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Dust Bowl
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For other uses, see Dust Bowl (disambiguation).
Map of states and counties affected by the Dust Bowl between 1935 and 1938 originally prepared by the Soil Conservation Service. The most severely affected counties are colored .
A farmer and his two sons during a dust storm in Cimarron County, Oklahoma, April 1936. Iconic photo taken by Arthur Rothstein.
The Dust Bowl, also known as the Dirty Thirties, was a period of severe dust storms that greatly damaged the ecology and agriculture of the American and Canadian prairies during the 1930s; severe drought and a failure to apply dryland farming methods to prevent wind erosion (the Aeolian processes) caused the phenomenon. The drought came in three waves, 1934, 1936, and 1939–1940, but some regions of the high plains experienced drought conditions for as many as eight years.[1] With insufficient understanding of the ecology of the plains, farmers had conducted extensive deep plowing of the virgin topsoil of the Great Plains during the previous decade; this had displaced the native, deep-rooted grasses that normally trapped soil and moisture even during periods of drought and high winds. The rapid mechanization of farm equipment, especially small gasoline tractors, and widespread use of the combine harvester contributed to farmers' decisions to convert arid grassland (much of which received no more than 10 inches (250 mm) of precipitation per year) to cultivated cropland.[2]
During the drought of the 1930s, the unanchored soil turned to dust, which the prevailing winds blew away in huge clouds that sometimes blackened the sky. These choking billows of dust – named "black blizzards" or "black rollers" – traveled cross country, reaching as far as the East Coast and striking such cities as New York City and Washington, D.C. On the Plains, they often reduced visibility to 1 meter (3.3 ft) or less. Associated Press reporter Robert E. Geiger happened to be in Boise City, Oklahoma, to witness the "Black Sunday" black blizzards of April 14, 1935; Edward Stanley, Kansas City news editor of the Associated Press coined the term "Dust Bowl" while rewriting Geiger's news story.[3][4] While the term "the Dust Bowl" was originally a reference to the geographical area affected by the dust, today it is usually used to refer to the event, as in "It was during the Dust Bowl".
The drought and erosion of the Dust Bowl affected 100,000,000 acres (400,000 km2) that centered on the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma and touched adjacent sections of New Mexico, Colorado, and Kansas.[5]
The Dust Bowl forced tens of thousands of families to abandon their farms. Many of these families, who were often known as "Okies" because so many of them came from Oklahoma, migrated to California and other states to find that the Great Depression had rendered economic conditions there little better than those they had left.
The Dust Bowl has been the subject of many cultural works, notably the novel The Grapes of Wrath (1939) by John Steinbeck, the folk music of Woody Guthrie, and photographs depicting the conditions of migrants by Dorothea Lange.
Contents
[hide]
1 Geographic characteristics and early history
2 Drought and dust storms
3 Human displacement
3.1 U.S.
3.2 Characteristics of migrants
4 U.S. government response
5 Long-term economic impact
6 Influence on the arts and culture
7 Aggregate changes in agriculture and population on the Plains
8 See also
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 External links
Geographic characteristics and early history
A dust storm approaches Stratford, Texas, in 1935.
The Dust Bowl area lies principally west of the 100th meridian on the High Plains, characterized by plains which vary from rolling in the north to flat in the Llano Estacado. Elevation ranges from 2,500 feet (760 m) in the east to 6,000 feet (1,800 m) at the base of the Rocky Mountains. The area is semiarid, receiving less than 20 inches (510 mm) of rain annually; this rainfall supports the shortgrass prairie biome originally present in the area. The region is also prone to extended drought, alternating with unusual wetness of equivalent duration.[6] During wet years, the rich soil provides bountiful agricultural output, but crops fail during dry years. The region is also subject to high winds.[7] During early European and American exploration of the Great Plains, this region was thought unsuitable for European-style agriculture; explorers called it the Great American Desert. The lack of surface water and timber made the region less attractive than other areas for pioneer settlement and agriculture.
The federal government encouraged settlement and development of the Plains for agriculture via the Homestead Act of 1862, offering settlers 160-acre (65 ha) plots. With the end of the Civil War in 1865 and the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, waves of new migrants and immigrants reached the Great Plains, and they greatly increased the acreage under cultivation.[8][9] An unusually wet period in the Great Plains mistakenly led settlers and the federal government to believe that "rain follows the plow" (a popular phrase among real estate promoters) and that the climate of the region had changed permanently.[10] While initial agricultural endeavors were primarily cattle ranching, the adverse effect of harsh winters on the cattle, beginning in 1886, a short drought in 1890, and general overgrazing, led many landowners to increase the amount of land under cultivation.
Recognizing the challenge of cultivating marginal arid land, the United States government expanded on the 160 acres (65 ha) offered under the Homestead Act—granting 640 acres (260 ha) to homesteaders in western Nebraska under the Kinkaid Act (1904) and 320 acres (130 ha) elsewhere in the Great Plains under the Enlarged Homestead Act (1909). Waves of European settlers arrived in the plains at the beginning of the 20th century. A return of unusually wet weather seemingly confirmed a previously held opinion that the "formerly" semiarid area could support large-scale agriculture. At the same time, technological improvements such as mechanized plowing and mechanized harvesting made it possible to operate larger properties without high labor costs.
The combined effects of the disruption of the Russian Revolution, which decreased the supply of wheat and other commodity crops, and World War I increased agricultural prices; this demand encouraged farmers to dramatically increase cultivation. For example, in the Llano Estacado of eastern New Mexico and northwestern Texas, the area of farmland was doubled between 1900 and 1920, then tripled again between 1925 and 1930.[9] The agricultural methods favored by farmers during this period created the conditions for large-scale erosion under certain environmental conditions.[1] The widespread conversion of the land by deep plowing and other soil preparation methods to enable agriculture eliminated the native grasses which held the soil in place and helped retain moisture during dry periods. Furthermore, cotton farmers left fields bare during winter months, when winds in the High Plains are highest, and burned the stubble as a means to control weeds prior to planting, thereby depriving the soil of organic nutrients and surface vegetation.
