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Polka
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For the media production company, see Pol-ka.
Polka
Stylistic origins
Czech folk music
Volksmusik
Austrian folk music
Cultural origins
Early to mid-19th century, Kingdom of Bohemia, Austrian Empire
Typical instruments
Drum kit
tuba
semi-acoustic guitar
zither
accordion
trumpet
clarinet
Derivative forms
Norteño
maxixe
biguine
Regional scenes
Paraguayan polka
Slovenian-style polka
The polka is originally a Czech dance and genre of dance music familiar throughout Europe and the Americas. It originated in the middle of the 19th century in Bohemia, now part of the Czech Republic. Polka remains a popular folk music genre in many European countries, and is performed by folk artists in the Czech Republic, Poland, Germany, Austria, Slovenia, Switzerland, Finland and to a lesser extent in Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Hungary, Italy, Ukraine, Romania, Belarus, Russia, and Slovakia. Local varieties of this dance are also found in the Nordic countries, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Latin America and the United States.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Etymology
1.2 Origin and popularity
2 Styles
3 The polka in the classical repertoire
4 Polka in the United States
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
9 Music sample
History[edit]
Etymology[edit]
Street musicians in Prague playing a polka
The term polka possibly comes from the Czech word "půlka" ("half"), referring to the short half-steps featured in the dance.[1] Czech cultural historian and ethnographer Čeněk Zíbrt, who wrote in detail about the origin of the dance, in his book, Jak se kdy v Čechách tancovalo[2] cites an opinion of František Doucha (1840, Květy, p. 400) that "polka" was supposed to mean "dance in half" ("tanec na polo", notice the absence of diacritics), both referring to the half-tempo 2
4 and the half-jump step of the dance. Zíbrt also ironically dismisses the etymology suggested by A. Fähnrich (in Ein etymologisches Taschenbuch, Jiein, 1846) that "polka" comes from the Czech word "pole" ("field").[2] On the other hand, Zdeněk Nejedlý suggests that the etymology given by Fr. Doucha is nothing but an effort to prove the "true Czech folk" origin of Polka. Instead, he claims that according to Jaroslav Langr ("České krakováčky" in: Čas. Čes. musea, 1835, Sebr. spisy I, 256) in the area of Hradec Králové, the tune Krakoviáky from the collection Slovanské národní písně of František Ladislav Čelakovský became very popular so that it was used to dance (Czech dances) třasák, břitva, and kvapík, and this way was called "Polka". Nejedlý also writes that Václav Vladivoj Tomek also claims the Hradec Králové roots of a Polka.[3] OED also suggests that the name may have been derived from the Czech polka meaning "Polish woman" (feminine form corresponding to polák, a Pole).[1]
The word was widely introduced into the major European languages in the early 1840s.[1] It should not be confused with the polska, a Swedish 3
4-beat (help·info) dance with Polish roots (cf. polka-mazurka). A related dance is the redowa. Polkas almost always have a 2
4 (help·info) time signature. Folk music of Polka style appeared in written music about 1800.[4]
Origin and popularity[edit]
Polka, c. 1840.
The beginning of the propagation of dance and accompanying music called polka is generally attributed to a young woman, Anna Slezáková (born Anna Chadimová). The music teacher Josef Neruda noticed her dancing in an unusual way to accompany a local folk song called "Strýček Nimra koupil šimla", or "Uncle Nimra Bought a White Horse", in 1830. She is said to have called the dance Maděra ("Madeira wine") because of its liveliness. The dance was further propagated by Neruda, who put the tune to paper and taught other young men to dance it.[2] Čeněk Zíbrt notices that a common claim that the events happened in Týnec nad Labem, Bohemia in 1834 is incorrect. Zibrt writes that when he published this traditional story in 1894 in Narodni Listy newspaper, he received a good deal of feedback from eyewitnesses. In particular, he wrote that according to further witness, the originating event actually happened in 1830, in Kostelec nad Labem, where she worked as a housemaid. Zíbrt writes that he published the first version of the story (with incorrect place name) in Bohemia (June 5, 1844), from where it was reprinted all over Europe and in the United States.[2] Zíbrt also wrote that simple Czech folk claimed that they knew and danced Polka long before the nobles got hold of it, i.e., it is a truly folk Czech dance.[2]
By 1835, this dance had spread to the ballrooms of Prague. From there, it spread to Vienna by 1839,[5] and in 1840 was introduced in Paris by Raab, a Prague dance instructor.
It was so well received by both dancers and dance masters in Paris that its popularity was referred to as "polkamania."[citation needed] The dance soon spread to London and was introduced to America in 1844. It remained a popular ballroom dance until the late 19th century, when it would give way to the two-step and new ragtime dances.[citation needed]
Polka dancing enjoyed a resurgence in popularity after World War II, when many Polish refugees moved to the US, adopting this Bohemian style as a cultural dance. Polka dances are still held on a weekly basis across many parts of the US with significant populations of central European origin. It was also found in parts of South America.[citation needed]
Styles[edit]
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Polka rhythm[6]
There are various styles of contemporary polka besides the original Czech dance, which is still the chief dance at any formal or countryside ball in the Czech Republic.
One of the types found in the United States is the North American "Polish-style polka," which has roots in Chicago, with large Czech and Polish minorities; two sub-styles are "The Chicago Honky" (using clarinet and one trumpet) and "Chicago Push" featuring the accordion, Chemnitzer & Star concertinas, upright bass or bass guitar, drums, and (almost always) two trumpets. North American "Slovenian-style polka" is fast and features piano accordion, chromatic accordion, and/or diatonic button box accordion; it is associated with Cleveland. North American "Dutchmen-style" features an oom-pah sound often with a tuba & banjo, and has roots in the American Midwest. "Conjunto-style" polkas have roots in northern Mexico and Texas, and are also called "Norteño". Traditional dances from this region reflect the influence of polka-dancing European immigrants. In the 1980s and 1990s, several American bands began to combine polka with various rock styles (sometimes referred to as "punk polka"), "alternative polka", or "San Francisco-style".
