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The Crucible
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For other uses, see The Crucible (disambiguation).
The Crucible
Written by
Arthur Miller
Characters
Abigail Williams
Reverend John Hale
Reverend Samuel Parris
John Proctor
Elizabeth Proctor
Thomas Danforth
Mary Warren
John Hathorne
Giles Corey
Rebecca Nurse
Date premiered
January 22, 1953
Place premiered
Martin Beck Theatre, New York City
Original language
English
Subject
Salem witch trials, McCarthyism
Genre
Tragedy, drama
Setting
Salem, Massachusetts Bay Colony
The Crucible is a 1953 play by American playwright Arthur Miller. It is a dramatized and partially fictionalized story of the Salem witch trials that took place in the Massachusetts Bay Colony during 1692/93. Miller wrote the play as an allegory for McCarthyism, when the United States government ostracized people for being communists.[1] Miller himself was questioned by the House of Representatives' Committee on Un-American Activities in 1956 and convicted of contempt of Congress for refusing to identify others present at meetings he had attended.[2]
The play was first performed at the Martin Beck Theatre on Broadway on January 22, 1953, starring E. G. Marshall, Beatrice Straight and Madeleine Sherwood. Miller felt that this production was too stylized and cold and the reviews for it were largely hostile (although The New York Times noted "a powerful play [in a] driving performance").[3] Nonetheless, the production won the 1953 Tony Award for Best Play.[4] A year later a new production succeeded and the play became a classic.[5] It is regarded as a central work in the canon of American drama.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Synopsis
1.1 Act One
1.2 Act Two
1.3 Act Three
1.4 Act Four
2 Characters (in order of appearance)
3 Influence and originality
4 Casts
5 Historical accuracy
5.1 Language of the period
5.2 Title
6 Adaptations
6.1 Film
6.2 Opera
6.3 Television
7 See also
8 References
9 Bibliography
9.1 Editions
10 External links
Synopsis
Act One
The opening narration explains the context of Salem and the Puritan colonists of Massachusetts, which the narrator depicts as an isolated theocratic society in constant conflict with Native Americans. The narrator speculates that the lack of civil liberties, isolation from civilization, and lack of stability in the colony caused latent internal tensions which would contribute to the events depicted in the play.
The remainder of Act One is set in the local preacher Reverend Samuel Parris's attic. His ten-year-old daughter, Betty Parris, lies motionless. The previous evening, Reverend Parris discovered Betty, some other girls, and his Barbadian slave, Tituba, engaged in some sort of pagan ritual in the forest. The village is rife with rumors of witchcraft and a crowd gathers outside Rev. Parris' house. Parris becomes concerned that the event will cause him to be removed from his position as the town's reverend. He questions the girls' apparent ringleader, his niece Abigail Williams, whom Parris has been forced to adopt after her parents were brutally killed in the Pequot War. Abigail denies they were engaged in witchcraft, claiming that they had been dancing. Afterwards, the wealthy and influential Thomas Putnam and his wife, Ann arrive. At the Putnams' urgence, Parris reluctantly decides to invite Reverend John Hale, an expert in witchcraft and demonology, to investigate and leaves to address the crowd.
The other girls involved in the incident join Abigail and a briefly roused Betty, who attempts to jump out of the window. Abigail coerces and threatens the others to "stick to their story" of merely dancing in the woods. The other girls are frightened of the truth being revealed (that in actuality, they tried to conjure a curse against Elizabeth Proctor) and being labelled witches, so they go along with Abigail. Betty then faints back into unconsciousness.
John Proctor, a local farmer and husband of Elizabeth, enters. He sends the other girls out (including Mary Warren, his family's maid) and confronts Abigail, who tells him that she and the girls were not performing witchcraft. It is revealed that Abigail once worked as a servant for the Proctors, and that she and John had an affair, for which she was fired. Abigail still harbors feelings for John and believes he does as well, but John says he does not. Abigail angrily mocks John for denying his true feelings for her. As they argue, Betty bolts upright and begins screaming.
Rev. Parris runs back into the bedroom and various villagers arrive: the wealthy and influential Thomas and his wife, Ann Putnam, respected local woman Rebecca Nurse, and the Putnam's neighbor, farmer Giles Corey. The villagers, who had not heard the argument, assume that the hymn had caused Betty's screaming, Tensions between them soon emerge. Mrs. Putnam is a bereaved parent seven times over; she blames witchcraft for her losses and Betty's ailment. Rebecca is rational and suggests a doctor be called instead. Mr. Putnam and Corey have been feuding over land ownership. Parris is unhappy with his salary and living conditions as minister, and accuses Proctor of heading a conspiracy to oust him from the church. Abigail, standing quietly in a corner, witnesses all of this.
Reverend Hale arrives and begins his investigation. Before leaving, Giles fatefully remarks that he has noticed his wife reading unknown books and asks Hale to look into it. Hale questions Rev. Parris, Abigail and Tituba closely over the girls' activities in the woods. As the facts emerge, Abigail claims Tituba forced her to drink blood. Tituba counters that Abigail begged her to conjure a deadly curse. Parris threatens to whip Tituba to death if she doesn't confess to witchcraft. Tituba breaks down and falsely claims that the Devil is bewitching her and others in town. With prompting from Hale and Putnam, Tituba accuses Sarah Osborne and Sarah Good of witchcraft. Mrs. Putnam identifies Osborne as her former midwife and asserts that she must have killed her children. Abigail decides to play along with Tituba in order to prevent others from discovering her affair with Proctor, whose wife she had tried to curse out of jealousy. She leaps up, begins contorting wildly, and names Osborne and Good, as well as Bridget Bishop as having been "dancing with the devil". Betty suddenly rises and begins mimicking Abigail’s movements and words, and accuses George Jacobs. As the curtain closes, the three continue with their accusations as Hale orders the arrest of the named people and sends for judges to try them.
