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Caste
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The Basor weaving bamboo baskets in a 1916 book. The Basor are a Scheduled caste found in the state of Uttar Pradesh in India.
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Social and cultural anthropology
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Caste is a form of social stratification characterized by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a lifestyle which often includes an occupation, status in a hierarchy, customary social interaction, and exclusion.[1][2] Although caste systems exist in various regions, its paradigmatic ethnographic example is the division of Indian society into rigid social groups, with roots in India's ancient history and persisting until today.[3] However, the economic significance of the caste system in India has been declining as a result of urbanization and affirmative action programs. A subject of much scholarship by sociologists and anthropologists, the Indian caste system is sometimes used as an analogical basis for the study of caste-like social divisions existing outside India. In biology, the term is applied to role stratification in eusocial animals like ants and termites, though the analogy is imperfect as these also involve extremely stratified reproduction.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 In South Asia
2.1 India
2.2 Nepal
2.3 Pakistan
2.4 Sri Lanka
3 Southeast Asia
3.1 Indonesia
4 East Asia
4.1 China and Mongolia
4.2 Japan
4.3 Korea
4.3.1 North Korea
4.4 Tibet
5 Middle East
5.1 Ancient Egypt
5.2 Iran
5.3 Yemen
6 Africa
6.1 West Africa
6.2 Central Africa
6.3 Horn of Africa
7 Europe
7.1 Basque country
7.2 United Kingdom
8 See also
9 References
10 Sources
11 Further reading
12 External links
Etymology[edit]
The origins of the term 'caste' are attributed to the Spanish and Portuguese casta, which, according to the John Minsheu's Spanish dictionary (1599), means "race, lineage, or breed".[5] When the Spanish colonized the New World, they used the word to mean a "clan or lineage". However, it was the Portuguese who employed casta in the primary modern sense when they applied it to the thousands of endogamous, hereditary Indian social groups they encountered upon their arrival in India in 1498.[5][6] The use of the spelling "caste", with this latter meaning, is first attested to in English in 1613.[5]
In South Asia[edit]
India[edit]
Main article: Caste system in India
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Castes in India.
Modern India's caste system is based on the social groupings called jāti and the theoretical varna. The system of varnas appears in Hindu texts dating back to 1000 BCE and envisages the society divided into four classes: Brahmins (teachers, scholars and priests), Kashatriyas (warriors and nobles), Vaishyas (farmers, traders and artisans) and Shudras (labourers/service providers). The texts do not mention any separate, untouchable category in varna classification. Scholars believe that the system of varnas was a theoretical classification envisioned by the Brahmins, but never truly operational in the society. The practical division of the society had always been in terms of jātis (birth groups), which are not based on any specific principle, but could vary from ethnic origins to occupations. The jātis have been endogamous groups without any fixed hierarchy but subject to vague notions of rank articulated over time based on lifestyle and social, political or economic status. In many instances, as in Bengal, historically the kings and rulers had been called upon, when required, to mediate on the ranks of jātis, which might number in thousands all over the subcontinent and vary by region. In practice, the jātis may or may not fit into the varna classes and many prominent jatis, for example the Jats and Yadavs, straddled two varnas i.e. Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, and the varna status of jātis itself was subject to articulation over time.
Starting with the British colonial Census of 1901 led by Herbert Hope Risley, all the jātis were grouped under the theoretical varnas categories.[7] According to political scientist Lloyd Rudolph, Risley believed that varna, however ancient, could be applied to all the modern castes found in India, and "[he] meant to identify and place several hundred million Indians within it."[8] The terms varna (conceptual classification based on occupation) and jāti (groups) are two distinct concepts: while varna is the idealised four-part division envisaged by the Twice-Borns, jāti (community) refers to the thousands of actual endogamous groups prevalent across the subcontinent. The classical authors scarcely speak of anything other than the varnas, as it provided a convenient shorthand; but a problem arises when even Indologists sometimes confuse the two.[9]
Upon independence from Britain, the Indian Constitution listed 1,108 castes across the country as Scheduled Castes in 1950, for positive discrimination.[10] The Untouchable communities are sometimes called Scheduled Castes, Dalit or Harijan in contemporary literature.[11] In 2001, Dalits were 16.2% of India's population.[12] Most of the 15 million bonded child workers are from the lowest castes.[13][14]
Independent India has witnessed caste-related violence. India's National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) records crimes against scheduled castes and scheduled tribes – the most disadvantaged groups - in a separate category. In 2005, government recorded approximately 110,000 cases of reported violent acts, including rape and murder, against Dalits [15] For 2012, the government recorded 651 murders, 3,855 injuries, 1,576 rapes, 490 kidnappings, and 214 cases of arson.[16]
The socio-economic limitations of the caste system are reduced due to urbanization and affirmative action. Nevertheless, the caste system still exists in endogamy and patrimony, and thrives in the politics of democracy, where caste provides ready made constituencies to politicians. The globalization and economic opportunities from foreign businesses has influenced the growth of India's middle-class population. Some members of the Chhattisgarh Potter Caste Community (CPCC) are middle-class urban professionals and no longer potters unlike the remaining majority of traditional rural potter members. The co-existence of the middle-class and traditional members in the CPCC has created intersectionality between caste and class.[17] There is persistence of caste in Indian politics. Caste associations have evolved into caste-based political parties. Political parties and the state perceive caste as an important factor for mobilization of people and policy development. It is not politics that gets caste-ridden; it is caste that gets politicized.[18]
A page from the manuscript Seventy-two Specimens of Castes in India, which consists of 72 full-color hand-painted images of men and women of various religions, occupations and ethnic groups found in Madura, India in 1837, which confirms the popular perception and nature of caste as Jati, before the British made it applicable only to Hindus grouped under the varna categories from the 1901 census onwards.
Nepal[edit]
Main article: Caste system in Nepal
The Nepalese caste system resembles that of the Indian jāti system with numerous jāti divisions with a varna system superimposed for a rough equivalence. But since the culture and the society is different some of the things are different. Inscriptions attest the beginnings of a caste system during the Licchavi period. Jayasthiti Malla (1382–95) categorized Newars into 64 castes (Gellner 2001). A similar exercise was made during the reign of Mahindra Malla (1506–75). The Hindu social code was later set up in Gorkha by Ram Shah (1603–36).
