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Structure of the Earth
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Structure of the Earth
The interior structure of the Earth is layered in spherical shells: an outer silicate solid crust, a highly viscous asthenosphere and mantle, a liquid outer core that is much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner core. Scientific understanding of the internal structure of the Earth is based on observations of topography and bathymetry, observations of rock in outcrop, samples brought to the surface from greater depths by volcanoes or volcanic activity, analysis of the seismic waves that pass through the Earth, measurements of the gravitational and magnetic fields of the Earth, and experiments with crystalline solids at pressures and temperatures characteristic of the Earth's deep interior.
Contents
[hide]
1 Mass
2 Structure
2.1 Crust
2.2 Mantle
2.3 Core
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
6 External links
Mass[edit]
The force exerted by Earth's gravity can be used to calculate its mass. Astronomers can also calculate Earth's mass by observing the motion of orbiting satellites. Earth’s average density can be determined through gravimetric experiments, which have historically involved pendulums.
The mass of Earth is about 7024600000000000000♠6×1024 kg.[1]
Structure[edit]
Earth's radial density distribution according to the preliminary reference earth model (PREM).[2]
Earth's gravity according to the preliminary reference earth model (PREM).[2] Comparison to approximations using constant and linear density for Earth's interior.
Mapping the interior of Earth with earthquake waves.
Schematic view of the interior of Earth. 1. continental crust – 2. oceanic crust – 3. upper mantle – 4. lower mantle – 5. outer core – 6. inner core – A: Mohorovičić discontinuity – B: Gutenberg Discontinuity – C: Lehmann–Bullen discontinuity.
The structure of Earth can be defined in two ways: by mechanical properties such as rheology, or chemically. Mechanically, it can be divided into lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesospheric mantle, outer core, and the inner core. Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core, and inner core. The geologic component layers of Earth[3][not in citation given] are at the following depths below the surface:
Depth
Layer
Kilometres
Miles
0–60 0–37 Lithosphere (locally varies between 5 and 200 km)
0–35 0–22 … Crust (locally varies between 5 and 70 km)
35–60 22–37 … Uppermost part of mantle
35–2,890 22–1,790 Mantle
210-270 130-168 … Upper mesosphere (upper mantle)
660–2,890 410–1,790 … Lower mesosphere (lower mantle)
2,890–5,150 1,790–3,160 Outer core
5,150–6,360 3,160–3,954 Inner core
The layering of Earth has been inferred indirectly using the time of travel of refracted and reflected seismic waves created by earthquakes. The core does not allow shear waves to pass through it, while the speed of travel (seismic velocity) is different in other layers. The changes in seismic velocity between different layers causes refraction owing to Snell's law, like light bending as it passes through a prism. Likewise, reflections are caused by a large increase in seismic velocity and are similar to light reflecting from a mirror.
Crust[edit]
Main article: Crust (geology)
The crust ranges from 5–70 kilometres (3.1–43.5 mi) in depth and is the outermost layer. The thin parts are the oceanic crust, which underlie the ocean basins (5–10 km) and are composed of dense (mafic) iron magnesium silicate igneous rocks, like basalt. The thicker crust is continental crust, which is less dense and composed of (felsic) sodium potassium aluminium silicate rocks, like granite. The rocks of the crust fall into two major categories – sial and sima (Suess,1831–1914). It is estimated that sima starts about 11 km below the Conrad discontinuity (a second order discontinuity). The uppermost mantle together with the crust constitutes the lithosphere. The crust-mantle boundary occurs as two physically different events. First, there is a discontinuity in the seismic velocity, which is most commonly known as the Mohorovičić discontinuity or Moho. The cause of the Moho is thought to be a change in rock composition from rocks containing plagioclase feldspar (above) to rocks that contain no feldspars (below). Second, in oceanic crust, there is a chemical discontinuity between ultramafic cumulates and tectonized harzburgites, which has been observed from deep parts of the oceanic crust that have been obducted onto the continental crust and preserved as ophiolite sequences.
Many rocks now making up Earth's crust formed less than 100 million (1×108) years ago; however, the oldest known mineral grains are about 4.4 billion (4.4×109) years old, indicating that Earth has had a solid crust for at least 4.4 billion years.[4]
Mantle[edit]
World map showing the position of the Moho.
Main article: Mantle (geology)
Earth's mantle extends to a depth of 2,890 km, making it the thickest layer of Earth. The mantle is divided into upper and lower mantle. The upper and lower mantle are separated by the transition zone. The lowest part of the mantle next to the core-mantle boundary is known as the D″ (pronounced dee-double-prime[5]) layer. The pressure at the bottom of the mantle is ≈140 GPa (1.4 Matm). The mantle is composed of silicate rocks that are rich in iron and magnesium relative to the overlying crust. Although solid, the high temperatures within the mantle cause the silicate material to be sufficiently ductile that it can flow on very long timescales. Convection of the mantle is expressed at the surface through the motions of tectonic plates. As there is intense and increasing pressure as one travels deeper into the mantle, the lower part of the mantle flows less easily than does the upper mantle (chemical changes within the mantle may also be important). The viscosity of the mantle ranges between 1021 and 1024 Pa·s, depending on depth.[6] In comparison, the viscosity of water is approximately 10−3 Pa·s and that of pitch is 107 Pa·s. The source of heat that drives plate tectonics is the primordial heat left over from the planet’s formation as well as the radioactive decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium in Earth’s crust and mantle.[7]
Core[edit]
Main articles: inner core and outer core