Act Two
In a second narration, the narrator compares the Colony to post-World War II society. The narrator compares the Puritan fundamentalism to cultural norms in both the United States and the Soviet Union. Additionally, fears of Satanism taking place after incidents in Europe and the colonies are compared to fears of Communism following its implementation in Eastern Europe and China during the Cold War.
The remainder of Act Two is set in the Proctor's home. John and Elizabeth are incredulous that nearly forty people have been arrested for witchcraft based on the pronouncements of Abigail and the other girls. John knows their apparent possession and accusations of witchcraft are untrue, as Abigail told him when they were alone together in the first act, but is unsure of how to confess without revealing the affair. Elizabeth is disconcerted to learn her husband was alone with Abigail. She believes John still lusts after Abigail and tells him that as long as he does, he will never redeem himself.
Mary Warren enters and gives Elizabeth a 'poppet' (doll-like puppet) that she made in court that day while sitting as a witness. Angered that Mary is neglecting her duties, John threatens to beat her. Mary retorts that she saved Elizabeth's life that day, as Elizabeth was accused of witchcraft and was to be arrested until Mary spoke in her defense. Mary refuses to identify Elizabeth's accuser, but Elizabeth surmises accurately that it must have been Abigail. She implores John to go to court and tell the judges that Abigail and the rest of the girls are pretending. John is reluctant, fearing that doing so will require him to publicly reveal his past adultery.
Reverend Hale arrives, stating that he is interviewing all the people named in the proceedings, including Elizabeth. He mentions that Rebecca Nurse was also named, but admits that she is too pious to be a witch. Hale is skeptical about the Proctors' devotion to Christianity, noting that they do not attend church regularly and that their second child has not yet been baptized; John replies that this is because he has no respect for Parris. Challenged to recite the Ten Commandments, John fatefully forgets "thou shalt not commit adultery". When Hale questions her, Elizabeth is angered that he doesn't question Abigail first. Unsure of how to proceed, Hale prepares to take his leave. At Elizabeth's urging, John tells Hale he knows that the girl's afflictions are fake. When Hale responds that many of the accused have confessed, John points out that they were bound to be hanged if they didn’t: Hale reluctantly acknowledges this point.
Suddenly, Giles Corey and Francis Nurse enter the house and inform John and Hale that both of their wives have been arrested on charges of witchcraft; Martha Corey for reading suspicious books and Rebecca Nurse on charges of sacrificing children. A posse led by clerk Ezekiel Cheever and town marshal George Herrick arrive soon afterwards and present a warrant for Elizabeth's arrest, much to Hale's surprise. Cheever picks up the poppet on Elizabeth's table and finds a needle inside. He informs John that Abigail had a pain-induced fit earlier that evening and a needle was found stuck into her stomach; Abigail claimed that Elizabeth stabbed her with the needle through witchcraft, using a poppet as a conduit. John brings Mary into the room to tell the truth; Mary asserts that she made the doll and stuck the needle into it, and that Abigail saw her do so. Cheever is unconvinced and prepares to arrest Elizabeth.
John becomes greatly angered, tearing the arrest warrant to shreds and threatening Herrick and Cheever with a musket until Elizabeth calms him down and surrenders herself. He calls Hale a coward and asks him why the accusers' every utterance goes unchallenged. Hale is conflicted, but suggests that perhaps this misfortune has befallen Salem because of a great, secret crime that must be brought to light. Taking this to heart, John orders Mary to go to court with him and expose the other girls' lies, but she refuses. Aware of John's affair, she warns him that Abigail is willing to expose it if necessary. John is shocked but determines the truth must prevail, whatever the personal cost.
Act Three
The third act takes place thirty-seven days later in the General Court of Salem, during the trial of Martha Corey. Francis and Giles desperately interrupt the proceedings, demanding to be heard. The court is recessed and the men thrown out of the main room, reconvening in an adjacent room. John Proctor arrives with Mary Warren and they inform Deputy Governor Danforth and Judge Hathorne about the girls' lies. Danforth then informs an unaware John that Elizabeth is pregnant, and promises to spare her from execution until the child is born, hoping to persuade John to withdraw his case. John refuses to back down and submits a deposition signed by ninety-one locals attesting to the good character of Elizabeth, Rebecca Nurse and Martha Corey. Herrick also attests to John's truthfulness as well.
The deposition is dismissed by Parris and Hathorne as illegal. Rev. Hale criticizes the decision and demands to know why the accused are forbidden to defend themselves. Danforth replies that given the "invisible nature" of witchcraft, the word of the accused and their advocates cannot be trusted. He then orders that all ninety-one persons named in the deposition be arrested for questioning. Giles Corey submits his own deposition, accusing Thomas Putnam of forcing his daughter to accuse George Jacobs in order to buy up his land (as convicted witches have to forfeit all of their property.) When asked to reveal the source of his information, Giles refuses, fearing that he or she will also be arrested. When Danforth threatens him with arrest for contempt, Giles argues that he cannot be arrested for "contempt of a hearing." Danforth then declares the court in session and Giles is arrested.