Pakistan[edit]
Main article: Caste system among South Asian Muslims
Religious, historical and sociocultural factors have helped define the bounds of endogamy for Muslims in some parts of Pakistan. There is a preference for endogamous marriages based on the clan-oriented nature of the society, which values and actively seeks similarities in social group identity based on several factors, including religious, sectarian, ethnic, and tribal/clan affiliation. Religious affiliation is itself multilayered and includes religious considerations other than being Muslim, such as sectarian identity (e.g. Shia or Sunni, etc.) and religious orientation within the sect (Isnashari, Ismaili, Ahmedi, etc.).[citation needed]
Both ethnic affiliation (e.g. Pathan, Sindhi, Baloch, Punjabi, etc.) and membership of specific biraderis or zaat/quoms are additional integral components of social identity.[19] Within the bounds of endogamy defined by the above parameters, close consanguineous unions are preferred due to a congruence of key features of group- and individual-level background factors as well as affinities. McKim Marriott claims a social stratification that is hierarchical, closed, endogamous and hereditary is widely prevalent, particularly in western parts of Pakistan. Frederik Barth in his review of this system of social stratification in Pakistan suggested that these are castes.[20][21][22]
Sri Lanka[edit]
Main article: Caste system in Sri Lanka
The caste system in Sri Lanka is a division of society into strata,[23] influenced by the textbook varnas and jāti system found in India. Ancient Sri Lankan texts such as the Pujavaliya, Sadharmaratnavaliya and Yogaratnakaraya and inscriptional evidence show that the above hierarchy prevailed throughout the feudal period. The repetition of the same caste hierarchy even as recently as the 18th century, in the British/Kandyan period Kadayimpoth - Boundary books as well, indicates the continuation of the tradition right up to the end of Sri Lanka's monarchy.
Southeast Asia[edit]
A Sudra caste man from Bali. Photo from 1870, courtesy of Tropenmuseum, Netherlands.
Indonesia[edit]
Main article: Balinese caste system
Balinese caste structure has been described in early 20th-century European literature to be based on three categories – triwangsa (thrice born) or the nobility, dwijāti (twice born) in contrast to ekajāti (once born) the low folks. Four statuses were identified in these sociological studies, spelled a bit differently from the caste categories for India:[24]
Brahmanas - priest
Satrias - knighthood
Wesias - commerce
Sudras - servitude
The Brahmana caste was further subdivided by these Dutch ethnographers into two: Siwa and Buda. The Siwa caste was subdivided into five – Kemenuh, Keniten, Mas, Manuba and Petapan. This classification was to accommodate the observed marriage between higher-caste Brahmana men with lower-caste women. The other castes were similarly further sub-classified by these 19th-century and early-20th-century ethnographers based on numerous criteria ranging from profession, endogamy or exogamy or polygamy, and a host of other factors in a manner similar to castas in Spanish colonies such as Mexico, and caste system studies in British colonies such as India.[24]
East Asia[edit]
China and Mongolia[edit]
During the period of Yuan Dynasty, ruler Kublai Khan enforced a Four Class System, which was a legal caste system. The order of four classes of people was maintained by the information of the descending order were:-
Mongolian
Semu people
Han people (in the northern areas of China)
Southerners (people of the former Southern Song dynasty)
Some scholars notes that it was a kind of psychological indication that the earlier they submitted to Mongolian people, the higher social status they would have. The 'Four Class System' and its people received different treatment in political, legal, and military affairs.[25][26]
Today, the Hukou system is considered by various sources as the current caste system of China.[27][28][29]
There is also significant controversy over the social classes of Tibet, especially with regards to the serfdom in Tibet controversy.
Japan[edit]
Main article: Edo society
Japanese samurai of importance and servant.
In Japan's history, social strata based on inherited position rather than personal merit, was rigid and highly formalized in a system called mibunsei (身分制). At the top were the Emperor and Court nobles (kuge), together with the Shogun and daimyo. Below them, the population was divided into four classes: samurai, peasants, craftsmen and merchants. Only samurai were allowed to bear arms. A samurai had a right to kill any peasants, craftsman or merchant who he felt were disrespectful. Merchants were the lowest caste because they did not produce any products. The castes were further sub-divided; for example, peasants were labelled as furiuri, tanagari, mizunomi-byakusho among others. As in Europe, the castes and sub-classes were of the same race, religion and culture.
Howell, in his review of Japanese society notes that if a Western power had colonized Japan in the 19th century, they would have discovered and imposed a rigid four-caste hierarchy in Japan.[30]
De Vos and Wagatsuma observe that Japanese society had a systematic and extensive caste system. They discuss how alleged caste impurity and alleged racial inferiority, concepts often assumed to be different, are superficial terms, and are due to identical inner psychological processes, which expressed themselves in Japan and elsewhere.[31]
Endogamy was common because marriage across caste lines was socially unacceptable.[31][32]
Japan had its own untouchable caste, shunned and ostracized, historically referred to by the insulting term Eta, now called Burakumin. While modern law has officially abolished the class hierarchy, there are reports of discrimination against the Buraku or Burakumin underclasses.[33] The Burakumin are regarded as "ostracised."[34] The burakumin are one of the main minority groups in Japan, along with the Ainu of Hokkaidō and those of residents of Korean and Chinese descent.
Korea[edit]
A typical Yangban Family Scene from 1904. The Yoon Family had an enduring presence in Korean politics from the 1800s until the 1970s.
The baekjeong (백정) were an “untouchable” outcaste of Korea. The meaning today is that of butcher. It originates in the Khitan invasion of Korea in the 11th century. The defeated Khitans who surrendered were settled in isolated communities throughout Goryeo to forestall rebellion. They were valued for their skills in hunting, herding, butchering, and making of leather, common skill sets among nomads. Over time, their ethnic origin was forgotten, and they formed the bottom layer of Korean society.