The average density of Earth is 5,515 kg/m3. Because the average density of surface material is only around 3,000 kg/m3, we must conclude that denser materials exist within Earth's core. Seismic measurements show that the core is divided into two parts, a "solid" inner core with a radius of ≈1,220 km[8] and a liquid outer core extending beyond it to a radius of ≈3,400 km. The densities are between 9,900 and 12,200 kg/m3 in the outer core and 12,600–13,000 kg/m3 in the inner core.[9]
The inner core was discovered in 1936 by Inge Lehmann and is generally believed to be composed primarily of iron and some nickel. Since this layer is able to transmit shear waves (transverse seismic waves), it must be solid. Experimental evidence has at times been critical of crystal models of the core.[10] Other experimental studies show a discrepancy under high pressure: diamond anvil (static) studies at core pressures yield melting temperatures that are approximately 2000 K below those from shock laser (dynamic) studies.[11][12] The laser studies create plasma,[13] and the results are suggestive that constraining inner core conditions will depend on whether the inner core is a solid or is a plasma with the density of a solid. This is an area of active research.
In early stages of Earth's formation about four and a half billion (4.5×109) years ago, melting would have caused denser substances to sink toward the center in a process called planetary differentiation (see also the iron catastrophe), while less-dense materials would have migrated to the crust. The core is thus believed to largely be composed of iron (80%), along with nickel and one or more light elements, whereas other dense elements, such as lead and uranium, either are too rare to be significant or tend to bind to lighter elements and thus remain in the crust (see felsic materials). Some have argued that the inner core may be in the form of a single iron crystal.[14][15]
Under laboratory conditions a sample of iron–nickel alloy was subjected to the corelike pressures by gripping it in a vise between 2 diamond tips (diamond anvil cell), and then heating to approximately 4000 K. The sample was observed with x-rays, and strongly supported the theory that Earth's inner core was made of giant crystals running north to south.[16][17]
The liquid outer core surrounds the inner core and is believed to be composed of iron mixed with nickel and trace amounts of lighter elements.
Recent speculation suggests that the innermost part of the core is enriched in gold, platinum and other siderophile elements.[18]
The matter that comprises Earth is connected in fundamental ways to matter of certain chondrite meteorites, and to matter of outer portion of the Sun.[19][20] There is good reason to believe that Earth is, in the main, like a chondrite meteorite. Beginning as early as 1940, scientists, including Francis Birch, built geophysics upon the premise that Earth is like ordinary chondrites, the most common type of meteorite observed impacting Earth, while totally ignoring another, albeit less abundant type, called enstatite chondrites. The principal difference between the two meteorite types is that enstatite chondrites formed under circumstances of extremely limited available oxygen, leading to certain normally oxyphile elements existing either partially or wholly in the alloy portion that corresponds to the core of Earth.
Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis effect, gives rise to Earth's magnetic field. The solid inner core is too hot to hold a permanent magnetic field (see Curie temperature) but probably acts to stabilize the magnetic field generated by the liquid outer core. The average magnetic field strength in Earth's outer core is estimated to be 25 Gauss (2.5 mT), 50 times stronger than the magnetic field at the surface.[21][22]
Recent evidence has suggested that the inner core of Earth may rotate slightly faster than the rest of the planet;[23] however, more recent studies in 2011[which?] found this hypothesis to be inconclusive. Options remain for the core which may be oscillatory in nature or a chaotic system.[citation needed] In August 2005 a team of geophysicists announced in the journal Science that, according to their estimates, Earth's inner core rotates approximately 0.3 to 0.5 degrees per year faster relative to the rotation of the surface.[24][25]
The current scientific explanation for Earth's temperature gradient is a combination of heat left over from the planet's initial formation, decay of radioactive elements, and freezing of the inner core.
See also[edit]
Earth sciences portal
Geological history of Earth
Lehmann discontinuity
Rain-out model
Travel to the Earth's center
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "2016 Selected Astronomical Constants" in The Astronomical Almanac Online, USNO–UKHO, ME = 5·9722×1024 kg ± 6×1020 kg
^ Jump up to: a b A. M. Dziewonski, D. L. Anderson (1981). "Preliminary reference Earth model" (PDF). Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors. 25 (4): 297–356. Bibcode:1981PEPI...25..297D. doi:10.1016/0031-9201(81)90046-7. ISSN 0031-9201.
Jump up ^ T. H. Jordan (1979). "Structural Geology of the Earth's Interior" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 76 (9): 4192–4200. Bibcode:1979PNAS...76.4192J. doi:10.1073/pnas.76.9.4192. PMC 411539  . PMID 16592703.
Jump up ^ Breaking News | Oldest rock shows Earth was a hospitable young planet. Spaceflight Now (2001-01-14). Retrieved on 2012-01-27.
Jump up ^ Krieger, Kim (24 March 2004). "D Layer Demystified". Science News. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved 5 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Uwe Walzer, Roland Hendel, John Baumgardner Mantle Viscosity and the Thickness of the Convective Downwellings.
Jump up ^ Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) is a Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Science lab managed by University of California., What Keeps the Earth Cooking? News Release by Paul Preuss, July 17, 2011
Jump up ^ Monnereau, Marc; Calvet, Marie; Margerin, Ludovic; Souriau, Annie (May 21, 2010). "Lopsided Growth of Earth's Inner Core". Science. 328 (5981): 1014–1017. Bibcode:2010Sci...328.1014M. doi:10.1126/science.1186212. PMID 20395477.
Jump up ^ Hazlett, James S.; Monroe, Reed; Wicander, Richard (2006). Physical geology : exploring the earth (6. ed.). Belmont: Thomson. p. 346. ISBN 9780495011484.