Drought and dust storms
A dust storm; Spearman, Texas, April 14, 1935
"Heavy black clouds of dust rising over the Texas Panhandle, Texas", c. 1936.
After fairly favourable climatic conditions in the 1920s with good rainfall and relatively moderate winters,[11] which permitted increased settlement and cultivation in the Great Plains, the region entered an unusually dry era in the summer of 1930.[12] During the next decade, the northern plains suffered four of their seven driest calendar years since 1895, Kansas four of its twelve driest,[13] and the entire region south to West Texas[14] lacked any period of above-normal rainfall until record rains hit in 1941.[15] When severe drought struck the Great Plains region in the 1930s, it resulted in erosion and loss of topsoil because of farming practices at the time. The drought dried the topsoil and over time it became friable, reduced to a powdery consistency in some places. Without the indigenous grasses in place, the high winds that occur on the plains picked up the topsoil and created the massive dust storms that marked the Dust Bowl period.[16] The persistent dry weather caused crops to fail, leaving the plowed fields exposed to wind erosion. The fine soil of the Great Plains was easily eroded and carried east by strong continental winds.
On November 11, 1933, a very strong dust storm stripped topsoil from desiccated South Dakota farmlands in just one of a series of severe dust storms that year. Beginning on May 9, 1934, a strong, two-day dust storm removed massive amounts of Great Plains topsoil in one of the worst such storms of the Dust Bowl.[17] The dust clouds blew all the way to Chicago, where they deposited 12 million pounds of dust.[18] Two days later, the same storm reached cities to the east, such as Cleveland, Buffalo, Boston, New York City, and Washington, D.C.[19] That winter (1934–1935), red snow fell on New England.
On April 14, 1935, known as "Black Sunday", 20 of the worst "black blizzards" occurred across the entire sweep of the Great Plains, from Canada south to Texas. The dust storms caused extensive damage and turned the day to night; witnesses reported that they could not see five feet in front of them at certain points. Denver-based Associated Press reporter Robert E. Geiger happened to be in Boise City, Oklahoma that day. His story about Black Sunday marked the first appearance of the term Dust Bowl; it was coined by Edward Stanley, Kansas City news editor of the Associated Press, while rewriting Geiger's news story.[3][4]
Spearman and Hansford County have been literaly [sic] in a cloud of dust for the past week. Ever since Friday of last week, there hasn't been a day pass but what the county was beseieged [sic] with a blast of wind and dirt. On rare occasions when the wind did subside for a period of hours, the air has been so filled with dust that the town appeared to be overhung by a fog cloud. Because of this long seige of dust and every building being filled with it, the air has become stifling to breathe and many people have developed sore throats and dust colds as a result."
—  Spearman Reporter, 21 March 1935
[20]
Much of the farmland was eroded in the aftermath of the Dust Bowl. In 1941, a Kansas agricultural experiment station released a bulletin that suggested reestablishing native grasses by the "hay method". Developed in 1937 to speed up the process and increase returns from pasture, the "hay method" was originally supposed to occur in Kansas naturally over 25–40 years.[21] After much data analysis, the causal mechanism for the droughts can be linked to ocean temperature anomalies. Specifically, Atlantic Ocean sea surface temperatures appear to have had an indirect effect on the general atmospheric circulation, while Pacific sea surface temperatures seem to have had the most direct influence.[22]
Human displacement
This catastrophe intensified the economic impact of the Great Depression in the region.
U.S.
Buried machinery in a barn lot; Dallas, South Dakota, May 1936
In 1935, many families were forced to leave their farms and travel to other areas seeking work because of the drought (which at that time had already lasted four years).[23] Dust Bowl conditions fomented an exodus of the displaced from Texas, Oklahoma, and the surrounding Great Plains to adjacent regions. More than 500,000 Americans were left homeless. Over 350 houses had to be torn down after one storm alone.[24] The severe drought and dust storms had left many homeless, others had their mortgages foreclosed by banks, and others felt they had no choice but to abandon their farms in search of work.[25] Many Americans migrated west looking for work. Parents packed up "jalopies" with their families and a few personal belongings, and headed west in search of work.[26] Some residents of the Plains, especially in Kansas and Oklahoma, fell ill and died of dust pneumonia or malnutrition.[18]
"Broke, baby sick, and car trouble!" - Dorothea Lange's 1937 photo of a Missouri migrant family's jalopy stuck near Tracy, California.
The Dust Bowl exodus was the largest migration in American history within a short period of time. Between 1930 and 1940, approximately 3.5 million people moved out of the Plains states; of those, it is unknown how many moved to California.[27] In just over a year, over 86,000 people migrated to California. This number is more than the number of migrants to that area during the 1849 Gold Rush.[28] Migrants abandoned farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, Colorado, and New Mexico, but were often generally referred to as "Okies", "Arkies", or "Texies".[24] Terms such as "Okies" and "Arkies" came to be known in the 1930s as the standard terms for those who had lost everything and were struggling the most during the Great Depression.[29]
Not all migrants traveled long distances; some simply went to the next town or county. So many families left their farms and were on the move that the proportion between migrants and residents was nearly equal in the Great Plains states.[27]
Characteristics of migrants
A migratory family from Texas living in a trailer in an Arizona cotton field
Historian James N. Gregory examined Census Bureau statistics and other records to learn more about the migrants. Based on a 1939 survey of occupation by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics of about 116,000 families who arrived in California in the 1930s, he learned that only 43 percent of southwesterners were doing farm work immediately before they migrated. Nearly one-third of all migrants were professional or white-collar workers.[30] The poor economy displaced more than just farmers as refugees to California; many teachers, lawyers, and small business owners moved west with their families during this time. After the Great Depression ended, some moved back to their original states. Many others remained where they had resettled. About one-eighth of California's population is of Okie heritage.[31]
U.S. government response
The greatly expanded participation of government in land management and soil conservation was an important outcome from the disaster. Different groups took many different approaches to responding to the disaster. To identify areas that needed attention, groups such as the Soil Conservation Service generated detailed soil maps and took photos of the land from the sky. To create shelterbelts to reduce soil erosion, groups such as the United States Forestry Service’s Prairie States Forestry Project planted trees on private lands. Finally, groups like the Resettlement Administration, which later became the Farm Security Administration, encouraged small farm owners to resettle on other lands, if they lived in dryer parts of the Plains.[22]
During President Franklin D. Roosevelt's first 100 days in office in 1933, his administration quickly initiated programs to conserve soil and restore the ecological balance of the nation. Interior Secretary Harold L. Ickes established the Soil Erosion Service in August 1933 under Hugh Hammond Bennett. In 1935, it was transferred and reorganized under the Department of Agriculture and renamed the Soil Conservation Service. It is now known as the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS).[32]
As part of New Deal programs, Congress passed the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act in 1936, requiring landowners to share the allocated government subsidies with the laborers who worked on their farms. Under the law, "benefit payments were continued as measures for production control and income support, but they were now financed by direct Congressional appropriations and justified as soil conservation measures. The Act shifted the parity goal from price equality of agricultural commodities and the articles that farmers buy to income equality of farm and non-farm population." [33] Thus, the parity goal was to re-create the ratio between the purchasing power of the net income per person on farms from agriculture and that of the income of persons not on farms that prevailed during 1909–1914.
