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Twenty One Pilots
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Twenty One Pilots
Josh Dun (left) and Tyler Joseph in Bangkok in 2015
Background information
Origin
Columbus, Ohio, U.S.
Genres
Alternative hip hop
electropop
indie pop
pop rock
rap rock
alternative rock
Years active
2009–present
Labels
Fueled by Ramen
DCD2
WEA International
Atlantic
Website
twentyonepilots.com
Members
Tyler Joseph
Josh Dun
Past members
Nick Thomas
Chris Salih
Twenty One Pilots (stylized as twenty one pilots, and sometimes as twenty øne piløts)[1] is an American musical duo originating from Columbus, Ohio. The band was formed in 2009 by lead vocalist Tyler Joseph along with former members Nick Thomas and Chris Salih, who left in 2011, and currently consists of Joseph and drummer Josh Dun. The duo rose to fame in the mid-2010s after several years of touring and independent releases.
They put out two self-released albums, Twenty One Pilots in 2009 and Regional at Best in 2011, before being signed by Fueled by Ramen in 2012. Their label debut, Vessel, was released in 2013. The duo achieved breakthrough success with their fourth album, Blurryface (2015), which produced the successful singles "Stressed Out" and "Ride". In addition, the single "Heathens", recorded for the soundtrack of the film Suicide Squad, made the group the first alternative artist to have two concurrent top ten singles in the U.S. The duo has won a Grammy Award for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 2009–2011: Formation, No Phun Intended, and self-titled album Twenty One Pilots
1.2 2011–2012: Departure of Chris Salih and Nick Thomas and Regional at Best
1.3 2013–2014: Fueled by Ramen record deal, Vessel, and Quiet Is Violent World Tour
1.4 2015–present: Blurryface and Emotional Roadshow World Tour
2 Involvement with Christian organization Five14
3 Musical style and influences
4 Band name, iconography and fandom
5 Band members
6 Discography
7 Concert tours
8 Awards and nominations
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
History
2009–2011: Formation, No Phun Intended, and self-titled album Twenty One Pilots
External video
The original line-up performing
Interview with the original line-up
Tyler Joseph first met future bandmate Nicholas "Nick" Thomas at a young age while playing little league basketball in Columbus, Ohio.[3] The two remained friends as Thomas transferred into Joseph's school for eighth grade and throughout the duration of high school as well.[4][5]
Joseph began playing music after finding an old keyboard in his closet, a Christmas gift from his mother, and mimicking radio melodies.[6][7] After seeing a songwriter perform at a High Street club, Joseph rejected an opportunity to play basketball at Otterbein University, along with a scholarship to the university. From around 2007 to 2008, Joseph recorded a solo album entitled No Phun Intended in his basement. Nick Thomas contributed guitar to several songs on the album,[3] and collaborated on the song "Trees", which was to become a signature Twenty One Pilots song.[8]
While attending Ohio State University, Joseph met Texas-born future bandmate Christopher "Chris" Salih at a party. Salih came from a musical background and consulted Joseph about starting a band. Impressed by the recording studio Salih had built in his house, Joseph agreed and began sharing his ideas. Just before their first performance, Joseph invited Thomas to join them as a bassist despite never having played the instrument before. In 2009, the group moved into a house of their own, where their first album was conceptualized and recorded in the basement.[9][3]
The band initially played for a wide variety of audiences at clubs and venues around the Columbus area. Playing at metal, hardcore, and electronic venues influenced Joseph to experiment with these disparate styles with his songwriting. To catch the attention of unfamiliar or disinterested attendees, the band began to experiment with costumes and on-stage acrobatics.[9]
Now going by "Twenty One Pilots",[4][5] the group released their debut, self-titled album, Twenty One Pilots, on December 29, 2009, and began touring the rest of Ohio. Their initial marketing was very grassroots; Joseph's mother would stand outside of Ohio State University giving away tickets to his shows.[10] During this time, the band participated in "Battle of the Band" contests at The Alrosa Villa and The Basement, important Columbus music venues.[11][12] In 2010, the band posted two officially unreleased tracks to their SoundCloud account.[13] These included a cover of "Jar of Hearts" by Christina Perri and a remixed interpretation of "Con te partirò (Time to Say Goodbye)" by Andrea Bocelli and Sarah Brightman; the latter would become the first song local drummer Josh Dun heard from the group.[14][14]
2011–2012: Departure of Chris Salih and Nick Thomas and Regional at Best
Main article: Twenty One Pilots (album)
Salih left on May 8, 2011 to focus on work, and Thomas left the next month on June 3, 2011 to focus on schooling, both posting farewell notes on the band's official Facebook page.[15][16] Before departing the project, Salih invited Guitar Center co-worker and friend of the group Josh Dun (former touring drummer for House of Heroes),[5][17] to take his place in the band. Impressed by the band's potential and Joseph's creative vision, Dun abandoned plans to pursue drumming in Nashville and joined the project only a few weeks before Thomas left the group.[18]
Both Salih and Thomas remained involved with the band's production for some time after their departure.[19] Thomas briefly attended school in North Carolina, but moved back into Joseph and Dun's house in Columbus a year after his departure and began to manage their merchandise. Thomas remained a part of the merchandise distribution crew throughout the production of Blurryface and continues to stay actively involved in the band's tour cycle.[20] Thomas has since relocated to Savannah, Georgia where he resides today.[21] Salih co-founded the carpentry company "Elmwood Custom Goods", where he works as an account manager[22] and resides in Columbus.