In 1392, with the foundation of the Confucian Joseon dynasty, Korea systemised its own native class system. At the top were the two official classes, the Yangban, which literally means "two classes." It was composed of scholars (munban) and warriors (muban). Scholars had a significant social advantage over the warriors. Below were the jung-in (중인-中人: literally "middle people". This was a small class of specialized professions such as medicine, accounting, translators, regional bureaucrats, etc. Below that were the sangmin (상민-常民: literally 'commoner'), farmers working their own fields. Korea also had a serf population known as the nobi. The nobi population could fluctuate up to about one-third of the population, but on average the nobi made up about 10% of the total population.[35] In 1801, the vast majority of government nobi were emancipated,[36] and by 1858 the nobi population stood at about 1.5 percent of the total population of Korea.[37] The hereditary nobi system was officially abolished around 1886–87 and the rest of the nobi system was abolished with the Gabo Reform of 1894,[37] but traces remained until 1930.
The opening of Korea to foreign Christian missionary activity in the late 19th century saw some improvement in the status of the baekjeong. However, everyone was not equal under the Christian congregation, and even so protests erupted when missionaries tried to integrate baekjeong into worship, with non-baekjeong finding this attempt insensitive to traditional notions of hierarchical advantage.[citation needed] Around the same time, the baekjeong began to resist open social discrimination.[38] They focused on social and economic injustices affecting them, hoping to create an egalitarian Korean society. Their efforts included attacking social discrimination by upper class, authorities, and "commoners," and the use of degrading language against children in public schools.[39]
With the Gabo reform of 1896, the class system of Korea was officially abolished. Following the collapse of the Gabo government, the new cabinet, which became the Gwangmu government after the establishment of the Korean Empire, introduced systematic measures for abolishing the traditional class system. One measure was the new household registration system, reflecting the goals of formal social equality, which was implemented by the loyalists’ cabinet. Whereas the old registration system signified household members according to their hierarchical social status, the new system called for an occupation.[40]
While most Koreans by then had surnames and even bongwan, although still substantial number of cheonmin, mostly consisted of serfs and slaves, and untouchables did not. According to the new system, they were then required to fill in the blanks for surname in order to be registered as constituting separate households. Instead of creating their own family name, some cheonmins appropriated their masters’ surname, while others simply took the most common surname and its bongwan in the local area. Along with this example, activists within and outside the Korean government had based their visions of a new relationship between the government and people through the concept of citizenship, employing the term inmin ("people") and later, kungmin ("citizen").[40]
North Korea[edit]
Main article: Songbun
The Committee for Human Rights in North Korea reported that "Every North Korean citizen is assigned a heredity-based class and socio-political rank over which the individual exercises no control but which determines all aspects of his or her life."[41] Regarded as Songbun, Barbara Demick describes this "class structure" as an updating of the hereditary "caste system", combining Confucianism and Stalinism.[42] She claims that a bad family background is called "tainted blood", and that by law this "tainted blood" lasts for three generations.[43]
Tibet[edit]
See also: Social classes of Tibet
Heidi Fjeld has put forth the argument that pre-1950s Tibetan society was functionally a caste system, in contrast to previous scholars who defined the Tibetan social class system as similar to European feudal serfdom, as well as non-scholarly western accounts which seek to romanticize a supposedly 'egalitarian' ancient Tibetan society.
Middle East[edit]
Main article: Yazidi
Yezidi society is hierarchical. The secular leader is a hereditary emir or prince, whereas a chief sheikh heads the religious hierarchy. The Yazidi are strictly endogamous; members of the three Yazidi castes, the murids, sheikhs and pirs, marry only within their group.
Ancient Egypt[edit]
The Ancient Egyptians were divided into four social classes:[44][45]
the royalty and nobles
artisans, craftworkers and merchants
workers
slaves
Iran[edit]
Pre-Islamic Sassanid society was immensely complex, with separate systems of social organization governing numerous different groups within the empire.[46] Historians believe society comprised four[47][48][49] social classes:
Priests (Persian: Asravan)
Warriors (Persian: Arteshtaran)
Secretaries (Persian: Dabiran)
Commoners (Persian: Vastryoshan)
Yemen[edit]
Main article: Al-Akhdam
In Yemen there exists a hereditary caste, the African-descended Al-Akhdam who are kept as perennial manual workers. Estimates put their number at over 3.5 million residents who are discriminated, out of a total Yemeni population of around 22 million.[50]
Africa[edit]
Main article: Caste system in Africa
Various sociologists have reported caste systems in Africa.[51][52][53] The specifics of the caste systems have varied in ethnically and culturally diverse Africa, however the following features are common - it has been a closed system of social stratification, the social status is inherited, the castes are hierarchical, certain castes are shunned while others are merely endogamous and exclusionary.[54] In some cases, concepts of purity and impurity by birth have been prevalent in Africa. In other cases, such as the Nupe of Nigeria, the Beni Amer of East Africa, and the Tira of Sudan, the exclusionary principle has been driven by evolving social factors.[55]
West Africa[edit]
A Griot, who have been described as an endogamous caste of West Africa who specialize in oral story telling and culture preservation. They have been also referred to as the bard caste.
Among the Igbo of Nigeria - especially Enugu, Anambra, Imo, Abia, Ebonyi, Edo and Delta states of the country - Obinna finds Osu caste system has been and continues to be a major social issue. The Osu caste is determined by one's birth into a particular family irrespective of the religion practised by the individual. Once born into Osu caste, this Nigerian person is an outcast, shunned and ostracized, with limited opportunities or acceptance, regardless of his or her ability or merit. Obinna discusses how this caste system-related identity and power is deployed within government, Church and indigenous communities.[51]
The osu class systems of eastern Nigeria and southern Cameroon are derived from indigenous religious beliefs and discriminate against the "Osus" people as "owned by deities" and outcasts.
The Songhai economy was based on a caste system. The most common were metalworkers, fishermen, and carpenters. Lower caste participants consisted of mostly non-farm working immigrants, who at times were provided special privileges and held high positions in society. At the top were noblemen and direct descendants of the original Songhai people, followed by freemen and traders.[56]
In a review of social stratification systems in Africa, Richter reports that the term caste has been used by French and American scholars to many groups of West African artisans. These groups have been described as inferior, deprived of all political power, have a specific occupation, are hereditary and sometimes despised by others. Richter illustrates caste system in Ivory Coast, with six sub-caste categories. Unlike other parts of the world, mobility is sometimes possible within sub-castes, but not across caste lines. Farmers and artisans have been, claims Richter, distinct castes. Certain sub-castes are shunned more than others. For example, exogamy is rare for women born into families of woodcarvers.[57]
Similarly, the Mandé societies in Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Senegal and Sierra Leone have social stratification systems that divide society by ethnic ties. The Mande class system regards the jonow slaves as inferior. Similarly, the Wolof in Senegal is divided into three main groups, the geer (freeborn/nobles), jaam (slaves and slave descendants) and the underclass neeno. In various parts of West Africa, Fulani societies also have class divisions. Other castes include Griots, Forgerons, and Cordonniers.
