text:
Flathead engine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Harley-Davidson flathead engine
Engine block and head of a 1915 Cadillac V8 engine, with the head removed
T head sidevalve arrangement
The usual L-head arrangement
A flathead engine (a.k.a. sidevalve engine (SV), flathead, or flatty)[1] is an internal combustion engine with valves placed in the engine block beside the piston, instead of in the cylinder head, as in an overhead valve engine. As the cylinder cross-section has the shape of an inverted L, other names such as L-block or L-head are also common.
The sidevalve's poppet valves are usually sited on one side of the cylinder(s). A recess in the cylinder head creates a corridor connecting the valves and the combustion chamber. The valve gear comprises a camshaft which operates the valves via simple tappets, most commonly without any further valvetrain components (such as pushrods, rocker arms, overhead valves or overhead camshafts). Indian, however, employs both rocker arms and pushrods to transmit motion from the cam lobes to the valve stems.
The sidevalve arrangement was once the most common across all motor industries (automotive, agricultural, marine, aviation, and others), but it has since fallen from favor in most multicylinder applications, such as automotive and aviation, having been displaced by overhead valve designs. Flathead designs are still commonly built new for many small engine applications of one and two cylinders, such as lawnmowers, rotary tillers, and two-wheel tractors.
Contents
[hide]
1 Advantages
2 Disadvantages
3 Potentials
4 History and applications
5 Motorcycle engines
5.1 Harley-Davidson models
5.1.1 Model W, singles, and 45s (DL, RL, and WL)
5.1.2 K-series and developments
5.1.3 Flathead big twins
6 See also
7 Notes
8 External links
Advantages[edit]
The main advantages of a sidevalve engine are simplicity, reliability, low cost, compactness, responsive low-speed power, low mechanical engine noise, and insensitivity to low-octane fuel. The absence of a complicated valvetrain allows a compact engine that is less expensive to manufacture, as the cylinder head may be little more than a simple metal casting. These advantages may explain why overhead valve designs were first adopted only in high-performance applications such as aircraft, luxury cars, and sports cars, while economy cars, trucks, and agricultural engines continued to use flathead engines for some time. Even today, flatheads are common in lawnmowers, and basic farm machinery.
An important benefit of the sidevalve design is that, if a valve should seize in its guide (remain partially open), only limited damage to that individual cylinder would occur, and an engine can often operate safely on its other cylinders with a seized valve. If a valve head breaks off, it may become lodged between the piston and the head causing severe damage.
At top dead centre, the piston gets very close to the flat portion of the cylinder head above, and the resultant turbulence produces excellent mixing of the fuel and air.
The typical flathead engine has its valves adjacent, but the "T-head" variant acts as a "cross-flow" head.
Disadvantages[edit]
The main disadvantages of a sidevalve engine are poor gas flow, poor combustion chamber shape, and low compression ratio, all of which result in a low power output.
The sidevalve configuration makes intake and exhaust gases follow a circuitous route, with low volumetric efficiency, or "poor breathing". Although a sidevalve engine can safely operate at high speed, its volumetric efficiency swiftly deteriorates, so that high power outputs are not feasible at speed. High volumetric efficiency was less important for early cars because their engines rarely sustained extended high speeds, but designers seeking higher power outputs had to abandon the sidevalve. A compromise used by Willys (Jeep), Rover, and Rolls-Royce in the 1950s was the F-head (a.k.a. intake-over-exhaust configuration), in which there is one side valve and one overhead valve per cylinder.[2]
An advance in flathead technology resulted from experimentation in the 1920s by Sir Harry Ricardo, who improved their efficiency after studying the gas-flow characteristics of sidevalve engines.[3]
Because the exhaust follows a lengthy path to leave the engine, there is a tendency for the engine to overheat. In a T-head engine, the sidevalve pairs have a crossflow configuration, so exhaust gases leave on the opposite side of the cylinder from the intake valve. American LaFrance powered their fire engines with T-head engines from the 1920s to the 1950s. The Cleveland Motorcycle Manufacturing Company produced a T-head four-cylinder in-line motorcycle engine in the 1920s, and early Stutz engines were T heads.