John submits Mary's deposition, which declares that she was coerced to accuse people by Abigail. Abigail denies Mary's assertions that they are pretending, and stands by her story about the poppet. When challenged by Parris and Hathorne to 'pretend to be possessed', Mary is too afraid to comply. John attacks Abigail's character, revealing that she and the other girls were caught dancing naked in the woods by Rev. Parris on the night of Betty Parris' alleged 'bewitchment'. When Danforth begins to question Abigail, she claims that Mary has begun to bewitch her with a cold wind and John loses his temper, calling Abigail a whore. He confesses their affair, says Abigail was fired from his household over it and that Abigail is trying to murder Elizabeth so that she may "dance with me on my wife's grave."
Danforth brings Elizabeth in to confirm this story, beforehand forbidding anyone to tell her about John's testimony. Unaware of John's public confession, Elizabeth fears that Abigail has revealed the affair in order to discredit John and lies, saying that there was no affair, and that she fired Abigail out of wild suspicion. Hale begs Danforth to reconsider his judgement, now agreeing Abigail is "false", but to no avail; Danforth throws out this testimony based solely upon John's earlier assertion that Elizabeth would never tell a lie.
Confusion and hysteria begin to overtake the room. Abigail and the girls run about screaming, claiming Mary's spirit is attacking them in the form of a yellow bird, which nobody else is able to see. When Danforth tells the increasingly distraught Mary that he will sentence her to hang, she joins with the other girls and recants all her allegations against them, claiming John Proctor forced her to turn her against the others and that he harbors the devil. John, in despair and having given up all hope, declares that "God is dead", and is arrested. Furious, Reverend Hale denounces the proceedings and quits the court.
Act Four
Act Four takes place three months later in the town jail, early in the morning. Tituba, sharing a cell with Sarah Good, has gone insane from all of the hysteria, hearing voices and now actually claiming to talk to Satan. Marshal Herrick, depressed at having arrested so many of his neighbors, has turned to alcoholism. Many villagers have been charged with witchcraft; most have confessed and been given lengthy prison terms and their property seized by the government; twelve have been hanged; seven more are to be hanged at sunrise for refusing to confess, including John Proctor, Rebecca Nurse and Martha Corey. Giles Corey was tortured to death by pressing as the court tried in vain to extract a plea; by holding out, Giles ensured that his sons would not be disinherited. The village has become dysfunctional with so many people in prison or dead, and with the arrival of news of rebellion against the courts in nearby Andover, whispers abound of an uprising in Salem. Abigail, fearful of the consequences, steals Parris's life savings and disappears on a ship to England with Mercy Lewis.
Danforth and Hathorne have returned to Salem to meet with Parris, and are surprised to learn that Hale has returned and is meeting with the condemned. Parris, who has lost everything to Abigail, reports that he has received death threats. He begs Danforth to postpone the executions in order to secure confessions, hoping to avoid executing some of Salem's most well-regarded citizens. Hale, blaming himself for the hysteria, has returned to counsel the condemned to falsely confess and avoid execution. He presses Danforth to pardon the remaining seven and put the entire affair behind them. Danforth refuses, stating that pardons or postponement would cast doubt on the veracity of previous confessions, not to mention the hangings.
Danforth and Hale summon Elizabeth and ask her to persuade John to confess. She is bitter towards Hale, both for doubting her earlier and for wanting John to give in and ruin his good name, but agrees to speak with her husband, if only to say goodbye. She and John have a lengthy discussion, during which she commends him for holding out and not confessing. John says he is refusing to confess not out of religious conviction but through contempt for his accusers and the court. The two finally reconcile, with Elizabeth forgiving John and saddened by the thought that he cannot forgive himself and see his own goodness. Knowing in his heart that it is the wrong thing for him to do, John agrees to falsely confess to engaging in witchcraft, deciding that he has no desire or right to be a martyr.
Danforth, Hathorne, and a relieved Parris ask John to testify to the guilt of the other hold-outs and the executed. John refuses, saying he can only report on his own sins. Danforth is disappointed by this reluctance, but at the urging of Hale and Parris, allows John to sign a written confession, to be displayed on the church door as an example. John is wary, thinking his verbal confession is sufficient. As they press him further John eventually signs, but refuses to hand the paper over, stating he does not want his family and especially his three sons to be stigmatized by the public confession. The men argue until Proctor renounces his confession entirely, ripping up the signed document. Danforth calls for the sheriff and John is led away, to be hanged. Facing an imminent rebellion, Putnam and Parris frantically run out to beg Proctor to confess. Hale, guilty over John's death, pleads with Elizabeth to talk John around but she refuses, stating John has "found his goodness".
Characters (in order of appearance)
Reverend Samuel Parris
The minister of Salem. A former merchant, Parris is obsessed with his reputation and frequently complains that the village does not pay him enough, earning him a great deal of scorn. When the trials begin, he is appointed as a prosecutor and helps convict the majority of those accused of witchcraft. Towards the end of the play, he is betrayed by his niece Abigail and begins receiving death threats from angry relatives of the condemned. (In real life, Parris left Salem in 1696, the year his wife, Elizabeth, died. He found his situation untenable. Records in the Suffolk Deeds indicate it likely he returned to business in Boston in 1697. He preached two or three years at Stow. He moved to Concord in 1704 or 1705. He also preached six months in Dunstable in 1711. He died on February 27, 1720, in Sudbury, where he had spent his last years. In 1699 he had remarried, to Dorothy Noyes, in Sudbury.)