With a new lineup consisting of only Joseph and Dun, Twenty One Pilots self-released their second album, Regional at Best, on July 8, 2011. The album was accompanied by a free CD release show on the grounds of New Albany High School. While Salih and Thomas were involved with the conceptualization of the album, neither they nor Dun claim to have had much involvement with its production, which was handled nearly exclusively by Joseph.[19] The album features Joseph's brother Zack on the track "Kitchen Sink" and Joseph's college acquaintance Jocef on the track "Be Concerned".[23][24]
In November 2011, after months of cultivating a fan base in the Columbus area via social media interaction and constant touring, the band played a sold out concert at Columbus' Newport Music Hall. This notable accomplishment for an unsigned local group caught the attention of several record labels interested in seeing if the band's appeal could stretch outside of Ohio.[25]
Twenty One Pilots performing in 2012
That same year, the duo put out two free, otherwise unreleased songs via their email newsletter: the original version of "House of Gold" and "Two".[26][27] On February 11, 2012, the band released a music video on YouTube for an unreleased song titled "Goner".[28] "Goner" was rewritten and again recorded for its release on Blurryface in 2015.[29]
Joseph and Dun embarked on the Regional at Best Tour with rock band CHALLENGER!,[30][31] documenting it in a series of videos uploaded to the Twenty One Pilots YouTube channel.[32][33]
2013–2014: Fueled by Ramen record deal, Vessel, and Quiet Is Violent World Tour
Main article: Vessel (Twenty One Pilots album)
In April 2012, the band announced their signing to Atlantic Records subsidiary Fueled by Ramen, the label responsible for the commercial success of popular alternative artists like Panic! at the Disco and Paramore, during a sold out show at the Lifestyle Communities Pavilion.[5][27] On July 17, 2012, they released their debut Fueled by Ramen recording, an EP entitled Three Songs.[34][35] The next month, the band embarked on a short tour with Neon Trees and Walk the Moon.[25]
Tyler Joseph successfully negotiated to maintain ownership of the preceding self-titled album, which remains available digitally. However, as part of a signing agreement in 2012 with record label Fueled by Ramen, rights to Regional at Best were transferred to the label, meaning that Regional at Best was discontinued and removed from digital markets.[36] Regional at Best tracks "Slowtown", "Anathema", "Ruby", "Be Concerned" (featuring Jocef), and "Clear" have since been made commercially unavailable,[37] and physical copies of the album are now rare and highly sought after.[38][39]
On November 12, 2012, the official music video for "Holding on to You", directed by Jordan Bahat, was released on YouTube.[40] On January 7 and April 19, 2013, the band released music videos for "Guns for Hands" and "Car Radio", respectively, both directed by Mark Eshleman of Reel Bear Media.[41][42][43]
In an interview with the Huffington Post, Joseph described Regional at Best as a "glorified mixtape" and confirmed that songs from that project would reappear on their debut studio album.[44] Ultimately, five tracks from Regional at Best – "Guns for Hands", "Holding on to You", "Ode to Sleep", "Car Radio", and "Trees" – were re-recorded and released for their third album.[8] "Lovely" was also re-recorded and released as a single exclusive to Japan on April 17, 2013[45][46]
Twenty One Pilots' third album, Vessel, was released January 8, 2013; it would reach No. 21 on the Billboard 200, No. 9 on the Digital Albums chart, No. 17 on the Internet Albums chart, No. 15 on the Rock Albums Chart, and No. 10 on the Alternative Albums Chart.[47][48] The album release also supported the band's first charting single, "Holding on to You", which reached 11 on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart. Additionally, the singles "Guns for Hands" and "Lovely" reached No. 21 and No. 67, respectively, on the Japan Hot 100 after "Lovely" was released as a promotional single for the band's trip to Japan.[45][46] "Glowing Eyes", "Kitchen Sink", and "Forest" appeared unchanged as bonus tracks on the UK version of Vessel.[49]
In May 2013, Fall Out Boy announced that Twenty One Pilots would serve as opening acts on the Save Rock and Roll Arena Tour the following fall, along with Panic! at the Disco.[50]
Lead vocalist Tyler Joseph performing in 2014
On August 8, 2013, Twenty One Pilots performed "House of Gold" on Conan in their late night debut.[51][52] On October 2, the music video for the song was uploaded onto YouTube.[53]
Twenty One Pilots performing live in 2014 for "Boston Calling: Day Three"
On March 17, 2014, Twenty One Pilots performed a set at the mtvU Woodie Awards during SXSW.[54] On April 13, Twenty One Pilots performed "Car Radio" at the 2014 MTV Movie Awards.[55] On April 28, the band performed "Car Radio" on Late Night with Seth Meyers.[56]
In 2014, Twenty One Pilots played a number of music festivals and other events around the United States, such as Lollapalooza,[57] Bonnaroo,[58] Boston Calling, and Firefly.[59] Requests from many of these cities were incorporated into the band's first headlining tour, the Quiet Is Violent World Tour, which began in September 2014 and ended in November of the same year.[60]
On December 31, 2014, the band released a music video for the song "Ode to Sleep". Composed of footage captured by the band's creative director, Mark C. Eshleman of Reel Bear Media, from three concerts over the preceding three years, the video depicted the band's rapid growth from their origins as a small local band to a nationally-popular alternative act, an upward trend that would continue into the next album cycle.[61][62]
2015–present: Blurryface and Emotional Roadshow World Tour
Main article: Blurryface
One of Twenty One Pilots' many dynamic performances
On March 16, 2015, the band announced that a new album, Blurryface, was to be released on May 19.[63] They also released the first single, "Fairly Local", on March 17.[64][65] Their second single of the album, "Tear in My Heart", and its music video were released on April 5, 2015.[66][67] On April 28, "Stressed Out", the third single from the album, was released along with a music video.[68][69][70][71] "Stressed Out" became the group's highest selling single, peaking at No. 2 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, and No. 1 on both Alternative Songs and Hot Rock Songs charts and surpassing one billion views on YouTube.[72][73]
Blurryface was released two days early on May 17, 2015, and sold 134,000 copies in the first week in the United States, becoming the band's first No. 1 album on the Billboard 200.[74] On May 22, 2016, Blurryface won in the category of "Top Rock Album" at the Billboard Music Awards, while the band won the category of "Top Rock Artist".[75]
Twenty One Pilots performing at Shepherds Bush Empire in late 2015
The band began the Blurryface Tour on May 11, 2015, in Glasgow, Scotland. The tour spanned the United States, Australia, South East Asia, Japan and Europe.[76] The U.S. section began September 8, 2015 and featured Echosmith and Finish Ticket as openers.[77]
Twenty One Pilots performed "Stressed Out" on Late Night with Seth Meyers on September 14, 2015.[78]
The band announced a London show in February 2016, and later announced a run of UK dates, with a second London date added. The band Transviolet served as openers.[79] This run of UK dates ended the initial Blurryface Tour.