To stabilize prices, the government paid farmers and ordered more than six million pigs to be slaughtered. It paid to have the meat packed and distributed to the poor and hungry. The Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC) was established to regulate crop and other surpluses. FDR in an address on the AAA commented,
Let me make one other point clear for the benefit of the millions in cities who have to buy meats. Last year the Nation suffered a drought of unparalleled intensity. If there had been no Government program, if the old order had obtained in 1933 and 1934, that drought on the cattle ranges of America and in the corn belt would have resulted in the marketing of thin cattle, immature hogs and the death of these animals on the range and on the farm, and if the old order had been in effect those years, we would have had a vastly greater shortage than we face today. Our program – we can prove it – saved the lives of millions of head of livestock. They are still on the range, and other millions of heads are today canned and ready for this country to eat."
The FSRC diverted agricultural commodities to relief organizations. Apples, beans, canned beef, flour and pork products were distributed through local relief channels. Cotton goods were later included, to clothe the needy.[34]
In 1935, the federal government formed a Drought Relief Service (DRS) to coordinate relief activities. The DRS bought cattle in counties which were designated emergency areas, for $14 to $20 a head. Animals determined unfit for human consumption were killed; at the beginning of the program, more than 50 percent were so designated in emergency areas. The DRS assigned the remaining cattle to the Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC) to be used in food distribution to families nationwide. Although it was difficult for farmers to give up their herds, the cattle slaughter program helped many of them avoid bankruptcy. "The government cattle buying program was a blessing to many farmers, as they could not afford to keep their cattle, and the government paid a better price than they could obtain in local markets."[35]
President Roosevelt ordered the Civilian Conservation Corps to plant a huge belt of more than 200 million trees from Canada to Abilene, Texas to break the wind, hold water in the soil, and hold the soil itself in place. The administration also began to educate farmers on soil conservation and anti-erosion techniques, including crop rotation, strip farming, contour plowing, terracing, and other improved farming practices.[36][37] In 1937, the federal government began an aggressive campaign to encourage farmers in the Dust Bowl to adopt planting and plowing methods that conserved the soil. The government paid reluctant farmers a dollar an acre to practice the new methods. By 1938, the massive conservation effort had reduced the amount of blowing soil by 65%.[38] The land still failed to yield a decent living. In the fall of 1939, after nearly a decade of dirt and dust, the drought ended when regular rainfall finally returned to the region. The government still encouraged continuing the use of conservation methods to protect the soil and ecology of the Plains.
At the end of the drought, the programs which were implemented during these tough times helped to sustain a positive relationship between America's farmers and the federal government.[39]
The President's Drought Committee issued a report in 1935 covering the government's assistance to agriculture during 1934 through mid-1935: it discussed conditions, measures of relief, organization, finances, operations, and results of the government's assistance.[40] Numerous exhibits are included in this report.
Long-term economic impact
In many regions, more than 75% of the topsoil was blown away by the end of the 1930s. Land degradation varied widely. Aside from the short-term economic consequences caused by erosion, there were severe long-term economic consequences caused by the Dust Bowl.
By 1940, counties that had experienced the most significant levels of erosion had a greater decline in agricultural land values. The per-acre value of farmland declined by 28% in high-erosion counties and 17% in medium-erosion counties, relative to land value changes in low-erosion counties.[21]:3 Even over the long-term, the agricultural value of the land often failed to recover to pre-Dust Bowl levels. In highly eroded areas, less than 25% of the original agricultural losses were recovered. The economy adjusted predominantly through large relative population declines in more-eroded counties, both during the 1930s and through the 1950s.[41]:1500
The economic effects persisted, in part, because of farmers' failure to switch to more appropriate crops for highly eroded areas. Because the amount of topsoil had been reduced, it would have been more productive to shift from crops and wheat to animals and hay. During the Depression and through at least the 1950s, there was limited relative adjustment of farmland away from activities that became less productive in more-eroded counties.
Some of the failure to shift to more productive agricultural products may be related to ignorance about the benefits of changing land use. A second explanation is a lack of availability of credit, caused by the high rate of failure of banks in the Plains states. Because banks failed in the Dust Bowl region at a higher rate than elsewhere, farmers could not get the credit they needed to buy capital to shift crop production.[42] In addition, profit margins in either animals or hay were still minimal, and farmers had little incentive in the beginning to change their crops.