Tituba
The Parris family slave, Tituba was brought by Parris from Barbados when he moved to Salem and has served him since. Using her knowledge of herbs and magic, she has been secretly helping Abigail and her friends make love potions, and even conducts a seance on behalf of Ann Putnam. After being framed for witchcraft, she confesses and is subsequently imprisoned with Sarah Good. By the fourth act, she has been driven mad by the harsh conditions and is effectively left to die in custody.
Abigail Williams
The main antagonist of the play.[7] Abigail previously worked as a maid for Elizabeth Proctor. After Elizabeth suspected Abigail of having an illicit relationship with John Proctor, Williams was fired and disgraced. Using her status as Parris's niece to her advantage, she accuses countless citizens of witchcraft, becoming one of the most powerful people in Salem. Eventually, she flees Salem with her uncle's fortune rather than face the consequences of her actions. In real life, after fleeing Salem, Williams reportedly became a prostitute in Boston.
Susanna Walcott
A servant girl and part of Abigail's inner circle.
Ann Putnam
A rich and well-connected member of Salem's elite. She has one daughter, Ruth (in real life, Ann Putnam, Jr.), but has lost seven other children to illness. Believing witches to be responsible, she eagerly sides with Abigail. In real life, Ann Putnam (née Carr) had twelve children, ten of whom survived their parents, who both died in 1699.
Thomas Putnam
One of the richest men in Salem. He is greedy and conniving, using the accusations as cover to purchase land seized from convicted witches.
Betty Parris
The ten-year-old daughter of Samuel Parris and one of the primary accusers.
Mercy Lewis
Another primary accuser. In the fourth act, she flees with Abigail to avoid arrest for deceiving the court.
Mary Warren
The Proctor family's servant. She initially helps John, but later turns on him to save herself.
John Proctor
The play's protagonist and husband of Elizabeth Proctor. A local farmer, John is known for his independence and temper, which often gets him into trouble with the authorities. Contemporary notes describe him as a "strong-willed beast of a man".[8] Shamed by an affair with Abigail, John tries to stay out of the trials, but when Elizabeth is charged, he tries to reveal Abigail's deception in court. Betrayed by his maid Mary Warren, John is accused of witchcraft and sentenced to hang. He refuses to confess out of anger towards the court, but ultimately relents. After learning that his confession will likely drive his wife and children into disrepute, he decides to instead admit guilt. He is finally hanged along with several other convicted witches.
The real John Proctor was also an innkeeper as well as a farmer, and was aged 60 when executed; Elizabeth was his third wife. He was strongly and vocally opposed to the witch trials from their beginning, being particularly scornful of spectral evidence used in the trials. As in the play, Elizabeth was accused of practicing witchcraft and arrested before John. Unlike the play, John maintained his innocence throughout the ordeal. He was hanged in August, 1692.[8]
Giles Corey
A close friend of Proctor's. He becomes convinced that the trials are being used to steal land from the guilty and presents evidence to prove his claim. When the court demands to know where he obtained it, he refuses to cooperate and is sentenced to be pressed to death. The character is based on a real person of the same name, who was also pressed when he would not plead guilty to charges of witchcraft.
Rebecca Nurse
Although an elderly, respected member of the community, she is sentenced to death on charges of witchcraft (and, in the play, infanticide). In real life, the jury initially acquitted Nurse but were ordered by William Stoughton to deliberate further. One of her two sisters, Mary Easty (or Eastey), was also hanged for witchcraft in real life, and the other, Sarah Cloyce, narrowly escaped.
Reverend John Hale
A young minister from Beverly, Massachusetts, known for his knowledge of witchcraft. He starts out as a fervent and devoted servant of the court, using his position to investigate and charge suspected witches. Disillusioned with the corruption and abuses of the trials, he later tries to save as many suspects as possible by getting them to confess. In reality, Hale was in his mid-fifties when the witch trials commenced.
Elizabeth Proctor
John's wife. She is also accused of witchcraft, but is spared the death penalty due to being pregnant. She distrusts her husband for his adultery, but eventually chooses to forgive him when he refuses to confess to false charges.
Ezekiel Cheever
The corrupt clerk of Salem's General Court. He is responsible for crafting the warrants used to arrest suspected witches.
George Herrick/John Willard
Herrick is the town marshal of Salem, and leads the effort to find and arrest those accused of witchcraft until he falls into despair and turns to alcoholism. Willard is one of his deputies until he refuses to carry out any more arrests, at which point he is charged with witchcraft and hanged.
Judge John Hathorne
One of the two judges presiding over the court. Hathorne is a deeply pious man whose blind faith in Abigail's trustworthiness is largely responsible for the destruction wrought by the trials.
Deputy Governor Thomas Danforth
The chief judge of the court. He views the proceedings as an opportunity to cement his power and influence, eagerly convicting anyone brought before him. His refusal to suspend the trials even as they tear Salem apart makes him, according to Miller, the true villain of the play.
Influence and originality
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During the McCarthy era, German-Jewish novelist and playwright Lion Feuchtwanger became the target of suspicion as a left-wing intellectual during his exile in the US. In 1947 Feuchtwanger wrote a play about the Salem witch trials, Wahn oder der Teufel in Boston (Delusion, or The Devil in Boston), as an allegory for the persecution of communists, thus anticipating the theme of The Crucible by Arthur Miller; Wahn premiered in Germany in 1949. It was translated by June Barrows Mussey and performed in Los Angeles in 1953 under the title The Devil in Boston.