Soon after, the band announced a second tour for the Blurryface album, the Emotional Roadshow World Tour, which started in Cincinnati on May 31, 2016.[80] The tour covered the United States, Canada, Mexico, Europe, and Australia.[81][82] Chef'Special and Mutemath opened for the American leg.[83] Irish singer Bry joined the tour for its European leg.[84]
On June 16, 2016, the band released the song "Heathens" as the first single from the Suicide Squad soundtrack, earlier than the expected release date of June 24, after the song leaked onto the Internet on June 15.[85][86][87] A music video for the song was released on June 21, 2016.[88][89] "Heathens" plays during the ending credits of the film.[90]
Twenty One Pilots became only the third rock act to have two singles simultaneously chart in the top five of the Billboard Hot 100, joining the Beatles and Elvis Presley, in addition to becoming the third duo to accomplish this feat, after OutKast in 2003 and Macklemore & Ryan Lewis ten years later.[91]
Twenty One Pilots performing in London in 2016
The band contributed a cover of the piano ballad "Cancer" by My Chemical Romance to the tribute album Rock Sound Presents: The Black Parade.[92][93] An animated lyric video followed the release of the song.[94]
Twenty One Pilots featured as the musical guest on Saturday Night Live on October 8, 2016, performing orchestra-accompanied versions of "Heathens" and "Ride" in what Rolling Stone called their "most high profile performance yet".[95] The band later performed a medley of "Heathens" and "Stressed Out" on the American Music Awards of 2016, where they also accepted their first awards on American television for Favorite Pop/Rock Duo and Favorite Alternative Rock Artist.[96]
Joseph and Dun collaborated with alternative rock band Mutemath, for a five-song EP, TOPxMM, composed of remixes and reimaginings of five tracks from Blurryface. The EP was uploaded onto the band's official website free of charge on December 19; a twenty-five-minute long video of the bands recording the songs live in studio was also released on the band's YouTube channel.[97][98][99][100]
On February 12, 2017, Twenty One Pilots won a Grammy Award for "Stressed Out" in the Best Pop Duo/Group Performance category. The band stripped to their underwear before taking the stage, with Joseph claiming in their acceptance speech that this was a fulfillment of a promise the duo had made each other in their early days as a local Columbus band.[2][101][102]
On March 27, 2017, the band began selling tickets for what they called a "Tour De Columbus", a five-date hometown tour taking place in June 2017.[103] The duo performed at several small venues they first played as a local band including The Basement, Newport Music Hall, and Express Live!, before ending their tour cycle with arena shows at Nationwide Arena and Value City Arena.[104]
In an interview with Alternative Press in November 2016, Twenty One Pilots stated that after their last show, they will be "going dark" to focus on new music. Joseph stated that he would like to focus on lyrical content of the music, and bring the music back to the "authenticity, lyrics, delivery, and fearlessness of songwriting" similar to that of the self-titled album.[105] The band is currently taking a self-described hiatus; their last activity came in July 2017 in the form of posts on social media depicting an eye closing over lyrics from several of their songs.[106][107]
They received a Gold certification by the RIAA) for their song "Hometown" in March 2018 becoming the first musicians in the digital era to have every song featured on a full-length album achieve at least gold status.[108][109][110]
Involvement with Christian organization Five14
The members Joseph, Dun,[111][112][113] and Salih all have associations with local Columbus, Ohio church Five14 – Joseph and Dun contributing four of fourteen tracks to Five14-produced album Clear by artist Travis Whittaker (known as simply as "Whittaker") and the gospel band "New Albany Music".[114][115] In 2011, Joseph was also the lead star in Five14 Church's three episode mockumentary entitled "The (moderately inspiring tale of the) Longboard Rodeo Tango".[116][117][118] According to the mockumentary, Joseph was an intern at the church at the time. On December 24, 2013, Christmas Eve, Joseph participated and sang "O come, O come, Emmanuel" at Five14 Church's Christmas With the Stars in New Albany, Ohio. The official video of the performance was uploaded to YouTube on February 14, 2014.[119] He also performed a magic segment with the church's host and emcee, David McCreary for the show.[120][121]
As of December 2017, former Twenty One Pilots member Chris Salih frequently performs shows at the church.[122][123][124]
Musical style and influences
A sample from "Ride" that illustrates the influence of reggae in Blurryface
Although both members of the band are Christians and their songs often contain some allusions to religious themes, Twenty One Pilots is not considered and never intended to be a Christian band.[125][126]
The band's musical style has been described as alternative hip hop,[127][128][129] electropop,[127][130][131] indie pop,[132][133][134] pop rock,[135][136] rap rock,[137][138] and alternative rock.[139][137] They have also been described as rock,[140][141] pop,[134][142][143][140] electronica,[143][134][140] emo rap,[137] indie rock,[140] pop-rap,[127] hip hop,[132][142][143] indietronica,[132] and, in the case of Blurryface, reggae.[144][145][5]
Ultimately, it is difficult to categorize the band using a single genre only, since they bridge so many.[146] This has been attributed partly to the fact that both Joseph and Dun are self-taught musicians, meaning that while producing their work they broke many musical conventions that they were not aware of, including staying confined to a single genre.[147]
Instrumentally, Twenty One Pilots bring a mix of piano (sometimes an electronic keyboard or a keytar), synthesizers, drums (sometimes mixed with electronic drums), vocals, and occasionally the ukulele and bass. Lyrically, their songs are written by Joseph, who incorporates both sung and rapped lyrics. Music journalist Carl Wilson has noted that Joseph's rapping is often compared to that of Macklemore, yet he wrote "but among the ranks of post-Eminem white rappers, I find Joseph more probing, sardonic, and expressive."[148] Joseph has stated that he never intended to become a rapper, but that when attempting to fit poetry which he had written with music, he found that rapping elements of it was the only way for it to fit within the song.[149]
Band name, iconography and fandom
Twenty One Pilots' previous band logo
Twenty One Pilots' official band logo as of 2015
Joseph came up with the band's name while studying All My Sons by Arthur Miller, a play about a man whose choice to send out faulty airplane parts for the good of his business and family caused the death of twenty one pilots during World War II. Joseph explains that the story's themes of moral dilemma and choosing between the easy and the right decision inspired the name and formation of the band.[150][151] "Bicycle Thief" and "Chill Coat" were among some of the rejected band names.[152]
The band's name was originally stylized as "twenty | one | pilots" on their earlier cover art; however, by the time of their second album Regional at Best, the formatting was changed to "twenty øne piløts" with slashes through the O's.