Patrick Allitt recounts how fellow historian Donald Worster responded to his return visit to the Dust Bowl in the mid-1970s when he revisited some of the worst afflicted counties:
Capital-intensive agribusiness had transformed the scene; deep wells into the aquifer, intensive irrigation, the use of artificial pesticides and fertilizers, and giant harvesters were creating immense crops year after year whether it rained or not. According to the farmers he interviewed, technology had provided the perfect answer to old troubles, such of the bad days would not return. In Worster's view, by contrast, the scene demonstrated that America's capitalist high-tech farmers had learned nothing. They were continuing to work in an unsustainable way, devoting far cheaper subsidized energy to growing food than the energy could give back to its ultimate consumers.[43]
In contrast with Worster’s pessimism, historian Mathew Bonnifield argued that the long-term significance of the Dust Bowl was "the triumph of the human spirit in its capacity to endure and overcome hardships and reverses."[44]
Influence on the arts and culture
Florence Owens Thompson seen in the photo Destitute Pea Pickers in California. Mother of Seven Children. by Dorothea Lange
The crisis was documented by photographers, musicians, and authors, many hired during the Great Depression by the federal government. For instance, the Farm Security Administration hired numerous photographers to document the crisis. Artists such as Dorothea Lange were aided by having salaried work during the Depression.[45] She captured what have become classic images of the dust storms and migrant families. Among her most well-known photographs is Destitute Pea Pickers in California. Mother of Seven Children,[45] which depicted a gaunt-looking woman, Florence Owens Thompson, holding three of her children. This picture expressed the struggles of people caught by the Dust Bowl and raised awareness in other parts of the country of its reach and human cost. Decades later, Thompson disliked the boundless circulation of the photo and resented the fact she did not receive any money from its broadcast. Thompson felt it gave her the perception as a Dust Bowl "Okie."[46]
The work of independent artists was also influenced by the crises of the Dust Bowl and the Depression. Author John Steinbeck, borrowing closely from field notes taken by Farm Security Administration worker and author Sanora Babb,[citation needed] wrote The Grapes of Wrath (1939) about migrant workers and farm families displaced by the Dust Bowl. Babb's own novel about the lives of the migrant workers, Whose Names Are Unknown, was written in 1939 but was eclipsed and shelved in response to the success of the Steinbeck's work, and was finally published in 2004.[47][48] Many of the songs of folk singer Woody Guthrie, such as those on his 1940 album Dust Bowl Ballads, are about his experiences in the Dust Bowl era during the Great Depression when he traveled with displaced farmers from Oklahoma to California and learned their traditional folk and blues songs, earning him the nickname the "Dust Bowl Troubadour".[49]
Migrants also influenced musical culture wherever they went. Oklahoma migrants, in particular, were rural Southwesterners who carried their traditional country music to California. Today, the "Bakersfield Sound" describes this blend, which developed after the migrants brought country music to the city. Their new music inspired a proliferation of country dance halls as far south as Los Angeles.
The 2014 science fiction film Interstellar features a ravaged 21st-century America which is again scoured by dust storms (caused by a worldwide pathogen affecting all crops). Along with inspiration from the 1930s crisis, director Christopher Nolan features interviews from the 2012 documentary The Dust Bowl to draw further parallels.[50]
In 2017, Americana recording artist Grant Maloy Smith released the album Dust Bowl – American Stories, which was inspired by the history of the Dust Bowl.[51] In a review, the music magazine No Depression wrote that the album’s lyrics and music are “as potent as Woody Guthrie, as intense as John Trudell and dusted with the trials and tribulations of Tom Joad – Steinbeck and The Grapes of Wrath.”[52]
Aggregate changes in agriculture and population on the Plains
The change in the total value of agricultural land and revenue was quite similar over the twentieth century. Agricultural land and revenue boomed during World War I, but fell during the Great Depression and the 1930s. The land and revenue began increasing again in 1940, and has been increasing since then. From 1910 to the 1940s, total farmland increased and remained constant until 1970 when it slightly declined. During this time, total population increased steadily, but there was a slight dip in trend from 1930 to 1960.[41][clarify][verification needed]
See also
U.S. Route 66 (notable Dust Bowl migration route to California)
1936 North American heat wave
Great Plains Shelterbelt
Ogallala Aquifer
Notable documentaries
The Dust Bowl (2012 documentary by Ken Burns)
The Plow That Broke the Plains (1936 documentary)
International
Palliser's Triangle (semiarid area of Canada)
Goyder's Line (semiarid area of Australia)
General
Desertification
Monoculture
Semi-arid climate
Global warming
References
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Bibliography
Bonnifield, Mathew Paul. (1979) Dust Bowl: Men, Dirt and Depression
Gregory, James Noble. American exodus: The dust bowl migration and Okie culture in California (Oxford University Press, 1989)
Lassieur, Allison. (2009) The Dust Bowl: An Interactive History Adventure Capstone Press, ISBN 1-4296-3455-3
Reis, Ronald A. (2008) The Dust Bowl Chelsea House ISBN 978-0-7910-9737-3
Sylvester, Kenneth M., and Eric S. A. Rupley, “Revising the Dust Bowl: High above the Kansas Grassland”, Environmental History, 17 (July 2012), 603–33.
Worster, Donald 2004 (1979)Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930s (25. anniversary ed) Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517489-5
Woody Guthrie, (1963) The (Nearly) Complete Collection of Woody Guthrie Folk Songs, Ludlow Music, New York.
Alan Lomax, Woody Guthrie, Pete Seeger, (1967) Hard-Hitting Songs for Hard-Hit People, Oak Publications, New York.
Timothy Egan (2006) The Worst Hard Time, Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, hardcover. ISBN 0-618-34697-X.
Katelan Janke, (1935) Survival in the Storm: The Dust Bowl Diary of Grace Edwards, Dalhart, Texas, Scholastic (September 2002). ISBN 0-439-21599-4.
Karen Hesse (paperback January 1999) Out of the Dust, Scholastic Signature. New York First Edition, 1997, hardcover . ISBN 0-590-37125-8.
Sanora Babb (2004) Whose Names Are Unknown, University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 978-0-8061-3579-3.
Sweeney, Kevin Z. Prelude to the Dust Bowl: Drought in the Nineteenth-Century Southern Plains (U of Oklahoma Press, 2016) xv, 283 pp.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dust Bowl.
