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Finger
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For other uses, see Finger (disambiguation) and Fingertips (disambiguation).
Finger
Details
Identifiers
Latin
Digiti manus
MeSH
D005385
TA
A01.1.00.030
FMA
75592
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
A finger is a limb of the human body and a type of digit, an organ of manipulation and sensation found in the hands of humans and other primates.[1][2] Normally humans have five digits,[3] the bones of which are termed phalanges,[2] on each hand, although some people have more or fewer than five due to congenital disorders such as polydactyly or oligodactyly, or accidental or medical amputations. The first digit is the thumb, followed by index finger, middle finger, ring finger, and little finger or pinky. According to different definitions, the thumb can be called a finger, or not.
Contents
[hide]
1 Anatomy
1.1 Skeleton
1.2 Muscles
1.3 Skin
1.4 Fingertip wrinkling in water
1.5 Brain representation
1.6 Other animals
2 Clinical significance
2.1 Anomalies, injuries and diseases
3 History
3.1 Etymology
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Anatomy
Skeleton
Illustration depicting the bones of the human hand
The thumb (connected to the trapezium) is located on one of the sides, parallel to the arm.
The palm has five bones known as metacarpal bones, one to each of the five digits. Human hands contain fourteen digital bones, also called phalanges, or phalanx bones: two in the thumb (the thumb has no middle phalanx) and three in each of the four fingers. These are the distal phalanx, carrying the nail, the middle phalanx, and the proximal phalanx.
Sesamoid bones are small ossified nodes embedded in the tendons to provide extra leverage and reduce pressure on the underlying tissue. Many exist around the palm at the bases of the digits; the exact number varies between different people.
The articulations are: interphalangeal articulations between phalangeal bones, and metacarpophalangeal joints connecting the phalanges to the metacarpal bones.
Muscles
Play media
The precision of finger movements in space and time is highlighted in this motion tracking of two pianists' fingers playing the same piece (slow motion, no sound).[4]
Each finger may flex and extend, abduct and adduct, and so also circumduct. Flexion is by far the strongest movement. In humans, there are two large muscles that produce flexion of each finger, and additional muscles that augment the movement. Each finger may move independently of the others, though the muscle bulks that move each finger may be partly blended, and the tendons may be attached to each other by a net of fibrous tissue, preventing completely free movement.
Fingers do not contain muscles (other than arrector pili). The muscles that move the finger joints are in the palm and forearm. The long tendons that deliver motion from the forearm muscles may be observed to move under the skin at the wrist and on the back of the hand.
Muscles of the fingers can be subdivided into extrinsic and intrinsic muscles. The extrinsic muscles are the long flexors and extensors. They are called extrinsic because the muscle belly is located on the forearm.
The fingers have two long flexors, located on the underside of the forearm. They insert by tendons to the phalanges of the fingers. The deep flexor attaches to the distal phalanx, and the superficial flexor attaches to the middle phalanx. The flexors allow for the actual bending of the fingers. The thumb has one long flexor and a short flexor in the thenar muscle group. The human thumb also has other muscles in the thenar group (opponens and abductor brevis muscle), moving the thumb in opposition, making grasping possible.
The extensors are located on the back of the forearm and are connected in a more complex way than the flexors to the dorsum of the fingers. The tendons unite with the interosseous and lumbrical muscles to form the extensorhood mechanism. The primary function of the extensors is to straighten out the digits. The thumb has two extensors in the forearm; the tendons of these form the anatomical snuff box. Also, the index finger and the little finger have an extra extensor, used for instance for pointing. The extensors are situated within 6 separate compartments. The 1st compartment contains abductor pollicis longus and extensor pollicis brevis. The 2nd compartment contains extensors carpi radialis longus and brevis. The 3rd compartment contains extensor pollicis longus. The extensor digitorum indicis and extensor digititorum communis are within the 4th compartment. Extensor digiti minimi is in the fifth, and extensor carpi ulnaris is in the 6th.
The intrinsic muscle groups are the thenar and hypothenar muscles (thenar referring to the thumb, hypothenar to the small finger), the dorsal and palmar interossei muscles (between the metacarpal bones) and the lumbrical muscles. The lumbricals arise from the deep flexor (and are special because they have no bony origin) and insert on the dorsal extensor hood mechanism.