There also exist Curaçaoan polkas, Peruvian polkas (becoming very popular in Lima). In the pampas of Argentina, the "polca" has a very fast beat with a 3
4 time signature. Instruments used are: acoustic guitar (usually six strings, but sometimes seven strings), electric or acoustic bass (sometimes fretless), accordion (sometimes piano accordion, sometimes button accordion), and sometimes some percussion is used. The lyrics always praise the gaucho warriors from the past or tell about the life of the gaucho campeiros (provincial gauchos who keep the common way). The polka was very popular in South and Southwest of Brazil, where it was mixed with other European and African styles to create the Choro. The polka (polca in the Irish language) is also one of the most popular traditional folk dances in Ireland, particularly in Sliabh Luachra, a district that spans the borders of counties Kerry, Cork and Limerick.[7] Many of the figures of Irish set dances, which developed from Continental quadrilles, are danced to polkas. Introduced to Ireland in the late 19th century, there are today hundreds of Irish polka tunes, which are most frequently played on the fiddle or button accordion. The Irish polka is dance music form in 2
4, typically 32 bars in length and subdivided into four parts, each 8 bars in length and played AABB.[8][9][10][11] Irish polkas are typically played fast, at over 130 bpm, and are typically played with an off-beat accent.[12][13]
The polka also migrated to the Nordic countries where it is known by a variety of names in Denmark (galopp, hopsa), Estonia (polka), Finland (pariisipolkka, polkka), Iceland, Norway (galopp, hamborgar, hopsa/hopsar, parisarpolka, polka, polkett, skotsk) and Sweden (polka). The beats are not as heavy as those from Central Europe and the dance steps and holds also have variations not found further south. The polka is considered a part of the gammeldans tradition of music and dance. While it is nowhere near as old as the older Nordic dance and music traditions, there are still hundreds of polka tunes in each of the Nordic countries. They are played by solo instrumentalists or by bands/ensembles, most frequently with lead instruments such as accordion, fiddle, diatonic accordion, hardingfele and nyckelharpa.
The polka in the classical repertoire[edit]
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Polka
Bedřich Smetana incorporated the polka in his opera The Bartered Bride (Czech: Prodaná nevěsta) and in particular, Act 1.[14][15]
While the polka is Bohemian in origin, most dance music composers in Vienna (the capital of the vast Habsburg Austro-Hungarian Empire, which was the cultural centre for music from all over the empire) composed polkas and included the dance in their repertoire at some point of their career. The Strauss family in Vienna for example, while probably better-known for their waltzes also composed polkas that have survived obscurity. Josef Lanner and other Viennese composers in the 19th century also wrote many polkas to satisfy the demands of the dance-music-loving Viennese. In France, another dance-music composer Emile Waldteufel also wrote many polkas in addition to his chief profession of penning waltzes.
The polka evolved during the same period into different styles and tempi. In principle, the polka written in the 19th century has a 4-theme structure; themes 1A and 1B as well as a 'Trio' section of a further 2 themes. The 'Trio' usually has an 'Intrada' to form a break between the two sections. The feminine and graceful 'French polka' (polka française) is slower in tempo and is more measured in its gaiety. Johann Strauss II's Annen Polka op. 114, Demolirer polka op. 269, the Im Krapfenwald'l op. 336 and the Bitte schön! polka op. 372 are examples of this type of polka. The polka-mazurka is also another variation of the polka, being in the tempo of a mazurka but danced in a similar manner as the polka. The final category of the polka form around that time is the polka schnell, which is a fast polka or galop. Eduard Strauss is better known for this last category, as he penned the 'Bahn Frei' polka op. 45 and other examples. Earlier, Johann Strauss I and Josef Lanner wrote polkas designated as a galop (quick tempo) or as a regular polka that may not fall into any of the categories above.
The polka was a further source of inspiration for the Strauss family in Vienna when Johann II and Josef Strauss wrote one for plucked string instruments (pizzicato) only, the well-known 'Pizzicato polka'.[16] Johann II later wrote a 'New pizzicato polka' (Neu pizzicato-polka), opus 449, culled from music of his operetta 'Fürstin Ninetta'. Much earlier, he also wrote a 'joke-polka' (German "scherz-polka") entitled 'Champagne-polka', opus 211, which evokes the uncorking of champagne bottles.
Other composers who wrote music in the style of the polka were Jaromír Weinberger, Dmitri Shostakovich and Igor Stravinsky.
Polka in the United States[edit]
Main article: Polka in the United States
In the United States, Polka is promoted by the International Polka Association based in Chicago, which works to preserve the cultural heritage of polka music and to honor its musicians through the Polka Hall of Fame.
Texas Polka Music Museum in Schulenburg west of Houston, Texas
Polka is also popular in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where the Beer Barrel Polka is played during the seventh inning stretch and halftime of Milwaukee Brewers and Milwaukee Bucks games.[17] Polka is also the official State Dance of Wisconsin.[18] Wisconsin also is the home to multiple large Polish festivities where people from all over the country come to stay and listen to multiple bands on multiple days of music. These festivals usually take place in the summer, but there are a few in the winter months.
The United States Polka Association is a non-profit organization based in Cleveland, Ohio.[19]
Walter Solek was one of the early Polka pioneers starting in the late 1930s. Recognition expanded when the Grammy Awards were first presented for polka in 1985. The first award went to America's Polka King, Frank Yankovic, for his "70 Years of Hits" album on Cleveland International Records, produced by Joey Miskulin and Dragutin Razum in 1986. Cleveland International Records had another Polka Grammy winner with Brave Combo's Polkasonic in 1999. Other Polka Grammy nominees on Cleveland International Records include Frank Yankovic's "America's Favorites" (1986), "Songs of the Polka King Vol. I" (Produced by Joey Miskulin and Slavko Slivovitz, 1996), "Songs of the Polka King Vol. II" (1997), and Brave Combo's "Kick Ass Polkas" (2000). Jimmy Sturr & His Orchestra is arguably the most popular polka band in America, having won 18 out of the 24 Grammy Awards given for Grammy Award for Best Polka Album.