Jump up ^ Stixrude, Lars; Cohen, R.E. (January 15, 1995). "Constraints on the crystalline structure of the inner core: Mechanical instability of BCC iron at high pressure". Geophysical Research Letters. 22 (2): 125–128. Bibcode:1995GeoRL..22..125S. doi:10.1029/94GL02742.
Jump up ^ Benuzzi-Mounaix, A.; Koenig, M.; Ravasio, A.; Vinci, T. (2006). "Laser-driven shock waves for the study of extreme matter states". Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion. 48 (12B). Bibcode:2006PPCF...48B.347B. doi:10.1088/0741-3335/48/12B/S32.
Jump up ^ Remington, Bruce A.; Drake, R. Paul; Ryutov, Dmitri D. (2006). "Experimental astrophysics with high power lasers and Z pinches". Reviews of Modern Physics. 78. Bibcode:2006RvMP...78..755R. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.78.755.
Jump up ^ Benuzzi-Mounaix, A.; Koenig, M.; Husar, G.; Faral, B. (June 2002). "Absolute equation of state measurements of iron using laser driven shocks". Physics of Plasmas. 9 (6). Bibcode:2002PhPl....9.2466B. doi:10.1063/1.1478557.
Jump up ^ Cohen, Ronald; Stixrude, Lars. "Crystal at the Center of the Earth". Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2007-02-05.
Jump up ^ Stixrude, L.; Cohen, R. E. (1995). "High-Pressure Elasticity of Iron and Anisotropy of Earth's Inner Core". Science. 267 (5206): 1972–5. Bibcode:1995Sci...267.1972S. doi:10.1126/science.267.5206.1972. PMID 17770110.
Jump up ^ BBC News, "What is at the centre of the Earth?. Bbc.co.uk (2011-08-31). Retrieved on 2012-01-27.
Jump up ^ Ozawa, H.; al., et (2011). "Phase Transition of FeO and Stratification in Earth's Outer Core". Science. 334 (6057): 792–794. Bibcode:2011Sci...334..792O. doi:10.1126/science.1208265.
Jump up ^ Wootton, Anne (2006). "Earth's Inner Fort Knox". Discover. 27 (9): 18.
Jump up ^ Herndon, J. M. (1980). "The chemical composition of the interior shells of the Earth". Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A372 (1748): 149–154. JSTOR 2398362.
Jump up ^ Herndon, J. M. (2005). "Scientific basis of knowledge on Earth's composition" (PDF). Current Science. 88 (7): 1034–1037.
Jump up ^ First Measurement Of Magnetic Field Inside Earth's Core. Science20.com. Retrieved on 2012-01-27.
Jump up ^ Buffett, Bruce A. (2010). "Tidal dissipation and the strength of the Earth's internal magnetic field". Nature. 468 (7326): 952–4. Bibcode:2010Natur.468..952B. doi:10.1038/nature09643. PMID 21164483.
Jump up ^ Chang, Kenneth (2005-08-25). "Earth's Core Spins Faster Than the Rest of the Planet". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-05-24.
Jump up ^ Kerr, R. A. (2005). "Earth's Inner Core Is Running a Tad Faster Than the Rest of the Planet". Science. 309 (5739): 1313a. doi:10.1126/science.309.5739.1313a. PMID 16123276.
Jump up ^ Chang, Kenneth (26 August 2005) "Scientists Say Earth's Center Rotates Faster Than Surface" The New York Times Sec. A, Col. 1, p. 13.
Further reading[edit]
Drollette, Daniel (October 1996). "A Spinning Crystal Ball". Scientific American. 275 (4): 28–33.
Kruglinski, Susan (June 2007). "Journey to the Center of the Earth". Discover. Retrieved 9 July 2016.
Lehmann, I (1936). "Inner Earth". Bur. Cent. Seismol. Int. 14: 3–31.
Wegener, Alfred (1966). The origin of continents and oceans. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 9780486617084.
External links[edit]
The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Structure of the Earth
Media related to Structure of the Earth at Wikimedia Commons
Down To The Earth's Core (HD) on YouTube
The Earth's Core on In Our Time at the BBC.
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text:
Comparison of Marvel and DC
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Dragon Con 2013 - fans dressed as Power Girl and Ms. Marvel
Both Marvel and DC top the superhero comic book industry in terms of media production, financial success and fandom/popularity. Dominating their respective markets and genre, the two have rivaled one another in various forms of media and fandom for decades.
Contents
[hide]
1 History of both franchises
2 Differences
3 Similarities
4 Cinematic rivalry
5 Theme parks
6 Estimated financial comparisons
7 Critique and commentaries
8 Crossovers
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 External links
History of both franchises[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2017)
Marvel Comics is owned and published by Marvel Entertainment, the subsidiary division of The Walt Disney Company. It is currently headquartered in New York City. The origin of the franchise goes back to 1939 when it was founded by the popular pulp-magazine publisher Martin Goodman. The company was parent to several comic book publishing companies and went by the name Timely Comics. The debut publication of Marvel Comics was in October 1939 featuring the superheroes Human Torch and Namor. In the wake of World War II, military-themed heroes such as Captain America were added.[1] Entering the 1960s, the Marvel franchise published its characters and stories in the form of animated television series.
DC Comics is owned and published by DC Entertainment, the subsidiary division of Warner Bros., itself a division of Time Warner. Like Marvel, it too was headquartered in New York City until 2015 when it moved to Burbank, California in effort for Warner Bros. and DC to coordinate their priorities easily. It too consisted of several offspring companies. Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson founded National Allied Publications. October 1935 debuted major DC superheroes Doctor Occult and Superman.[2] Also by the 1960s, DC too had extended several of its characters and stories into animated television series such as Super Friends.
Differences[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2017)
It has been argued that while DC started out with heroes of super-human abilities (Superman, Wonder Woman), Marvel tried to produce a sense of evolution of their characters into superheroes through probable means (Spider-Man, Fantastic Four), but later embarked upon producing heroes with more supernatural abilities such as Thor.[3]
Another difference between Marvel and DC, is that DC utilizes fictional locations for its heroes such as Metropolis (for Superman), Gotham City (for Batman) Central City (for The Flash) and Coast City (for the Green Lantern), whereas Marvel uses a real life location such as New York City for most of its heroes such as Avengers, Fantastic Four, X-Men, The Defenders, Spider-Man, The Punisher, Moon Knight and other Marvel heroes.[citation needed]