Casts
Original 1953 Broadway cast:[9][10]
In June 1953 Miller recast the production, simplified the "pitiless sets of rude buildings" and added a scene.[10][11]
Boo Alexander – Betty Parris
Jacqueline Andre – Tituba
Fred Stewart – Rev. Samuel Parris
Madeleine Sherwood – Abigail Williams
Barbara Stanton – Susanna Walcott
Jane Hoffman – Mrs Ann Putnam
Raymond Bramley – Thomas Putnam
Dorothy Joliffe – Mercy Lewis
Jennie Egan – Mary Warren
Arthur Kennedy – John Proctor
Jean Adair – Rebecca Nurse
Joseph Sweeney – Giles Corey
E. G. Marshall – Rev. John Hale
Beatrice Straight – Elizabeth Proctor
Graham Velsey – Francis Nurse
Don McHenry – Ezekiel Cheever
George Mitchell – Marshall Herrick
Philip Coolidge – Judge Hathorne
Walter Hampden – Deputy Governor Danforth
Adele Fortin – Sarah Good
Donald Marye – Hopkins
The production was directed by Jed Harris and produced by Kermit Bloomgarden.
2002 Broadway revival cast:[12]
Liam Neeson – John Proctor
Laura Linney – Elizabeth Proctor
Brian Murray – Deputy Governor Danforth
John Benjamin Hickey – Rev. John Hale
Christopher Evan Welch – Rev. Parris
Angela Bettis – Abigail Williams
Tom Aldredge – Giles Corey
Stephen Lee Anderson – Hopkins
Kristen Bell – Susanna Wallcott
Jennifer Carpenter – Mary Warren
Betsy Hogg – Betty Parris
J.R. Horne – Judge Hathorne
Patrice Johnson – Tituba
Sevrin Anne Mason – Mercy Lewis
Paul O'Brien – Thomas Putnam
Jeanna Paulsen – Ann Putnam
Frank Raiter – Francis Nurse
Dale Soules – Sarah Good/voice of Martha Corey
Helen Stenborg – Rebecca Nurse
Henry Stram – Ezekiel Cheever
Jack Willis – Marshal Herrick
2016 Broadway revival cast:[13]
Ben Whishaw – John Proctor
Sophie Okonedo – Elizabeth Proctor
Ciarán Hinds – Deputy Governor Danforth
Saoirse Ronan – Abigail Williams
Bill Camp – Rev. John Hale
Tavi Gevinson – Mary Warren
Jason Butler Harner – Rev. Samuel Parris
Jim Norton – Giles Corey
Tina Benko – Ann Putnam / Sarah Good
Jenny Jules – Tituba
Thomas Jay Ryan – Thomas Putnam
Brenda Wehle – Rebecca Nurse
Teagle F. Bougere – Judge Hathorne
Michael Braun – Ezekiel Cheever
Elizabeth Teeter – Betty Parris
Ashlei Sharpe Chestnut – Susanna Walcott
Ray Anthony Thomas – Francis Nurse
Erin Wilhelmi – Mercy Lewis
This production was directed by Ivo van Hove
and featured an original score composed by Philip Glass.
Historical accuracy
In 1953, the year the play debuted, Miller wrote, "The Crucible is taken from history. No character is in the play who did not take a similar role in Salem, 1692."[14] This does not appear to be accurate as Miller made both deliberate changes and incidental mistakes. Abigail Williams' age was increased from 11 or 12[15] to 17, probably to add credence to the backstory of Proctor's affair with Abigail. John Proctor himself was 60 years old in 1692, but portrayed as much younger in the play, for the same reason.[16][17]
Miller claimed, in A note on the historical accuracy of this play, that "while there were several judges of almost equal authority, I have symbolized them all in Hathorne and Danforth".[16] However, his unilateral and polemical re-editing conflates Danforth with the historical and extremely influential figure of William Stoughton, who is not a character and is only briefly mentioned in the play. Both men were subsequent Deputy Governors, but Stoughton, who never married, was the strong and forceful leader of the trials, always ready to sign an order of execution, as well as an ally of Cotton Mather. It was Stoughton who ordered further deliberations after the jury initially acquitted Rebecca Nurse. He refused to ever acknowledge that the trials had been anything other than a success, and was infuriated when Governor Phips (whose own wife, somehow, had been named as a possible witch) ended the trials for good and released the prisoners.[18]
Danforth did not sit on the Court of Oyer and Terminer. In fact he is recorded as being critical of the conduct of the trials, and played a role in bringing them to an end.[19] In the play, Thomas and especially Ann Putnam are disconsolate over the fact that only one of their children has survived to adolescence. In real life, the Putnams (who both died in 1699) were survived by ten of their twelve children, including Ann Jr., who, in 1706, issued perhaps the most heartfelt apology of any accuser. Thomas Putnam's conduct during the witch trial hysteria has been amply documented to have been almost entirely due to financial motivations and score-settling, something the play only makes reference to after introducing the Putnams' fictional deceased offspring as part of the plot narrative.[20][21]
In the 1953 essay, Journey to The Crucible, Miller writes of visiting Salem and feeling like the only one interested in what really happened in 1692.[22] However, a long line of historians before Miller had attempted to record and tease apart the complexities of what took place at Salem, and certain battle lines had long before been drawn: Calef vs. Mather; Upham vs. Poole, skeptics or scholars vs. the faithful and the religious establishment. Miller's cursory and limited scholarship regarding the trials is lamentable, given the squabbling that has long taken place over various interpretations of the numerous details and facts. Many of Miller's characters were based on people who had little in the public record other than their statements from the trials, but others survived to expand, recant, or comment on the role they played at Salem, including jurors, accusers, survivors, and judges.[23] Rev. Parris issued his first in a series of apologies on November 26, 1694, and was removed from his position in 1697.[24] In 1698, Hale finished composing a lengthy essay about Salem that was reprinted by Burr in 1914.[25]
Language of the period
The play's action takes place 70 years after the community arrived as settlers from Britain. The people on whom the characters are based would have retained strong regional dialects from their home country. Miller gave all his characters the same colloquialisms, such as "Goody" or "Goodwife", and drew on the rhythms and speech patterns of the King James Bible to achieve the effect of historical perspective he wanted.[1]
Title
Miller originally called the play Those Familiar Spirits[26] before renaming it as The Crucible. The word "crucible" is defined as a severe test or trial; alternately, a container in which metals or other substances are subjected to high temperatures. The characters whose moral standards prevail in the face of death, such as John Proctor and Rebecca Nurse, symbolically refuse to sacrifice their principles or to falsely confess.