Polka Varieties was an hour-long television program of polka music originating from Cleveland, Ohio. The show aired in several U.S. cities, and ran from 1956 until 1983. At that time, it was the only television program for this type of music in the US.[20] (There were a number of polka shows originating from the Buffalo Niagara Region in the 1960s, including WKBW-TV's Polka Time, which was hosted for its first half-year on air by Frankie Yankovic, and cross-border station CHCH-TV's Polka Party, hosted by Walter Ostanek.[21] Buffalo once again received a polka television show in 2015, when WBBZ-TV launched the weekly Polka Buzz.[22])
Beginning with its inception in 2001, the RFD-TV Network aired The Big Joe Show, a television program that included polka music and dancing. It was filmed on location in various venues throughout the United States from 1973 through 2009. RFD-TV replaced The Big Joe Show with Mollie Busta's Polka Fest in January 2011; after Big Joe's death, reruns of The Big Joe Show returned to RFD-TV in 2015.[23]
In 2009, the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences, which hosts/produces the Grammy Awards, announced that it was eliminating the polka category.[24] The Academy's official reason for eliminating the polka award was “to ensure the awards process remains representative of the current musical landscape.”[24] The Academy's decision stems from the declining number of popular polka albums considered for an award in recent years. For example, out of the five polka albums nominated for an award in 2006, only one album was widely distributed in the mainstream.[24]
See also[edit]
List of polka artists
Austrian folk dancing
Banda music – a country music performed in Spanish to a polka beat; the country music have a polka 2
4 beat in the rhythm.
Slide (tune type), common in music from Sliabh Luachra like the polka
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "polka, n.". Oxford University Press. http://www.oed.com (accessed July 11, 2012).
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Čeněk Zíbrt, "Jak se kdy v Čechách tancovalo: dějiny tance v Čechách, na Moravě, ve Slezsku a na Slovensku z věkǔ nejstarších až do nové doby se zvláštním zřetelem k dějinám tance vǔbec", Prague, 1895 (Google eBook)
Jump up ^ Zdeněk Nejedlý "Polka", Naše řeč, ročník 9 (1925), číslo 4
Jump up ^ Maja Trochimczyk. "Polish dances: polka". www.usc.edu. Retrieved 24 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "History of polka". www.com. Retrieved 24 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Blatter, Alfred (2007). Revisiting music theory: a guide to the practice, p.28. ISBN 0-415-97440-2.
Jump up ^ Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann. "Comhaltas: Glossary". Retrieved 22 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Alan Ng. "irishtune.info Rhythm Definitions - Irish Traditional Music Tune Index". Retrieved 22 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Vallely, F. (1999). The Companion to Traditional Irish Music. New York University Press: New York, p. 301
Jump up ^ "Irish Fiddle". Retrieved 22 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Lyth, D. Bowing Styles in Irish Fiddle Playing. Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann, p. 18.
Jump up ^ Cooper, P. (1995). Mel Bay's Complete Irish Fiddle Player. Mel Bay Publications, Inc.: Pacific, p. 19, 46
Jump up ^ Cranitch, M. (1988). The Irish Fiddle Book. Music Sales Corporation: New York, p. 66.
Jump up ^ "The Bartered Bride: Five fascinating facts". Opera North. Retrieved 2017-10-03.
Jump up ^ "Smetana's 'Bartered Bride' Gives A Taste Of The Czech Countryside (In Boston)". www.wbur.org. Retrieved 2017-10-03.
Jump up ^ "Pizzicato Polka for orchestra, Op. | Details | AllMusic". AllMusic. Retrieved 2017-10-03.
Jump up ^ "ESPN.com - Page2 - A great place ... for a tailgate". Retrieved 22 May 2015.
Jump up ^ "Wisconsin State Symbols". Wisconsin.gov. Archived from the original on 20 December 2015.
Jump up ^ "United States Polka Association". United States Polka Association.
Jump up ^ "Paul Wilcox, host of 'Polka Varieties' in Cleveland, dies at age of 85". Archived from the original on 20 December 2015. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Forgotten Buffalo featuring Polonia Media. Retrieved May 16, 2013.
Jump up ^ Herr, Jim (April 14, 2017). WBBZ-TV’s “Polka Buzz” hosts fun dance parties in Cheektowaga. Cheektowaga Chronicle. Retrieved April 14, 2017.
Jump up ^ My Journey To Happiness. "LIFE: observed: American Cultural Observation 331: RFD-TV's Polka Fest". Retrieved 22 May 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sisario, Ben (June 5, 2009). "Polka Music Is Eliminated as Grammy Award Category". The New York Times. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
Further reading[edit]
Vaclovas Paukštė, Polka Lietuvoje ("Polka in Lithuania"), Vilnius, Vilnius Pedagogical University, 2000, 28pp
External links[edit]
National Cleveland-Style Polka Hall of Fame.
"Polka". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
"Polka". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.
Polka Kings: Does Polka Music Really Come from Poland? from Culture.pl
Music sample[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Polka.
Download & play a recording of "Jenny Lind", a polka from the Library of Congress' California Gold: Northern California Folk Music from the Thirties Collection; performed by John Selleck (violin) on October 2, 1939 in Camino, California.
The Sliabh Notes play a few Irish polkas
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Substantia nigra
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Substantia nigra
Substantia nigra highlighted in red.
Section through superior colliculus showing Substantia nigra.
