unselfishly tells her to do whatever she feels best, but it is obvious that the thought of her leaving Hope Valley hurts him. Rosemary considers her options and realizes that her place is in Hope Valley, with Lee. Lee then tells her that he has another "role" that he thinks would be perfect for her and proposes marriage. She happily accepts. In "Hearts In Question," Rosemary enthusiastically plans for their wedding. The couple weds in the season 3 finale "Prayers From The Heart," with Elizabeth and Abigail as her maids of honor.
Leland "Lee" Coulter is a kind, laidback, patient man who opens a sawmill in Hope Valley. When timber becomes Coal Valley's major source of natural resources, the town is renamed Hope Valley. He shares a mutual attraction to Rosemary and proves to be one of the few people who can outwit her. When she declines his romantic intentions, Lee recruits his friend, Molly Sullivan, to make Rosemary jealous; the ploy succeeds and Rosemary accepts his suit, appreciating Lee's good qualities. Despite her dramatic and occasionally prickly personality, Lee's compassion and patience never fails with her. With Rosemary's help, Lee beat Mr. Gowen at his own game in "Heart and Home." When not at work, Lee enjoys being with friends, including Jack Thornton, who shares Lee's simple and laidback outlook, allowing the men to discuss their lives and exchange romantic advice. In season 3, Lee's mill is unfortunately sabotaged by a man inside. Through Bill and Jack's investigation, they find the culprit. In season 3's "Heart Of A Hero," Rosemary unselfishly gives up the theatre that Lee promised to build her. Lee promises that one day, he will build her the theatre at a time when he isn't so involved with the sawmill and finding people jobs. In "A Gentle Heart," Lee is injured. Thinking Lee is asleep, Rosemary pours out her heart to Lee, telling him how afraid she was when she heard he had been injured. He however hears each and every word. She told him how much she loves him and to never leave her. In the episode "Heartbreak," Lee thinks Rosemary may leave Hope Valley when she is offered a movie job in Hollywood. When she gives up the movie, seeing her future in Hope Valley with him, he asks her to marry him. The couple weds in the season 3 finale, "Prayers From The Heart." Jack serves the role of Lee's best man.
Julie Thatcher is Elizabeth's hopeless romantic younger sister. She often gets herself into sticky situations by falling head over heels for men who aren't quite what they seem. In season 2 she gets involved with Jack's brother Tom, which causes trouble with her family and for Jack and Elizabeth's relationship.
Cat Montgomery is a kind, encouraging woman in Coal Valley. She is a widow and mother of three: Gabe, Miles, and Emily. Cat was one of the first mothers to show kindness to Elizabeth when she first came. She desperately wants her children to remember the good memories of their father as seen by her self-sacrificing acts in "Secrets and Lies." Possessing a great sense of teamwork and encouragement, Cat supports the women of Coal Valley while working in the mines in "Cease and Desist." She is good friends with Elizabeth and Abigail. In "These Games," she also helps Jack catch a thief.
Florence Blakeley is a feisty gossip in Hope Valley. She often has a pessimistic perspective and always seems to find the negative, even in a very positive situation. In "Heart and Home," Abigail told Florence what she really thought about her, which causes Florence to rein in her negativity somewhat, though she remains fairly outspoken. While not always likable, Florence adds spice to life in Hope Valley.
Molly Sullivan is a friend of Lee Coulter and Elizabeth Thatcher. Molly's husband was killed in the mine disaster. She has a daughter Rosaleen. In season 1's "A Telling Silence," Rosaleen has trouble in school because she misses her father so much. When she runs away, Elizabeth finds her in the mine, feeling guilty that she didn't bring her father his lunch the day of the disaster because she wanted to play with a friend instead. She fears her mother will blame her, but Elizabeth convinces her that Molly will "say that she loves her more than life itself." Molly is reunited with her daughter, to the joy of the town's people. In season 2's "With All My Heart," Lee feels it's time to "play hard to get" with Rosemary, so he enlists help from Molly. She pretends to be interested in him romantically. This ploy works and Rosemary admits that she does in fact like him. Molly is a kind woman and was among the first to welcome Elizabeth to town.
Clara Stanton is the wife of Abigail's late son Peter, and is a sweet, quiet, and sensitive young woman. Abigail never knew she had a daughter-in-law until season 2's "Trials of the Heart;" with Peter having married Clara only three days before he was killed. In "Heart's Desire," Abigail invites Clara to come live with her in Hope Valley, an offer that Clara accepts.
Charles Kensington III is an old friend of Elizabeth with whom she reconnects while in Hamilton. He is interested in her, though her feelings for Jack get in the way of their relationship.
Production[edit]
The series, originally planned to be filmed in Colorado, is filmed south of Vancouver, British Columbia, on a farm surrounded by vineyards. The fictional frontier town of Coal Valley was erected in late 2013. Some of the set trimmings and a stage coach came from the Hell on Wheels set.[10] The Thatcher home is the University Women's Club of Vancouver.[11]
The series was renewed for a second season,[12] which aired from April 25 to June 13, 2015. Hallmark Channel announced in July 2015 that the series had been renewed for a third season, which aired from February 21 to April 10, 2016,[13] with a sneak peek airing during the 2015 Christmas season.[14]
In mid-2016, it was announced that Season 4 would premiere on the Hallmark Channel Christmas Day with a two-hour special. On April 11, 2016, Lissing and Krakow announced via the series' Facebook page that Hallmark Channel had renewed the series for a fourth season, which aired from February 19 to April 23, 2017.[15][16]
Filming for season five began in Vancouver on August 22, 2017, and ended on December 21, 2017.[17][18]
Broadcast[edit]
The first season of the series was subsequently picked up by CBC Television for rebroadcast as a summer series in 2015.[19] The network has since aired all five seasons.[20][21] The series became available internationally on Netflix in August 2017.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Reiher, Andrea (January 11, 2014). "'When Calls the Heart' premiere: Will you return to the frontier?". Zap2It. From Inside the Box (blog). Retrieved January 13, 2014.
Jump up ^ "'When Calls the Heart' features Aussie Mountie". Canadian Press, April 10, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Hallmark Channel - The Movie Cast". Hallmarkchannel.com. Retrieved 2014-02-28.
Jump up ^ ""When Calls the Heart," Hallmark Channel's Newest Original Primetime Series Kicks Off with a 2-Hour Special Extended Pilot on October 5" (Press release). Hallmark Channel. 24 July 2013. Retrieved 2016-01-11 – via The Futon Critic.
Jump up ^ The Deadline Team (June 12, 2013). "Hallmark Channel's 'When Calls The Heart' Adds Cast; 'Cedar Cove' July Premiere Set". Deadline.com. Retrieved 2014-01-13.
Jump up ^ "Special Announcement - When Calls the Heart". April 24, 2017. Retrieved April 24, 2017.