Adaptations
Main articles: The Crucible (1957 film) and The Crucible (1996 film)
Film
The play was first adapted for film as The Crucible (1957) (also titled Hexenjagd or Les Sorcières de Salem), a joint Franco-East German film production by Belgian director Raymond Rouleau with a screenplay adapted by Jean-Paul Sartre, and by Miller himself as The Crucible (1996), the latter with a cast including Paul Scofield, Daniel Day-Lewis, and Winona Ryder. Miller's adaptation earned him an Academy Award nomination for Best Screenplay based on Previously Produced Material, his only nomination. In 2014 The Old Vic's production of The Crucible which starred Richard Armitage and directed by Yaël Farber was filmed and distributed to cinemas across the UK and Ireland.[27]
Opera
The play was adapted by composer Robert Ward as an opera, The Crucible, which was first performed in 1961 and received the 1962 Pulitzer Prize for Music[28] and the New York Music Critics' Circle Award.[29]
Television
The play has been presented several times on television. One notable 1968 production starred George C. Scott as John Proctor, Colleen Dewhurst (Scott's wife at the time) as Elizabeth Proctor, Melvyn Douglas as Thomas Danforth, and Tuesday Weld as Abigail Williams. A production by the Royal Shakespeare Company at the Gielgud Theatre in London's West End in 2006 was recorded for the Victoria and Albert Museum's National Video Archive of Performance.[30]
See also
The Devils
References
Notes
^ Jump up to: a b Blakesley (1992, xv).
Jump up ^ Loftus (1957).
Jump up ^ Abbotson (2005, 78) and Atkinson (1953).
Jump up ^ "The Crucible". Internet Broadway Database. Retrieved November 27, 2008.
Jump up ^ Roudané (1987, pg. 24).
Jump up ^ Wilmeth and Bigsby (1998, p. 415).
Jump up ^ Bloom (2008, 10).
^ Jump up to: a b Important Persons in the Salem Court Records, Salem Witch Trial Archive, University of Virginia, 2002.
Jump up ^ Abbotson, Susan C.W. (2007). "The Crucible—First Performance". Critical companion to Arthur Miller: a literary reference to his life and work. New York: Infobase. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-8160-6194-5.
^ Jump up to: a b Atkinson, Brooks (January 23, 1953). "The Crucible". The New York Times. Retrieved February 24, 2012.
Jump up ^ Atkinson, Brooks (July 2, 1953). "At the Theatre; Arthur Miller's The Crucible in a New Edition With Several New Actors and One New Scene". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ "The Crucible, Virginia Theatre". ibdb.com. Retrieved October 21, 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Crucible, Walter Kerr Theatre". Retrieved June 6, 2016.
Jump up ^ Miller, Arthur (February 8, 1953). "Journey to 'The Crucible'". The New York Times. Retrieved October 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ Lawson, Deodat. Further Account of the Tryals. (appended to Cotton Mather's Wonders of the Invisible World in a subsequent ed. published in London in 1693)
^ Jump up to: a b Full Text, marshfield.k12.wi.us; accessed October 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Abigail's Age Has Been Raised", hoydenabouttown.com, June 26, 2012; accessed September 7, 2015.
Jump up ^ Mather, Cotton (October 1692). Intro to Wonders of the Invisible World. Boston.
Jump up ^ Calef, Robert (1700). More Wonders of the Invisible World. London, UK. (included in Burr (1914), abridged but with a highly useful index).
Jump up ^ Bower, Glenn. Just a Family History, books.google.com; accessed December 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Boyer, Paul S. (1974), Salem Possessed: The Social Origins of Witchcraft, Harvard University Press, pp. 133–40, retrieved March 24, 2013
Jump up ^ Miller, Arthur (February 8, 1953). "Journey to The Crucible". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Calef, Robert (1700). More Wonders of the Invisible World. London, UK.
Jump up ^ Upham, Charles W. Salem Witchcraft, Volumes=I and II, Appendix IV.
Jump up ^ Burr, George Burr (1914). Narratives of the Witchcraft Cases.
Jump up ^ "The crucible: a play in four acts". Worldcat.org. Retrieved August 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ The Crucible Onscreen, thecrucibleonscreen.com; accessed December 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ Pulitzer Prize Winners by Year
Jump up ^ Obituaries, Opera News, vol. 78, no. 1, July 2013
Jump up ^ List of titles, National Video Archive of Performance
Sources
Abbotson, Susan C.W. (2005). Masterpieces of 20th-century American Drama. Westport, CT: Greenwood. ISBN 0-313-33223-1. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Atkinson, Brooks (January 23, 1953). "Review of The Crucible". The New York Times.