Potentials[edit]
Pop-up pistons may be used to increase compression ratio
Although both OHV and OHC engines have proved to be more efficient than flatheads, there is some potential to give flatheads better performance via advanced design features, such as:
Pop-up pistons may be used with compatible heads to increase compression ratio and improve the combustion chamber's shape to prevent knocking.[4]
Turbulence grooves may increase swirl inside the combustion chamber, thus increasing torque, especially at low rpm. Better mixing of the fuel/air charge improves combustion and helps to prevent knocking.[5][6][7][8]
The traditional flathead engine suffers from its flat and elongated combustion chamber, which is prone to knocking if compression ratio is increased. Using improved ignition system such as laser ignition or microwave enhanced ignition could speed up the combustion and prevent knocking.[9]
History and applications[edit]
Flathead inline 4- and 6-cylinder engines were frequently used for automobiles (as with the famous Ford Model T), tractors, and other products from the beginning of the automotive industry until the 1950s, when overhead valve designs began to outnumber flathead designs in production numbers. Flathead designs are still commonly built new for applications such as lawnmowers, rotary tillers, two-wheel tractors, and other one- and two-cylinder equipment.
Some of the most famous automotive flathead engines were ones whose common nicknames reflected their flathead nature, such as the Ford flathead V8 engine and the Ford Sidevalve engine.
Due to cooling and efficiency problems, flathead engines fell out of favor in "high power" applications, such as aircraft engines, prior to World War I, with rare exceptions like the American Aeronca E-107 opposed twin aero engine of 1930. However, they lived on for some time in the automotive world and were used on the Jeep, for instance. Flatheads are no longer in common use for automobiles (except in some rodding and customizing circles,[1][10] that most often use restored and reproduction examples of the classic 1932–1953 "model years" Ford flathead V8 engine), with the flathead valve configuration still used for some small-engine applications like lawnmowers. Because of their design, the size of valves and the compression ratio are limited, which in turn reduces available power and economy.[11]
Cadillac produced V-16 flathead engines for their Series 90 luxury cars during 1938–1940. They were known of their almost silent idle and very smooth torque.[12]
A new arrival is the Belgian D-Motor LF26, a compact 2.7-litre flat-four aero-engine that has direct drive to a propeller, rather than a reduction gearbox.[13] As the engine was designed to produce peak power of 90 bhp at only 2800 rpm, this very low engine speed meant the designers could dispense with the complexity of an ohv valvetrain. The resulting simplicity, lightness, compactness and reliability are ideal in an aero-engine.[14] D-Motor has developed a 125 bhp 6-cylinder version, the D-Motor LF39.[15]
Motorcycle engines[edit]
Harley-Davidson models[edit]
Model W, singles, and 45s (DL, RL, and WL)[edit]
The flathead engine saw service in Harley-Davidson motorcycles beginning with the Model W's flat-twin, produced from 1919 to 1923,[16] and continuing in 1924 with single-cylinder export-model 21-cubic-inch (340 cc) and 30.5-cubic-inch (500 cc) singles and continued in Servi-Cars until 1973. In the domestic U.S. market, the 45-cubic-inch (740 cc) (primary VIN letter) D model (1929 to 1931) and its technical descendant, the (primary VIN letter) R model (1932 to 1936), started Harley's side-valve tradition in the 45-cubic-inch displacement class. The D and R models featured a total-loss oiling system and were succeeded in 1937 by the (primary VIN letter) W 45, which had recirculating oil lubrication. The WLA (W = return oil, L = performance, A = army) went on to serve in World War II as the U.S. and Canadian Army's WLC (C = Canada) primary two-wheeled mount and subsequently as a civilian middleweight through 1952. The engine continued virtually unchanged with 2.745" bore and 3.8125" stroke with various G-based designations in the three-wheeled Servi-Car until production ceased in 1973.
K-series and developments[edit]
In 1952, the K series flatheads was introduced with the same bore and stroke, selling in parallel with the W series (which was discontinued after 1952), designed to compete with British sporting motorcycles of the time. The K models featured a 750cc unit construction engine and transmission case, right side foot shift and left side foot brake. From 1954 to 1956, the KH received an increase in stroke to 4-9/16" to bring displacement to 888cc (54 cubic inches). [17] The K series was replaced by the overhead valve Sportster series in the retail market in 1957. [18]
The American Motorcycle Association (AMA) class C rules of 1952 allowed sidevalves of 750cc to compete against 500cc overhead valve bikes. The 750cc KR factory racer was highly competitive in dirt track and road racing, and was produced in limited numbers until 1969 [19] , when the AMA changed the rules by increasing the Class C displacement limit to 750 cc. Without the displacement advantage, the KR flatheads were not competitive against 750 cc overhead valve bikes. [20]
Flathead big twins[edit]
In 1930, the 74-cubic-inch (1,210 cc) VL flathead replaced the JD Big Twin, which had featured intake-over-exhaust (IoE) valve configuration. The VL had a single downtube frame and total loss oiling, culminating in an 80-cubic-inch (1,300 cc) version (VLH) in 1935. In 1937, that engine was redesigned to include a recirculating lubrication system, and designated the model U, and it went into the same frame and running gear configuration as the model E Knucklehead, which had originated in 1936. The U continued to be produced in varying configurations as a 74 cubic inch U & UL (1937 to 1948), and 80 cubic inch UH & ULH engine (1937 to 1941). By that time, the first year of the aluminum-head Panhead, it had been thoroughly superseded and outsold in the marketplace by the superior performance of the overhead valve model Big Twins.