Jump up ^ Petski, Denise (July 31, 2017). "'When Calls The Heart' Gets Season 5 Premiere Date On Hallmark Channel". Deadline.com. Retrieved August 2, 2017.
Jump up ^ Petski, Denise (March 21, 2018). "Hallmark Channel Upfront Presentation Canceled Due To Storm, Net Makes Announcements, Including 'When Calls the Heart' Renewal, At Central Park Event". Deadline.com. Retrieved March 21, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Hallmark Channel - About the Series". Hallmarkchannel.com. Retrieved 2014-02-28.
Jump up ^ Brioux, Bill (December 6, 2013). "'When Calls The Heart' TV Series Set In Fictional Town Built In B.C." The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on December 7, 2013. Retrieved February 11, 2014.
Jump up ^ Owen, Rob (May 1, 2015). "TV Q&A: 'Grey's Anatomy,' 'Younger,' 'Bones' and a former Pittsburgh news anchor". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved May 1, 2015.
Jump up ^ Kondolojy, Amanda (May 5, 2014). "When Calls the Heart' Renewed for Second Season by Hallmark Channel". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved May 5, 2014.
Jump up ^ Petski, Denise (July 28, 2015). "'When Calls The Heart' Renewed For Season 3 On Hallmark Channel". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved December 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ "When Calls the Heart videos". Hallmark Channel.
Jump up ^ McLennan, Cindy (April 11, 2016). "When Calls the Heart: Season Four Renewal for Hallmark Channel Series". TV Series Finale. Retrieved April 12, 2016.
Jump up ^ Petski, Denise (April 15, 2016). "'When Calls The Heart' Renewed For Season 4 By Hallmark Channel". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved April 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ Takeuchi, Craig (August 21, 2017). "Filming in Vancouver: Johnny Depp, When Calls the Heart, and Eggplant Emoji". Inside Vancouver. Retrieved September 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Krakow, Erin [@erinkrakow] (December 21, 2017). "That's a Season 5 WRAP for Elizabeth! It flew! Missing my Hope Valley friends already!" (Tweet). Retrieved December 25, 2017 – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ "CBC-TV stacks fall and winter lineups with British, Aussie fare". 680 News, May 28, 2015.
Jump up ^ "CBC Television reveals its 2016 summer schedule with five new primetime series, returning hits and the Rio 2016 Olympic Games". CBC Television. May 18, 2016. Retrieved August 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ "CBC Announces 2017-18 Programming Slate". CBC Television. May 24, 2017. Retrieved August 3, 2017.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: When Calls the Heart
Official website
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The fluctuation of blood sugar (red) and the sugar-lowering hormone insulin (blue) in humans during the course of a day with three meals. One of the effects of a sugar-rich vs a starch-rich meal is highlighted.[1]
The blood sugar level, blood sugar concentration, or blood glucose level is the amount of glucose present in the blood of humans and other animals. Glucose is a simple sugar and approximately 4 grams of glucose are present in the blood of humans at all times.[2] The body tightly regulates blood glucose levels as a part of metabolic homeostasis.[2] Glucose is stored in skeletal muscle and liver cells in the form of glycogen;[2] in fasted individuals, blood glucose is maintained at a constant level at the expense of glycogen stores in the liver and skeletal muscle.[2]
In humans, glucose is the primary source of energy and is critical for normal function in a number of tissues,[2] particularly the human brain which consumes approximately 60% of blood glucose in fasted, sedentary individuals.[2] Glucose can be transported from the intestines or liver to other tissues in the body via the bloodstream;[2] its uptake by cells is regulated in part by the hormone insulin, which is produced by the pancreas.[2]
Glucose levels are usually lowest in the morning, before the first meal of the day, and rise after meals for an hour or two by a few millimoles. Blood sugar levels outside the normal range may be an indicator of a medical condition. A persistently high level is referred to as hyperglycemia; low levels are referred to as hypoglycemia. Diabetes mellitus is characterized by persistent hyperglycemia from any of several causes, and is the most prominent disease related to failure of blood sugar regulation. There are different methods of testing and measuring blood sugar levels.
The intake of alcohol causes an initial surge in blood sugar, and later tends to cause levels to fall. Also, certain drugs can increase or decrease glucose levels.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Units
2 Normal values in humans
3 Animals
4 Regulation
5 Abnormality in blood sugar levels
5.1 High blood sugar
5.2 Low blood sugar
6 Glucose measurement
6.1 Sample source
6.2 Sample type
6.3 Measurement techniques
6.4 Clinical correlation
7 Etymology and use of term
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Units[edit]
The international standard way of measuring blood glucose levels is in terms of a molar concentration, measured in mmol/L (millimoles per litre; or millimolar, abbreviated mM). In the United States, West-Germany and other countries mass concentration is measured in mg/dL (milligrams per decilitre).[4]
Since the molecular weight of glucose C6H12O6 is 180, the difference between the two units is a factor of 18, so that 1 mmol/L of glucose is equivalent to 18 mg/dL.[5]
Normal values in humans[edit]
Normal value ranges may vary slightly among different laboratories. Many factors affect a person's blood sugar level. The body's homeostatic mechanism of blood sugar regulation (known as glucose homeostasis), when operating normally, restores the blood sugar level to a narrow range of about 4.4 to 6.1 mmol/L (79.2 to 110 mg/dL) (as measured by a fasting blood glucose test).[6]
The normal blood glucose level (tested while fasting) for non-diabetics, should be between 3.9 and 5.5 mmol/L (70 to 100 mg/dL). The mean normal blood glucose level in humans is about 5.5 mmol/L (100 mg/dL);[5] however, this level fluctuates throughout the day. Blood sugar levels for those without diabetes and who are not fasting should be below 6.9 mmol/L (125 mg/dL).[7] The blood glucose target range for diabetics, according to the American Diabetes Association, should be 5.0–7.2 mmol/l (90–130 mg/dL) before meals, and less than 10 mmol/L (180 mg/dL) after meals (as measured by a blood glucose monitor).[8]
Despite widely variable intervals between meals or the occasional consumption of meals with a substantial carbohydrate load, human blood glucose levels tend to remain within the normal range. However, shortly after eating, the blood glucose level may rise, in non-diabetics, temporarily up to 7.8 mmol/L (140 mg/dL) or slightly more. For people with diabetes maintaining 'tight diabetes control', the American Diabetes Association recommends a post-meal glucose level of less than 10 mmol/L (180 mg/dL) and a fasting plasma glucose of 3.9 to 7.2 mmol/L (70–130 mg/dL).[9]
The actual amount of glucose in the blood and body fluids is very small. In a healthy adult male of 75 kg with a blood volume of 5 liters, a blood glucose level of 5.5 mmol/L (100 mg/dL) amounts to 5g, equivalent to about a teaspoonful of sugar.[10] Part of the reason why this amount is so small is that, to maintain an influx of glucose into cells, enzymes modify glucose by adding phosphate or other groups to it.