Details
Part of
Midbrain, Basal ganglia
Identifiers
Latin
Substantia nigra
MeSH
A08.186.211.132.659.687
NeuroNames
hier-527
NeuroLex ID
Substantia nigra
TA
A14.1.06.111
Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
[edit on Wikidata]
The substantia nigra is a basal ganglia structure located in the midbrain that plays an important role in reward and movement. Substantia nigra is Latin for "black substance", reflecting the fact that parts of the substantia nigra appear darker than neighboring areas due to high levels of neuromelanin in dopaminergic neurons.[1] It was discovered in 1784 by Félix Vicq-d'Azyr,[2] and Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring alluded to this structure in 1791.[3] Parkinson's disease is characterized by the death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta.[4]
Although the substantia nigra appears as a continuous band in brain sections, anatomical studies have found that it actually consists of two parts with very different connections and functions: the pars compacta and the pars reticulata. This classification was first proposed by Sano in 1910.[5] The pars compacta serves mainly as an input to the basal ganglia circuit, supplying the striatum with dopamine. The pars reticulata, though, serves mainly as an output, conveying signals from the basal ganglia to numerous other brain structures.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Pars reticulata
1.1.1 Afferent connections
1.1.2 Efferent connections
2 Function
2.1 Pars reticulata
2.2 Pars compacta
3 Clinical significance
3.1 Parkinson's disease
3.2 Schizophrenia
3.3 Wooden Chest Syndrome
3.4 Multiple system atrophy
4 Chemical modification of the substantia nigra
4.1 Amphetamine and trace amines
4.2 Cocaine
4.3 Levodopa
4.4 MPTP
5 History
6 Additional images
7 References
8 External links
Structure[edit]
Coronal slices of human brain showing the basal ganglia, globus pallidus: external segment (GPe), subthalamic nucleus (STN), globus pallidus: internal segment (GPi), and substantia nigra (SN, red). The right section is the deeper one, closer to the back of the head
Diagram of the main components of the basal ganglia and their interconnections
Anatomical overview of the main circuits of the basal ganglia, substantia nigra is shown in black. Picture shows 2 coronal slices that have been superimposed to include the involved basal ganglia structures. + and - signs at the point of the arrows indicate respectively whether the pathway is excitatory or inhibitory in effect. Green arrows refer to excitatory glutamatergic pathways, red arrows refer to inhibitory GABAergic pathways and turquoise arrows refer to dopaminergic pathways that are excitatory on the direct pathway and inhibitory on the indirect pathway.
See also: Primate basal ganglia system
The substantia nigra, along with four other nuclei, is part of the basal ganglia. It is the largest nucleus in the midbrain, lying dorsal to the cerebral peduncles. Humans have two substantiae nigrae, one on each side of the midline.
The substantia nigra is divided into two parts: the pars reticulata and pars compacta, which lies medial to the pars reticulata. Sometimes, a third region, the pars lateralis, is mentioned, though it is usually classified as part of the pars reticulata. The pars reticulata and the internal globus pallidus are separated by the internal capsule.[citation needed]
Pars reticulata[edit]
Main article: Pars reticulata
The pars reticulata bears a strong structural and functional resemblance to the internal part of the globus pallidus. The two are sometimes considered parts of the same structure, separated by the white matter of the internal capsule. Like those of the globus pallidus, the neurons in pars reticulata are mainly GABAergic.[citation needed]
Afferent connections[edit]
The main input to the pars reticulata derives from the striatum. It comes by two routes, known as the direct and indirect pathways. The direct pathway consists of axons from medium spiny cells in the striatum that project directly to pars reticulata. The indirect pathway consists of three links: a projection from striatal medium spiny cells to the external part of the globus pallidus; a GABAergic projection from the globus pallidus to the subthalamic nucleus, and a glutamatergic projection from the subthalamic nucleus to the pars reticulata.[6] Thus, striatal activity via the direct pathway exerts an inhibitory effect on neurons in the pars reticulata but an excitatory effect via the indirect pathway. The direct and indirect pathways originate from different subsets of striatal medium spiny cells: They are tightly intermingled, but express different types of dopamine receptors, as well as showing other neurochemical differences.
Efferent connections[edit]
Significant projections occur to the thalamus (ventral lateral and ventral anterior nuclei), superior colliculus, and other caudal nuclei from the pars reticulata (the nigrothalamic pathway),[7] which use GABA as their neurotransmitter. In addition, these neurons form up to five collaterals that branch within both the pars compacta and pars reticulata, likely modulating dopaminergic activity in the pars compacta.[8]
Function[edit]
The substantia nigra is an important player in brain function, in particular, in eye movement, motor planning, reward-seeking, learning, and addiction. Many of the substantia nigra's effects are mediated through the striatum. The nigral dopaminergic input to the striatum via the nigrostriatal pathway is intimately linked with the striatum's function.[9] The co-dependence between the striatum and substantia nigra can be seen in this way: when the substantia nigra is electrically stimulated, no movement occurs; however, the symptoms of nigral degeneration due to Parkinson's is a poignant example of the substantia nigra's influence on movement. In addition to striatum-mediated functions, the substantia nigra also serves as a major source of GABAergic inhibition to various brain targets.
Pars reticulata[edit]
Main article: Pars reticulata § Function
The pars reticulata of the substantia nigra is an important processing center in the basal ganglia. The GABAergic neurons in the pars reticulata convey the final processed signals of the basal ganglia to the thalamus and superior colliculus. In addition, the pars reticulata also inhibits dopaminergic activity in the pars compacta via axon collaterals, although the functional organization of these connections remains unclear.