Similarities[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2017)
Some character types were created by both firms. An example is the Marvel superhero Namor (also known as Sub-Mariner) who is a superhero who lives in the sea, based in the fictional kingdom of Atlantis and is considered amphibious. The DC superhero Aquaman also hails from the fictional Kingdom of Atlantis and is also an amphibious character.[4]
Superhero organizations also share parallels such as Marvel's Avengers with DC's Justice League.[4] Another example is the X-Men (by Marvel) and Doom Patrol (by DC) as they are both superhero teams who are shunned by society and both are led by wheelchaired men (Professor X and Niles Caulder).[citation needed]
Cinematic rivalry[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2017)
Both franchises have brought their competition to film.[5][6] Unlike Marvel whose rights are split between the different companies (the X-Men and Fantastic Four at 20th Century Fox, Spider-Man at Sony Pictures albeit shared with Marvel Studios, and the solo Hulk distribution movie rights at Universal Pictures), DC has the film rights to every character they have created.
Theme parks[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Both franchises have theme park attractions based around their respective characters. Universal Parks & Resorts was the first theme park operator to create Marvel-themed attractions when it constructed and built Marvel Super Hero Island at the Islands of Adventure (IOA) park in Orlando, Florida in the 1999's opening of the new park. Its fourth park, Universal Studios Japan, located in Osaka, Japan, also opened up the IOA-cloned The Amazing Adventures of Spider-Man ride in 2004 and is currently the only Marvel attraction in the park. Since The Walt Disney Company acquired Marvel Entertainment in 2009, its subsidiary division Walt Disney Parks and Resorts also has Marvel attractions at Hong Kong Disneyland (e.g., Iron Man Experience) and Disney California Adventure (e.g., Guardians of the Galaxy – Mission: Breakout!) and plans to incorporate future ones in other Disney parks. IMG Worlds of Adventure, located in Dubai, United Arab Emirates also contains Marvel-themed attractions.
The rights to Marvel properties regarding Disney and Universal is not, however, unlimited. According to the 1994 Marvel's licensed contract with Universal, Marvel characters that are already licensed at Islands of Adventure and Universal Studios Japan are barred from being used at Walt Disney World and Tokyo Disney Resort parks since per contract, they are within the designated regional distances of these Universal parks. Characters associated with the said superheroes (e.g., team members, side characters, and villains) also cannot be employed and the word "Marvel" can't be promoted at any Disney park in Japan and United States East and West of the Mississippi River. However, due to Disney's acquisition of Marvel, Universal lost its theme park rights to Marvel properties in places it hasn't licensed yet.
Unlike Marvel, DC theme park rights is solely owned by Six Flags. Warner Bros. used to own the Six Flags theme parks, which corporate parent Time Warner sold to Premier Parks in 1998. As part of that deal, Time Warner also sold Premier (which then renamed itself "Six Flags") the long-term theme park rights to its comic and cartoon characters, including all DC and Looney Tunes characters.
Estimated financial comparisons[edit]
This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (May 2017)
Critique and commentaries[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2017)
Artist Ramona Fradon stated "You would never have to think of Superman be neurotic or have doubts or anxieties or anything like that. That was true of all the DC characters. What was different about Marvel compared to DC was like Greek drama the gods were in their heavens, unquestioned, and then Euripides came along and decided to analyze them and, you know, make them more human and bring them down to, you know, a human level and I think that's what Marvel did with the superheroes. And maybe it was time. You know, you can't have those characters running around forever without beginning to wonder what they did, you know, in their off-hours".[7]
Senior vice president of Marvel comics Cort Lane also shares the same sentiment stating “Marvel characters are less iconic and more just like you. They have flaws, they have a sense of humor and they have relatable problems. Every Spider-Man character is a relatable character. And Tony Stark, while wholly problematic by every definition, is still a lovable character." By contrast, he argues “DC operates on a different level — and that’s not to say it’s bad. What all the movies and the media have shown us over the years is that mining the flaws and reliability — and mining through those threats — to try and find a personal moment people can relate to is what registers. It’s pure. A great Marvel story is about caring about the character in the costume, not the other way around.”[8]
Crossovers[edit]
Superman vs. The Amazing Spider-Man (1976)
Superman and Spider-Man (1981)
Batman vs. The Incredible Hulk[a] (1982)
The Uncanny X-Men and The New Teen Titans (1982)
DC vs. Marvel (1996)
Amalgam Comics[b] (1996–1997)
Superman/Fantastic Four (1999)
JLA/Avengers (2003–2004)
See also[edit]
Comparison of Star Trek and Star Wars
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ See List of Hulk titles
Jump up ^ Amalgam comics combined the features of both Marvel and DC characters to create newer characters. It was not the same as a fictional crossover where original characters of different franchises/universes come together individually.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Marvel Comics History and Marvel Comics Background". World Collectors Net.
Jump up ^ "DC Comics History and DC Comics Background". World Collectors Net.
Jump up ^ "What's the difference: DC vs. Marvel Comics?". Thaddeus Howze. Medium.com.
^ Jump up to: a b "Marvel and Dc characters who are similar". Comicvine.
Jump up ^ "Marvel and DC expand their comic-book battle into film | Toronto Star". thestar.com. Retrieved 2017-05-30.
Jump up ^ "Kevin Feige Discusses Marvel/DC Rivalry, Praises Wonder Woman". 13 June 2017.