Animals[edit]
In general, ranges of blood sugar in common domestic ruminants are lower than in many monogastric mammals.[11] However this generalization does not extend to wild ruminants or camelids. For serum glucose in mg/dL, reference ranges of 42 to 75 for cows, 44 to 81 for sheep, and 48 to 76 for goats, but 61 to 124 for cats; 62 to 108 for dogs, 62 to 114 for horses, 66 to 116 for pigs, 75 to 155 for rabbits, and 90 to 140 for llamas have been reported.[12] A 90 percent reference interval for serum glucose of 26 to 181 mg/dL has been reported for captured mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus), where no effects of the pursuit and capture on measured levels were evident.[13] For beluga whales, the 25–75 percent range for serum glucose has been estimated to be 94 to 115 mg/dL.[14] For the white rhinoceros, one study has indicated that the 95 percent range is 28 to 140 mg/dL.[15] For harp seals, a serum glucose range of 4.9 to 12.1 mmol/L [i.e. 88 to 218 mg/dL] has been reported; for hooded seals, a range of 7.5 to 15.7 mmol/L [i.e. about 135 to 283 mg/dL] has been reported.[16]
Regulation[edit]
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Main article: Blood sugar regulation
The body's homeostatic mechanism keeps blood glucose levels within a narrow range. It is composed of several interacting systems, of which hormone regulation is the most important.
There are two types of mutually antagonistic metabolic hormones affecting blood glucose levels:
catabolic hormones (such as glucagon, cortisol and catecholamines) which increase blood glucose;[17]
and one anabolic hormone (insulin), which decreases blood glucose.
These hormones are secreted from pancreatic islets which are bundles of endocrine tissues. There are four types of pancreatic islets, alpha (A) cells, beta (B) cells, Delta (D) cells and F cells. Glucagon is secreted from alpha cells, while insulin is secreted by beta cells. Together they regulate the blood-glucose levels through negative feedback, a process where the end product of one reaction stimulates the beginning of another reaction. In blood-glucose levels, insulin lowers the concentration of glucose in the blood. The lower blood-glucose level (a product of the insulin secretion) triggers glucagon to be secreted, and repeats the cycle. [18]
In order for blood glucose to be kept stable, modifications to insulin, glucagon, epinephrine and cortisol are made. Each of these hormones have a different responsibility to keep blood glucose regulated; when blood sugar is too high, insulin tells muscles to take up excess glucose for storage. Glucagon responds to too low of blood glucose level, it informs the tissue to produce more glucose. Epinephrine prepares the muscles and respiratory system for activity in the case of a "fight and flight" response. Lastly, cortisol supplies the body with fuel in times of heavy stress.[19]
Abnormality in blood sugar levels[edit]
High blood sugar[edit]
Main article: hyperglycemia
If blood sugar levels remain too high the body suppresses appetite over the short term. Long-term hyperglycemia causes many of the long-term health problems including heart disease, eye, kidney, and nerve damage.
The most common cause of hyperglycemia is diabetes. When diabetes is the cause, physicians typically recommend an anti-diabetic medication as treatment. From the perspective the majority of patients, treatment with an old, well-understood diabetes drug such as metformin will be the safest, most effective, least expensive, most comfortable route to managing the condition.[20] Diet changes and exercise implementation may also be part of a treatment plan for diabetes.
Fasting blood glucose levels may be higher than the post meal blood glucose in many of the healthy subjects. Such individuals may be said to have physiological insulin resistance and may develop diabetes mellitus as long term complication. In clinical and laboratory practices, many of the time a healthy normal subject will present a fasting blood glucose value higher than the post meal blood glucose value. This creates confusion since there is a common perception that in blood, postprandial (PP) glucose level should be higher than fasting (F) glucose level. The repeated investigation subsequently yields somewhat similar type of result.[21]
Low blood sugar[edit]
Main article: hypoglycemia
If blood sugar levels drop too low, a potentially fatal condition called hypoglycemia develops. Symptoms may include lethargy, impaired mental functioning; irritability; shaking, twitching, weakness in arm and leg muscles; pale complexion; sweating; loss of consciousness.
Mechanisms that restore satisfactory blood glucose levels after extreme hypoglycemia (below 40 mg/dl) must be quick and effective to prevent extremely serious consequences of insufficient glucose: confusion or unsteadiness and, in the extreme (below 15 mg/dl) loss of consciousness and seizures. Without discounting the potentially quite serious conditions and risks due to or oftentimes accompanying hyperglycemia, especially in the long-term (diabetes or pre-diabetes, obesity or overweight, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, etc.), it is still generally more dangerous to have too little glucose- especially if levels are very low- in the blood than too much, at least temporarily, because glucose is so important for metabolism and nutrition and the proper functioning of the body's organs. This is especially the case for those organs that are metabolically active or that require a constant, regulated supply of blood sugar (the liver and brain are examples). In healthy individuals, blood glucose-regulating mechanisms are generally quite effective, and symptomatic hypoglycemia is generally found only in diabetics using insulin or other pharmacological treatment, and in starvation or severe malnutrition or malabsorption (of various causes), and conditions such as anorexia[dubious – discuss]. Hypoglycemic episodes can vary greatly between persons and from time to time, both in severity and swiftness of onset. For severe cases, prompt medical assistance is essential, as damage to brain and other tissues and even death will result from sufficiently low blood-glucose levels.
Glucose measurement[edit]
Further information: Blood glucose monitoring and Glucose meter
Sample source[edit]
Glucose testing in a fasting individual, show comparable levels of glucose in arterial, venous, and capillary blood. But following meals, capillary and arterial blood glucose levels can be significantly higher than venous levels. This is because tissue cells consume some of the glucose in the blood as it passes from arteries through the capillary bed and into the veins.[22] Although these differences vary widely, one study found that following the consumption of 50 grams of glucose, "the mean capillary blood glucose concentration is higher than the mean venous blood glucose concentration by 35%."[22][23][24]
Sample type[edit]
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Glucose is measured in whole blood, plasma or serum. Historically, blood glucose values were given in terms of whole blood, but most laboratories now measure and report plasma or serum glucose levels. Because red blood cells (erythrocytes) have a higher concentration of protein (e.g., hemoglobin) than serum, serum has a higher water content and consequently more dissolved glucose than does whole blood. To convert from whole-blood glucose, multiplication by 1.14[25] has been shown to generally give the serum/plasma level.