The GABAergic neurons of the pars reticulata spontaneously fire action potentials. In rats, the frequency of action potentials is roughly 25 Hz.[10] The purpose of these spontaneous action potentials is to inhibit targets of the basal ganglia, and decreases in inhibition are associated with movement.[11] The subthalamic nucleus gives excitatory input that modulates the rate of firing of these spontaneous action potentials. However, lesion of the subthalamic nucleus leads to only a 20% decrease in pars reticulata firing rate, suggesting that the generation of action potentials in the pars reticulata is largely autonomous,[12] as exemplified by the pars reticulata's role in saccadic eye movement. A group of GABAergic neurons from the pars reticulata projects to the superior colliculus, exhibiting a high level of sustained inhibitory activity.[13] Projections from the caudate nucleus to the superior colliculus also modulate saccadic eye movement. Altered patterns of pars reticulata firing such as single-spike or burst firing are found in Parkinson's disease[14] and epilepsy.[15]
Pars compacta[edit]
Main article: Pars compacta § Function
The most prominent function of the pars compacta is motor control,[16] though the substantia nigra's role in motor control is indirect; electrical stimulation of the substantia nigra does not result in movement, due to mediation of the striatum in the nigral influence of movement. The pars compacta sends excitatory input to the striatum via D1 pathway that excites and activates the striatum, resulting in the release of GABA onto the globus pallidus to inhibit its inhibitory effects on the thalamic nucleus. This causes the thalamocortical pathways to become excited and transmits motor neuron signals to the cerebral cortex to allow the initiation of movement, which is absent in Parkinson's disease. However, lack of pars compacta neurons has a large influence on movement, as evidenced by the symptoms of Parkinson's. The motor role of the pars compacta may involve fine motor control, as has been confirmed in animal models with lesions in that region.[17]
The pars compacta is heavily involved in learned responses to stimuli. In primates, dopaminergic neuron activity increases in the nigrostriatal pathway when a new stimulus is presented.[18] Dopaminergic activity decreases with repeated stimulus presentation.[18] However, behaviorally significant stimulus presentation (i.e. rewards) continues to activate dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Dopaminergic projections from the ventral tegmental area (bottom part of the "midbrain" or mesencephalon) to the prefrontal cortex (mesocortical pathway) and to the nucleus accumbens (mesolimbic pathway - "meso" referring to "from the mesencephalon"... specifically the ventral tegmental area) are implicated in reward, pleasure, and addictive behavior. The pars compacta is also important in spatial learning, the observations about one's environment and location in space. Lesions in the pars compacta lead to learning deficits in repeating identical movements,[19] and some studies point to its involvement in a dorsal striatal-dependent, response-based memory system that functions relatively independent of the hippocampus, which is traditionally believed to subserve spatial or episodic-like memory functions.[20]
The pars compacta also plays a role in temporal processing and is activated during time reproduction. Lesions in the pars compacta leads to temporal deficits.[21] As of late, the pars compacta has been suspected of regulating the sleep-wake cycle,[22] which is consistent with symptoms such as insomnia and REM sleep disturbances that are reported by patients with Parkinson's disease. Even so, partial dopamine deficits that do not affect motor control can lead to disturbances in the sleep-wake cycle, especially REM-like patterns of neural activity while awake, especially in the hippocampus.[23]
Clinical significance[edit]
The substantia nigra is critical in the development of many diseases and syndromes, including parkinsonism and Parkinson's disease.
Parkinson's disease[edit]
Substantia nigra with loss of cells and Lewy body pathology
Main article: Parkinson's disease
Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disease characterized, in part, by the death of dopaminergic neurons in the pars compacta of the substantia nigra. The major symptoms of Parkinson's disease include tremor, akinesia, bradykinesia, and stiffness.[24] Other symptoms include disturbances to posture, fatigue, sleep abnormalities, and depressed mood.[25]
The cause of death of dopaminergic neurons in the pars compacta is unknown. However, some contributions to the unique susceptibility of dopaminergic neurons in the pars compacta have been identified. For one, dopaminergic neurons show abnormalities in mitochondrial complex 1, causing aggregation of alpha-synuclein; this can result in abnormal protein handling and neuron death.[26] Secondly, dopaminergic neurons in the pars compacta contain less calbindin than other dopaminergic neurons.[27] Calbindin is a protein involved in calcium ion transport within cells, and excess calcium in cells is toxic. The calbindin theory would explain the high cytotoxicity of Parkinson's in the substantia nigra compared to the ventral tegmental area. Regardless of the cause of neuronal death, the plasticity of the pars compacta is very robust; Parkinsonian symptoms do not appear until up to 50-80% of pars compacta dopaminergic neurons have died.[28] Most of this plasticity occurs at the neurochemical level; dopamine transport systems are slowed, allowing dopamine to linger for longer periods of time in the chemical synapses in the striatum.[28]
Menke, Jbabdi, Miller, Matthews and Zari (2010) used diffusion tensor imaging, as well as T1 mapping to assess volumetric differences in the substantia nigra subregions, pars reticulata and pars compacta, in participants with Parkinson’s compared to healthy individuals. These researchers found that participants with Parkinson’s consistently had a smaller substantia nigra, specifically in the right substantia nigra pars reticulata. Because the substantia nigra pars reticulata is connected to the posterior thalamus, ventral thalamus and specifically, the motor cortex, and because participants with Parkinson’s disease report having a smaller substantia nigra pars reticulata (Menke, Jbabdi, Miller, Matthews and Zari, 2010), the small volume of this region may be responsible for motor impairments found in Parkinson’s disease patients. This small volume may be responsible for weaker and/or less controlled motor movements, which may result in the tremors often experienced by those with Parkinson’s.[29]
Schizophrenia[edit]
See also: Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
Increased levels of dopamine have long been implicated in the development of schizophrenia.[30] However, much debate continues to this day surrounding this dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia. Despite the controversy, dopamine antagonists remain a standard and successful treatment for schizophrenia. These antagonists include first generation (typical) antipsychotics such as butyrophenones, phenothiazines, and thioxanthenes. These drugs have largely been replaced by second-generation (atypical) antipsychotics such as clozapine and paliperidone. It should be noted that, in general, these drugs do not act on dopamine-producing neurons themselves, but on the receptors on the post-synaptic neuron.