Skin
Aside from the genitals, the fingertips possess the highest concentration of touch receptors and thermoreceptors among all areas of the human skin,[citation needed] making them extremely sensitive to temperature, pressure, vibration, texture and moisture. Recent studies suggest fingers can feel nano-scale wrinkles on a seemingly smooth surface, a level of sensitivity not previously recorded.[5] This makes the fingers commonly used sensory probes to ascertain properties of objects encountered in the world, making them prone to injury.
The pulp of a finger is the fleshy mass on the palmar aspect of the extremity of the finger.[6]
Fingertip wrinkling in water
Although a common phenomenon, the underlying functions and mechanism of fingertip wrinkling following immersion in water are relatively unexplored. Originally it was assumed[by whom?] that the wrinkles were simply the result of the skin swelling in water,[citation needed] but it is now understood that the furrows are caused by the blood vessels constricting due to signalling by the sympathetic nervous system in response to water exposure.[7][8] One hypothesis for why this occurs, the “rain tread” hypothesis, posits that the wrinkles may help the fingers grip things when wet, possibly being an adaption from a time when humans dealt with rain and dew in forested primate habitats.[7] A 2013 study supporting this hypothesis found that the wrinkled fingertips provided better handling of wet objects but gave no advantage for handling dry objects.[9] However, a 2014 study attempting to reproduce these results was unable to demonstrate any improvement of handling wet objects with wrinkled fingertips.[8]
Brain representation
Each finger has an orderly somatotopic representation on the cerebral cortex in the somatosensory cortex area 3b,[10] part of area 1[11] and a distributed, overlapping representations in the supplementary motor area and primary motor area.[12]
The somatosensory cortex representation of the hand is a dynamic reflection of the fingers on the external hand: in syndactyly people have a clubhand of webbed, shortened fingers. However, not only are the fingers of their hands fused, but the cortical maps of their individual fingers also form a club hand. The fingers can be surgically divided to make a more useful hand. Surgeons did this at the Institute of Reconstructive Plastic Surgery in New York to a 32-year-old man with the initials O. G.. They touched O. G.’s fingers before and after surgery while using MRI brain scans. Before the surgery, the fingers mapped onto his brain were fused close together; afterward, the maps of his individual fingers did indeed separate and take the layout corresponding to a normal hand.[13]
Other animals
Chimpanzees have lower limbs that are specialized for manipulation, and (arguably) have fingers on their lower limbs as well. The term 'finger' is not applied to the digits of most other animals, such as canines, felines, or ungulates, none of which can engage in fine manipulation with their forelimbs as a primate can.
Clinical significance
Anomalies, injuries and diseases
Radiograph of Type 1 Syndactyly
A rare anatomical variation affects 1 in 500 humans, in which the individual has more than the usual number of digits; this is known as polydactyly. A human may also be born without one or more fingers or underdevelopment of some fingers such as symbrachydactyly. Extra fingers can be functional. One individual with seven fingers not only used them but claimed that they "gave him some advantages in playing the piano".[14]
Phalanges are commonly fractured. A damaged tendon can cause significant loss of function in fine motor control, such as with a mallet finger. They can be damaged by cold, including frostbite and non-freezing cold injury (NFCI); and heat, including burns.
The fingers are commonly affected by diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and gout. Diabetics often use the fingers to obtain blood samples for regular blood sugar testing. Raynaud's phenomenon and Paroxysmal hand hematoma are neurovascular disorders that affects the fingers.
Research has linked the ratio of lengths between the index and ring fingers to higher levels of testosterone, and to various physical and behavioral traits such as penis length[15] and risk for development of alcohol dependence[16] or video game addiction.[17]
History
Etymology
English dictionaries describe finger as meaning either one of the five digits including the thumb, or one of the four excluding the thumb (in which case they are numbered from 1 to 4 starting with the index finger closest to the thumb).[1][2][18] Linguistically, it appears that the original sense was to include the thumb as a finger: the word is derived from Old English thūma.[non sequitur] The name pinkie derives from Dutch pinkje, of uncertain origin. In English only the digits on the hand are known as fingers. However, in some languages the translated version of fingers can mean either the digits on the hand or feet. In English a digit on a foot has the distinct name of toe.