NASA Explains "Dust Bowl" Drought
The Dust Bowl photo collection
"The Dust Bowl", a PBS television series by filmmaker Ken Burns
The Dust Bowl (EH.Net Encyclopedia)
Black Sunday, April 14, 1935, Dodge City, KS
The Bibliography of Aeolian Research
Surviving the Dust Bowl, Black Sunday (April 14, 1935)
Voices from the Dust Bowl: The Charles L. Todd and Robert Sonkin Migrant Worker Collection, 1940–1941 Library of Congress, American Folklife Center Online collection of archival sound recordings, photographs, and manuscripts
YouTube Video: "The Great Depression, Displaced Mountaineers in Shenandoah National Park, and the Civilian Conservation Corps (C.C.C.)"
Farming in the 1930s (Wessels Living History Farm)
Out of the Dust (The Modesto Bee)
Africa Data Dissemination Service, part of the Famine Early Warning Systems Network, U.S. Geological Service
Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture – Dust Bowl
Oklahoma Digital Maps: Digital Collections of Oklahoma and Indian Territory
Dust Bowl Migration Archive at Sonoma State University Library
Dust, Drought, and Dreams Gone Dry: Oklahoma Women in the Dust Bowl Oral History Project, Oklahoma Oral History Research Program
Voices of Oklahoma interview with Frosty Troy. First person interview conducted on November 30, 2011 with Frosty Troy talking about the Oklahoma Dust Bowl. Original audio and transcript archived with Voices of Oklahoma oral history project.
[show]
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Bachelor of Liberal Studies
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The purpose of the Bachelor of Liberal Studies degree is to provide students with a solid multidisciplinary preparation in the Humanities, Natural Sciences, Social Sciences and the Arts, subsequently allowing them to pursue careers in education, business, government, and other such fields. The goal of a liberal studies major is to train students to communicate effectively, both orally and in writing, to develop skills in critical thinking and problem solving, and to imbue critical thinking with ethical thought. Liberal studies provides students with opportunities for an extensive study of the liberal arts and sciences and for a broad understanding of various academic fields of interest.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Curriculum
2 Occupational opportunities
3 Notable degree holders
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Curriculum[edit]
A student who seeks to be awarded a degree such as B.A. in Liberal Studies generally undertakes a variety of subjects, including: literature and language studies, mathematics, visual and performing arts, physical education, history and social sciences, science, and human development. According to the American Academy for Liberal Education, core curriculum can include "interdisciplinary programs in the arts and sciences, programs of study in the histories and heritages of Western and non-Western civilizations, global and trans-cultural studies, ethnic and area studies, musical and theatrical appreciation and performance, and programs in creative writing." [2]
Occupational opportunities[edit]
Occupational opportunities include:
Banking or retail management trainee
Buyer trainee
Claims adjuster
Underwriter
College/university admission counselor
Convention/meeting planner
Development officer/fundraiser
Human resources professional
Insurance agent
Public relations specialist
Sales representative
Teacher
Writer
Intelligence Officer/Analyst
(Some positions may require additional education and/or training)
Notable degree holders[edit]
James R. Helmly, Chief of the U.S. Army Reserve, Commanding General of the United States Army Reserve[3]
See also[edit]
Master of Liberal Studies
Doctor of Liberal Studies
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Association of American Colleges and Universities". Archived from the original on 10 October 2010. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
Jump up ^ "American Academy for Liberal Education Accreditation Information" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-24.
Jump up ^ [1]
External links[edit]
American Academy for Liberal Education
Liberal Studies Major in New York
Association of American Colleges and Universities Resources on Liberal Education
[hide]
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Levels of academic degree
Undergraduate
ISCED level 5
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text:
Carbonic acid
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with Carbolic acid, an antiquated name for phenol.
Carbonic acid
Names
Preferred IUPAC name
Carbonic acid[1]
Other names
Carbon dioxide solution
Dihydrogen carbonate
Hydrogen bicarbonate
Acid of air
Aerial acid
Hydroxymethanoic acid
Identifiers
CAS Number
463-79-6 Y
3D model (JSmol)
Interactive image
ChEBI
CHEBI:28976 Y
ChEMBL
ChEMBL1161632 Y
ChemSpider
747 Y
ECHA InfoCard 100.133.015
EC Number 610-295-3
KEGG
C01353 Y
PubChem CID
767
InChI[show]
InChI=1S/CH2O3/c2-1(3)4/h(H2,2,3,4) Y
Key: BVKZGUZCCUSVTD-UHFFFAOYSA-N Y
InChI=1/CH2O3/c2-1(3)4/h(H2,2,3,4)
Key: BVKZGUZCCUSVTD-UHFFFAOYAU
SMILES[show]
O=C(O)O
Properties
Chemical formula
H2CO3
Molar mass 62.03 g/mol
Density 1.668 g/cm3
Solubility in water
Only stable in solution
Acidity (pKa) 3.6 (pKa1 for H2CO3 only), 6.3 (pKa1 including CO2(aq)), 10.32 (pKa2)
Related compounds
Related compounds
Acetone
Urea
Carbonyl fluoride
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
Y verify (what is Y N ?)
Infobox references
Carbonic acid is a chemical compound with the chemical formula H2CO3 (equivalently OC(OH)2). It is also a name sometimes given to solutions of carbon dioxide in water (carbonated water), because such solutions contain small amounts of H2CO3. In physiology, carbonic acid is described as volatile acid or respiratory acid, because it is the only acid excreted as a gas by the lungs.[2] It plays an important role in the bicarbonate buffer system to maintain acid–base homeostasis.
Carbonic acid, which is a weak acid, forms two kinds of salts: the carbonates and the bicarbonates. In geology, carbonic acid causes limestone to dissolve, producing calcium bicarbonate, which leads to many limestone features such as stalactites and stalagmites.