See also[edit]
Harley-Davidson engine timeline
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b American Rodder, 6/94, pp.45 & 93.
Jump up ^ Road and Track, some time in the 1960s
Jump up ^ The internal-combustion engine by Harry Ralph Ricardo, Blackie and Son Limited.
Jump up ^ Davis, Marlan (September 29, 2006). "Ford Flathead V8 – The Flathead Guide of Death". Hotrod.com. Hot Rod Magazine. Combustion Chamber. Retrieved 2014-04-08. Trying to gain back compression ratio by using popup pistons may improve airflow provided proper attention is paid to the transfer area and overall piston-to-combustion chamber interface. The best balance has been the subject of debate for over 60 years. Currently the most popular approach is running a big popup piston, but with a scallop on the side adjacent to the valves to keep the transfer area clear between the valves and the cylinder bore. Recommended bottom-line street-gas-friendly compression ratios are between 7.5–8:1 on naturally aspirated engines and 6.5–7.0:1 with a blower.
Jump up ^ Patent US 6237579 Somender Singh: "Design to improve turbulence in combustion chambers"
Jump up ^ amrelweekil (September 14, 2009). "Engine modify by Somender Singh". YouTube. Grooved flathead at 1:31–1:38. Retrieved 2014-04-09.
Jump up ^ Graeber, Charles (September 23, 2004). "Obsession: Mr. Singh's Search for the Holy Grail". Popular Science. Bonnier. Retrieved 2014-07-03. In November 2002 Singh actually received one such permission from a manufacturer to test his modification on its engines. The manufacturer was Briggs and Stratton, and the engines were two 149cc side valves.
Jump up ^ Pirangute, V. G.; N.V.Marathe (January 14, 2002). Full throttle performance (PDF) (Technical report). ARAI. PUS/2407/Garuda/52(d). The test report reveals that fuel consumption and temperatures decreased at low engine speed while torque increased.
Jump up ^ Ikeda, Yuji; Nishiyama, Atsushi; Kaneko, Masashi (January 5–8, 2009). Microwave Enhanced Ignition Process for Fuel Mixture at Elevated Pressure of 1MPa (PDF). 47th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting Including The New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-07-25. Retrieved 2014-07-03. With plasma-enhanced combustion, a large flame kernel formed and the flame propagation speed increased. In the single-cylinder engine, the combustion stability improved and the microwave-enhanced ignition increased the lean limit from 19.3 to 24.1.
Jump up ^ "Street Rodder, 1/85, p.72.
Jump up ^ "A critique of the flathead or side valve engine". Retrieved 2015-08-22.
Jump up ^ LaChance, David (February 2007). "Reignmaker – 1939 Cadillac Series 39-90". Hemmings Motor News. American City Business Journals. Retrieved November 17, 2015. Mechanically, the Series 90 cars shared the advances of the Series 75. The V-8 car's three-speed manual transmission was deemed up to the task of handing the torque of the V-16, in part because the larger engine delivered its impulses so smoothly.
Jump up ^ "Kapelstraat 198 8540 Deerlijk – Recent information". D-motor.eu. Archived from the original on March 28, 2012. Retrieved December 6, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Kapelstraat 198 8540 Deerlijk – Product / Produit". D-motor1.vpweb.be. Retrieved 2011-12-06. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Tacke, Willi; Marino Boric; et al: World Directory of Light Aviation 2015-16, pages 256-257. Flying Pages Europe SARL, 2015. ISSN 1368-485X
Jump up ^ Wagner, Herbert; Mitchell, Mark (May 1999). "Chapter 6: The Gang's All Here". Classic Harley-Davidson, 1903–1941. Enthusiast Color. Motorbooks International. pp. 46–47. ISBN 0-7603-1805-0. Retrieved 2012-08-05. The Sport Model engine was Harley's first side-valve.
Jump up ^ OSKRG. "History of the Model K". Retrieved 2017-11-16.
Jump up ^ "Flathead HD Style". Retrieved 2015-08-22.