Jump up ^ American Superhero Documentary Marvel Comics
Jump up ^ "Marvel Characters Are More Relatable Than DC Characters According To Marvel Animation VP". Matthew Mueller. comicbook.com.
External links[edit]
Marvel vs DC on CNET
Marvel Versus DC on Marvel database.
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text:
Blackout (wartime)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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American poster from World War II, reminding citizens of blackouts for civil defense.
A blackout during war, or in preparation for an expected war, is the practice of collectively minimizing outdoor light, including upwardly directed (or reflected) light. This was done in the 20th century to prevent crews of enemy aircraft from being able to identify their targets by sight, for example during the London Blitz of 1940. In coastal regions a shore-side blackout of city lights also helped protect ships from being seen in silhouette against the shore by enemy submarines farther out at sea.
In actual warfare, according to M. R. D. Foot, blackouts do not impair navigation by bombers because navigators focused more on reflected bodies of water, railroad tracks, or large highways. The chief purpose is to mobilize the entire civilian population, and provide a test to make sure they are obeying the rules.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 World War I
2 World War II
3 Techniques
4 Modern technology
5 References
World War I[edit]
Plans to blackout British coastal towns in the event of war were drawn up in 1913 by Winston Churchill in his role as First Lord of the Admiralty; these plans were implemented on 12 August 1914, eight days after the United Kingdom had entered the war.[2] On 1 October 1914, the Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police ordered that bright exterior lights were to be extinguished or dimmed in the London area and street lamps be partially painted out with black paint.[3] Elsewhere, the matter was left to local authorities. Following the start of the German strategic bombing campaign early in 1915, ordinary people in towns without blackouts sometimes took the law into their own hands, smashing street lamps which they thought might attract an air raid.[4] Blackout restrictions were extended to the whole of England in February 1916.[5]
In France, a blackout was implemented for Paris at the start of the Zeppelin campaign in the spring of 1915, but was later relaxed, only to be reintroduced in the spring of 1918 when the Germans began using heavy bombers against the city.[6] In Germany, a blackout was only enforced in a zone 150 kilometres (93 miles) behind the Western Front.[7]
World War II[edit]
During World War II, the Air Ministry had forecast that Britain would suffer night air bombing attacks causing large numbers of civilian casualties and mass destruction. It was widely agreed that navigation and targeting would be more difficult if man-made lights on the ground could be extinguished. As early as July 1939, Public Information Leaflet No 2 (part of the Air Raid Precautions (A.R.P.) training literature) warned of the need for popular discipline to ensure that the blackout regulations were fully enforced during the blackout periods.[8]
Blackout regulations were imposed on 1 September 1939, before the declaration of war. These required that all windows and doors should be covered at night with suitable material such as heavy curtains, cardboard or paint, to prevent the escape of any glimmer of light that might aid enemy aircraft. The Government ensured that the necessary materials were available.[8] External lights such as street lights were switched off, or dimmed and shielded to deflect light downward. Essential lights such as traffic lights and vehicle headlights were fitted with slotted covers to deflect their beams downwards to the ground.[9]
Shops and factories had particular problems. Factories with large areas of glass roofing found it impossible to install temporary blackout panels and permanent methods (such as paint) lost natural light during daylight. Shops had to install double "airlock" doors to avoid lights showing as customers arrived and departed.[8]
Blackouts proved one of the more unpleasant aspects of the war, disrupting many civilian activities and causing widespread grumbling and lower morale.[10]
The blackout was enforced by civilian ARP wardens who would ensure that no buildings allowed the slightest peek or glow of light.[11] Offenders were liable to stringent legal penalties.[8]
Blackout restrictions greatly increased the dangers of night driving and fatalities increased as a consequence. As a result, some aspects were relaxed and speed limits were lowered. The anticipated increase in crime rates did not occur.[8]
As German war-making capability declined, a "Dim-out" was introduced in September 1944, which allowed lighting to the equivalent of moonlight. A full Blackout would be imposed if an alert was sounded. Full lighting of streets was allowed in April 1945; on 30 April, the day Hitler committed suicide, Big Ben was lit 5 years and 123 days after the Blackout was first imposed.[8]
Moving ship silhouetted against city lights.
The continental United States was not exposed to air attack, but along the Atlantic coast, the lack of a coastal blackout served to silhouette Allied shipping and thus expose them to German submarine attack. Coastal communities resisted the imposition of a blackout for amenity reasons, citing potential damage to tourism. The result was a disastrous loss of shipping, dubbed by German submariners as the "Second Happy Time".[12] Blackouts were held in mainland cities, and along the coastal areas long after any enemy threat existed; the primary purpose was psychological motivation of the civilian population which saw blackouts as a patriotic duty.
Techniques[edit]
Light can simply be turned off or light can sometimes be minimized by tarring the windows of large public structures. In World War II, a dark blackout curtain was used to keep the light inside. Tarring the windows can mean a semi-permanent blackout status.
During the 1940s and 1950s, cities such as Detroit would practise blackout air raid drills. During this time, the city's Civil Defense workers would immediately activate the neighborhood air raid siren and families would be required to do the following in order:
Shut off all appliances, such as stoves, ovens, furnaces
Shut off valves for water and natural gas or propane, as well as disconnect electricity
Close blackout curtains (plain black curtains that would block light from coming in or going out). This step was changed after the atomic age began: where white curtains were used to reflect the thermal flash of the bomb, black curtains were used in World War II to prevent any airborne enemies from seeing light from windows
Get to a public shelter, a fallout or bomb shelter, or the household basement, and stay there until the local police or block warden dismissed the blackout.[13][14]
Modern technology[edit]
The benefits of blackouts against air attack are now largely nullified in the face of a technologically sophisticated enemy. As early as World War II, aircraft were using radio-beam navigation (see "Battle of the Beams"), and targets were detected by air-to-ground radar, (e.g. H2X). Today, not only are night-vision goggles readily available to air crews, but sophisticated satellite-based and inertial navigation systems enable a static target to be found easily by aircraft and guided missiles. Nevertheless, during the 1991 Gulf War, authorities in Baghdad practised blackouts along with other civil defence procedures, prior to the first Coalition air strikes on the city.[15]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ M.R.D. Foot, "Blackout" in I.C.B Dear, ed, The Oxford Companion to World War II (1995) pp 134-35
Jump up ^ Wiggam, Marc P (March 2011). "The Blackout in Britain and Germany during the Second World War" (PDF). ore.exeter.ac.uk. University of Exeter. Retrieved 16 August 2017. (p. 51)
Jump up ^ Castle, Ian (2015). The First Blitz: Bombing London in the First World War. Osprey Publishing. p. 18. ISBN 978-1472815293.
Jump up ^ Wiggam p. 54
Jump up ^ Wiggam p. 52
Jump up ^ Gregory, Derek (20 October 2012). "Is Paris Burning?". geographicalimaginations.com. Peter Wall. Retrieved 16 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Wiggam p. 53
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "New restrictions on the home front - Britain is blacked out!". 2 July 2006. Retrieved 19 Feb 2011.
Jump up ^ Barrow, Mandy (2010). "The Blackout". Britain Since the 1930s. Archived from the original on 10 February 2011. Retrieved 19 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Robert Mackay (2002). Half the Battle: Civilian Morale in Britain During the Second World War. Manchester University Press. pp. 51–2.
Jump up ^ The activities of ARP Wardens led to ambivalent public attitudes and the catch-phrase put that light out!. The BBC sitcom "Dad's Army" includes an officious and disliked Warden.
Jump up ^ Gannon, Michael. 1990. Operation Drumbeat: The Dramatic True Story of Germany's First U-Boat Attacks Along the American Coast in World War II. Harper and Row. ISBN 0-06-092088-2
Jump up ^ "The Arsenal of Democracy". Michigan Department of Natural Resources. Michigan Historical Museum. Archived from the original on 28 December 2012. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "MICHIGAN CIVIL DEFENSE MUSEUM, online historical museum".
Jump up ^ Olsen, John Andreas (2003). Strategic Air Power in Desert Storm. Routledge. p. 236. ISBN 978-0714681955.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blackout_(wartime)&oldid=803628672"
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Library Literature and Information Science
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Library Literature and Information Science is a bibliographic database that indexes over 410 library and information science periodicals published internationally. It also covers books, chapters within books, library school theses, and pamphlets. In 2011, the H. W. Wilson Company, the firm that created the index, sold it to EBSCO Publishing along with other H.W. Wilson indexes and databases.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Coverage
2 References
3 External links
4 Other important databases covering library and information science
Coverage[edit]
Bibliographical indexing from 1984 to present. Full-text coverage from 1997, but start date varies for each publication.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Eberhart, George (2011-06-03). "The Merger of the Century: EBSCO Acquires H. W. Wilson". American Libraries. American Library Association. Retrieved 2017-12-13. In a surprise announcement June 2 [2011], two of the leading names in digital reference publishing told their library customers that they have merged to strengthen the value of their databases and print resources. EBSCO Publishing, a subsidiary of EBSCO Industries founded in 1944 and headquartered in Ipswich, Massachusetts, has acquired the staff and product lines of the H. W. Wilson Company, founded in 1898 and located in the Bronx, New York, since 1917. Terms of the transaction were not disclosed.
External links[edit]
Homepage
Other important databases covering library and information science[edit]
Dissertations Abstracts
ERIC
INSPEC
Library and Information Science Abstracts (LISA)
Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts
Social Sciences Citation Index
Web of Science
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Library_Literature_and_Information_Science&oldid=815292448"
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Matilda (song)
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"Matilda" (sometimes spelled Mathilda) is a calypso lamenting a woman who took a man for all he was worth.
The song dates back to at least the 1930s, when calypso pioneer King Radio (the stage name of Norman Span) recorded the song.[1] Harry Belafonte recorded the song in 1953 and it became a big hit.[2]
Some songwriting credits are given as Harry Thomas (rumoured to be a pseudonym combining Harry Belafonte and his guitarist, Millard Thomas,[3] but ASCAP simply lists Harry Thomas alias Harry Belafonte, the writer of "Hold 'em Joe"), some credits are given as Norman Span.
Harry Belafonte's first recording of the song was on April 27, 1953 and was released as a single. Belafonte re-recorded the song for his second RCA Victor LP, Belafonte, released in 1955. The oft-repeated phrase in his rendition of the song is like the following, emphasizing the syllables of the subject's name as shown:
Hey! Ma-til-da; Ma-til-da; Ma-til-da, she take me money and run a-Venezuela.