Tamari has described endogamous castes of over fifteen West African peoples, including the Tukulor, Songhay, Dogon, Senufo, Minianka, Moors, Manding, Soninke, Wolof, Serer, Fulani, and Tuareg. Castes appeared among the Malinke people no later than 14th century, and was present among the Wolof and Soninke, as well as some Songhay and Fulani populations, no later than 16th century. Tamari claims that wars, such as the Sosso-Malinke war described in the Sunjata epic, led to the formation of blacksmith and bard castes among the people that ultimately became the Mali empire.
As West Africa evolved over time, sub-castes emerged that acquired secondary specializations or changed occupations. Endogamy was prevalent within a caste or among a limited number of castes, yet castes did not form demographic isolates according to Tamari. Social status according to caste was inherited by off-springs automatically; but this inheritance was paternal. That is, children of higher caste men and lower caste or slave concubines would have the caste status of the father.[53]
Central Africa[edit]
Ethel M. Albert in 1960 claimed that the societies in Central Africa were caste-like social stratification systems.[58] Similarly, in 1961, Maquet notes that the society in Rwanda and Burundi can be best described as castes.[59] The Tutsi, noted Maquet, considered themselves as superior, with the more numerous Hutu and the least numerous Twa regarded, by birth, as respectively, second and third in the hierarchy of Rwandese society. These groups were largely endogamous, exclusionary and with limited mobility.[60] Maquet's theories have been controversial.
Horn of Africa[edit]
The Madhiban (Midgan) specialize in leather occupation. Along with the Tumal and Yibir, they are collectively known as sab.[61]
In a review published in 1977, Todd reports that numerous scholars report a system of social stratification in different parts of Africa that resembles some or all aspects of caste system. Examples of such caste systems, he claims, are to be found in Ethiopia in communities such as the Gurage and Konso. He then presents the Dime of Southwestern Ethiopia, amongst whom there operates a system which Todd claims can be unequivocally labelled as caste system. The Dime have seven castes whose size varies considerably. Each broad caste level is a hierarchical order that is based on notions of purity, non-purity and impurity. It uses the concepts of defilement to limit contacts between caste categories and to preserve the purity of the upper castes. These caste categories have been exclusionary, endogamous and the social identity inherited.[62] Alula Pankhurst has published a study of caste groups in SW Ethiopia.[63]
Among the Kafa, there were also traditionally groups labeled as castes. "Based on research done before the Derg regime, these studies generally presume the existence of a social hierarchy similar to the caste system. At the top of this hierarchy were the Kafa, followed by occupational groups including blacksmiths (Qemmo), weavers (Shammano), bards (Shatto), potters, and tanners (Manno). In this hierarchy, the Manjo were commonly referred to as hunters, given the lowest status equal only to slaves."[64]
The Borana Oromo of southern Ethiopia in the Horn of Africa also have a class system, wherein the Wata, an acculturated hunter-gatherer group, represent the lowest class. Though the Wata today speak the Oromo language, they have traditions of having previously spoken another language before adopting Oromo.[65]
The traditionally nomadic Somali people are divided into clans, wherein the Rahanweyn agro-pastoral clans and the occupational clans such as the Madhiban were traditionally sometimes treated as outcasts.[66] As Gabboye, the Madhiban along with the Yibir and Tumaal (collectively referred to as sab) have since obtained political representation within Somalia, and their general social status has improved with the expansion of urban centers.[61]
Europe[edit]
Medieval Europe's caste system had the following order:[67][68]
Nobility, royalty
Knights, squires, pages, clergy
Artisans
Peasants, slaves, serfs
Basque country[edit]
For centuries, through the modern times, the majority regarded Cagots who lived primarily in the Basque region of France and Spain as an inferior caste, the untouchables. While they had the same skin color and religion as the majority, in the churches they had to use segregated doors, drink from segregated fonts, and receive communion on the end of long wooden spoons. It was a closed social system. The socially isolated Cagots were endogamous, and chances of social mobility non-existent.[69][70]
United Kingdom[edit]
In July 2013, the UK government announced its intention to amend the Equality Act 2010 to "introduce legislation on caste, including any necessary exceptions to the caste provisions, within the framework of domestic discrimination law".[71] Section 9(5) of the Equality Act 2010 provides that "a Minister may by order amend the statutory definition of race to include caste and may provide for exceptions in the Act to apply or not to apply to caste".
From September 2013 to February 2014, Meena Dhanda led a project on ‘Caste in Britain’ for the UK Equality and Human Rights Commission (EHRC).[72]
See also[edit]
Estates of the realm
Kamaiya
Propiska
Social exclusion
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Sources[edit]
Béteille, André (2002), "Caste", in Barnard, Alan; Spencer, Jonathan, Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology, New York, NY; London, UK: Routledge, pp. 136–137, ISBN 978-0-415-28558-2
Doniger, Wendy, ed. (1999), "Caste", Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, p. 186, ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0, retrieved 24 September 2012
Gupta, Dipankar (2008), "Caste", in Schaefer, Richard T., Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society, Thousand Oaks: SAGE, pp. 246–250, ISBN 978-1-4129-2694-2, retrieved 5 August 2012
Lagasse, Paul, ed. (2007), "Caste", The Columbia Encyclopedia, New York, NY: Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-14446-9, retrieved 24 September 2012
Madan, T. N.; Editors (2012), caste, Encyclopæida Britannica Online
Mitchell, Geoffrey Duncan (2006), "Castes (part of SOCIAL STRATIFICATION)", A New Dictionary of the Social Sciences, New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transaction Publishers, pp. 194–195, ISBN 978-0-202-30878-4, retrieved 10 August 2012
Morris, Mike (2012), "caste", Concise Dictionary of Social and Cultural Anthropology, Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons, p. 33, ISBN 978-1-4443-3209-4, retrieved 10 August 2012
Nagar, Richa (2011), "caste", in Derek Gregory, The Dictionary of Human Geography, Ron Johnston, Geraldine Pratt, Michael Watts, Sarah Whatmore, John Wiley & Sons, p. 72, ISBN 978-1-4443-5995-4, retrieved 10 August 2012
Oxford English Dictionary ( "caste, n.", Oxford English Dictionary, Second edition; online version June 2012, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1989, retrieved 5 August 2012 ) Quote: caste, n. 2a. spec. One of the several hereditary classes into which society in India has from time immemorial been divided; ... This is now the leading sense, which influences all others.