Jump up ^ OSKRG. "K-model production figures, summarized from Harley-Davidson's The Legend Begins". Retrieved 2017-11-16.
Jump up ^ "AMA pro racing dirt track timeline". Retrieved 2017-11-16.
External links[edit]
Ford Flathead Engine
Images of each style of Harley-Davidson engine
Harley-Davidson K-model motorcycles
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Value-added tax in the United Kingdom
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Taxation in the United Kingdom
UK Government Departments
HM Treasury
HM Revenue and Customs
UK Government
VAT
Income tax
National Insurance
Corporation tax
Capital gains tax
Motoring taxes
Inheritance tax
Stamp duty
Insurance Premium Tax
Air Passenger Duty
PAYE
Scottish Government
Revenue Scotland
Land and Buildings Transaction Tax
Scottish Landfill Tax
Air Departure Tax
Welsh Government
Welsh Revenue Authority
Land Transaction Tax
Landfill Disposals Tax
Local Government
Council Tax
Domestic rates in Northern Ireland
Business rates in England
Business rates in Wales
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Business rates in Northern Ireland
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In the United Kingdom, the value-added tax[1] (or value added tax,[2] VAT) was introduced in 1973 and is the third-largest source of government revenue, after income tax and National Insurance. It is administered and collected by HM Revenue and Customs, primarily through the Value Added Tax Act 1994.
VAT is levied on most goods and services provided by registered businesses in the UK and some goods and services imported from outside the European Union.[3] There are complex regulations for goods and services imported from within the EU. The default VAT rate is the standard rate, 20% since 4 January 2011. Some goods and services are subject to VAT at a reduced rate of 5% (such as domestic fuel) or 0% (such as most food and children's clothing).[4] Others are exempt from VAT or outside the system altogether.
Under EU law, the standard rate of VAT in any EU state cannot be lower than 15%.[5][6] Each state may have up to two reduced rates of at least 5% for a restricted list of goods and services.[6] The European Council must approve any temporary reduction of VAT in the public interest.[5]
VAT is an indirect tax because the tax is paid to the government by the seller (the business) rather than the person who ultimately bears the economic burden of the tax (the consumer).[5] Opponents of VAT claim it is a regressive tax because the poorest people spend a higher proportion of their disposable income on VAT than the richest people.[7] Those in favour of VAT claim it is progressive as consumers who spend more pay more VAT.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Operation
3 Rates
4 Historical rates
5 Revenue
6 Avoidance, evasion and fraud
7 Criticism
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
Between October 1940 and March 1973 the UK had a consumption tax called Purchase Tax, which was levied at different rates depending on goods' luxuriousness.[5] Purchase Tax was applied to the wholesale price, initially at a rate of 331⁄3%. This was doubled in April 1942 to 662⁄3%, and further increased in April 1943 to a rate of 100%, before reverting in April 1946 to 331⁄3% again. Unlike VAT, Purchase Tax was applied at the point of manufacture and distribution, not at the point of sale. The rate of Purchase Tax at the start of 1973, when it gave way to VAT, was 25%.
On 1 January 1973 the UK joined the European Economic Community and as a consequence Purchase Tax was replaced by Value Added Tax on 1 April 1973.[5][8][9] The Conservative Chancellor Lord Barber set a single VAT rate (10%) on most goods and services.[5][8][9]
In July 1974, Labour Chancellor Denis Healey reduced the standard rate of VAT from 10% to 8% but introduced a new higher rate of 12.5% for petrol and some luxury goods.[5][8][10] In November 1974, Healey doubled the higher rate of VAT to 25%.[8] Healey reduced the higher rate back to 12.5% in April 1976.[8][10][11]
Conservative Chancellor Geoffrey Howe increased the standard rate of VAT from 8% to 15% and abolished the higher rate in June 1979.[5][8][12] The rate remained unchanged until 1991, when Conservative Chancellor Norman Lamont increased it from 15% to 17.5%.[5][8][12] The additional revenue was used to pay for a reduction in the hugely unpopular community charge.[12] During the 1992 general election the Conservatives promised not to extend the scope of VAT but in March 1993, Lamont announced that domestic fuel and power, which had previously been zero-rated, would have VAT levied at 8% from April 1994 and the full 17.5% from April 1995.[9][13] The planned introduction of VAT on domestic fuel and power went ahead in April 1994, but the increase from 8% to 17.5% in April 1995 was scuppered in December 1994, after the government lost the vote in parliament.[8][13]
In its 1997 general election manifesto, the Labour Party pledged to reduce VAT on domestic fuel and power to 5%.[14] After gaining power, the new Labour Chancellor Gordon Brown announced in June 1997 that the lower rate of VAT on domestic fuel and power would be reduced from 8% to 5% with effect from 1 September 1997.[15][16] In November 1997, Brown announced that the VAT on installation of energy saving materials would be reduced from 17.5% to 5% from 1 July 1998. Brown subsequently reduced VAT from 17.5% to 5% on sanitary protection products (from 1 January 2001); children's car seats (from 1 April 2001); conversion and renovation of certain residential properties (from 12 May 2001); contraceptives (from 1 July 2006); and smoking cessation products (from 1 July 2007).