Former Twenty One Pilots member Chris Salih stated in an interview that Mark C. Eshleman, a longtime friend of and creative director for Twenty One Pilots, created the band's logo by "messing around with shapes". Joseph found the arrangement to resonate with him.[124]
In regard to their logo, Joseph stated in an interview that:
It means Twenty One Pilots, the logo does. Why it means Twenty One Pilots, is it really goes along with one of our songs called "Kitchen Sink". The whole concept of that song is that I feel that humans are always struggling all the time when it comes to purpose, trying to figure out what their purpose is, what purpose even is, what's the point, justifying your own existence. A lot of kids and people my age struggle with "what's the point", and with the logo, what it really means is it's an encouragement. When someone asks me what the logo means to me, the logo means something to me because I made it mean something to me. That's the point. The point is that I created something that only I understand and whether or not I decide to disclose the meaning of it, that's the beginning of purpose for me. The meaning of purpose for me, is by creating something, if it be by writing lyrics, painting a picture, by expressing yourself through art if it's photography or music or theater, or whatever it is. It doesn't have to be artistic, but if you create something and only you know the meaning of it, that's the beginning of purpose for you. When you're in the room by yourself trying to decide whether to stay alive, you can tell yourself "I should probably stay alive because I'm the only one who knows the meaning of that thing", so the logo is an encouragement for people to create. That's what it means.[153]
Alternative logo used on the cover of Blurryface
According to the band, their purpose for making music is "to make people think", as well as encourage them to find joy in what they come to believe in life.[150]
Skeleton Clique logos
The band's fandom has been dubbed the "Skeleton Clique" or just the Clique, in reference to the band's use of skeleton iconography in many performances, graphics, and music videos. The Skeleton Clique are represented in the band's official iconography by logos of a skull and alien head atop lines resembling keys.[154] Salih speculates that Tyler Joseph himself originally used the term "Clique" to identify with his fans.[155]
During the 2017 Tour de Columbus, Twenty One Pilots hosted a public art show, dubbed "Artopia", exclusively for Clique-related artwork at the Nationwide Arena.[156]
Band members
Current members
Tyler Joseph – lead vocals, piano, keyboards, synthesizers, ukulele, bass (2009–present)
Josh Dun – drums, percussion (2011–present)
Past members
Nick Thomas – bass, piano, keyboards (2009–2011), backing vocals (2009), merchandise distribution (present)
Chris Salih – drums, percussion (2009–2011)
Discography
Main article: Twenty One Pilots discography
Twenty One Pilots (2009)
Regional at Best (2011)
Vessel (2013)
Blurryface (2015)
Concert tours
Headlining
Regional at Best Tour headlining alongside CHALLENGER! (2011)[30][31][32][33]
Mostly November Tour (2012)[157]
Quiet Is Violent Tour (2014)[60]
Blurryface Tour (2015–16)[63][158]
Emotional Roadshow World Tour (2016–17)[159][160][161]
Tour De Columbus (2017)[162][163]
Opening act
Save Rock and Roll Tour with Fall Out Boy and Panic! at the Disco (2013)[50][164]
Awards and nominations
Main article: List of awards and nominations received by Twenty One Pilots
See also
List of songs recorded by Twenty One Pilots
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Jump up ^ Prasad, Karthik (October 4, 2016). "Suicide Squad: New End Credit Hints Extended Cut For Blu-Ray Watch 'Heathens' By Twenty One Pilots". Morning News Usa. Retrieved February 11, 2018.
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Jump up ^ "Twenty One Pilots Drop Their Pants To Accept Grammy Award (For a Legitimate Reason)". Billboard. Retrieved October 16, 2017.
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Jump up ^ "Twenty One Pilots talk new music, fans, more in our latest issue". Alternative Press. Retrieved June 1, 2017.
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Jump up ^ "Twenty One Pilots' "Blurryface" Earns Unrivaled Gold & Platinum Achievement: First Album In Digital Era With Every Song RIAA Certified - RIAA". RIAA. March 1, 2018. Retrieved April 23, 2018.
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Jump up ^ "The (moderately inspiring tale of the) Longboard Rodeo Tango Episode 3". Retrieved July 27, 2014 – via YouTube.