The song was often performed in concerts, and the audience would be encouraged to sing that line. An example is in his Harry Belafonte at Carnegie Hall concert album where the total playing time for "Matilda" is nearly 12 minutes.[4]
Jimmy Soul recorded a version of the song in 1962 as "Twistin Matilda, (And the Channel)", which changed the lyrics of the verses as well as the chorus to: "She took the money and ran off to Las Vegas." The song hit number 22 on the Billboard Hot 100 Charts.
Allen Sherman recorded a variation of the song in his first album, 1962's My Son, the Folk Singer, and put a Jewish-sounding spin on it, including asking portions of his audience (such as "Members of Hadassah") to sing along:
Oy! My Zel-da; My Zel-da; My Zel-da, she took the money and ran off with the tailor.
Sherman got sued from the estates of the writer of the song, for not asking permission beforehand, because the song was protected by copyright law. He paid the penalty for this (Source: "A Gift of Laughter" by Alan Sherman).
The Grateful Dead performed a cover of this song five times from 1994 to 1995.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Norman Span biography".
Jump up ^ Genia Fogelson, Harry Belafonte, Holloway House Publishing, 2008, p. 56.
Jump up ^ faqs.org
Jump up ^ allmusic.com Review
This 1950s single-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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From Russia with Love (soundtrack)
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From Russia with Love
Soundtrack album by John Barry
Released
1963
Recorded
March 1963
Length
34:20
Label
United Artists (LP)
Liberty (1980's LP Reissue)
EMI Manhattan Records (CD)
Capitol (2002 CD Re-release)
Producer
Frank Collura (Reissue)
John Barry chronology
'The Cool Mikado' From Russia with Love 'Zulu'
James Bond soundtrack chronology
Dr. No
(1962) Dr. No1962 From Russia with Love
(1963) From Russia with Love1963 Goldfinger
(1964) Goldfinger1964
Professional ratings
Review scores
Source
Rating
AllMusic
From Russia with Love is the soundtrack for the second James Bond film of the same name. This is the first series film with John Barry as the primary soundtrack composer.
John Barry, arranger of Monty Norman's "James Bond Theme" for Dr. No, would be the dominant Bond series composer for most of its history and the inspiration for fellow series composer, David Arnold (who uses cues from this soundtrack in his own for Tomorrow Never Dies). The theme song was composed by Lionel Bart of Oliver! fame and sung by Matt Monro.
Contents
[hide]
1 Production
2 Album and cover versions
3 Track listing
4 Outside the Film
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
Production[edit]
Following the decision of the producers not to use Monty Norman, though keeping his "James Bond Theme", Harry Saltzman decided on using the then popular Lionel Bart of Oliver! fame. Bart was unable to read or write music, but he offered to compose the music and lyrics for a title song to the film.
The producers chose John Barry to score the film. Barry had not only arranged and conducted the "James Bond Theme" from the previous film, but had already scored some films such as Beat Girl and Never Let Go. Barry's group also charted at No. 13 in the November 1962 UK charts with a different arrangement of the Bond theme from that heard in the film.[1]
The title song was sung by Matt Monro. Monro's vocal version is played during the film (as source music on a radio) and properly over the film's end titles. The title credit music is a lively instrumental version of the tune preceded by a brief Barry-composed "James Bond is Back" then segueing into the "James Bond Theme". On the original film soundtrack, Alan Haven played a jazzy organ over the theme but this version was not released on the soundtrack album. The tune also appears in a soft string arrangement as a theme for Tania. In Germany, the original release featured an end title track cover version called Die Wolga ist Weit sung by Ruthe Berlé.[2]
Originally planning to use local Turkish music as Norman had used Jamaican music on Dr No, Barry accompanied the film crew to Istanbul, however he found nothing suitable for the film.[3]
Recalling his visit to Istanbul, John Barry said, "It was like no place I'd ever been in my life. [The Trip] was supposedly to seep up the music, so Noel Rogers and I used to go 'round to these nightclubs and listen to all this stuff. We had the strangest week, and really came away with nothing, except a lot of ridiculous stories. We went back, talked to Lionel, and then he wrote 'From Russia with Love.'' [4]
There are different tracks of Turkish-type music in the film that do not appear on the soundtrack (the track "Leila Dances" is not heard in the film).
In this film, Barry introduced the percussive "007" that came to be considered the 'secondary James Bond Theme'.[citation needed] Barry's instrumental group The John Barry Seven had had a UK chart hit with a cover version of Elmer Bernstein's The Magnificent Seven; both that tune and "007" featured seven beats. It is used in various Bond films starring Sean Connery and also in Moonraker, starring Roger Moore. The arrangement appears twice on this soundtrack album; the second version, titled "007 Takes the Lektor", is the one used during the gunfight at the gypsy camp and also during Bond's theft of the Lektor decoding machine (the soundtrack album version is not heard in the film).
The completed film features a holdover from Norman's Dr. No music – the post-rocket-launch music from Dr. No (after Bond disrupts Dr. No's attempts to jam the takeoff) appears in From Russia with Love at the conclusion of the helicopter attack, and also at SPECTRE's attempt to intercept Bond's speedboat. This cue is absent from the From Russia with Love soundtrack album. The original Barry arrangement of the "James Bond Theme" for Dr. No was inserted by the producers in the film when Bond searches his room in Istanbul for microphones. Barry did a new arrangement of the theme used when Bond leaves London and flies into Istanbul titled "James Bond with Bongos" that Billy Strange did a cover version of for the US charts.
Barry noted that Bart's lyrics used the film's title, but had nothing to do with the film's story, a matter he would rectify when he was assigned the next Bond film, 1964's Goldfinger, which was the first Bond film for which he had total creative control over the soundtrack, including the theme song's music (Leslie Bricusse and Anthony Newley would contribute the theme's lyrics).