In response to the late-2000s recession, Labour Chancellor Alistair Darling announced in November 2008 that the standard rate of VAT would be reduced from 17.5% to 15% with effect from 1 December 2008.[17][18] In December 2009, Darling announced that the standard rate of VAT would return to 17.5% with effect from 1 January 2010.[19][20]
In the run up to the 2010 general election there were reports that the Conservatives would raise VAT if they gained power.[21][22][23] The party denied the reports.[24][25] Following the election in May 2010, the Conservatives formed a coalition government with the Liberal Democrats. In the 2010 budget, described by PM David Cameron as an "emergency budget", Chancellor George Osborne announced that the standard rate of VAT would increase from 17.5% to 20% with effect from 4 January 2011.[26][27]
Before the 2015 general election Labour claimed that the Conservatives would raise VAT to 22.5% if they were re-elected and Osborne reputedly refused to deny the claim.[28][29] On 25 March 2015 Cameron pledged in the House of Commons that VAT would not be increased.[30][31]
Operation[edit]
All businesses that provide "taxable" goods and services and whose taxable turnover exceeds the threshold must register for VAT.[3] The threshold was £77,000 since April 2012,[32] and as of 2016 it is £83,000,[33] by far the highest VAT registration threshold in the world.[5] Businesses may choose to register even if their turnover is less than that amount. All registered businesses must charge VAT on the full sale price of the goods or services that they provide unless exempted or outside the VAT system. The default VAT rate is the standard rate, currently 20%.[3] Some goods and services are charged lower rates (reduced or zero).
Registered businesses must pay over to HMRC the VAT they have charged on their goods or service (known as output tax) but they may offset this with the VAT they have incurred on goods or services they have purchased that relates to their own onward 'taxable' supplies (known as input tax).[34] VAT incurred by businesses that does not relate to their onward making of taxable supplies (whether exempt or from 'non-business' activities) may not be offset from the amount of VAT that is payable to HMRC.
A separate scheme, called The Flat Rate Scheme is also run by HMRC. This scheme allows a VAT registered business with a turnover of less than £150,000 per annum to pay a fixed percentage of its turnover to HMRC every 3 months. The scheme is designed to reduce red tape for small business and allow new companies to keep some of the VAT they charge to their customers.[35]
Businesses selling exempt good, supplies or services, such as banks, may not register for VAT or reclaim VAT that they have incurred on purchases.[3] Businesses that sell a mixture of taxable and exempt goods or services can only recover the proportion of the VAT they incur on their purchases that relates to their onward taxable supplies. The rules dealing with 'mixed use' (or 'residual') VAT on purchases are complex. However, businesses that sell zero-rated goods or supplies, such as food producers or bookseller, may reclaim all the VAT they have incurred on purchases.