Blakesley, Maureen (1992). The Crucible, a Play in Four Acts. Heinemann Plays ser. Oxford. ISBN 0-435-23281-9.
Bloom, Harold (2008). Arthur Miller's The Crucible. Chelsea House. ISBN 978-0-7910-9828-8.
Loftus, Joseph A. (June 2, 1957). "Miller Convicted in Contempt Case". The New York Times.
Miller, Arthur (1992). "A Note on the Historical Accuracy of the Play", in Blakesley (1992, page xvii).
Ram, Atma (1988). Perspectives on Arthur Miller. Abhinav. ISBN 978-81-7017-240-6.
Roudané, Matthew, ed. (1987). Conversations with Arthur Miller. Jackson, MS: UP of Mississippi. ISBN 978-0-87805-323-0.
Wilmeth, Don B. & C. W. E. Bigsby, eds. (1998). The Cambridge History of American Theatre. 3. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-67985-5. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Bibliography
Editions
Miller, Arthur The Crucible (Harmondsworth: The Viking Press, 1971); ISBN 0-14-02-4772-6 (edited; with an introduction by Gerald Weales. Contains the full text based on the Collected Plays, and various critical essays)
Nilan, Jack. "McCarthyism and the Movies". Retrieved February 16, 2016.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Crucible.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: The Crucible
The Crucible at the Internet Broadway Database
The Crucible at the Internet Broadway Database
The Crucible (1957 film) on IMDb
The Crucible (1996 film) on IMDb
The Crucible study guide, SparkNotes
"The Crucible (Study Guide)". Shmoop.
[show]
v
t
e
Laurence Olivier Award for Best Revival (2001–2025)
Twelfth Night / Uncle Vanya (2003)
Mourning Becomes Electra (2004)
Hamlet (2005)
Hedda Gabler (2006)
The Crucible (2007)
Saint Joan (2008)
The Histories (2009)
Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (2010)
After the Dance (2011)
Anna Christie (2012)
Long Day's Journey into Night (2013)
Ghosts (2014)
A View from the Bridge (2015)
Ma Rainey's Black Bottom (2016)
Yerma (2017)
Complete list
(1991–2000)
(2001–2025)
[show]
v
t
e
Tony Award for Best Play (1948–1975)
Mister Roberts (1948)
Death of a Salesman (1949)
The Cocktail Party (1950)
The Rose Tattoo (1951)
The Fourposter (1952)
The Crucible (1953)
The Teahouse of the August Moon (1954)
The Desperate Hours (1955)
The Diary of Anne Frank (1956)
Long Day's Journey into Night (1957)
Sunrise at Campobello (1958)
J.B. (1959)
The Miracle Worker (1960)
Becket (1961)
A Man for All Seasons (1962)
Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1963)
Luther (1964)
The Subject Was Roses (1965)
Marat/Sade (1966)
The Homecoming (1967)
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead (1968)
The Great White Hope (1969)
Borstal Boy (1970)
Sleuth (1971)
Sticks and Bones (1972)
That Championship Season (1973)
The River Niger (1974)
Equus (1975)
Complete list
(1948–1975)
(1976–2000)
(2001–2025)
[show]
v
t
e
Salem witch trials (1692–93)
Timeline
People
Cultural depictions
Magistrates and
court officials
Jonathan Corwin
Bartholomew Gedney
John Hathorne
Joseph Herrick
George Herrick
John Richards
Nathaniel Saltonstall (aka Nathanial Saltonstall; resigned from the court in protest over nature of proceedings)
Samuel Sewall
William Stoughton
Waitstill Winthrop
Town physician
William Griggs
Clergy
Thomas Barnard
George Burroughs (convicted of withcraft and hanged)
Francis Dane
John Hale
John Higginson
Deodat Lawson
Cotton Mather
Increase Mather
William Milbourne
Nicholas Noyes
Samuel Parris
Edward Payson
Samuel Phillips
Samuel Willard
Politicians and public figures
Thomas Danforth
William Phips
Thomas Brattle
Robert Calef
Thomas Maule
Accusers
Benjamin Abbot
Ebenezer Babson
William Barker Sr.
Thomas Barnard
Elizabeth Booth
John Bly Sr. and Rebecca Bly
Thomas Boreman
Thomas Chandler
Nathaniel Coit
Mary Daniel
John DeRich
Joseph Draper
Joseph Fowler
Mary Fuller
Mary Herrick
John Howe
Elizabeth Hubbard
Joseph Hutchinson
John Indian
Nathaniel Ingersoll
Thomas and Mary Jacobs
Margaret Wilkins Knight
Mercy Lewis
Abigail Martin Jr.
Jeremiah Neale
Sarah Nurse
Betty Parris
Edward Payson
Samuel and Ruth Perley (or Pearly)
John and Lydia Porter
Thomas Preston
Ann Putnam Jr.
Ann Putnam Sr.
Edward Putnam
Hannah Putnam
John Putnam Jr.
John Putnam Sr.
Jonathan (or Johnathan) Putnam
Nathaniel Putnam
Thomas Putnam
Nicholas Rist
Margaret Rule
Susannah Sheldon
Mercy Short
Martha Sprague
Timothy Swan or Swann
Christian Trask
Peter Tufts
Moses Tyler
Jonathan Walcott
Mary Walcott
Richard Walker
Mary Warren
Joseph Whipple
Bray Wilkins
John Wilkins
Samuel Wilkins
Abigail Williams
Frances Wycomb
Accused but survived
Arthur Abbot
Nehemiah Abbot Jr.