It was long believed that carbonic acid could not exist as a pure compound. However, in 1991 it was reported that NASA scientists had succeeded in making solid H2CO3 samples.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Chemical equilibrium
2 Role of carbonic acid in blood
3 Role of carbonic acid in ocean chemistry
4 Acidity of carbonic acid
4.1 pH and composition of carbonic acid solutions
5 Pure carbonic acid
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Chemical equilibrium[edit]
When carbon dioxide dissolves in water it exists in chemical equilibrium with carbonic acid:[4]
CO 2 + H 2 O ↽ − − ⇀ H 2 CO 3 {\displaystyle {\ce {CO2 + H2O <=> H2CO3}}}
The hydration equilibrium constant at 25 °C is called Kh, which in the case of carbonic acid is [H2CO3]/[CO2] ≈ 1.7×10−3 in pure water[5] and ≈ 1.2×10−3 in seawater.[6] Hence, the majority of the carbon dioxide is not converted into carbonic acid, remaining as CO2 molecules. In the absence of a catalyst, the equilibrium is reached quite slowly. The rate constants are 0.039 s−1 for the forward reaction (CO2 + H2O → H2CO3) and 23 s−1 for the reverse reaction (H2CO3 → CO2 + H2O). The addition of two molecules of water to CO2 would give orthocarbonic acid, C(OH)4, which exists only in minute amounts in aqueous solution.
Addition of base to an excess of carbonic acid gives bicarbonate (hydrogen carbonate). With excess base, carbonic acid reacts to give carbonate salts.
Role of carbonic acid in blood[edit]
Bicarbonate is an intermediate in the transport of CO2 out of the body by respiratory gas exchange. The hydration reaction of CO2 is generally very slow in the absence of a catalyst, but red blood cells contain carbonic anhydrase, which increases the reaction rate, producing bicarbonate (HCO3−) dissolved in the blood plasma. This catalysed reaction is reversed in the lungs, where it converts the bicarbonate back into CO2 and allows it to be expelled. This equilibration plays an important role as a buffer in mammalian blood.[7] A 2016 theoretical report suggests that carbonic acid may play a pivotal role in protonating various nitrogen bases in blood serum.[8]
Role of carbonic acid in ocean chemistry[edit]
The oceans of the world have absorbed almost half of the CO2 emitted by humans from the burning of fossil fuels.[9] It has been estimated that the extra dissolved carbon dioxide has caused the ocean's average surface pH to shift by about −0.1 unit from pre-industrial levels. This is known as ocean acidification, even though the ocean remains basic.[10]
Acidity of carbonic acid[edit]
Carbonic acid is a polyprotic acid — specifically it is diprotic, meaning that it has two protons that may dissociate from the parent molecule. Thus, there are two dissociation constants, first of which is for the dissociation into the bicarbonate (also called hydrogen carbonate) ion HCO3−:
H 2 CO 3 ↽ − − ⇀ HCO 3 − + H + {\displaystyle {\ce {H2CO3 <=> HCO3^- + H+}}}
Ka1 = 2.5×10−4;[4] pKa1 = 3.6 at 25 °C.
Care must be taken when quoting and using the first dissociation constant of carbonic acid. In aqueous solution, carbonic acid exists in equilibrium with carbon dioxide, and the concentration of H2CO3 is much lower than the concentration of CO2. In many analyses, H2CO3 includes dissolved CO2 (referred to as CO2(aq)), H2CO3* is used to represent the two species when writing the aqueous chemical equilibrium equation. The equation may be rewritten as follows:[4]
H2CO3* ⇌ HCO3− + H+
Ka(app) = 4.47×10−7; pK(app) = 6.35 at 25 °C and ionic strength = 0.0.
Whereas this apparent pKa is quoted as the dissociation constant of carbonic acid, it is ambiguous: it might better be referred to as the acidity constant of dissolved carbon dioxide, as it is particularly useful for calculating the pH of CO2-containing solutions. A similar situation applies to sulfurous acid (H2SO3), which exists in equilibrium with substantial amounts of unhydrated sulfur dioxide.
The second constant is for the dissociation of the bicarbonate ion into the carbonate ion CO32−:
HCO 3 − ↽ − − ⇀ CO 3 − 2 + H + {\displaystyle {\ce {HCO3^- <=> CO3^{-2}{}+ H+}}}
Ka2 = 4.69×10−11; pKa2 = 10.329 at 25 °C and ionic strength = 0.0.
The three acidity constants are defined as follows:
K a 1 = [ H + ] [ HCO 3 − ] [ H 2 CO 3 ] , {\displaystyle K_{a1}={\frac {[{\text{H}}^{+}][{\text{HCO}}_{3}^{-}]}{[{\text{H}}_{2}{\text{CO}}_{3}]}},}
K a (app) = [ H + ] [ HCO 3 − ] [ H 2 CO 3 ] + [ CO 2 (aq) ] , {\displaystyle K_{a}{\text{(app)}}={\frac {[{\text{H}}^{+}][{\text{HCO}}_{3}^{-}]}{[{\text{H}}_{2}{\text{CO}}_{3}]+[{\text{CO}}_{2}{\text{(aq)}}]}},}
K a 2 = [ H + ] [ CO 3 2 − ] [ HCO 3 − ] . {\displaystyle K_{a2}={\frac {[{\text{H}}^{+}][{\text{CO}}_{3}^{2-}]}{[{\text{HCO}}_{3}^{-}]}}.}
pH and composition of carbonic acid solutions[edit]
At a given temperature, the composition of a pure carbonic acid solution (or of a pure CO2 solution) is completely determined by the partial pressure p CO 2 {\displaystyle p_{{\text{CO}}_{2}}} of carbon dioxide above the solution. To calculate this composition, account must be taken of the above equilibria between the three different carbonate forms (H2CO3, HCO3− and CO32−), as well as of the hydration equilibrium between dissolved CO2 and H2CO3 with constant K h = [ H 2 CO 3 ] [ CO 2 ] {\displaystyle K_{h}={\tfrac {[{\text{H}}_{2}{\text{CO}}_{3}]}{[{\text{CO}}_{2}]}}} (see above) and of the following equilibrium between the dissolved CO2 and the gaseous CO2 above the solution:
CO2(gas) ⇌ CO2(dissolved) with [ CO 2 ] p CO 2 = 1 k H , {\displaystyle \textstyle {\frac {[{\text{CO}}_{2}]}{p_{{\text{CO}}_{2}}}}={\frac {1}{k_{\text{H}}}},} where kH = 29.76 atm/(mol/L) (Henry constant) at 25 °C.