Rates[edit]
There are currently three rates of VAT: standard (20%),[36] reduced (5%) and zero (0%).[3] In addition some goods and services are exempt from VAT or outside the VAT system.[3]
The following are the rates applicable to some common goods and services:[37]
Standard rated
Alcoholic drinks
Biscuits (chocolate covered only)
Bottled water (inc. mineral water)
Calendars & diaries
Carbonated (fizzy) drinks
CDs, DVDs, video games, & tapes
Cereal bars
Chocolate
Clothes & footwear (not for children under 14)
Confectionery/sweets
Delivery charges (postage & packaging)
Electrical goods
Electricity, gas, heating oil & solid fuel (business)
Food & drinks supplied for consumption on the premises (at restaurants, cafes etc)
Hot take-away food & drinks (inc. burgers, hot dogs, toasted sandwiches)
Ice cream
Fruit juice & other cold drinks (not milk)
Nuts (shelled, roasted/salted)
Postal services (Royal Mail/other licensed operators)
Potato crisps
Prams & pushchairs
Road fuel (petrol/diesel)
Salt (non-culinary)
Stationery
Taxi fares
Tolls for bridges, tunnels & roads (privately operated)
Water (industrial) Reduced rated
Children's car seats
Electricity, gas, heating oil & solid fuel (domestic/residential/charity non-business)
Energy saving materials (permanently installed in residential/charity premises)
Maternity pads
Mobility aids for the elderly
Sanitary protection products
Smoking cessation products Zero rated
Aircraft (sale/charter)
Bicycle & motorcycle helmets
Biscuits (not chocolate covered)
Books, maps & charts (not ebooks)
Bread, rolls, baps & pitta bread
Brochures, leaflets & pamphlets
Building services for disabled people
Cakes (including Chocolate teacake, Jaffa Cakes)
Canned & frozen food (not ice cream)
Cereals
Chilled/frozen ready meals, convenience foods
Clothes & footwear (for children under 14 only)
Construction & sale of new domestic buildings
Cooking oil
Donated goods sold at charity shops
Eggs
Equipment for disabled people (inc. blind/partially sighted)
Fish (inc. live fish)
Fruit & vegetables
Live animals for human consumption
Meat & poultry
Milk, butter, cheese
Newspapers, magazines & journals
Nuts & pulses (raw for human consumption)
Prescription medicine
Protective boots & helmets (industrial)
Public transport fares (bus, train & tube)
Salt (culinary)
Sandwiches (cold)
Sewerage (domestic & industrial)
Shipbuilding (15 tonnes or over)
Tea, coffee & cocoa
Transport in a vehicle, boat or aircraft (not fewer than ten passengers)
Water (household) Exempt
Antiques, works of art or similar
Burial or cremation (human)
Commercial land & buildings (selling/leasing/letting)
Cultural events operated by public bodies (museums, art exhibitions, zoos & performances)
Education, vocational training
Financial services (money transactions, loans/credits, savings/deposits, shares/bonds)
Funeral plan insurance
Gambling (betting, gaming, bingo, lottery)
Health services (doctors, dentists, opticians, pharmacists & other health professionals)
Insurance
Medical treatment & care
Membership subscriptions
Postage stamps
Sports activities & physical education
TV licence Outside
Goods & services sold outside the EU
Goods & services supplied by unregistered supplier
Statutory fees & services (MOT testing, congestion charge etc)
Tolls for bridges, tunnels and roads (operated by public authorities)
Voluntary donations to charity
Historical rates[edit]
Standard VAT rates since 1979:[38]
From
To
Standard rate
18 June 1979 18 March 1991 15.0%
19 March 1991 30 November 2008 17.5%
1 December 2008 31 December 2009 15.0%
1 January 2010 3 January 2011 17.5%
4 January 2011 Present 20.0%
Revenue[edit]
VAT revenue since 1978/79 as a percentage of total government revenue:[39]
Year
VAT (£bn)
%
Year
VAT (£bn)
%
Year
VAT (£bn)
%
Year
VAT (£bn)
%
1978/79 4.9 7.02% 1988/89 27.2 13.81% 1998/99 52.3 15.60% 2008/091 78.4 14.77%
1979/80 8.0 9.41% 1989/90 29.6 14.02% 1999/00 56.4 15.73% 2009/101 63.7 12.84%
1980/81 11.1 11.00% 1990/91 30.9 13.94% 2000/01 58.5 15.30% 2010/111 73.4 13.89%
1981/82 11.9 9.95% 1991/92 35.3 15.25% 2001/02 61.0 15.66% 2011/121 79.5 13.79%
1982/83 13.8 10.63% 1992/93 37.2 16.36% 2002/03 63.5 16.03% 2012/131 83.8 13.52%
1983/84 15.3 11.09% 1993/94 39.2 16.67% 2003/04 69.1 16.36% 2013/141 87.7 13.26%
1984/85 18.6 12.59% 1994/95 41.7 16.30% 2004/05 73.0 16.11%
1985/86 19.4 12.29% 1995/96 43.1 15.58% 2005/06 72.9 14.98%
1986/87 21.3 12.94% 1996/97 46.6 16.14% 2006/07 77.4 14.89%
1987/88 24.2 13.53% 1997/98 50.6 16.00% 2007/08 80.6 14.71%
1. Estimated
Avoidance, evasion and fraud[edit]
See also: Missing trader fraud and VAT-free imports from the Channel Islands