Parry, Jonathan (2003), "Caste", in Kuper, Adam; Kuper, Jessica, Social Science Encyclopedia, London and New York: Routledge, p. 131, ISBN 978-0-415-28560-5
Pavri, Firooza (2004), "Caste", in Tim Forsyth, Encyclopedia of International Development, Abingdon, Oxon, OX ; New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 63–, ISBN 978-0-415-25342-0
Ramu, G. N. (2008), "Caste", in William A. Darity, International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, (Macmillan social science library), Detroit, MI: Macmillan Reference USA, ISBN 978-0-02-865967-1, retrieved 24 September 2012
Roberts, Nathaniel P. (2008), "Anthropology of Caste", in William A. Darity, International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, (Macmillan social science library), Detroit, MI: Macmillan Reference USA, ISBN 978-0-02-865967-1, retrieved 24 September 2012
Salamone, Frank A. (1997), "Caste", in Rodriguez, Junius P., The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery, Volume 1, Santa Barbara, CA; Oxford, UK: ABC-CLIO, p. 133, ISBN 978-0-87436-885-7, retrieved 5 August 2012
Scott, John; Marshall, Gordon (2005), "caste", A Dictionary of Sociology, Oxford, UK; New York, NY: Oxford University Press, p. 66, ISBN 978-0-19-860987-2, retrieved 10 August 2012
Sonnad, Subhash R. (2003), "Caste", in Christensen, Karen; Levinson, David, Encyclopedia of Community: From the Village to the Virtual World, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, pp. 115–121, ISBN 978-0-7619-2598-9, retrieved 5 August 2012
Sooryamoorthi, Radhamany (2006), "Caste Systems", in Leonard, Thomas M. (editor), Encyclopedia of the Developing World, New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 252–, ISBN 978-0-415-97662-6, retrieved 5 August 2012 CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link)
Winthrop, Robert H. (1991), Dictionary of Concepts in Cultural Anthropology, ABC-CLIO, pp. 27–30, ISBN 978-0-313-24280-9, retrieved 10 August 2012
Further reading[edit]
Spectres of Agrarian Territory by David Ludden 11 December 2001
"Early Evidence for Caste in South India", p. 467-492 in Dimensions of Social Life: Essays in honor of David G. Mandelbaum, Edited by Paul Hockings and Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, New York, Amsterdam, 1987.
External links[edit]
Auguste Comte on why and how castes developed across the world - in The Positive Philosophy, Volume 3 (see page 55 onwards)
Robert Merton on Caste and The Sociology of Science
Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age - Susan Bayly
Class In Yemen by Marguerite Abadjian (Archive of the Baltimore Sun)
International Dalit Solidarity Network: An international advocacy group for Dalits
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text:
Across the River and into the Trees
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Across the River and Into the Trees
First American edition
Author
Ernest Hemingway
Cover artist
Adriana Ivancich
Country
United States
Language
English
Genre
Novel
Publisher
Charles Scribner's Sons
Publication date
1950
Media type
Print (Hardcover)
Pages
320 pp
Across the River and Into the Trees is a novel by American writer Ernest Hemingway, published by Charles Scribner's Sons in 1950, after first being serialized in Cosmopolitan magazine earlier that year. The title derives from the last words of U.S. Civil War Confederate General Thomas J. (Stonewall) Jackson: “Let us cross over the river and rest under the shade of the trees.”[1]
Hemingway's novel opens with aging Colonel Richard Cantwell duck hunting in Trieste, Italy. It then presents his life in a lengthy flashback, with Cantwell thinking about a young Venetian woman, Renata, and his experiences during World War I.
During a trip to Italy not long before writing the novel, Hemingway had met young Adriana Ivancich, with whom he became infatuated, and he used her as the model for the female character in the novel. The novel's central theme is death, and, more importantly, how death is faced. One biographer and critic sees a parallel between Hemingway's Across the River and Into the Trees and Thomas Mann's Death in Venice. The novel is built upon successive layers of symbolism, and as in his other writing, Hemingway employs here his distinctive, spare style (the 'iceberg theory'), where the substance lies below the surface of the plot.
Hemingway described Across the River and into the Trees and one reader's reaction to it, using 'Indian talk': "Book too much for him. Book start slow, then increase in pace till it becomes impossible to stand. I bring emotion up to where you can’t stand it, then we level off, so we won’t have to provide oxygen tents for the readers. Book is like engine. We have to slack her off gradually."[2]
Written in Italy, Cuba and France in the late 1940s, it was the first of his novels to receive negative press and reviews. It was nonetheless a bestseller in America, spending 7 weeks at the top of the New York Times bestseller's list in 1950, and was, in fact, Hemingway's only novel to top the list.[3] Since its initial unenthusiastic critical reception, more recent critics and scholars generally see it as an important addition to the Hemingway canon.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot summary
2 Background and publication
3 Writing style and genre
4 Themes
5 Reception
6 Film adaptation
7 Footnotes
8 References
9 External links
Plot summary[edit]
Across the River and Into the Trees begins in the first chapter with the frame story of 50-year-old Colonel Cantwell's duck hunting trip to Trieste set in the time-present. Cantwell, who is dying of heart disease, spends a Sunday afternoon in a duck blind in Trieste.
In the second chapter, Hemingway takes Cantwell back in time by means of a stream of consciousness interior monologue, that presents an extended flashback which continues for 38 chapters. In the final six chapters, Cantwell is again presented in the frame story set in the time-present.
In the flashback he had thought of his recent weekend in Venice with 18-year-old Renata, moving backward in time to ruminate about his experiences during the war. The novel ends with Cantwell suffering a fatal series of heart attacks as he leaves the duck blind.