The corresponding equilibrium equations together with the [ H + ] [ OH − ] = 10 − 14 {\displaystyle [{\text{H}}^{+}][{\text{OH}}^{-}]=10^{-14}} relation and the charge neutrality condition [ H + ] = [ OH − ] + [ HCO 3 − ] + 2 [ CO 3 2 − ] {\displaystyle [{\text{H}}^{+}]=[{\text{OH}}^{-}]+[{\text{HCO}}_{3}^{-}]+2[{\text{CO}}_{3}^{2-}]} result in six equations for the six unknowns [CO2], [H2CO3], [H+], [OH−], [HCO3−] and [CO32−], showing that the composition of the solution is fully determined by p CO 2 {\displaystyle p_{{\text{CO}}_{2}}} . The equation obtained for [H+] is a cubic, whose numerical solution yields the following values for the pH and the different species concentrations:
p CO 2 {\displaystyle p_{{\text{CO}}_{2}}}
(atm)
pH
[CO2]
(mol/L)
[H2CO3]
(mol/L)
[HCO3−]
(mol/L)
[CO32−]
(mol/L)
1.0 × 10−8 7.00 3.36 × 10−10 5.71 × 10−13 1.42 × 10−09 7.90 × 10−13
1.0 × 10−7 6.94 3.36 × 10−09 5.71 × 10−12 5.90 × 10−09 1.90 × 10−12
1.0 × 10−6 6.81 3.36 × 10−08 5.71 × 10−11 9.16 × 10−08 3.30 × 10−11
1.0 × 10−5 6.42 3.36 × 10−07 5.71 × 10−10 3.78 × 10−07 4.53 × 10−11
1.0 × 10−4 5.92 3.36 × 10−06 5.71 × 10−09 1.19 × 10−06 5.57 × 10−11
3.5 × 10−4 5.65 1.18 × 10−05 2.00 × 10−08 2.23 × 10−06 5.60 × 10−11
1.0 × 10−3 5.42 3.36 × 10−05 5.71 × 10−08 3.78 × 10−06 5.61 × 10−11
1.0 × 10−2 4.92 3.36 × 10−04 5.71 × 10−07 1.19 × 10−05 5.61 × 10−11
1.0 × 10−1 4.42 3.36 × 10−03 5.71 × 10−06 3.78 × 10−05 5.61 × 10−11
1.0 × 10+0 3.92 3.36 × 10−02 5.71 × 10−05 1.20 × 10−04 5.61 × 10−11
2.5 × 10+0 3.72 8.40 × 10−02 1.43 × 10−04 1.89 × 10−04 5.61 × 10−11
1.0 × 10+1 3.42 3.36 × 10−01 5.71 × 10−04 3.78 × 10−04 5.61 × 10−11
We see that in the total range of pressure, the pH is always largely lower than pKa2 so that the CO32− concentration is always negligible with respect to HCO3− concentration. In fact, CO32− plays no quantitative role in the present calculation (see remark below).
For vanishing p CO 2 {\displaystyle p_{{\text{CO}}_{2}}} , the pH is close to the one of pure water (pH = 7), and the dissolved carbon is essentially in the HCO3− form.
For normal atmospheric conditions ( p CO 2 = 3.5 × 10 − 4 {\displaystyle p_{{\text{CO}}_{2}}=3.5\times 10^{-4}} atm), we get a slightly acidic solution (pH = 5.7), and the dissolved carbon is now essentially in the CO2 form. From this pressure on, [OH−] becomes also negligible, so that the ionized part of the solution is now an equimolar mixture of H+ and HCO3−.
For a CO2 pressure typical for bottled carbonated drinks ( p CO 2 {\displaystyle p_{{\text{CO}}_{2}}} ~ 2.5 atm), we get a relatively acidic medium (pH = 3.7) with a high concentration of dissolved CO2. These features contribute to the sour and sparkling taste of these drinks.
Between 2.5 and 10 atm, the pH crosses the pKa1 value (3.60), giving a dominant H2CO3 concentration (with respect to HCO3−) at high pressures.
A plot of the equilibrium concentrations of these different forms of dissolved inorganic carbon (and which species is dominant) as a function of the pH of the solution is known as a Bjerrum plot.
Remark
As noted above, [CO32−] may be neglected for this specific problem, resulting in the following very precise analytical expression for [H+]:
[ H + ] ≃ ( 10 − 14 + K h K a 1 k H p CO 2 ) 1 / 2 . {\displaystyle [{\text{H}}^{+}]\simeq \left(10^{-14}+{\frac {K_{h}K_{a1}}{k_{\text{H}}}}p_{{\text{CO}}_{2}}\right)^{1/2}.}
Pure carbonic acid[edit]
It was long believed that carbonic acid could not exist as a pure compound. However, in 1991 scientists at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center (USA) succeeded in making solid H2CO3 samples.[3] They did so by exposing a frozen mixture of water and carbon dioxide to high-energy proton radiation, and then warming to remove the excess water. The carbonic acid that remained was characterized by infrared spectroscopy. The fact that the carbonic acid was prepared by irradiating a solid H2O + CO2 mixture, or even by irradiation of dry ice alone, has given rise to suggestions that H2CO3 might be found in outer space or on Mars, where frozen ices of H2O and CO2 are found, as well as cosmic rays.[11][12] It was announced in 1993 that solid carbonic acid had been created by a cryogenic reaction of potassium bicarbonate and HCl dissolved in methanol.[13][14] Later work showed that in fact the methyl ester had been formed, but other methods were successful.[12] Theoretical calculations showed that a single molecule of water can catalyze the decomposition of a gas-phase carbonic acid molecule to carbon dioxide and water. In the absence of water, the dissociation of gaseous carbonic acid has been predicted to be very slow, with a half-life of 180,000 years.[11] This only applies if the molecules are few and far between, because it has also been predicted that gas-phase carbonic acid will catalyze its own decomposition by forming dimers, which then break apart into two molecules each of water and carbon dioxide.[15]
For a while it was thought that there were two polymorphs of solid carbonic acid, called α and β. The polymorph denoted β-carbonic acid was prepared by heating alternating layers of glassy aqueous solutions of bicarbonate and acid in vacuum, which causes protonation of the bicarbonate, followed by removal of the solvent. The previously suggested α-carbonic acid, which was prepared by the same technique using methanol rather than water as a solvent, was later shown to be a monomethyl ester CH3OCOOH.[12]
See also[edit]
Carbonated water (soft drink)
Carbon dioxide
Dihydroxymethylidene (carbonous acid)
Nonvolatile acid
Ocean acidification
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry : IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013 (Blue Book). Cambridge: The Royal Society of Chemistry. 2014. pp. 414, 781. doi:10.1039/9781849733069-FP001. ISBN 978-0-85404-182-4.