Other, non-pharmacological evidence in support of the dopamine hypothesis relating to the substantia nigra include structural changes in the pars compacta, such as reduction in synaptic terminal size.[31] Other changes in the substantia nigra include increased expression of NMDA receptors in the substantia nigra, and reduced dysbindin expression. Increased NMDA receptors may point to the involvement of glutamate-dopamine interactions in schizophrenia. Dysbindin, which has been (controversially) linked to schizophrenia, may regulate dopamine release, and low expression of dysbindin in the substantia nigra may be important in schizophrenia etiology.[32] Due to the changes to the substantia nigra in the schizophrenic brain, it may eventually be possible to use specific imaging techniques (such as neuromelanin-specific imaging) to detect physiological signs of schizophrenia in the substantia nigra.[33]
Wooden Chest Syndrome[edit]
Wooden chest, also called fentanyl chest wall rigidity syndrome, is a rare side effect of synthetic opioids such as Fentanyl, Sulfentanil, Alfentanil, Remifentanil. It results in a generalised increase in skeletal muscle tone. The mechanism is thought to be via increased dopamine release and decreased GABA release in the nerves of the substantia nigra/striatum. The effect is most pronounced on the chest wall muscles and can lead to impaired ventilation. The condition is most commonly observed in anaesthesia where rapid and high doses of these drugs are given intravenously.[citation needed]
Multiple system atrophy[edit]
Multiple system atrophy characterized by neuronal degeneration in the striatum and substantial nigra, was previously called striatonigral degeneration.
Chemical modification of the substantia nigra[edit]
Chemical manipulation and modification of the substantia nigra is important in the fields of neuropharmacology and toxicology. Various compounds such as levodopa and MPTP are used in the treatment and study of Parkinson's disease, and many other drugs have effects on the substantia nigra.
Amphetamine and trace amines[edit]
See also: Amphetamine and Trace amine
Studies have shown that, in certain brain regions, amphetamine and trace amines increase the concentrations of dopamine in the synaptic cleft, thereby heightening the response of the post-synaptic neuron.[34] The various mechanisms by which amphetamine and trace amines affect dopamine concentrations have been studied extensively, and are known to involve both DAT and VMAT2.[34][35][36] Amphetamine is similar in structure to dopamine and trace amines; as a consequence, it can enter the presynaptic neuron via DAT as well as by diffusing through the neural membrane directly.[34] Upon entering the presynaptic neuron, amphetamine and trace amines activate TAAR1, which, through protein kinase signaling, induces dopamine efflux, phosphorylation-dependent DAT internalization, and non-competitive reuptake inhibition.[34][37] Because of the similarity between amphetamine and trace amines, it is also a substrate for monoamine transporters; as a consequence, it (competitively) inhibits the reuptake of dopamine and other monoamines by competing with them for uptake, as well.[34]
In addition, amphetamine and trace amines are substrates for the neuronal vesicular monoamine transporter, vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2).[36] When amphetamine is taken up by VMAT2, the vesicle releases (effluxes) dopamine molecules into the cytosol in exchange.[36]
Cocaine[edit]
See also: Cocaine
Cocaine's mechanism of action in the human brain includes the inhibition of dopamine reuptake,[38] which accounts for cocaine's addictive properties, as dopamine is the critical neurotransmitter for reward. However, cocaine is more active in the dopaminergic neurons of the ventral tegmental area than the substantia nigra. Cocaine administration increases metabolism in the substantia nigra, which can explain the altered motor function seen in cocaine-using subjects.[39] The inhibition of dopamine reuptake by cocaine also inhibits the firing of spontaneous action potentials by the pars compacta.[40] The mechanism by which cocaine inhibits dopamine reuptake involves its binding to the dopamine transporter protein. However, studies show that cocaine can also cause a decrease in DAT mRNA levels,[41] most likely due to cocaine blocking dopamine receptors rather than direct interference with transcriptional or translational pathways.[41]
Inactivation of the substantia nigra could prove to be a possible treatment for cocaine addiction. In a study of cocaine-dependent rats, inactivation of the substantia nigra via implanted cannulae greatly reduced cocaine addiction relapse.[42]
Levodopa[edit]
See also: Levodopa
The substantia nigra is the target of chemical therapeutics for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Levodopa (commonly referred to as L-DOPA), the dopamine precursor, is the most commonly prescribed medication for Parkinson's disease, despite controversy concerning the neurotoxicity of dopamine and L-DOPA.[43] The drug is especially effective in treating patients in the early stages of Parkinson's, although it does lose its efficacy over time.[44] Levodopa can cross the blood–brain barrier and increases dopamine levels in the substantia nigra, thus alleviating the symptoms of Parkinson's disease. The drawback of levodopa treatment is that it treats the symptoms of Parkinson's (low dopamine levels), rather than the cause (the death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra).
MPTP[edit]
See also: MPTP
MPTP, is a neurotoxin specific to dopaminergic cells in the brain, specifically in the substantia nigra. MPTP was brought to the spotlight in 1982 when heroin users in California displayed Parkinson's-like symptoms after using MPPP contaminated with MPTP. The patients, who were rigid and almost completely immobile, responded to levodopa treatment. No remission of the Parkinson's-like symptoms was reported, suggesting irreversible death of the dopaminergic neurons.[45] The proposed mechanism of MPTP involves disruption of mitochondrial function, including disruption of metabolism and creation of free radicals.[46]
Soon after, MPTP was tested in animal models for its efficacy in inducing Parkinson's disease (with success). MPTP induced akinesia, rigidity, and tremor in primates, and its neurotoxicity was found to be very specific to the substantia nigra pars compacta.[47] In other animals, such as rodents, the induction of Parkinson's by MPTP is incomplete or requires much higher and frequent doses than in primates. Today, MPTP remains the most favored method to induce Parkinson's disease in animal models.[46][48]
History[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2018)
Additional images[edit]
Dopamine and serotonin
Degradation of substantia nigra associated with Parkinson's disease.
Horizontal MRI (T1 weighted) slice with highlighting indicating location of the substantia nigra.