Background and publication[edit]
Ernest Hemingway first met A. E. Hotchner, who later became a close friend, in 1948 when Hotchner, recently released from the Air Force, had taken a job with Cosmopolitan Magazine as a "commissioned agent." Hemingway's name was on the list of authors Hotchner was to contact, so he went to Cuba, asked for a meeting (Hemingway took him to a bar), and for a short article. Hemingway did not write an article, but he did submit his next novel Across the River and into the Trees to Hotchner, which Cosmopolitan then serialized in five installments.[4][5][6] The protagonist is generally considered to have been based loosely on a friend of Hemingway, Charles T. Lanham, with components of the character also being autobiographically based on the author himself.
Hemingway worked on the book from 1949 to 1950 in four different places: he started writing during the winter of 1949 in Italy at Cortina D'Ampezzo; continued upon his return home to Cuba; finished the draft in Paris; and completed revisions in Venice in the winter of 1950.[7]
In the fall of 1948 he arrived in Italy and visited Fossalta where in 1918 he had been wounded. A month later, while duck hunting with an Italian aristocrat he met 18-year-old Adriana Ivancich.[8] He and his then wife Mary then went to Cortina to ski: she broke her ankle and, bored, Hemingway began the draft of the book.[9] Hemingway himself then became ill with an eye infection and was hospitalized. In the spring he went to Venice where he ate lunch with Adriana a few times. In May he returned to Cuba and carried out a protracted correspondence with her while working on the manuscript.[8] In the autumn he had returned to Europe and at the Ritz in Paris he finished the draft. Once done, he and Mary went again to Cortina to ski: for the second time she broke her ankle and he contracted an eye infection.[9] By February the first serialization was published in Cosmopolitan and in March the Hemingways returned to Paris and then home to Cuba where the final proofs were read before the September publication.[6]
Cosmopolitan Magazine serialized Across the River and Into the Trees from February to June 1950.[10] Adriana Ivancich designed the dust jacket of the first edition, although her original artwork was redrawn by the Scribner's promotions department.[11] The novel was published by Scribner's on 7 September 1950 with a first edition print run of 75,000,[12] after a publicity campaign that hailed the novel as Hemingway's first book since the publication of his 1940 Spanish Civil War novel For Whom the Bell Tolls.[13]
Writing style and genre[edit]
Hemingway started as a journalist and writer of short stories, and Baker suggests that he thus learned how to "get the most from the least, how to prune language, how to multiply intensities, and how to tell nothing but the truth in a way that allowed for telling more than the truth".[14] The style is known as the Iceberg Theory because in Hemingway's writing the hard facts float above water; the supporting structure, complete with symbolism, operates out-of-sight.[14] The concept of the iceberg theory is sometimes referred to as the "theory of omission." Hemingway believed that a writer could describe one thing, while an entirely different thing occurs below the surface.[15] Baker calls Across the River and into the Trees a "lyric-poetical novel" in which each scene has an underlying truth presented via symbolism.[16] According to Meyers, an example of omission is that Renata, like other heroines in Hemingway's fiction, suffers a major "shock"—the murder of her father and the subsequent loss of her home—to which Hemingway alludes only briefly.[11] Hemingway's pared down narrative forces the reader to solve connections—as Stoltzfus has written: "Hemingway walks the reader to the bridge that he or she must cross alone without the narrator's help."[17]
Across the River and into the Trees is constructed so that time is seemingly compressed and differentiated between present and past – as one critic says, "memory and space-time coalesce."[17] To move Cantwell into the extended flashback, Hemingway uses the word "boy" as a bridge between time-present and time-past. The dialogue stays in the present tense, despite the time shifts, according to Stoltzfus, and the word "now" is repeated to "reinforce the illusion".[17]
Themes[edit]
Cantwell, an aging military officer in love with the teenaged Renata, (whose name means "reborn"), is shown unlikeable as a character; one critic writes of him that his "lovemaking is described in terms of an infantry attack over difficult terrain".[18] He is dying of heart disease and his relationship with Renata can be interpreted as a means of seeking youth or immortality.[18] Hemingway biographer Jeffrey Meyers believes Renata represents the city of Venice, she "connected" Cantwell (and Hemingway) to Italy, and in her characterization Hemingway romanticized what may have been a father-daughter relationship and he says Hemingway probably used Cantwell's fictional relationship with Renata as a substitute for his own relationship with Adriana, who looked almost identical to Renata's description.[8]
Hemingway biographer Carlos Baker says Hemingway captured the theme of "the three ages of man," and in writing the book he finally objectified his own youthful traumatic war experiences.[10] Baker sees a thematic parallel between Thomas Mann's Death in Venice and Across the River and into the Trees, presented in a series of commonalities and differences. Death in Venice is set in the summer on Venice's Lido; Hemingway puts Cantwell in Venice in the winter. Mann's protagonist is a writer; Hemingway's a soldier. Both face death, and in the face of death seek solace in a much younger character.[19] Cantwell reminisces about the past while Renata (an 18-year-old countess with whom Cantwell spends the last days of his life) lives in the present. Cantwell says that "Every day is a new and fine illusion" where a kernel of truth can be found.[20] Cantwell is a character in opposition: a tough soldier yet a tender friend and lover. The two Cantwells at times overlap and bleed into one another.[20] Hemingway added yet another layer in the characterization: 50-year-old Cantwell in his dying day is "in an intense state of awareness" of his younger self of 1918 to the point that meld – yet retain the differences wrought by time.[21]
Charles Oliver writes the novel shows a central Hemingway theme of "maintaining control over one's life, even in the face of terrible odds." Cantwell knows he is dying and faces death "with the dignity which he believes he has maintained throughout his military service."[12] Oliver thinks the two male characters, Cantwell and Alvarito, have an unstated understanding – both men love Renata, but Cantwell accepts and is happy to know Renata will almost certainly marry Alvarito. Within hours of dying he says to himself: "You have said goodbye to your girl and she has said goodbye to you. That is certainly simple".[12] The theme of death is central in Hemingway's writings and his characters routinely achieve redemption at the moment of death, which can be seen as a form of existentialism. Jean-Paul Sartre believed to face death well is to live a heightened existence.[22]