Collection of blood in clot tubes for serum chemistry analysis permits the metabolism of glucose in the sample by blood cells until separated by centrifugation.[26] Red blood cells, for instance, do not require insulin to intake glucose from the blood. Higher than normal amounts of white or red blood cell counts can lead to excessive glycolysis in the sample, with substantial reduction of glucose level if the sample is not processed quickly. Ambient temperature at which the blood sample is kept prior to centrifuging and separation of plasma/serum also affects glucose levels. At refrigerator temperatures, glucose remains relatively stable for several hours in a blood sample. Loss of glucose can be prevented by using Fluoride tubes (i.e., gray-top) since fluoride inhibits glycolysis. However, these should only be used when blood will be transported from one hospital laboratory to another for glucose measurement. Red-top serum separator tubes also preserve glucose in samples after being centrifuged isolating the serum from cells.
To prevent contamination of the sample with intravenous fluids, particular care should be given to drawing blood samples from the arm opposite the one in which an intravenous line is inserted. Alternatively, blood can be drawn from the same arm with an IV line after the IV has been turned off for at least 5 minutes, and the arm has been elevated to drain infused fluids away from the vein. Inattention can lead to large errors, since as little as 10% contamination with a 5% glucose solution (D5W) will elevate glucose in a sample by 500 mg/dL or more. Remember that the actual concentration of glucose in blood is very low, even in the hyperglycemic.
Measurement techniques[edit]
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Two major methods have been used to measure glucose. The first, still in use in some places, is a chemical method exploiting the nonspecific reducing property of glucose in a reaction with an indicator substance that changes color when reduced. Since other blood compounds also have reducing properties (e.g., urea, which can be abnormally high in uremic patients), this technique can produce erroneous readings in some situations (5–15 mg/dL has been reported). The more recent technique, using enzymes specific to glucose, is less susceptible to this kind of error. The two most common employed enzymes are glucose oxidase and hexokinase.[27] Average blood glucose concentrations can also be measured. This method measures the level of glycated hemoglobin, which is representative of the average blood glucose levels over the last, approximately, 120 days.[27]
In either case, the chemical system is commonly contained on a test strip which is inserted into a meter, and then has a blood sample applied. Test-strip shapes and their exact chemical composition vary between meter systems and cannot be interchanged. Formerly, some test strips were read (after timing and wiping away the blood sample) by visual comparison against a color chart printed on the vial label. Strips of this type are still used for urine glucose readings, but for blood glucose levels they are obsolete. Their error rates were, in any case, much higher. Errors when using test strips were often caused by the age of the strip or exposure to high temperatures or humidity.[28] More precise blood glucose measurements are performed in a medical laboratory, using hexokinase, glucose oxidase, or glucose dehydrogenase enzymes.
Urine glucose readings, however taken, are much less useful. In properly functioning kidneys, glucose does not appear in urine until the renal threshold for glucose has been exceeded. This is substantially above any normal glucose level, and is evidence of an existing severe hyperglycemic condition. However, as urine is stored in the bladder, any glucose in it might have been produced at any time since the last time the bladder was emptied. Since metabolic conditions change rapidly, as a result of any of several factors, this is delayed news and gives no warning of a developing condition. Blood glucose monitoring is far preferable, both clinically and for home monitoring by patients. Healthy urine glucose levels were first standardized and published in 1965[29] by Hans Renschler.
I. CHEMICAL METHODS
A. Oxidation-reduction reaction
G l u c o s e + A l k a l i n e c o p p e r t a r t a r a t e → R e d u c t i o n C u p r o u s o x i d e {\displaystyle \mathrm {Glucose} +\mathrm {Alkaline\ copper\ tartarate} {\xrightarrow {\mathrm {Reduction} }}\mathrm {Cuprous\ oxide} }
1. Alkaline copper reduction
Folin-Wu method
C u + + + P h o s p h o m o l y b d i c a c i d → O x i d a t i o n P h o s p h o m o l y b d e n u m o x i d e {\displaystyle \mathrm {Cu} ^{++}+\mathrm {Phosphomolybdic\ acid} {\xrightarrow {\mathrm {Oxidation} }}\mathrm {Phosphomolybdenum\ oxide} } Blue end-product
Benedict's method
Modification of Folin–Wu method for qualitative urine glucose
Nelson–Somogyi method
C u + + + A r s e n o m o l y b d i c a c i d → O x i d a t i o n A r s e n o m o l y b d e n u m o x i d e {\displaystyle \mathrm {Cu} ^{++}+\mathrm {Arsenomolybdic\ acid} {\xrightarrow {\mathrm {Oxidation} }}\mathrm {Arsenomolybdenum\ oxide} } Blue end-product
Neocuproine method
C u + + + N e o c u p r o i n e → O x i d a t i o n C u + + n e o c u p r o i n e c o m p l e x {\displaystyle \mathrm {Cu} ^{++}+\mathrm {Neocuproine} {\xrightarrow {\mathrm {Oxidation} }}\mathrm {Cu} ^{++}\mathrm {neocuproine\ complex} } * Yellow-orange color neocuproine[30]
Shaeffer–Hartmann–Somogyi
Uses the principle of iodine reaction with cuprous byproduct.
Excess I2 is then titrated with thiosulfate.
2. Alkaline Ferricyanide Reduction
Hagedorn–Jensen
G l u c o s e + A l k a l i n e f e r r i c y a n i d e ⟶ F e r r o c y a n i d e {\displaystyle \mathrm {Glucose} +\mathrm {Alkaline\ ferricyanide} \longrightarrow \mathrm {Ferrocyanide} } Colorless end product; other reducing substances interfere with reaction
B. Condensation
Ortho-toluidine method
Uses aromatic amines and hot acetic acid
Forms Glycosylamine and Schiff's base which is emerald green in color
This is the most specific method, but the reagent used is toxic
Anthrone (phenols) method
Forms hydroxymethyl furfural in hot acetic acid
II. ENZYMATIC METHODS
A. Glucose oxidase
G l u c o s e + O 2 → O x i d a t i o n g l u c o s e o x i d a s e D-glucono-1,5-lactone + H 2 O 2 {\displaystyle \mathrm {Glucose} +\mathrm {O} _{2}{\xrightarrow[{\mathrm {Oxidation} }]{\mathrm {glucose\ oxidase} }}{\textrm {D-glucono-1,5-lactone}}+\mathrm {H_{2}O_{2}} }
Saifer–Gerstenfeld method
H 2 O 2 + O -dianisidine → O x i d a t i o n p e r o x i d a s e H 2 O + o x i d i z e d c h r o m o g e n {\displaystyle \mathrm {H_{2}O_{2}} +{\textit {O}}{\text{-dianisidine}}{\xrightarrow[{\mathrm {Oxidation} }]{\mathrm {peroxidase} }}\mathrm {H_{2}O} +\mathrm {oxidized\ chromogen} } Inhibited by reducing substances like BUA, bilirubin, glutathione, ascorbic acid
Trinder method
uses 4-aminophenazone oxidatively coupled with phenol
Subject to less interference by increases serum levels of creatinine, uric acid or hemoglobin
Inhibited by catalase
Kodak Ektachem
A dry chemistry method
Uses spectrophotometry to measure the intensity of color through a lower transparent film
Glucometer
Home monitoring blood glucose assay method
Uses a strip impregnated with a glucose oxidase reagent
B. Hexokinase
G l u c o s e + A T P → P h o s p h o r y l a t i o n H e x o k i n a s e + M g + + G-6PO 4 + A D P G-6PO 4 + N A D P → O x i d a t i o n G-6PD 6-Phosphogluconate + N A D P H + H + {\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{2}&\mathrm {Glucose} +\mathrm {ATP} {\xrightarrow[{\mathrm {Phosphorylation} }]{\mathrm {Hexokinase} +\mathrm {Mg} ^{++}}}{\textrm {G-6PO}}_{4}+\mathrm {ADP} \\&{\textrm {G-6PO}}_{4}+\mathrm {NADP} {\xrightarrow[{\mathrm {Oxidation} }]{\textrm {G-6PD}}}{\textrm {6-Phosphogluconate}}+\mathrm {NADPH} +\mathrm {H} ^{+}\\\end{alignedat}}}
NADP as cofactor
NADPH (reduced product) is measured in 340 nm
More specific than glucose oxidase method due to G-6PO4, which inhibits interfering substances except when sample is hemolyzed
Clinical correlation[edit]
The fasting blood glucose level, which is measured after a fast of 8 hours, is the most commonly used indication of overall glucose homeostasis, largely because disturbing events such as food intake are avoided. Conditions affecting glucose levels are shown in the table below. Abnormalities in these test results are due to problems in the multiple control mechanism of glucose regulation.