See also
Finger snapping
Fingerprint
Nail (anatomy)
Paroxysmal hand hematoma
Notes
^ Jump up to: a b Chambers 1998 page 603
^ Jump up to: a b c Oxford Illustrated pages 311,380
Jump up ^ Tracy L. Kivell; Pierre Lemelin; Brian G. Richmond; Daniel Schmitt (10 August 2016). The Evolution of the Primate Hand: Anatomical, Developmental, Functional, and Paleontological Evidence. Springer. pp. 7–. ISBN 978-1-4939-3646-5.
Jump up ^ Goebl, W.; Palmer, C. (2013). Balasubramaniam, Ramesh, ed. "Temporal Control and Hand Movement Efficiency in Skilled Music Performance". PLoS ONE. 8 (1): e50901. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0050901. PMC 3536780  . PMID 23300946.
Jump up ^ "Feeling small: Fingers can detect nano-scale wrinkles even on a seemingly smooth surface". Science Daily. September 16, 2013.
Jump up ^ medilexicon.com > Medical Dictionary - 'Pulp Of Finger' Citing: Stedman's Medical Dictionary. 2006
^ Jump up to: a b Changizi, M.; Weber, R.; Kotecha, R.; Palazzo, J. (2011). "Are Wet-Induced Wrinkled Fingers Primate Rain Treads?". Brain, Behavior and Evolution. 77 (4): 286–90. doi:10.1159/000328223. PMID 21701145.
^ Jump up to: a b Haseleu, Julia; Omerbašić, Damir; Frenzel, Henning; Gross, Manfred; Lewin, Gary R. (2014). Goldreich, Daniel, ed. "Water-Induced Finger Wrinkles Do Not Affect Touch Acuity or Dexterity in Handling Wet Objects". PLoS ONE. 9: e84949. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0084949. PMC 3885627  . PMID 24416318.
Jump up ^ Kareklas, K.; Nettle, D.; Smulders, T. V. (2013). "Water-induced finger wrinkles improve handling of wet objects". Biology Letters. 9 (2): 20120999. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2012.0999. PMC 3639753  . PMID 23302867.
Jump up ^ Van Westen, D; Fransson, P; Olsrud, J; Rosén, B; Lundborg, G; Larsson, EM (2004). "Fingersomatotopy in area 3b: an fMRI-study". BMC Neurosci. 5: 28. doi:10.1186/1471-2202-5-28. PMC 517711  . PMID 15320953.
Jump up ^ Nelson, AJ; Chen, R (2008). "Digit somatotopy within cortical areas of the postcentral gyrus in humans". Cereb Cortex. 18 (10): 2341–51. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhm257. PMID 18245039.
Jump up ^ Kleinschmidt, A; Nitschke, MF; Frahm, J (1997). "Somatotopy in the human motor cortex hand area. A high-resolution functional MRI study". Eur J Neurosci. 9 (10): 2178–86. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01384.x. PMID 9421177.
Jump up ^ Mogilner, A; Grossman, JA; Ribary, U; Joliot, M; Volkmann, J; Rapaport, D; Beasley, RW; Llinás, RR (1993). "Somatosensory cortical plasticity in adult humans revealed by magnetoencephalography". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 90 (8): 3593–7. doi:10.1073/pnas.90.8.3593. PMC 46347  . PMID 8386377.
Jump up ^ Dwight, T (1892). "Fusion of hands". Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History. 4: 473–486.
Jump up ^ Researchers Find Association Between Penile Length and Ratio of Length of Men's Fingers
Jump up ^ Kornhuber, J; Erhard, G; Lenz, B; Kraus, T; Sperling, W; Bayerlein, K; Biermann, T; Stoessel, C (2011). "Low digit ratio 2D:4D in alcohol dependent patients". PLoS ONE. 6 (4): e19332. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0019332. PMC 3081847  . PMID 21547078.
Jump up ^ Kornhuber, J.; Zenses, EM; Lenz, B; Stoessel, C; Bouna-Pyrrou, P; Rehbein, F; Kliem, S; Mößle, T (2013). "Low digit ratio 2D:4D associated with video game addiction". PLoS ONE. 8 (11): e79539. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079539. PMC 3827365  . PMID 24236143.