The UK government loses billions in revenue each year due to VAT avoidance, evasion and fraud. In 2006 the loss was estimated to be between £13bn and £18bn, equivalent to £1 for every £6 of VAT due.[40] The bulk of the lost revenue, about £1 in every £8 of VAT due, is due to evasion.[41] Evasion, which is illegal, occurs when registered businesses pay over to HMRC less than they should. This can be done by understating sales or overstating purchases. Evasion also occurs when businesses do not charge VAT on goods and services they provide even though they are legally obliged to. Cash-in-hand jobs by tradesmen may indicate VAT evasion.[42]
In recent years carousel fraud (also known as missing trader fraud) has increased. Criminal gangs trade goods, such as mobile phones, across EU countries.[43] They do not have to pay VAT, as imports from the EU are not subject to VAT in the UK. The fraud occurs when the criminals sell the goods with VAT in the UK but fail to pass the VAT to HMRC.[43] The goods are often repeatedly shipped round EU countries by criminal gang networks, hence the "carousel" name.[44] According to the HMRC, between £1.1bn and £1.9bn tax revenue was lost in 2004/05 due to carousel fraud.[44] The European Union Emission Trading Scheme has been plagued by carousel fraud.[45][46]
Until 2012, the Low Value Consignment Relief (LVCR) meant that goods imported from outside the EU through Jersey and costing less than a set amount were not subject to VAT.[47] When the LVCR was introduced in 1983 it was set at about £5 but gradually rose to £18.[48] From 1 November 2011 the LVCR was reduced from £18 to £15.[48] The LVCR allowed online retailers of DVDs and CDs to avoid VAT by importing the goods from the Channel Islands, which are not part of the EU. Major retailers involved in this tax avoidance included Amazon, Asda, HMV, Play.com, Tesco, W H Smith and Woolworths.[49] The tax avoided each year due to LVCR was estimated to be £85m in 2005, £110m in 2008, £130m in 2010 and £140m in 2011.[47][48] From 1 April 2012 the relief was withdrawn in respect of goods imported to the UK from the Channel Islands.[50]
Criticism[edit]
Opponents of VAT claim VAT is regressive and is paid by all consumers whether they be rich or poor, young or old.[9] The poorest also spend a higher proportion of their disposable income on VAT than richest.[7] The Office for National Statistics report showed that in 2009/10 the poorest 20% spent 8.7% of their gross income on VAT, whereas the richest 20% spent only 4.0% of their gross income on VAT.[51] Similarly, the poorest 20% spent 9.7% of their disposable income on VAT, whereas the richest 20% spent only 5.2% of their disposable income on VAT.[51] Supporters of VAT claim VAT is progressive as consumers who spend more pay more VAT.[5] However, according to their definitions, VAT is neither progressive nor regressive, since the rate neither increases or decreases with the taxable amount.[52][53][54][55]
The zero rating of food, and the permission for businesses to reclaim input VAT, have been said to mean that the government in effect subsidises the food industry.[5] Critics also argue that VAT is double taxation as consumers pay for goods and services using income that has already been taxed.[5] It is also argued that VAT is an inefficient tax owing to the numerous exemptions and concessions.[9]
See also[edit]
Value Added Tax Act 1994
Goods and Services Tax (India)
Goods and Services Tax (Australia)
Goods and Services Tax (Canada)
Goods and Services Tax (New Zealand)
Goods and Services Tax (Singapore)
Sales tax in the United States
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/value-added-tax
Jump up ^ http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/value-added-tax?q=value+added+tax
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Introduction to VAT". HM Revenue and Customs.
Jump up ^ "The UK's VAT Rate Explained". KashFlow. Retrieved 3 November 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Victor, Adam (31 December 2010). "VAT: a brief history of tax". The Guardian.
^ Jump up to: a b "VAT rates". European Commission.
^ Jump up to: a b "Poorest spend higher proportion on VAT than richest". BBC News. 31 October 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Victor, Peter (30 July 1995). "A brief history of VAT". The Independent.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Wallop, Harry (13 April 2010). "General Election 2010: a brief history of the Value Added Tax". The Daily Telegraph.
^ Jump up to: a b "Budgets 1945 - 1979". BBC News.
Jump up ^ "Bygone budgets: April 1976". The Guardian. 3 March 1999.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Budgets 1979 - 1992". BBC News.
^ Jump up to: a b "Budgets 1993 - 1995". BBC News.
Jump up ^ "Labour's 1997 pledges: Economics and employment". BBC News. 6 May 2002.
Jump up ^ "Bygone budgets: June 1997". The Guardian. 17 March 2000.
Jump up ^ "Cheaper Fuel Bills Announced". BBC News.
Jump up ^ Wallop, Harry (24 November 2008). "Pre-Budget report: VAT cut to 15pc but alcohol and tobacco taxes increased". The Daily Telegraph.