The metabolic response to a carbohydrate challenge is conveniently assessed by a postprandial glucose level drawn 2 hours after a meal or a glucose load. In addition, the glucose tolerance test, consisting of several timed measurements after a standardized amount of oral glucose intake, is used to aid in the diagnosis of diabetes.
Error rates for blood glucose measurements systems vary, depending on laboratories, and on the methods used. Colorimetry techniques can be biased by color changes in test strips (from airborne or finger borne contamination, perhaps) or interference (e.g., tinting contaminants) with light source or the light sensor. Electrical techniques are less susceptible to these errors, though not to others. In home use, the most important issue is not accuracy, but trend. Thus if a meter / test strip system is consistently wrong by 10%, there will be little consequence, as long as changes (e.g., due to exercise or medication adjustments) are properly tracked. In the US, home use blood test meters must be approved by the federal Food and Drug Administration before they can be sold.
Finally, there are several influences on blood glucose level aside from food intake. Infection, for instance, tends to change blood glucose levels, as does stress either physical or psychological. Exercise, especially if prolonged or long after the most recent meal, will have an effect as well. In the typical person, maintenance of blood glucose at near constant levels will nevertheless be quite effective. [clarification needed]
Causes of abnormal glucose levels
Persistent hyperglycemia
Transient hyperglycemia
Persistent hypoglycemia
Transient hypoglycemia
Reference range, FBG: 70–110 mg/dL
Diabetes mellitus Pheochromocytoma Insulinoma Acute alcohol ingestion
Adrenal cortical hyperactivity Cushing's syndrome Severe liver disease Adrenal cortical insufficiency Addison's disease Drugs: salicylates, antituberculosis agents
Hyperthyroidism Acute stress reaction Hypopituitarism Severe liver disease
Acromegaly Shock Galactosemia Several glycogen storage diseases
Obesity Convulsions Ectopic insulin production from tumors Hereditary fructose intolerance
Etymology and use of term[edit]
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In a physiological context, the term is a misnomer because it refers to glucose, yet other sugars besides glucose are always present. Food contains several different types (e.g., fructose (largely from fruits/table sugar/industrial sweeteners), galactose (milk and dairy products), as well as several food additives such as sorbitol, xylose, maltose, etc.). But because these other sugars are largely inert with regard to the metabolic control system (i.e., that controlled by insulin secretion), since glucose is the dominant controlling signal for metabolic regulation, the term has gained currency, and is used by medical staff and lay folk alike. The table above reflects some of the more technical and closely defined terms used in the medical field.
See also[edit]
Saccharide recognition by boronic acids
Blood glucose monitoring
Glucagon
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Daly, Mark E; Vale, C; Walker, M; Littlefield, A; Alberti, KG; Mathers, JC (1998). "Acute effects on insulin sensitivity and diurnal metabolic profiles of a high-sucrose compared with a high starch diet" (PDF). Am J Clin Nutr. American Society for Clinical Nutrition. 67 (6): 1186–1196. PMID 9625092. Retrieved 2011-02-19.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Wasserman DH (January 2009). "Four grams of glucose". American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism. 296 (1): E11–21. PMC 2636990  . PMID 18840763. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.90563.2008. Four grams of glucose circulates in the blood of a person weighing 70 kg. This glucose is critical for normal function in many cell types. In accordance with the importance of these 4 g of glucose, a sophisticated control system is in place to maintain blood glucose constant. Our focus has been on the mechanisms by which the flux of glucose from liver to blood and from blood to skeletal muscle is regulated. ... The brain consumes ∼60% of the blood glucose used in the sedentary, fasted person. ... The amount of glucose in the blood is preserved at the expense of glycogen reservoirs (Fig. 2). In postabsorptive humans, there are ∼100 g of glycogen in the liver and ∼400 g of glycogen in muscle. Carbohydrate oxidation by the working muscle can go up by ∼10-fold with exercise, and yet after 1 h, blood glucose is maintained at ∼4 g. ... It is now well established that both insulin and exercise cause translocation of GLUT4 to the plasma membrane. Except for the fundamental process of GLUT4 translocation, [muscle glucose uptake (MGU)] is controlled differently with exercise and insulin. Contraction-stimulated intracellular signaling (52, 80) and MGU (34, 75, 77, 88, 91, 98) are insulin independent. Moreover, the fate of glucose extracted from the blood is different in response to exercise and insulin (91, 105). For these reasons, barriers to glucose flux from blood to muscle must be defined independently for these two controllers of MGU.
Jump up ^ Rosemary Walker & Jill Rodgers Type 2 Diabetes – Your Questions Answered, Dorling Kindersley, 2006, ISBN 1-74033-550-3.
Jump up ^ Diabetes FAQs – Blood Glucose Measurement Units – Abbott Diabetes Care
^ Jump up to: a b What are mg/dl and mmol/l? How to convert? Glucose? Cholesterol? Advameg, Inc.
Jump up ^ "Screening for Type 2 Diabetes". Clinical Diabetes. 18 (2). 2000.
Jump up ^ Glucose test – blood. NIH – National Institutes of Health.
Jump up ^ Davidson, Nancy Klobassa and Moreland, Peggy (July 26, 2011) Living with diabetes blog. mayoclinic.com.