Enhanced Neuromelanin MRI with Color images (RGB) showing Substantia nigra pars compacta
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Rabey, J. M.; Hefti, F. (1990). "Neuromelanin synthesis in rat and human substantia nigra". Journal of Neural Transmission - Parkinson's Disease and Dementia Section. 2 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1007/BF02251241. PMID 2357268.
Jump up ^ Tubbs RS, Loukas M, Shoja MM, Mortazavi MM, Cohen-Gadol AA (July 2011). "Félix Vicq d'Azyr (1746-1794): early founder of neuroanatomy and royal French physician". Childs Nerv Syst. 27 (7): 1031–4. doi:10.1007/s00381-011-1424-y. PMID 21445631.
Jump up ^ Swanson, LW. Neuroanatomical terminology : a lexicon of classical origins and historical foundations. Oxford University Press, 2014. England ISBN 9780195340624
Jump up ^ Kim, S. J.; Sung, JY; Um, JW; Hattori, N; Mizuno, Y; Tanaka, K; Paik, SR; Kim, J; Chung, KC (2003). "Parkin Cleaves Intracellular -Synuclein Inclusions via the Activation of Calpain". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 278 (43): 41890–9. doi:10.1074/jbc.M306017200. PMID 12917442.
Jump up ^ Sano, T (1910). "Beitrag zur vergleichenden Anatomie der Substantia nigra, des Corpus Luysii und der Zona incerta". Mschr Psychiat Neurol. 28 (1): 26–34. doi:10.1159/000209678.
Jump up ^ Nauta, Haring J. W.; Cole, Monroe (1978). "Efferent projections of the subthalamic nucleus: An autoradiographic study in monkey and cat". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 180 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1002/cne.901800102. PMID 418083. [better source needed]
Jump up ^ Carpenter, Malcolm B.; Nakano, Katsuma; Kim, Ronald (1976). "Nigrothalamic projections in the monkey demonstrated by autoradiographic technics". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 165 (4): 401–15. doi:10.1002/cne.901650402. PMID 57125.
Jump up ^ Deniau, J.M.; Kitai, S.T.; Donoghue, J.P.; Grofova, I. (1982). "Neuronal interactions in the substantia nigra pars reticulata through axon collaterals of the projection neurons". Experimental Brain Research. 47. doi:10.1007/BF00235891.
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Substantia nigra.
Stained brain slice images which include the "substantia nigra" at the BrainMaps project
Diagram and explanation of cortico-basal pathways
[show]
v
t
e
Anatomy of the midbrain
Tectum
(Dorsal)
Surface
Corpora quadrigemina:
Inferior colliculus
Brachium
Superior colliculus
Brachium
Grey matter
Pretectal area
White: Sensory/ascending
Spinotectal tract
Central tegmental tract
White: Motor/descending
Tectospinal tract
Peduncle
(Ventral)
Tegmentum
White: Sensory/ascending
Lemnisci
Medial
Lateral
Ascending MLF
Vestibulo-oculomotor fibers
Spinothalamic tract
Anterior trigeminothalamic tract
Dentatothalamic tract
White: Motor/descending
Rubrospinal tract
Rubro-olivary tract
Descending MLF
Grey: cranial nuclei
GSA
Mesencephalic- GSE
Oculomotor nucleus, Trochlear nucleus- GVE
Edinger–Westphal nucleus
Grey: other
Periaqueductal gray
Raphe nuclei
dorsal
Ventral tegmental area
Rostromedial tegmental nucleus
Pedunculopontine nucleus
Red nucleus
Rostral interstitial nucleus of medial longitudinal fasciculus
Parabrachial area
Interpeduncular nucleus
Midbrain reticular formation
Ventricular system
Cerebral aqueduct
Base
White: Motor/descending
Cerebral crus: Corticospinal tract
Corticobulbar tract
Corticopontine tract/Frontopontine fibers/Temporopontine fibers
Grey: Substantia nigra
Pars compacta
Pars reticulata
Surface
Superior cerebellar peduncle
Decussation
Interpeduncular fossa
[show]
v
t
e
Rostral basal ganglia of the human brain and associated structures
Basal ganglia
Grey matter
Striatum
Dorsal striatum
Putamen
Caudate nucleus
Ventral striatum
Nucleus accumbens
Olfactory tubercle
Globus pallidus
GPe
GPi
Other
Amygdala
Claustrum
White matter
Centrum semiovale
Internal capsule
Anterior limb
Genu
Posterior limb
Optic radiation
Corona radiata
External capsule
Extreme capsule
Pallidothalamic tracts: Thalamic fasciculus
Ansa lenticularis
Lenticular fasciculus
Subthalamic fasciculus
Rhinencephalon
Grey matter
Anterior olfactory nucleus
Anterior perforated substance
Olfactory bulb
White matter
Olfactory tract
Medial olfactory stria
Lateral olfactory stria
Olfactory trigone
Other basal forebrain
Grey matter
Substantia innominata
Nucleus basalis
Nucleus of diagonal band
White matter
Diagonal band of Broca
Stria terminalis
Archicortex:
Hippocampal formation/
Hippocampus anatomy
Grey matter
Hippocampus proper
CA1
CA2
CA3
CA4
Dentate gyrus
Fascia dentata
Subiculum
White matter
Alveus
Fimbria
Perforant path
Schaffer collateral
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The Girl in the Crowd
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Girl in the Crowd
Googie Withers (seated, left)
Directed by
Michael Powell
Produced by
Michael Balcon
Written by
Brock Williams
Starring
Barry Clifton
Patricia Hilliard
Googie Withers
Harold French
Cinematography
Basil Emmott
Edited by
Bert Bates
Distributed by
Warner Brothers-First National Productions
Release date
20 May 1935 UK
Running time
52 min
Country
United Kingdom
Language
English
The Girl in the Crowd is a 1935 British comedy film directed by Michael Powell starring Barry Clifton, Patricia Hilliard and Googie Withers.