Jump up ^ "Tyler Joseph performs "O come, O come, Emmanuel" at Five14 Church, OH on Christmas Eve". Retrieved June 17, 2014 – via YouTube.
Jump up ^ "Magic with David McCreary and Tyler Joseph". Retrieved June 18, 2014 – via YouTube.
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^ Jump up to: a b c "Twenty One Pilots: Was this Tucson's best arena show of 2017?". Retrieved February 10, 2018.
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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Twenty One Pilots.
Official website
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v
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Containment
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the United States policy. For other uses, see Containment (disambiguation).
United States Information Service poster distributed in Asia, 1951.
Containment is a geopolitical strategy to stop the expansion of an enemy. It is best known as a Cold War foreign policy of the United States and its allies to prevent the spread of communism. As a component of the Cold War, this policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to increase communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, Africa, Vietnam, and Latin America. Containment represented a middle-ground position between detente and rollback.
The basis of the doctrine was articulated in a 1946 cable by U.S. diplomat George F. Kennan during the post-World War II administration of U.S. President Harry S. Truman. As a description of U.S. foreign policy, the word originated in a report Kennan submitted to U.S. Defense Secretary James Forrestal in 1947, which was later used in a magazine article. It is a translation of the French term cordon sanitaire, which was used to describe Western policy toward the Soviet Union in the 1920s.
Contents
[hide]
1 Earlier uses of term
2 Origin (1944–1947)
3 Harry S. Truman (1945–1953)
4 Alternative strategies
5 Korea
6 Dulles
7 Cuba
8 Vietnam
9 Afghanistan
10 Reagan Doctrine
11 After Cold War
12 See also
13 References
14 Sources
15 External links
Earlier uses of term[edit]
Although the term "containment" was first used for the strategy in the 1940s, there were major historical precedents familiar to Americans and Europeans. In the 1850s, anti-slavery forces in the United States developed a free soil strategy of containment, without using the word, to stop the expansion of slavery until it later collapsed. Historian James Oakes explains the strategy:
The Federal government would surround the south with free states, free territories, and free waters, building what they called a 'cordon of freedom' around slavery, hemming it in until the system's own internal weaknesses forced the slave states one by one to abandon slavery.[1]
Following the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, there were calls by Western leaders to isolate the Bolshevik government, which seemed intent on promoting worldwide revolution. In March 1919, French Premier Georges Clemenceau called for a cordon sanitaire, a ring of non-communist states, to isolate the Soviet Union. Translating that phrase, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson called for a "quarantine." Both phrases compare communism to a contagious disease.
The U.S. initially refused to recognize the Soviet Union, but President Franklin D. Roosevelt reversed the policy in 1933 in the hope to expand American export markets.
The Munich Agreement of 1938 was a failed attempt to contain Nazi expansion in Europe. The U.S. tried to contain Japanese expansion in Asia in 1937 to 1941, and Japan reacted with its attack on Pearl Harbor.[2]
After Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 during World War II, the U.S. and the Soviet Union found themselves allied against Germany and used rollback to defeat the Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, and Japan.
Origin (1944–1947)[edit]
Key State Department personnel grew increasingly frustrated with and suspicious of the Soviets as the war drew to a close. Averell Harriman, U.S. Ambassador in Moscow, once a "confirmed optimist" regarding U.S.-Soviet relations,[3] was disillusioned by what he saw as the Soviet betrayal of the 1944 Warsaw Uprising as well as by violations of the February 1945 Yalta Agreement concerning Poland.[4] Harriman would later have a significant influence in forming Truman's views on the Soviet Union.[5]
In February 1946, the U.S. State Department asked George F. Kennan, then at the U.S. Embassy in Moscow, why the Russians opposed the creation of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. He responded with a wide-ranging analysis of Russian policy now called the Long Telegram:[6]
Soviet power, unlike that of Hitlerite Germany, is neither schematic nor adventuristic. It does not work by fixed plans. It does not take unnecessary risks. Impervious to logic of reason, and it is highly sensitive to logic of force. For this reason it can easily withdraw—and usually does when strong resistance is encountered at any point.[7]
According to Kennan:
The Soviets perceived themselves to be in a state of perpetual war with capitalism;
The Soviets would use controllable Marxists in the capitalist world as allies;
Soviet aggression was not aligned with the views of the Russian people or with economic reality, but with historic Russian xenophobia and paranoia;
The Soviet government's structure prevented objective or accurate pictures of internal and external reality.
Kennan's cable was hailed in the State Department as "the appreciation of the situation that had long been needed."[8] Kennan himself attributed the enthusiastic reception to timing: "Six months earlier the message would probably have been received in the State Department with raised eyebrows and lips pursed in disapproval. Six months later, it would probably have sounded redundant."[8] Clark Clifford and George Elsey produced a report elaborating on the Long Telegram and proposing concrete policy recommendations based on its analysis. This report, which recommended "restraining and confining" Soviet influence, was presented to Truman on September 24, 1946.[9]
In January 1947, Kennan drafted an essay entitled "The Sources of Soviet Conduct."[6] Navy Secretary James V. Forrestal gave permission for the report to be published in the journal Foreign Affairs under the pseudonym "X."[10] Biographer Douglas Brinkley has dubbed Forrestal "godfather of containment" on account of his work in distributing Kennan's writing.[11] The use of the word "containment" originates from this so-called "X Article": "In these circumstances it is clear that the main element of any United States policy toward the Soviet Union must be that of long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies."[12]
Kennan later turned against the containment policy and noted several deficiencies in his X Article. He later said that by containment he meant not the containment of Soviet Power "by military means of a military threat, but the political containment of a political threat." [13] Second, Kennan admitted a failure in the article to specify the geographical scope of "containment", and that containment was not something he believed the United States could necessarily achieve everywhere successfully.[14]
Harry S. Truman (1945–1953)[edit]
After Republicans gained control of Congress in the 1946 elections, President Truman, a Democrat, made a dramatic speech that is often considered to mark the beginning of the Cold War. In March 1947, he requested that Congress appropriate $400 million in aid to the Greek and Turkish governments, which were fighting Communist subversion.[15] Truman pledged to, "support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures."[15] This pledge became known as the Truman Doctrine. Portraying the issue as a mighty clash between "totalitarian regimes" and "free peoples," the speech marks the adoption of containment as official U.S. policy. Congress appropriated the money.