Jump up ^ American Diabetes Association (2006). "January 2006 Diabetes Care". Diabetes Care. 29 (Supplement 1): 51–580. PMID 16373931. Standards of Medical Care-Table 6 and Table 7, Correlation between A1C level and Mean Plasma Glucose Levels on Multiple Testing over 2–3 months
Jump up ^ USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 22 (2009)
Jump up ^ Eiler, H. (2004). "Endocrine glands". In Reese, W. O. Dukes' Physiology of Domestic Animals (12th ed.). Ithaca, NY: Comstock. pp. 621–669. ISBN 0801442389.
Jump up ^ Kahn, C. M., ed. (2005). Merck Veterinary Manual (9th ed.). Whitehouse Station: Merck & Co. ISBN 0911910506.
Jump up ^ Rice, C. G.; Hall, B. (2007). "Hematologic and biochemical reference intervals for mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus): effects of capture conditions". Northwest Science. 81 (3): 206. doi:10.3955/0029-344X-81.3.206.
Jump up ^ Cornell, LH; Duffield, DS; Joseph, BE; Stark, B (1988). "Hematology and serum chemistry values in the beluga (Delphinapterus leucas)". Journal of wildlife diseases. 24 (2): 220–4. PMID 3373628. doi:10.7589/0090-3558-24.2.220.
Jump up ^ Seal, U. S.; Barton, R.; Mather, L.; Gray, C. W. (1976). "Baseline Laboratory Data for the White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum)" (PDF). The Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine. 7 (1): 11–17. JSTOR 20094341.
Jump up ^ Boily, F; Beaudoin, S; Measures, LN (2006). "Hematology and serum chemistry of harp (Phoca groenlandica) and hooded seals (Cystophora cristata) during the breeding season, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada". Journal of wildlife diseases. 42 (1): 115–32. PMID 16699154. doi:10.7589/0090-3558-42.1.115.
Jump up ^ Lehninger, Albert; Nelson, David; Cox, Michael (2017). Lehininger Principles of Biochemistry. New York: W.H. Freedom. p. 934. ISBN 9781319117689.
Jump up ^ Tortora, Gerard (December 2016). Principles Anatomy and Physiology (15 ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. Chapter 18. ISBN 9781119343738. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Lehninger, Albert; Nelson, David; Cox, Michael (2017). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (7th ed.). New York: W.H.Freeman. p. 930. ISBN 9781319117689.
Jump up ^ Consumer Reports Health Best Buy Drugs. "The Oral Diabetes Drugs: Treating Type 2 Diabetes" (PDF). Best Buy Drugs. Consumer Reports: 2. Retrieved September 18, 2012.
Jump up ^ Warade, Jayesh Prabhakar (2014). "Fasting blood glucose level higher than post-meal in healthy subjects: a study of 738 subjects" (PDF). World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 3 (4). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-04-02.
^ Jump up to: a b Yang, Chiaohsin (2012). "A Comparison between Venous and Finger-Prick Blood Sampling on Values of Blood Glucose" (PDF). International Proceedings of Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering. 39: 236.
Jump up ^ Somogyi, Michael (1948). "Studies of Arteriovenous Differences in Blood Sugar" (PDF). J. Biol. Chem. 174 (1): 189–200. PMID 18914074.
Jump up ^ Roe, Jeffrey. "Glucose Concentration Difference Between Arterial, Capillary, and Venous Blood."
Jump up ^ Cox, David L. Nelson, Michael M. (2013). Lehninger principles of biochemistry (6th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. p. 950. ISBN 9781429234146. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Cox, David L. Nelson, Michael M. (2013). Lehninger principles of biochemistry (6th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. p. 950. ISBN 9781429234146.
^ Jump up to: a b Cox, Michael M.; Lehninger, Albert L.; Nelson, David L. (2017). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. New York: W.H. Freeman. pp. 248–249. ISBN 9781319117689.
Jump up ^ Ginsberg, Barry H. (1 July 2009). "Factors Affecting Blood Glucose Monitoring: Sources of Errors in Measurement". Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology. pp. 903–913. doi:10.1177/193229680900300438. Retrieved 21 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Renschler, HE; Weicker, H; Von Baeyer, H (1965). "The upper limit of glucose concentration in the urine of healthy subjects". Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift. 90 (53): 2349–53. PMID 5851934.
Jump up ^ Neocuproine MSDS. hazard.com
Further reading[edit]
Henry, John Bernard (2001). Clinical diagnosis and Management by Laboratory Methods (20th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders. ISBN 0721688640.
Levine R (1986). "Monosaccharides in Health and Disease". Annu. Rev. Nutr. 6: 211–224. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
Röder PV, Wu B, Liu Y, Han W (2016). "Pancreatic Regulation of Glucose Homeostasis". Exp. Mol. Med. 48 (3, March): e219ff. PMC 4892884  . doi:10.1038/emm.2016.6.
External links[edit]
Glucose at Lab Tests Online
Glucose (blood, serum, plasma): analyte monograph – The Association for Clinical Biochemistry and Laboratory Medicine
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Human homeostasis
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Ross Geller
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in-universe style. Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective. (July 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Ross Geller
Friends character
Portrayed by
David Schwimmer
Duration
1994–2004
First appearance
"The Pilot"
Last appearance
"The Last One"
Created by
David Crane
Marta Kauffman
Profile
Occupation
Paleontologist
College professor
[show]Family
Father
Jack Geller
Mother
Judy Geller
Sisters
Monica Geller
Wife
Carol Willick (1989–94)
Emily Waltham (1998–99)
Rachel Green (1999)
Sons
Ben Geller
Daughters
Emma Geller-Green
Grandmothers
Althea
Uncles
Freddie
Murray
Ed
Aunts
Sylvia
Lillian
Iris
Phyllis
Nephews
Jack Bing (adoptive)
Nieces
Erica Bing (adoptive)
First cousins
Cassie Geller
Charlie
Maureen
Dr. Ross Eustace Geller, Ph.D.[1], is a fictional character from the NBC sitcom Friends, portrayed by David Schwimmer Ross is considered by many to be the most intelligent member of the group and is noted for his goofy, pathetic but lovable demeanor.[2] He is a compulsive liar to avoid arguments or situations with conflict, often leading to an arcing storyline within a show. His relationship with Rachel Green was included in TV Guide's list of the best TV couples of all time, as well as Entertainment Weekly's "30 Best 'Will They/Won't They?' TV Couples".[3] Kevin Bright, one of the executive producers of the show had worked with Schwimmer before, so the writers were already developing Ross’s character in Schwimmer’s voice. And hence, Schwimmer was the first person to be cast on the show.
Contents
[hide]
1 Appearances
2 Relationships
2.1 Rachel Green
2.2 Emily Waltham
3 Reception
4 References
Appearances[edit]
Ross is a paleontologist and has a Ph.D. from Columbia University. He is known to refer to himself as "Dr. Ross Geller." An ongoing theme of his narrative arc is his romantic feelings toward Rachel Green, an infatuation that began in high school. A theme of Friends is their on-again, off-again romantic relationship.