Abigail Barker
Katerina Biss
Edward Bishop
Edward Bishop III
Mary Black
Anne Bradstreet
Dudley Bradstreet
John Bradstreet
Mary Bridges Sr.
Sarah Bridges
Sarah Buckley
John Busse (or Buss)
Andrew Carrier
Richard Carrier
Sarah Carrier
Thomas Carrier Jr.
Bethiah Carter Jr.
Bethiah Carter Sr.
Rachel Clinton
Sarah Cloyce
Elizabeth Colson
Mary Colson
Francis Dane
Phoebe Day
Elizabeth Dicer
Rebecca Dike
Ann Dolliver
Mehitable Downing
Mary Dyer
Daniel and Lydia Eames
Rebecca Blake Eames
Esther Elwell
Martha Emerson
Joseph Emons
Thomas Farrar Sr.
Abigail Faulkner Jr.
Abigail Faulkner Sr.
Dorothy Faulkner
Elizabeth Fosdick
Eunice Frye
Dorothy Good
Mary Green
Sarah Noyes Hale (wife of John Hale)
Elizabeth Hutchinson Hart
Margaret Hawkes
Sarah Hawkes Jr.
Dorcas Hoar
Deliverance Hobbs
William Hobbs
Elizabeth Johnson Sr.
Stephen Johnson
Rebecca Jacobs
Jane Lilly (or Lillie)
Mary Marston
Sarah Morey
Sarah Murrell
Robert and Sarah Pease
Joan Penney (or Penny)
Sarah Phelps
Mary Post
Susannah Post
Margaret Prince
Elizabeth Bassett Proctor
Sarah Proctor
William Proctor
Sarah Davis Rice
Sarah Rist
Sarah Root
Susanna Rootes
Abigail Rowe
Mary Rowe
Elizabeth Scargen
Ann Sears
Abigail Somes
Sarah Clapp Swift
Mary Harrington Taylor
Margaret Thacher
Job Tookey
Margaret Toothaker
Mary Toothaker
Hannah Tyler
Joanna Tyler
Mary Lovett Tyler
Hezekiah Usher II
Rachel Vinson
Mary Whittredge (or Witheridge)
Sarah Wilson Jr.
Sarah Wilson Sr.
Edward Wooland
Confessed and/or accused others
Mary Barker
William Barker Jr.
William Barker Sr.
Sarah Bibber
Mary Bridges Jr.
Sarah Churchwell
Deliverance Dane
Rebecca Blake Eames
Abigail Hobbs
Margaret Jacobs
Mary Lacey Jr.
Mary Lacey Sr.
Martha Tyler
Mercy Wardwell
Sarah Wardwell
Mary Warren
Candy
Tituba
Executed by hanging
Bridget Bishop
George Burroughs
Martha Carrier
Martha Corey
Mary Eastey
Sarah Good
Elizabeth Howe
George Jacobs Sr.
Susannah Martin
Rebecca Nurse
Alice Parker
Mary Ayer Parker
John Proctor
Ann Pudeator
Wilmot Redd
Margaret Scott
Samuel Wardwell
Sarah Wildes
John Willard
Pressed to death
Giles Corey
Born in prison
Mercy, infant child of Sarah Good
John Proctor III
Died in prison
John Durrant
Lydia Dustin
Ann Foster
Mercy, infant child of Sarah Good
Sarah Osborne
Infant child of Elizabeth Scargen
Roger Toothaker
Escaped or otherwise fled
John Alden
Daniel Andrew
Mary Bradbury
Elizabeth Cary
Phillip and Mary English
Edward Farrington
Mary Green
George Jacobs Jr.
Ephraim Stevens
[show]
v
t
e
Works by Arthur Miller
Plays
No Villain
They Too Arise
Honors at Dawn
The Golden Years (radio play)
That They May Win (one-act)
The Man Who Had All the Luck
All My Sons
Death of a Salesman
An Enemy of the People (adapted)
The Crucible
A View from the Bridge
A Memory of Two Mondays
The Misfits
After the Fall
Incident At Vichy
The Price
The Creation of the World and Other Business
The Archbishop's Ceiling
The American Clock
Up from Paradise
Elegy for a Lady
Some Kind of Love Story
Everybody Wins
The Last Yankee
The Ride Down Mt. Morgan
Broken Glass
Mr. Peters' Connections
Resurrection Blues
Finishing the Picture
Novels
Focus
Homely Girl: A Life
Screenplays
The Hook (1947)
Let's Make Love (1960)
The Misfits (1961)
Everybody Wins (1984)
Death of a Salesman (1985)
The Crucible (1995)
[show]
v
t
e
Arthur Miller's The Crucible (1953)
Characters
John Proctor
Abigail Williams
Judge Thomas Danforth
Elizabeth Proctor
Reverend Samuel Parris
Reverend John Hale
Thomas Putnam
Giles Corey
Adaptations
The Crucible (1957 film)
The Crucible (1996 film)
The Crucible (opera)
Related
Salem witch trials
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Crucible&oldid=820593176"
Categories:
1953 plays
Plays by Arthur Miller
Adultery in plays
Broadway plays
Off-Broadway plays
Plays about McCarthyism
Plays based on actual events
Salem witch trials in fiction
Tony Award-winning plays
American plays adapted into films
Plays adapted into operas
Plays adapted into television programs
Plays set in Massachusetts
Plays set in the 17th century
Hidden categories:
Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism
Use mdy dates from June 2012
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