Jump up ^ Acid-Base Physiology 2.1 – Acid-Base Balance by Kerry Brandis.
^ Jump up to: a b M. H. Moore; R. K. Khanna (1990). "Infrared and mass spectral studies of proton irradiated H2O + CO2 ice: Evidence for carbonic acid". Spectrochimica Acta Part A. doi:10.1016/0584-8539(91)80097-3.
^ Jump up to: a b c Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 310. ISBN 0-08-037941-9.
Jump up ^ Housecroft and Sharpe, Inorganic Chemistry, 2nd ed, Prentice-Pearson-Hall 2005, p. 368.
Jump up ^ Soli, A. L.; R. H. Byrne (2002). "CO2 system hydration and dehydration kinetics and the equilibrium CO2/H2CO3 ratio in aqueous NaCl solution". Marine chemistry. 78 (2–3): 65–73. doi:10.1016/S0304-4203(02)00010-5.
Jump up ^ "excretion". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Reaction Mechanism for Direct Proton Transfer from Carbonic Acid to a Strong Base in Aqueous Solution I: Acid and Base Coordinate and Charge Dynamics", S. Daschakraborty, P. M. Kiefer, Y. Miller, Y. Motro, D. Pines, E. Pines, and J. T. Hynes. J. Phys. Chem. B (2016), 120, 2271.
Jump up ^ Sabine, C. L.; et al. (2004). "The Oceanic Sink for Anthropogenic CO2". Science. 305 (5682): 367–371. doi:10.1126/science.1097403. PMID 15256665. Archived from " the original on July 6, 2008.
Jump up ^ National Research Council. "Summary". Ocean Acidification: A National Strategy to Meet the Challenges of a Changing Ocean. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2010. 1. Print.
^ Jump up to: a b Loerting, T.; Tautermann, C.; Kroemer, R. T.; Kohl, I.; Hallbrucker, E.; Mayer, A.; Liedl, K. R. (2000). "On the Surprising Kinetic Stability of Carbonic Acid". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 39 (5): 891–895. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(20000303)39:5<891::AID-ANIE891>3.0.CO;2-E. PMID 10760883.
^ Jump up to: a b c Reisenauer, H. P.; Wagner, J. P.; Schreiner, P. R. (2014). "Gas-Phase Preparation of Carbonic Acid and Its Monomethyl Ester". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 53 (44): 11766–11771. doi:10.1002/anie.201406969.
Jump up ^ Hage, W.; Hallbrucker, A.; Mayer, E. (1993). "Carbonic Acid: Synthesis by Protonation of Bicarbonate and FTIR Spectroscopic Characterization Via a New Cryogenic Technique". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 115 (18): 8427–8431. doi:10.1021/ja00071a061.
Jump up ^ "Press release: International First: Gas-phase Carbonic Acid Isolated". Technische Universität Wien. 11 January 2011.
Jump up ^ de Marothy, S. A. (2013). "Autocatalytic decomposition of carbonic acid". Int. J. Quantum Chem. 113 (20): 2306–2311. doi:10.1002/qua.24452. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
Further reading[edit]
"Climate and Carbonic Acid" in Popular Science Monthly Volume 59, July 1901
Welch, M. J.; Lifton, J. F.; Seck, J. A. (1969). "Tracer studies with radioactive oxygen-15. Exchange between carbon dioxide and water". J. Phys. Chem. 73 (335): 3351. doi:10.1021/j100844a033.
Jolly, W. L. (1991). Modern Inorganic Chemistry (2nd Edn.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-112651-1.
Moore, M. H.; Khanna, R. (1991). "Infrared and Mass Spectral Studies of Proton Irradiated H2O+Co2 Ice: Evidence for Carbonic Acid Ice: Evidence for Carbonic Acid". Spectrochimica Acta. 47A (2): 255–262. doi:10.1016/0584-8539(91)80097-3.
W. Hage, K. R. Liedl; Liedl, E.; Hallbrucker, A; Mayer, E (1998). "Carbonic Acid in the Gas Phase and Its Astrophysical Relevance". Science. 279 (5355): 1332–1335. doi:10.1126/science.279.5355.1332. PMID 9478889.
Hage, W.; Hallbrucker, A.; Mayer, E. (1995). "A Polymorph of Carbonic Acid and Its Possible Astrophysical Relevance". J. Chem. Soc. Farad. Trans. 91 (17): 2823–2826. doi:10.1039/ft9959102823.
External links[edit]
Ask a Scientist: Carbonic Acid Decomposition
Why was the existence of carbonic acid unfairly doubted for so long?
Carbonic acid/bicarbonate/carbonate equilibrium in water: pH of solutions, buffer capacity, titration and species distribution vs. pH computed with a free spreadsheet
How to calculate concentration of Carbonic Acid in Water
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