Truman's motives on that occasion have been the subject of considerable scholarship and several schools of interpretation. In the orthodox explanation of Herbert Feis, a series of aggressive Soviet actions in 1945–47 in Poland, Iran, Turkey, and elsewhere awakened the American public to the new danger to freedom to which Truman responded.[16] In the revisionist view of William Appleman Williams, Truman's speech was an expression of longstanding American expansionism.[16] In the realpolitik view of Lynn E. Davis, Truman was a naive idealist who unnecessarily provoked the Soviets by couching disputes in terms like democracy and freedom that were alien to the Communist vision.[17]
According to psychological analysis by Deborah Larson, Truman felt a need to prove his decisiveness and feared that aides would make unfavorable comparisons between him and his predecessor, Roosevelt.[18] "I am here to make decisions, and whether they prove right or wrong I am going to take them," he once said.[19]
The drama surrounding the announcement of the Truman Doctrine catered to president's self-image of a strong and decisive leader, but his real decision-making process was more complex and gradual. The timing of the speech was not a response to any particular Soviet action but to the fact that the Republican Party had just gained control of Congress.[20] Truman was little involved in drafting the speech and did not himself adopt the hard-line attitude that it suggested until several months later.[21]
The British, with their own position weakened by economic distress, urgently called on the U.S. to take over the traditional British role in Greece.[22] Undersecretary of State Dean Acheson took the lead in Washington, warning congressional leaders in late February 1947 that if the United States did not take over from the British, the result most probably would be a "Soviet breakthrough" that "might open three continents to Soviet penetration."[23][24] Truman was explicit about the challenge of Communism taking control of Greece. He won wide support from both parties as well as experts in foreign policy inside and outside the government. It was strongly opposed by the Left, notably by former Vice President Henry A. Wallace, who ran against Truman in the 1948 presidential campaign.[25]
Truman, under the guidance of Acheson, followed up his speech with a series of measures to contain Soviet influence in Europe, including the Marshall Plan, or European Recovery Program, and NATO, a 1949 military alliance between the U.S. and Western European nations. Because containment required detailed information about Communist moves, the government relied increasingly on the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Established by the National Security Act of 1947, the CIA conducted espionage in foreign lands, some of it visible, more of it secret. Truman approved a classified statement of containment policy called NSC 20/4 in November 1948, the first comprehensive statement of security policy ever created by the United States. The Soviet Union's first nuclear test in 1949 prompted the National Security Council to formulate a revised security doctrine. Completed in April 1950, it became known as NSC 68.[26] It concluded that a massive military buildup was necessary to deal with the Soviet threat. According to the report, drafted by Paul Nitze and others:
In the words of the Federalist (No. 28) "The means to be employed must be proportioned to the extent of the mischief." The mischief may be a global war or it may be a Soviet campaign for limited objectives. In either case we should take no avoidable initiative which would cause it to become a war of annihilation, and if we have the forces to defeat a Soviet drive for limited objectives it may well be to our interest not to let it become a global war.[27]
Alternative strategies[edit]
There were three alternative policies to containment under discussion in the late 1940s. The first was a return to isolationism, minimizing American involvement with the rest of the world, a policy that was supported by conservative Republicans, especially from the Midwest, including former President Herbert Hoover and Senator Robert A. Taft. However, many other Republicans, led by Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg, said that policy had helped cause World War II and so was too dangerous to revive.[28]
The second policy was continuation of the détente policies that aimed at friendly relationships with the Soviet Union, especially trade, Roosevelt had been the champion of détente, but he was dead, and most of his inner circle had left the government by 1946. The chief proponent of détente was Henry Wallace, a former vice president and the Secretary of Commerce under Truman. Wallace's position was supported by far left elements of the CIO, but they were purged in 1947 and 1948. Wallace ran against Truman on the Progressive Party ticket in 1948, but his campaign was increasingly dominated by Communists, which helped to discredit détente.[29]
The third policy was rollback, an aggressive effort to undercut or destroy the Soviet Union itself. Military rollback against the Soviet Union was proposed by James Burnham[30] and other conservative strategists in the late 1940s. After 1954, Burnham and like-minded strategists became editors and regular contributors to William F. Buckley, Jr.'s National Review magazine.
Truman himself adopted a rollback strategy in the Korean War after the success of the Inchon landings in September 1950, only to reverse himself after the Chinese counterattack two months later and revert to containment. General Douglas MacArthur called on Congress to continue the rollback policy, but Truman fired him for insubordination.[31]
Under President Dwight Eisenhower, a rollback strategy was considered against communism in Eastern Europe from 1953 to 1956. Eisenhower agreed to a propaganda campaign to rollback the influence of communism psychologically, but he refused to intervene in the 1956 Hungarian Uprising,[32] mainly for fear that it would cause the Third World War. Since 1950, the Soviets had been known to possess nuclear weapons.[33]
Korea[edit]
A 1962 nuclear explosion as seen through the periscope of a U.S. Navy submarine. The goal of containment was to 'contain' communism without a nuclear war.