The film has been declared "Missing, Believed Lost" by the British Film Institute.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 References
3.1 Notes
3.2 Bibliography
4 External links
Plot[edit]
The wife of a bookseller gives advice about picking up woman to her husband's friend (whom she has never met) over the phone. She advises him simply to follow the first pretty woman he sees. Unfortunately, when he takes her advice, she is the girl in the crowd he ends up following, leading to his arrest.
Cast[edit]
Barry Clifton as David Gordon
Patricia Hilliard as Marian
Googie Withers as Sally. Withers was just an extra, until the second female lead quit and she took over.[2]
Harold French as Bob
Clarence Blakiston as Mr. Peabody
Margaret Gunn as Joyce
Richard Littledale as Bill Manners
Phyllis Morris as Mrs.Lewis
Patric Knowles as Tom Burrows
Marjorie Corbett as Secretary
Brenda Lawless as Policewoman
Barbara Waring as Mannequin
Eve Lister as Ruby
Betty Lyne as Phyllis
Melita Bell as Assistant Manageress
John Wood as Harry
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Missing, Believed Lost
Jump up ^ Powell, 1986
Bibliography[edit]
Chibnal, Steve. Quota Quickies : The Birth of the British 'B' Film. London: BFI, 2007. ISBN 1-84457-155-6
Powell, Michael. A Life in Movies: An Autobiography. London: Heinemann, 1986. ISBN 0-434-59945-X.
External links[edit]
The Girl in the Crowd on IMDb
The Girl in the Crowd at AllMovie
The Girl in the Crowd reviews and articles at the Powell & Pressburger Pages
[hide]
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This article related to a British comedy film of the 1930s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Girl_in_the_Crowd&oldid=822018946"
Categories:
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The Hurry and the Harm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Hurry and the Harm
Studio album by City and Colour
Released
June 4, 2013
Recorded
at Blackbird Studio, Nashville, Tennessee
Genre
Alternative rock
Length
50:49
Label
Dine Alone, Cooking Vinyl
Producer
Alex Newport
City and Colour chronology
Little Hell
(2011)Little Hell2011 The Hurry and the Harm
(2013) If I Should Go Before You
(2015)If I Should Go Before You2015
Singles from The Hurry and the Harm
"Thirst"
Released: April 9, 2013
"Of Space And Time"
"The Lonely Life"
Released: 2013
"Harder Than Stone"
Released: January 27, 2014
Professional ratings
Aggregate scores
Source
Rating
Metacritic (67/100)[1]
Review scores
Source
Rating
The Hurry and the Harm is the fourth studio album by City and Colour. It was produced by Alex Newport and released on June 4, 2013, by Dine Alone Records and Cooking Vinyl.
The album received a score of 67 out of 100 from 10 critics on review aggregator Metacritic, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Commercial performance
2 Track listing
3 Personnel
4 References
Commercial performance[edit]
The Hurry and the Harm debuted at No. 1 on the Canadian Albums Chart, selling 23,000 copies in its first week.[3] It was City and Colour's second consecutive album to debut at No. 1 on the chart. Up to January 10, 2014, the album had sold 66,000 copies in Canada.[4] The album was certified Platinum in Canada on February 13, 2014.[5]
The album also debuted at No. 16 on the US Billboard 200 chart,[6] selling 20,000 for the week. The album had sold 71,000 copies in the US up to September 2015.[7]
Track listing[edit]
All tracks written by Dallas Green.
No.
Title
Length
1. "The Hurry and the Harm" 4:23
2. "Harder Than Stone" 4:26
3. "Of Space and Time" 3:33
4. "The Lonely Life" 4:34
5. "Paradise" 3:38
6. "Commentators" 3:35
7. "Thirst" 3:26
8. "Two Coins" 5:32
9. "Take Care" 3:38
10. "Ladies and Gentlemen" 4:05
11. "The Golden State" 5:18
12. "Death's Song" 4:43
Total length: 50:49
[show]Deluxe edition bonus tracks[8]
No.
Title
Length
13. "The Way It Used to Be" 4:10
14. "Of Space and Time" (acoustic version) 3:18
15. "Harder Than Stone" (acoustic version) 3:47
Total length: 1:02:04
Personnel[edit]
Dallas Green - lead vocals, rhythm guitar, acoustic guitar, piano
Dante Schwebel - lead guitar, backing vocals
Jack Lawrence - bass guitar, backing vocals
Matthew Kelly - pedal steel, organ, piano
Doug MacGregor - drums
Production
Alex Newport - producer, engineer, mixer, masterer
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Reviews for The Hurry and The Harm by City and Colour - Metacritic". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Retrieved April 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Reviews for The Hurry and the Harm by City and Colour". CBS Interactive. Retrieved September 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ CITY AND COLOUR SCORE SECOND NUMBER ONE ALBUM (PDF). Retrieved June 12, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Canada's Digital Music Sales Rise in 2013 Unlike the U.S.; Eminem, Robin Thicke Among Top Selling Artists". January 10, 2014. Retrieved January 15, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Gold Platinum Database: The Hurry and the Harm". Music Canada. Retrieved February 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Billboard 200 : Jun 22, 2013". Billboard. Retrieved June 13, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Upcoming Releases". Hits Daily Double. Hits Digital Ventures. Archived from the original on September 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Hurry and the Harm (Deluxe Version)". Itunes.apple.com. June 4, 2013. Retrieved October 18, 2013.
[show]
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Dallas Green
Studio albums
Sometimes
Bring Me Your Love
Little Hell
The Hurry and the Harm
If I Should Go Before You
Live albums
Live
EPs
The Death of Me
Missing EP
The MySpace Transmissions
Singles
"Save Your Scissors"
"Comin' Home
"Waiting..."
"Sleeping Sickness"
"Fragile Bird"
Featured singles
"Wavin' Flag"
Labels
Dine Alone
Vagrant
Related articles
Alexisonfire
Attack In Black
You+Me
rose ave.
This 2010s rock album-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Hurry_and_the_Harm&oldid=811747347"
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This page was last edited on 23 November 2017, at 17:50.
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