Jump up ^ Finch, Julia (24 November 2008). "Retailers welcome cut in VAT to 15%". The Guardian.
Jump up ^ "Shops given time over VAT price tag changes". BBC News. 9 December 2009.
Jump up ^ Finch, Julia (9 December 2009). "VAT to return to 17.5%, but no higher, says chancellor". The Guardian.
Jump up ^ Beattie, Jason (29 July 2009). "Tories secretly plotting to raise VAT to 20 per cent". Daily Mirror.
Jump up ^ Toby Helm; Anushka Asthana (4 April 2010). "George Osborne will have to raise rate of VAT, insists Ed Balls". The Guardian.
Jump up ^ Tamara Cohen; Jason Groves (29 April 2010). "Tories 'in secret plot to raise VAT to 19.5% in emergency June Budget'". Daily Mail.
Jump up ^ "Tories deny plan for 20% VAT rate". BBC News. 9 August 2009.
Jump up ^ "Ministers on defensive as tax row intensifies". BBC News. 1 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "Budget: Osborne's 'tough' package puts VAT up to 20%". BBC News. 22 June 2010.
Jump up ^ Larry Elliott; Hélène Mulholland (22 June 2010). "Budget 2010: VAT to rise to 20% as Osborne seeks to balance books by 2015". The Guardian.
Jump up ^ Mason, Rowena; Watt, Nicholas (24 March 2015). "George Osborne refuses five times to rule out VAT rise". The Guardian.
Jump up ^ Chorley, Matt (25 March 2015). "Osborne refuses to match Labour pledge not to increase VAT again after the election". Mail Online.
Jump up ^ Dominiczak, Peter (25 March 2015). "David Cameron rules out VAT increase in move that trips up Ed Miliband". The Daily Telegraph.
Jump up ^ Stewart, Heather (25 March 2015). "Cameron pledges no increase in VAT". The Guardian.
Jump up ^ "Budget 2012". HMRC.
Jump up ^ "HMRC".
Jump up ^ "VAT Output Tax Toolkit" (PDF). HM Revenue & Customs. July 2013. Retrieved 3 November 2013.
Jump up ^ "Flat Rate Scheme for VAT". HM Revenue & Customs. Retrieved 3 November 2013.
Jump up ^ "2016 AGN VAT Brochure - European Comparison" (PDF). Retrieved 13 October 2016.
Jump up ^ "Rates of VAT on different goods and services". HM Revenue and Customs.
Jump up ^ "Standard VAT rates".
Jump up ^ "Composition of revenue". Institute for Fiscal Studies.
Jump up ^ Fraser, Douglas (31 October 2009). "Britain 'losing billions in VAT'". BBC News.
Jump up ^ Murphy, Richard (10 September 2010). "Are you cheating the taxman too?". The Guardian.
Jump up ^ "Don't pay cash in hand – pay your VAT". The Guardian. 16 November 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Carousel fraud checks 'shut' Sussex firm". BBC News. 10 June 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "New clampdown on carousel fraud". BBC News. 21 July 2006.
Jump up ^ Mason, Rowena (30 December 2009). "'Carousel' frauds plague European carbon trading markets". Daily Telegraph.
Jump up ^ Inman, Phillip (11 January 2010). "Three Britons charged over €3m carbon-trading 'carousel fraud'". The Guardian.
^ Jump up to: a b Bowers, Simon (13 April 2010). "Tesco resurrects online VAT dodge despite Jersey's action to halt 'sham'". The Guardian.
^ Jump up to: a b c "VAT relief for parcels entering UK 'reduced'". BBC News. 1 November 2011.
Jump up ^ Bowers, Simon (19 February 2010). "Boom in sales of tax-free CDs casts doubt on Treasury claims". The Guardian.
Jump up ^ "Treasury to close loophole that allows VAT-free DVDs". BBC News. 9 November 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Andrew Barnard, Steve Howell and Robert Smith (2011). Effects of taxes and benefits on household income Statistical Bulletin - 2009/2010. Office for National Statistics. p. 14.
Jump up ^ Webster (4b): increasing in rate as the base increases (a progressive tax)
Jump up ^ American Heritage Archived 9 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine. (6). Increasing in rate as the taxable amount increases.
Jump up ^ Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: Tax levied at a rate that increases as the quantity subject to taxation increases.
Jump up ^ Princeton University WordNet: (n) progressive tax (any tax in which the rate increases as the amount subject to taxation increases)
External links[edit]
HM Revenue and Customs - VAT
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