Jackson Benson writes that how a writer transforms biographical events into art is more important than looking for connections between Hemingway's life and his fiction. He believes autobiographical events may have a "very tenuous relationship" to the fiction similar to a dream from which a drama emerges. Hemingway's later fiction, Benson writes "is like an adolescent day-dream in which he acts out infatuation and consummation, as in Across the River."[23] Meyers agrees that parallels exist between Hemingway and Colonel Cantwell, but he sees more similarities with Hemingway's friend of many decades "Chink" Dorman-Smith, whose military career was undermined causing his demotion.[24] Benson believes Hemingway used autobiographical details to work as framing devices to write about life in general—not only about his life. For example, Benson postulates that Hemingway used his experiences and drew them out further with "what if" scenarios: "what if I were wounded in such a way that I could not sleep at night? What if I were wounded and made crazy, what would happen if I were sent back to the front?"[23] For example, he describes Hemingway's experiences in the World War II battle of the Battle of Hürtgen Forest succinctly as "Passchendaele with tree bursts."[25]
Reception[edit]
John O'Hara wrote in the New York Times; "The most important author living today, the outstanding author since the death of Shakespeare, has brought out a new novel. The title of the novel is Across the River and Into the Trees. The author, of course, is Ernest Hemingway, the most important, the outstanding author out of the millions of writers who have lived since 1616."[5] Tennessee Williams, in The New York Times, wrote: "I could not go to Venice, now, without hearing the haunted cadences of Hemingway's new novel. It is the saddest novel in the world about the saddest city, and when I say I think it is the best and most honest work that Hemingway has done, you may think me crazy. It will probably be a popular book. The critics may treat it pretty roughly. But its hauntingly tired cadences are the direct speech of a man's heart who is speaking that directly for the first time, and that makes it, for me, the finest thing Hemingway has done." [26]
Williams and O'Hara were among very few of the positive contemporary reviews,[27] while negative reviews appeared in more than 150 publications.[17] Critics claimed the novel was too emotional, had inferior prose and a "static plot", and that Cantwell was an "avatar" for Hemingway's character Nick Adams.[27] The novel was also criticized for being an unsuitable autobiography, and for presenting Cantwell as a bitter soldier.[28]
Sure they can say anything about nothing happening in Across the River, all that happens is the defense of the lower Piave, the breakthrough in Normandy, the taking of Paris ... plus a man who loves a girl and dies.
—Ernest Hemingway about critical reception to
Across the River and into the Trees.[29]
According to Baker, Hemingway was "deeply wounded by the negative reviews" of this novel.[30] Furthermore, Baker explains Hemingway was unaware that those close to him agreed with the majority of critics. For example, his wife Mary, who disapproved of Across the River and into the Trees, said: "I kept my mouth shut. Nobody had appointed me my husband's editor."[27]
Generally the novel is considered better than the critical reviews received upon publication[clarification needed].[31] Baker compares it to Shakespeare's Winter's Tale, or The Tempest: not a major work, but one with an "elegiac" tone.[32] Meyers believes the novel shows a new "confessional mode" in Hemingway's work, and that it "would have been hailed as more impressive if it had been written by anyone but Hemingway."[27] Stoltzfus agrees, and he believes Hemingway's structure is more comprehensible for the modern reader—exposed to the Nouveau roman—than for those of the mid-20th century.[17]
Film adaptation[edit]
A feature film is being adapted, which would star Pierce Brosnan with Martin Campbell directing. The producers are going to be Kirstin Roegner and John Smallcombe.[33]
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Thomas J. 'Stonewall' Jackson dies," May 10, 1863, This Day in History, History.com
Jump up ^ Ross, 36
Jump up ^ John Bear, The #1 New York Times Best Seller: intriguing facts about the 484 books that have been #1 New York Times bestsellers since the first list, 50 years ago, Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 1992, pp. 47
Jump up ^ Hotchner, ix–x
^ Jump up to: a b O'Hara, John. "The Author's Name is Hemingway". The New York Times. September 10, 1950. Retrieved March, 20, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Sanderson, 26
Jump up ^ Baker (1972), 264–265
^ Jump up to: a b c Meyers (1985), 439–444
^ Jump up to: a b Sanderson, 24
^ Jump up to: a b Baker (1972), 265
^ Jump up to: a b Meyers (1985), 445
^ Jump up to: a b c Oliver, 3
Jump up ^ Meyers (1985), 459
^ Jump up to: a b Baker (1972), 117
Jump up ^ Oliver, 321–322
Jump up ^ Baker (1972), 274–275
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Stoltzfus (2003)
^ Jump up to: a b Svobada, 166
Jump up ^ Baker (1972), 267
^ Jump up to: a b Baker (1972), 268–273
Jump up ^ Baker (1972), 278
Jump up ^ Stoltzfus, (2005)
^ Jump up to: a b Benson, (1989)
Jump up ^ Meyers (1985), 471–474
Jump up ^ Martin Herzog. Don’t Fraternize! Post-war American-German relations began 60 years ago Archived February 11, 2012, at the Wayback Machine., The Atlantic Times, October 2004. Paragraph 10.
Jump up ^ Williams, Tennessee (August 13, 1950). "A Writer's Quest For a Parnassus". The New York Times.(registration required)
^ Jump up to: a b c d qtd. in Meyers (1985), 457–459
Jump up ^ Mellow (1992), 459–451
Jump up ^ quoted in Mellow (1992), 561
Jump up ^ Meyers, (1985), 454
Jump up ^ Meyers (1985), 470
Jump up ^ Baker (1972), 287
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (February 8, 2016). "Pierce Brosnan, Martin Campbell to Adapt Ernest Hemingway Novel (Exclusive)". hollywoodreporter.com. Retrieved February 9, 2016.
References[edit]
Baker, Carlos. (1972). Hemingway: The Writer as Artist. Princeton: Princeton UP. ISBN 978-0-691-01305-3
Benson, Jackson. (1989). "Ernest Hemingway: The Life as Fiction and the Fiction as Life". American Literature. 61.3, 354–358
Defazio, Albert. (2005). Dear Papa, dear Hotch: the correspondence of Ernest Hemingway and A.E Hotchner. Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press. ISBN 0-8262-1605-6
Mellow, James. (1992). Hemingway: A Life Without Consequences. New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-37777-2
Meyers, Jeffrey. (1985). Hemingway: A Biography. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-42126-0
Oliver, Charles. (1999). Ernest Hemingway A to Z: The Essential Reference to the Life and Work. New York: Checkmark Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-3467-3
Ross, Lillian. (1951). "How Do You Like it Now, Gentlemen?". The New Yorker, May 13, 1950. 36.