Barry's "Stalking", the music for the pre-credit sequence, is echoed by composer Marvin Hamlisch in his score for the 1977 Bond film The Spy Who Loved Me.
Album and cover versions[edit]
The soundtrack's original recordings are thought to be lost and did not appear when the Bond soundtrack albums were issued in remastered form on CD. The album is different from the film with the album's recording of the main titles sounding slower and not featuring the organ played by Alan Haven. Several tracks on the album do not appear in the completed film. The album was the last of the Bond soundtrack albums to feature more than the usual six tracks per record side.
The soundtrack album reached No. 28 on the Variety charts in March 1964 with the title song becoming Unart Music's most recorded song.[5] Other cover versions of the "James Bond Theme" were also released to coincide with the film. Barry also released different cover versions of the title song and "007" on his Ember records for the pop charts. The Roland Shaw Orchestra performed cover versions of most of the music of Barry's soundtrack on several albums.
Track listing[edit]
"Opening Titles: James Bond Is Back/From Russia with Love/James Bond Theme" (different arrangement from that heard in the film)
"Tania Meets Klebb"
"Meeting in St. Sophia"
"The Golden Horn" *
"Girl Trouble"
"Bond Meets Tania"
"007"
"Gypsy Camp"
"Death of Grant"
"From Russia with Love" – Matt Monro
"Spectre Island"
"Guitar Lament" *
"Man Overboard/SMERSH in Action"
"James Bond with Bongos"[a]
"Stalking"
"Leila Dances" *
"Death of Kerim"
"007 Takes the Lektor"
* Not heard in the film
Outside the Film[edit]
In 1965, KYW-TV in Philadelphia adopted the "007 Takes The Lektor" track as its longtime theme for its Eyewitness News format. It went on to be used in other Group W stations in Boston, Pittsburgh, Baltimore and San Francisco for their newscasts. Two years later, "007 Takes The Lektor" would be recycled for further Bond use, in the autogyro scene in You Only Live Twice.
See also[edit]
Outline of James Bond
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ contains the "James Bond Theme", originally composed for the Dr. No soundtrack
References[edit]
Jump up ^ p.282 Thompson, Gordon Please Please Me: Sixties British Pop Inside Out 2008 Oxford University Press
Jump up ^ "Ruthe Berlé: Die Wolga ist weit (FRWL)". YouTube. 10 June 2009. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
Jump up ^ p.36 Smith, Jim & Lavington, Steven Bond Films 2002 Virgiin Books
Jump up ^ Burlingame, Jon (2012-11-01). The Music of James Bond. Oxford University Press. p. 25. ISBN 9780199986767.
Jump up ^ p.125 Lindner, Christop The James Bond Phenonomon: A Critical Reader 2004 Manchester University Press
[hide]
v
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James Bond music
Themes
"James Bond Theme" (Monty Norman)
"James Bond Is Back" (John Barry)
"007 Theme" (John Barry)
"On Her Majesty's Secret Service" (John Barry)
"Bond 77" (Marvin Hamlisch)
"James Bond Theme" (Moby)
Soundtracks
Dr. No
From Russia with Love
Goldfinger
Thunderball
You Only Live Twice
On Her Majesty's Secret Service
Diamonds Are Forever
Live and Let Die
The Man with the Golden Gun
The Spy Who Loved Me
Moonraker
For Your Eyes Only
Octopussy
A View to a Kill
The Living Daylights
Licence to Kill
GoldenEye
Tomorrow Never Dies
The World Is Not Enough
Die Another Day
Casino Royale
Quantum of Solace
Skyfall
Spectre
Composers
Monty Norman
John Barry
George Martin
Marvin Hamlisch
Bill Conti
Michael Kamen
Éric Serra
David Arnold
Thomas Newman
Eon themes
"Kingston Calypso"
"From Russia with Love"
"Goldfinger"
"Thunderball"
"You Only Live Twice"
"We Have All the Time in the World"
"Diamonds Are Forever"
"Live and Let Die"
"The Man with the Golden Gun"
"Nobody Does It Better"
"Moonraker"
"For Your Eyes Only"
"All Time High"
"A View to a Kill"
"The Living Daylights"
"Where Has Everybody Gone?"
"Licence to Kill"
"If You Asked Me To"
"GoldenEye"
"Tomorrow Never Dies"
"The World Is Not Enough"
"Die Another Day"
"You Know My Name"
"Another Way to Die"
"Skyfall"
"Writing's on the Wall"
Non-Eon themes
"Casino Royale"
"The Look of Love"
"Never Say Never Again"
Compilations
Shaken and Stirred
The Incredible World of James Bond
The Best of Bond...James Bond
Related articles
Eon films secondary songs
Non-Eon films secondary songs
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Soundtrack albums from James Bond films
From Russia with Love (film)
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value: On Her Majesty's Secret Service (soundtrack)

value: The Man with the Golden Gun (soundtrack)

value: Skyfall: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack

value: Spectre: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack

value:
/wiki/You_Know_My_Name
mw-redirect
You Know My Name

value: Shaken and Stirred: The David Arnold James Bond Project

value: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value: Category:Soundtrack albums from James Bond films

value: Category:United Artists Records soundtracks

value: Category:John Barry (composer) soundtracks

value: Category:Albums conducted by John Barry (composer)

value: Category:Use dmy dates from September 2013

value: Category:Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters

value: Category:Articles with hAudio microformats

value: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

value: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2012

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Find background information on current events

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

value:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

value: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

value: Permanent link to this revision of the page

value: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

value: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

value: From Russia With Love (banda sonora) – Spanish

value: რუსეთიდან სიყვარულით (საუნდტრეკი) – Georgian

value: From Russia with Love (soundtrack) – Dutch

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-From_Russia_with_Love_soundtrack rootpage-From_Russia_with_Love_soundtrack skin-vector action-view