The U.S. followed containment when it entered the Korean War to defend South Korea from a communist invasion by North Korea. However, the success of the Inchon landing inspired the U.S. and the United Nations to adopt a rollback strategy to overthrow communist North Korea, thus allowing nationwide elections under U.N. auspices.[34] General Douglas MacArthur then advanced across the 38th parallel into North Korea. The Chinese then sent in a large army and defeated the U.N. forces, pushing them below the 38th parallel. Although the Chinese had been planning to intervene for months,[35] this action was interpreted by Truman's supporters as a response to U.S. forces crossing the 38th parallel. That interpretation allowed the episode to be used to confirm the wisdom of containment doctrine as opposed to rollback. The Communists were later pushed back to around the original border. Truman blamed MacArthur's focus on victory and adopted a "limited war" policy. His focus shifted to negotiating a settlement, which was finally reached in 1953. For his part, MacArthur denounced Truman's "no-win policy."[36]
Dulles[edit]
Many Republicans, including John Foster Dulles, were concerned that Truman had been too timid. In 1952, Dulles called for rollback and the eventual liberation of Eastern Europe.[37] Dulles was named secretary of state by incoming President Eisenhower, but Eisenhower's decision not to intervene during the 1956 Hungarian Uprising made containment a bipartisan doctrine. Eisenhower relied on clandestine CIA actions to undermine hostile governments and used economic and military foreign aid to strengthen governments supporting the American position in the Cold War.[38]
Cuba[edit]
In the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, the top officials in Washington debated using rollback to get rid of Soviet nuclear missiles, which were threatening the United States. There was fear of a nuclear war until a deal was reached in which the Soviets would publicly remove their nuclear weapons, the United States would secretly remove its missiles from Turkey and to avoid invading Cuba. The policy of containing Cuba was put into effect by President John F. Kennedy and continued until 2015.[39]
Vietnam[edit]
Senator Barry Goldwater, the Republican candidate for president in 1964, challenged containment and asked, "Why not victory?"[40] President Lyndon Johnson, the Democratic nominee, answered that rollback risked nuclear war. Johnson explained containment doctrine by quoting the Bible: "Hitherto shalt thou come, but not further."[41] Goldwater lost to Johnson in the 1964 election by a wide margin. Johnson adhered closely to containment during the Vietnam War. Rejecting proposals by General William Westmoreland for U.S. ground forces to advance into Laos and cut communist supply lines, Johnson gathered a group of elder statesmen called The Wise Men. The group included Kennan, Acheson and other former Truman advisors.
Rallies in support of the troops were discouraged for fear that a patriotic response would lead to demands for victory and rollback.[41] Military responsibility was divided among three generals so that no powerful theater commander could emerge to challenge Johnson as MacArthur had challenged Truman.[42]
Nixon, who replaced Johnson in 1969, referred to his foreign policy as détente, a relaxation of tension. Although it continued to aim at restraining the Soviet Union, it was based on political realism, thinking in terms of national interest, as opposed to crusades against communism or for democracy. Emphasis was placed on talks with the Soviet Union concerning nuclear weapons called the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. Nixon reduced U.S. military presence in Vietnam to the minimum required to contain communist advances, in a policy called Vietnamization. As the war continued, it grew less popular. A Democratic Congress forced Nixon, a Republican, to abandon the policy in 1973 by enacting the Case–Church Amendment, which ended U.S. military involvement in Vietnam and led to successful communist invasions of South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia.
Afghanistan[edit]
President Jimmy Carter came to office in 1977 and was committed to a foreign policy that emphasized human rights. However, in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, containment was again made a priority. The wording of the Carter Doctrine (1980) intentionally echoeed that of the Truman Doctrine.
Reagan Doctrine[edit]
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Following the communist victory of Vietnam, Democrats began to view further communist advance as inevitable, but Republicans returned to the rollback doctrine. Ronald Reagan, a long-time advocate of rollback, was elected US President in 1980. He took a more aggressive approach to dealings with the Soviets and believed that détente was misguided and peaceful coexistence was tantamount to surrender. When the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979, American policy makers worried that the Soviets were making a run for control of the Persian Gulf. Throughout the 1980s, under a policy that came to be known as the Reagan Doctrine, the United States provided technical and economic assistance to the Afghan guerrillas fighting against the Soviet army (Mujahideen).[43]
By sending military aid to anti-communist insurgents in Afghanistan, Angola, Cambodia, and Nicaragua, Reagan confronted existing communist governments and went beyond the limits of containment doctrine. He deployed the Pershing II missile in Europe and promoted research on a Strategic Defense Initiative, called "Star Wars" by its critics, to shoot down missiles fired at the United States.
Reagan's aim was to defeat the Soviets through an expensive arms buildup the Soviets could not match. However, Reagan continued to follow containment in several key areas. He pursued a comprehensive nuclear disarmament initiative called START I and policy toward Europe continued to emphasize a NATO-based defensive approach.
After Cold War[edit]
The end of the Cold War in 1991 marked the official end of the containment policy, but the U.S. kept its bases in the areas around Russia, such as those in Iceland, Germany, and Turkey. Also, much of the policy helped influence U.S. foreign policy in later years, such as during the War on Terror and dealing with post-Cold War dictators, such as Iraq's Saddam Hussein.
See also[edit]
Domino theory
Détente
Marshall Plan
Rollback
Truman Doctrine
China containment policy
Dual containment (Iran-Iraq containment)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ James Oakes (2012). Freedom National: The Destruction of Slavery in the United States, 1861-1865. W. W. Norton. p. 12.
Jump up ^ Sidney Pash, "Containment, Rollback and the Onset of the Pacific War, 1933-1941" in G. Kurt Piehler and Sidney Pash, eds. The United States and the Second World War: New Perspectives on Diplomacy, War, and the Home Front (2010) pp 38-67
Jump up ^ Larson, Deborah Welch, Origins of Containment: A Psychological Explanation, p. 69.