Sanderson, Rena. (2006). Hemingway's Italy: New Perspectives. Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 0-8071-3113-X
Stoltzfus, Ben. (2003). "The Stones of Venice, Time and Remembrance: Calculus and Proust in Across the River and into the Trees". The Hemingway Review. 22.2. 20–29
Stoltzfus, Ben. (2005). "Sartre, Nada, and Hemingway's African Stories". Comparative Literature Studies. 42.3. 228–250
Svoboda, Frederic J. (2000). "The Great Themes in Hemingway: Love, War, Wilderness and Loss". in A Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway edited by Linda Wagner Martin. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19512-151-1
External links[edit]
Bibliowiki has original media or text related to this article: Across the River and Into the Trees (in the public domain in Canada)
Across the River and Into the Trees at Faded Page (Canada)
Hemingway Archives, John F. Kennedy Library
Literary Encyclopedia Review
[show]
v
t
e
Ernest Hemingway
Bibliography
Novels
The Torrents of Spring (1926)
The Sun Also Rises (1926)
A Farewell to Arms (1929)
To Have and Have Not (1937)
For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940)
Across the River and into the Trees (1950)
The Old Man and the Sea (1952)
Non-fiction
Death in the Afternoon (1932)
Green Hills of Africa (1935)
Posthumous
A Moveable Feast (1964)
Islands in the Stream (1970)
The Dangerous Summer (1985)
The Garden of Eden (1986)
True at First Light (1999)
Under Kilimanjaro (2005)
Short stories
"Indian Camp" (1925)
"The Doctor and the Doctor's Wife" (1925)
"The End of Something" (1925)
"The Three-Day Blow" (1925)
"The Battler" (1925)
"A Very Short Story" (1925)
"Soldier's Home" (1925)
"The Revolutionist" (1925)
"Mr. and Mrs. Elliot" (1925)
"Cat in the Rain" (1925)
"Out of Season" (1925)
"Cross Country Snow" (1925)
"My Old Man" (1925)
"Big Two-Hearted River" (1925)
"A Clean, Well-Lighted Place" (1926)
"A Canary for One" (1926)
"Fifty Grand" (1927)
"Hills Like White Elephants" (1927)
"The Killers" (1927)
"The Undefeated" (1927)
"Che Ti Dice La Patria?" (1927)
"In Another Country" (1927)
"On the Quai at Smyrna" (1930)
"Fathers and Sons" (1932)
"A Day's Wait" (1933)
"The Gambler, the Nun, and the Radio" (1933)
"A Way You'll Never Be" (1933)
"The Snows of Kilimanjaro" (1936)
"The Capital of the World" (1936)
"The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber" (1936)
Short story
collections
Three Stories and Ten Poems (1923)
In Our Time (1925)
Men Without Women (1927)
Winner Take Nothing (1933)
The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories (1938)
The Snows of Kilimanjaro (1961)
The Fifth Column and Four Stories of the Spanish Civil War (1969)
The Nick Adams Stories (1972)
The Complete Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway (1987)
Ernest Hemingway: The Collected Stories (1995)
Story fragments
"On Writing"
Poetry
88 Poems (1979)
Complete Poems
Letters and
journalism
Ernest Hemingway Selected Letters 1917–1961 (1981)
Dateline: Toronto (1985)
The Cambridge Edition of the Letters of Ernest Hemingway (2011)
Adaptations
The Sun Also Rises
1957 film
1984 film
Opera
The Select (The Sun Also Rises)
Ballet
"The Killers"
1946 film
1956 film
1964 film
Bukowski short story
A Farewell to Arms
1932 film
1957 film
1966 TV series
To Have and Have Not
1944 film
The Breaking Point (1950)
The Gun Runners (1958)
Captain Khorshid (1987)
For Whom the Bell Tolls
1943 film
1965 TV series
Metallica song
The Old Man and the Sea
1958 film
1990 miniseries
1999 film
Other film adaptations
The Macomber Affair (1947)
The Snows of Kilimanjaro (1952)
Hemingway's Adventures of a Young Man (1962)
Islands in the Stream (1977)
See also
Nick Adams
Michigan cottage
Idaho house
Key West home
Hotel Ambos Mundos, Havana home
Finca Vigía, Cuba home
Pilar (boat)
The Spanish Earth (1937 film)
Bacall to Arms (1946 cartoon)
Hello Hemingway (1990 film)
In Love and War (1996 film)
Hemingway & Gellhorn (2012 film)
Cooper & Hemingway: The True Gen (2013 documentary)
Papa: Hemingway in Cuba (2015 film)
Hemingway Foundation/PEN Award
Kennedy Library Hemingway collection
Family
Elizabeth Hadley Richardson (first wife)
Jack Hemingway (son)
Pauline Pfeiffer (second wife)
Patrick Hemingway (son)
Gregory Hemingway (son)
Martha Gellhorn (third wife)
Mary Welsh Hemingway (fourth wife)
Grace Hall Hemingway (mother)
Leicester Hemingway (brother)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Across_the_River_and_into_the_Trees&oldid=821433773"
Categories:
1950 American novels
American war novels
Novels by Ernest Hemingway
Novels first published in serial form
Novels set in Italy
Novels set in Venice
Works originally published in Cosmopolitan (magazine)
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Webarchive template wayback links
Pages with login required references or sources
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Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2016
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value: عبر النهر وبين الأشجار – Arabic

value: За ракой у дрэвах – Belarusian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

value: Über den Fluss und in die Wälder – German

value: Al otro lado del río y entre los árboles – Spanish

value: Au-delà du fleuve et sous les arbres – French

value: Di là dal fiume e tra gli alberi – Italian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

value: מעבר לנהר ואל בין העצים – Hebrew

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

value: Across the River and into the Trees – Dutch

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

value: Na Outra Margem, Entre as Árvores – Portuguese

value: За рекой, в тени деревьев – Russian

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