Born on October 18, 1967, and raised on Long Island, Ross is the elder brother of Monica Geller. Ross and Monica are Jewish and see themselves as at least cultural Jews, with Ross taking a more active role in wanting to teach his son, Ben, about the faith. Ross gets divorced and is newly single in the very first episode because his wife, Carol, has realized she's lesbian. Later he dates Rachel but it results in a break-up. Afterward, Ross gets married to Emily which doesn't last long. Also, he marries Rachel in Las Vegas when the two are drunk and then ultimately that too results in a divorce. In the whole series, Ross gets divorced 3 times.
A running theme in Ross's narrative is his competition with his younger sister, manifested through wrestling and paranoia. As children, they took part in a football match for the Geller Cup every Thanksgiving. This ended in its sixth year after Monica "accidentally" broke Ross's nose. The siblings came up with a dance in primary school called "The Routine", which later on allowed them to perform in a New Year's Eve TV broadcast.[4]
When they were kids, Monica used to hate Ross because he always had his way and he was loved more than her as he was their parents’ first child. But eventually as the time passed and they grew up, she started loving him more than she used to and they also grew closer to each other though the competition between them was still visible as seen in The One with the football.
Ross often comes into conflict with his close friend, Phoebe Buffay. His rationality and Phoebe's eccentricity lead to conflict over evolution, gravity, and whether Phoebe's mother was reincarnated as a cat. It is also revealed that Phoebe once mugged Ross (stealing a copy of the comic book Science Boy that Geller had created) when they were teenagers. The two are roommates for a few weeks when a fire forces Phoebe to move into Chandler Bing and Monica's apartment and Phoebe want to give the newly engaged couple some privacy. In a "flashback" episode, they are alone at the bar and start kissing, but the moment quickly passes when Ross keeps bumping his head. Phoebe also helps Ross on numerous occasions, ultimately making him realize that he loves Rachel and they both are meant to be together.
Ross's best friend since college is Chandler. In college, they were in a band called Way/No Way, and Ross blamed Chandler when he was caught smoking marijuana. Chandler becomes Ross's brother-in-law after he marries Monica. Though they are best friends, at times Chandler gets annoyed with Ross’s geeky behaviour.
Ross is friends with Rachel Green, whom he has a crush on since high school. Rachel viewed Ross as ‘Monica’s geeky older brother’ during high school. Despite having a huge crush on her, he never told her and eventually let go of his feelings for her. But he again discovers feelings for her in the first episode of the series. They get close to each other and have on and off relationship. In the final season of the show, Rachel tells him that he means more to her than any other member of their group.
He is also close friends with Joey Tribbiani and helps him with movie and stage auditions. He kisses Joey once in order to help him practice a role as a gay man, only to find out that Joey had already done the audition and didn't get the part. Joey and Ross also briefly try to cut Chandler out of their friend group after he ignores them. Joey and Ross fall asleep together on the couch after watching Die Hard. Toward the end of the series, however, Ross and Joey are seen to become closer friends, often hanging out together after Chandler gets married.
Ross often tries to bring out the best of his friends in difficult situations. For instance, in season 2, he encourages Joey to audition for Another World after being fired from Days of Our Lives, despite Joey's refusal to present himself for a two-line part of a secondary character, in season 7, he buys Phoebe the bike of her dreams but threatens to take it away from her because of her reluctance to learn how to ride it. Also, when he discovers that Joey has a crush on Rachel, he tells him to tell her about it and go for it instead of hiding it, even though he has problems with the idea of Joey and Rachel being together. Above all Ross is a very sweet, loving and adorable guy who is always looking out for everyone's best interests and often the most mature compared to the rest of the gang, despite his ego, outbursts, and paranoia.
He has two children. Ross's son, Ben, was conceived while Ross and Carol were still married and born at the end of Season 1. Ross shares a joint custody of Ben with his ex-wife Carol and her wife Susan.
Ben appeared in a total 16 (17) episodes and was played chronologically: as an infant by Michael Gunderson Season 1 to 2, by brothers Charles Thomas Allen and John Christopher Allen from Season 3 to 5, and by Cole Sprouse from Season 6 to 8.
Ross's daughter with Rachel, Emma Geller-Green, was born at the end of Season 8. Rachel's pregnancy was originally revealed in the season finale of Season 7. The conception of Emma, was predominantly, a result of a one-night stand, which was later revealed in the Season 8 episode, "The One With The Videotape".
At one time, Ross claims to have, "given up a career in basketball," to become a palaeontologist and claims to have had the idea for Jurassic Park and Die Hard stolen from him. He also had major interest in music when he used to play keyboard for hours in the basement of their house in Long Island.
Ross also had a pet in the earlier seasons of the show; a White-headed capuchin monkey named "Marcel".
Relationships[edit]
Over the course of the show, Ross dates a considerable number of women. He married three times and is divorced three times. His proclivity to marry and divorce is a running gag within the series.
Carol Willick. Ross's first wife. The mother of his son Ben. In the very first episode, Carol has just moved out of their apartment after revealing that she is lesbian and leaving Ross for a woman named Susan Bunch, who she later marries. But, the two are on good terms with each other.
Julie. Portrayed by (Lauren Tom), an old graduate school colleague. She first appears in the final scene of the season 1 finale. They start dating in season 2 but break up after Ross discovers Rachel's feelings for him and he decides he wants to be with her instead.
Bonnie. (played by Christine Taylor) A love interest introduced to Ross by Phoebe, Bonnie is formerly a militant bald woman who no longer shaves her head. She enjoyed a sex-filled relationship with Ross, until a conniving Rachel broke them up by first setting Bonnie up to shave her head again, and later by revealing she was interested in reuniting with Ross.
Mona. A love interest portrayed by Bonnie Somerville he met at a wedding who later broke up with him when she found out that his roommate, Rachel Green, was pregnant with Ross's child.
Chloe. Ross's only relationship with Chloe was a one-night stand during the break with his relationship with Rachel Green. This relationship messes his history with Rachel.
Janice. Ross has a brief fling with Janice, Chandler's ex-girlfriend, in season 5. Phoebe said they would have very hairy children. Janice ends up dumping Ross because she thinks he whines too much. Ross, worried about how he would react, tells Chandler, who, to his surprise, laughs.
Elizabeth Stevens. A young, pretty student who Ross teaches during his first year as a professor. They break up due to her immaturity.
Charlie Wheeler. Ross meets Charlie (Aisha Tyler) in "The One With The Soap Opera Party".[5] She is a paleontologist who has recently joined Ross' department. She initially dates Joey before breaking up with him and gravitating toward Ross, after realizing she has more things in common with Ross. She eventually reconciles with her ex-boyfriend, so she and Ross break up.