Jump up ^ Larson, p. 116.
Jump up ^ Larson, p.68.
^ Jump up to: a b John Lewis Gaddis, George F. Kennan: An American Life (2011) pp 201-24
Jump up ^ Kennan, George, "The Long Telegram"
^ Jump up to: a b Larson, p. 28.
Jump up ^ Hechler, Ken (1996). Working with Truman: a personal memoir of the White House years. University of Missouri Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-8262-1067-8. Retrieved 23 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Gaddis, George F. Kennan: An American Life (2011) pp 249-75.
Jump up ^ "Driven Patriot: The Life And Times Of James Forrestal"
Jump up ^ Adrian R. Lewis (2006). The American Culture of War: A History of US Military Force from World War II to Operation Iraqi Freedom. Taylor & Francis. p. 67.
Jump up ^ George F. Kennan, Memoirs 1925-1950 P. 358
Jump up ^ George F. Kennan, Memoirs 1925-1950 P. 359
^ Jump up to: a b President Harry S. Truman's Address Before a Joint Session of Congress, March 12, 1947.
^ Jump up to: a b Larsen, Deborah Welch, Origins of Containment, p. 9.
Jump up ^ Larsen, p. 15.
Jump up ^ Larson, p. 147.
Jump up ^ Larson, pp 145-46.
Jump up ^ Larson, p. 302.
Jump up ^ Larson, p. xi., p. 303
Jump up ^ Lawrence S. Wittner, American Intervention in Greece, 1943-1949 (1982)
Jump up ^ Dean Acheson (1987). Present at the creation: my years in the State Department. W W Norton. p. 219.
Jump up ^ James Chace (2008). Acheson: The Secretary Of State Who Created The American World. Simon & Schuster. pp. 166–67.
Jump up ^ John M. Schuessler, "Absorbing The First Blow: Truman And The Cold War," White House Studies (2009) 9#3 pp 215-231.
Jump up ^ Efstathios T. Fakiolas, "Kennan's Long Telegram and NSC-68: A Comparative Theoretical Analysis," East European Quarterly (1997) 31#4 pp 415-433.
Jump up ^ NSC 68: United States Objectives and Programs for National Security
Jump up ^ David McCullough (2003). Truman. Simon & Schuster. p. 631.
Jump up ^ Jerel A. Rosati; James M. Scott (2011). The Politics of United States Foreign Policy. Cengage Learning. p. 342.
Jump up ^ Daniel Kelly, James Burnham and the Struggle for the World: A Life (2002) p. 155
Jump up ^ James I. Matray, "Truman's Plan for Victory: National Self-Determination and the Thirty-Eighth Parallel Decision in Korea." Journal of American History (1979): 314-333. in JSTOR
Jump up ^ László Borhi, "Rollback, Liberation, Containment, or Inaction? U.S. Policy and Eastern Europe in the 1950s", Journal of Cold War Studies, 1#3 (1999), pp 67–110 online
Jump up ^ Robert R. Bowie and Richard H. Immerman. eds. (1998). Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy. Oxford University Press. pp. 158–77. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ James I. Matray, "Truman's Plan for Victory: National Self-Determination and the Thirty-Eighth Parallel Decision in Korea," Journal of American History, Sept. 1979, Vol. 66 Issue 2, pp. 314–333, in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Chinese Military Science Academy (September 2000). History of War to Resist America and Aid Korea (抗美援朝战争史) I. Beijing: Chinese Military Science Academy Publishing House. pp. 35–36. ISBN 7-80137-390-1. On 4 August 1950, with the proposed Chinese invasion of Taiwan aborted, Mao Zedong reported to the Politburo that he would intervene in Korea as soon as the Taiwan invasion force was reorganized.
Jump up ^ Safire, William, Safire's Political Dictionary, p. 531.
Jump up ^ "Kennan and Containment, 1947", Diplomacy in Action, U.S. Department of State,
Jump up ^ John Prados, Safe for Democracy: The Secret Wars of the CIA, (2009)
Jump up ^ Alice L. George, The Cuban missile crisis: The threshold of nuclear war (Routledge, 2013).
Jump up ^ Richard J. Jensen, Jon Thares Davidann, Yoneyuki Sugita, Trans-Pacific Relations: America, Europe, and Asia in the Twentieth Century, p. 178. (2003)
^ Jump up to: a b Jensen, p. 180. The quote is from Job 38:11.
Jump up ^ Jensen, p. 182.
Jump up ^ Olson, James Stuart. Historical dictionary of the 1950s. Westport, Conn: Greenwood P, 2000.
Sources[edit]
Corke, Sarah-Jane. "History, historians and the Naming of Foreign Policy: A Postmodern Reflection on American Strategic thinking during the Truman Administration," Intelligence and National Security, Autumn 2001, Vol. 16 Issue 3, pp. 146–63.
Felix, David. Kennan and the Cold War: An Unauthorized Biography. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2015.
Gaddis, John Lewis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of American National Security Policy During the Cold War. 2004.
Hopkins, Michael F. "Continuing Debate And New Approaches In Cold War History," Historical Journal (2007), 50: 913-934 doi:10.1017/S0018246X07006437
Kennan, George F., American Diplomacy, The University of Chicago Press. 1984. ISBN 0-226-43147-9
Pieper, Moritz A. (2012). "Containment and the Cold War: Reexaming the Doctrine of Containment as a Grand Strategy Driving US Cold War Interventions". StudentPulse.com. Retrieved 22 August 2012.
Wright, Steven. The United States and Persian Gulf Security: The Foundations of the War on Terror, Ithaca Press, 2007.
External links[edit]
EDSITEment's Lesson Strategy of Containment 1947-1948
https://astro.temple.edu/~rimmerma/the_X_article.htm
Look up containment in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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