Emily Waltham. Helen Baxendale is a British girl who appears in the fourth season. Ross takes her out on a date, and ends up marrying her in the end of season 4. They later get divorced because Emily does not trust Ross to refrain from being close with Rachel.
Rachel Green[edit]
Rachel is Ross's most significant relationship during the series. His attraction to her is established early on; Ross met Rachel through his sister Monica, who was Rachel's best friend in high school. He developed an unrequited crush on her, but never followed through on it. After leaving college, Ross married Carol, whom he had met at college, and had seemingly put his feelings for Rachel aside before he met her again in The Pilot.
They have an on-again, off-again dynamic throughout most of the show.
In the Season 1 finale Ross has to go to China for his work. So he asks Chandler to give Rachel a present on her birthday which he had bought for her. While, Chandler does give the present to Rachel during her birthday celebration while Ross is in China, he lets out that Ross loves Rachel prompting Rachel to panic and start thinking about Ross in a romantic way. After Ross arrives back from China, Rachel goes to the airport to receive him on realising that she likes him, but she sees him with Julie and backs off.
In Season 2 episode The One Where Ross Finds Out, Rachel is on a date with a guy when she confesses to Ross over the phone in a drunken state that she had feelings for him but now she was over him. Ross hears it on the phone only the next day at Monica’s apartment with Rachel begging him not to check his messages. Later, in the same episode they share a passionate kiss at the doors of Central Perk. Later he breaks up with Julie but Rachel decides she doesn't want to be with him after finding out that he had made a list, on the insistence of Chandler, comparing the good and bad qualities about her and Julie.
The two begin dating each other only from Episode 15 of Season 2 after in the earlier episode The One with the Prom Video it is revealed that Ross despite being two years senior to Rachel had decided to be her date on her and Monica’s prom, as Rachel's date had not arrived, only to be left disappointed as her date arrives and they both along with Monica and her date take off for the prom. Rachel famously kisses Ross on learning this revelation. However, they break up on their one-year anniversary together. They get together again at the end of Season 3 but again break up at the start of Season 4. Some of the later episodes show them to be still in love with each other.
Ross and Rachel also marry each other after getting heavily drunk in Las Vegas. This marriage ends in a divorce.
In the 8th season, Ross has a daughter with Rachel named Emma Geller-Green, the result of their one night stand prior to Chandler and Monica’s wedding.
In the final episode of the show it is shown that when Rachel is moving to Paris for her job with a new fashion brand, Ross tells her at the airport that he loves her and asks not to leave. But she doesn’t heed to his feelings. Eventually, when the plane is just about to take off she does realize that she loves him too and she ‘gets off the plane’. They profess their love for each other and decide to be together once and for all.
Emily Waltham[edit]
During the fourth season, Ross meets and falls in love with Emily Waltham (Helen Baxendale), a British woman who is set up with Ross by Rachel. Ross spontaneously asks Emily to move in with him. This escalates into a marriage proposal. The two plan a wedding in London, to which Rachel is invited.
During the ceremony, Ross, upon seeing Rachel, has a slip of the tongue and says Rachel's name instead of Emily's during his vows. Emily is furious and exits her own marriage. Emily however decides to forgive Ross, and reaches the airport but is annoyed to see Rachel and Ross boarding the plane together. She flees away again, and Ross follows her only to lose her and also Rachel goes to the place alone. Emily, later, calls Ross only to confront him by saying that he has to stop calling / harassing her relatives, but Ross makes her reveal her love for him. She said that she will return only if Ross stops being friends with Rachel. Unable to do so, Ross ends his marriage with Emily.
Reception[edit]
Ross Geller has become a well-known figure in pop culture, in particular due to his relationship with Rachel Green and his love for Dinosaurs. He is arguably the most polarizing of the Friends characters, appearing as a figure of controversy.
In 2015, a play titled Ross & Rachel debuted at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival.[6]
In October, 2016, Ross Geller was voted "the Best Friends Character" in an international poll held by Comedy Central, during six weeks of "FriendsFest" on the channel.[7]
References[edit]
Friends portal
Jump up ^ Galindo, Buzz (August 7, 2013). "25 Fascinating Facts You Might Not Know About "Friends"". BuzzFeed. BuzzFeed, Inc. Archived from the original on March 15, 2015. Retrieved August 11, 2015. The full names of the characters are ... Ross Eustace Geller.
Jump up ^ Couric, Katie (May 5, 2004). "Dateline NBC - Newsmakers - NBCNews.com". MSNBC. Retrieved September 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ Bierly, Mandi; Fog, Henning (July 25, 2013). "30 Best 'Will They/Won't They?' TV Couples | Photo 24 of 30". Entertainment Weekly. Time Inc. Retrieved July 7, 2012.
Jump up ^ Anonymous. "Plot Summary for "Friends" The One with the Routine (1999)".
Jump up ^ Sonia Saraiya. "David Schwimmer puts in the work: On learning wine, waiting tables and why he "campaigned for years for a black girlfriend" for Ross Geller". Salon. Retrieved May 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Ross & Rachel - Assembly Festival – Edinburgh Fringe". www.assemblyfestival.com. Retrieved 2016-05-24.
Jump up ^ "It’s Official: Ross Geller Is The Best Friend".
[show]
v
t
e
Friends
Characters
Chandler Bing
Phoebe Buffay
Monica Geller
Ross Geller
Rachel Green
Joey Tribbiani
Episodes
Season 1
"The Pilot" (1.01)
"The One with the Sonogram at the End" (1.02)
"The One with George Stephanopoulos" (1.04)
Season 2
"The One with the Lesbian Wedding" (2.11)
"The One After the Superbowl" (2.12–2.13)
"The One with the Prom Video" (2.14)
"The One Where Dr. Ramoray Dies" (2.18)
Season 3
"The One Where No One's Ready" (3.02)
Season 4
"The One with the Embryos" (4.12)
"The One with Ross's Wedding" (4.23–4.24)
Season 5
"The One After Ross Says Rachel" (5.01)
"The One Hundredth" (5.03)
"The One with All the Thanksgivings" (5.08)
"The One with the Girl Who Hits Joey" (5.15)
"The One Where Rachel Smokes" (5.18)
"The One Where Ross Can't Flirt" (5.19)
"The One with the Ride-Along" (5.20)
Season 6
"The One After Vegas" (6.01)
"The One with the Apothecary Table" (6.11)
"The One with the Proposal" (6.24–6.25)
Season 7
"The One with Monica and Chandler's Wedding" (7.23–7.24)
Season 8
"The One with Rachel's Date" (8.05)
"The One with the Rumor" (8.09)
Season 9
–
Season 10
"The Last One" (10.17–10.18)
Related articles
Music
"I'll Be There for You"
Joey
Mad About You
Awards and nominations
Friends ... 'Til the End
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ross_Geller&oldid=806425155"
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