Jump up ^ Oxford Advanced page 326
References
The Chambers Dictionary. Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd. 2000 [1998]. ISBN 0-550-14000-X.
The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary. Great Britain: Oxford University Press. 1976 [1975].
Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English. London: Oxford University Press. 1974 [1974]. ISBN 0-19-431102-3.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fingers.
Look up finger in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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text:
Mercedes Benz (song)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Mercedes Benz"
Single by Janis Joplin
from the album Pearl
Released
1970
Recorded
October 1, 1970
Songwriter(s)
Janis Joplin
Michael McClure
Bob Neuwirth
Producer(s)
Paul A. Rothchild
"Mercedes Benz" is an a cappella song written by singer Janis Joplin with the poets Michael McClure and Bob Neuwirth, and originally recorded by Joplin.[1] In the song, the singer asks the Lord to prove His love for her by buying her a Mercedes-Benz, a color TV, and a "night on the town." There is also a reference to Dialing for Dollars, a franchised format local television program, which required one to be watching the show to win when the show called your phone number, hence the singer's need for a TV.
The song is considered to be a rejection of consumerism.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Cover versions
3 In popular culture
4 References
History[edit]
The song's lyrics were written at Vahsen's, a Port Chester, New York bar, on August 8, 1970 during an impromptu poetry jam between Joplin and songwriter Bob Neuwirth.[2] The lyrics were inspired by the first line of a song written by San Francisco beat poet Michael McClure, "Come on, God, and buy me a Mercedes Benz." Joplin heard it sung by a friend of McClure's, and she began to sing it, too. At the Port Chester bar, Joplin sang the line a few times and began riffing on the McClure lyrics, while Neuwirth copied the new lyrics onto bar napkins, which he kept for years. She sang the new version for the first time that night at her concert at the Capitol Theatre in Port Chester.[2][3]
The song was recorded in one take[4] on October 1, 1970. These were the last tracks Joplin ever recorded; she died three days later, on October 4. The song appeared on the album Pearl, released in 1971. The song title, as listed on that album, contains no hyphen although the actual automobile brand name is hyphenated.
In 2003, Joplin's recording was remixed, adding a beat and a background melody. The remixed version was included on collections of Joplin's greatest hits.
A Porsche 356 driven by Janis Joplin, customized with psychedelic art
Cover versions[edit]
1971 – Elton John covered the song briefly on his American tour
1972 – the song was covered by the Goose Creek Symphony, becoming their best-known recording
1974 – The Supremes covered the song with their own lyrics, with all four members (Cindy Birdsong, Mary Wilson and Scherrie Payne) singing on lead
1976 – the song was covered by the British folk group Swan Arcade
1980 – German singer-songwriter Klaus Lage recorded a version in German language
1992 – French-Canadian pop star Mitsou recorded a dance-pop version of the song on her EP Heading West
1992 – Norwegian vocal pop group Bjelleklang recorded a Norwegian-language version on their album Holiholihooo ...
1994 – Bob Rivers released a parody titled "Honda Accord"[5]
1994 – a cover version was made by a Dutch pop/dance band T-Spoon
1995 – a version was included on Gina Jeffreys' album, The Flame
1996 – a live cover version was included on the Concrete Blonde compilation Recollection: The Best of Concrete Blonde
1997 – American blues artist Taj Mahal covered the song for the compilation album Blues Down Deep: Songs of Janis Joplin
1997 – a cover version was made by the Italian pop/dance singer Spagna, and included as a ghost track on her album Indivisibili
1998 – former Guns N' Roses rhythm guitarist Gilby Clarke included a version of the song on his album Rubber
1999 – the EP Humppaorgiat by the Finnish comedy group Eläkeläiset featured a cover titled KELA, the lyrics requesting for a moped, a submachine gun, a blow-up doll, a stocked medicine cabinet and for "many things truly awesome" from the Social Insurance Institution
1999 – the Japanese adult video star Miki Sawaguchi included a cover version of the song on her album Big Boobs/Watashi no Mune de Onemurinasai. Her version is also a capella, and sung in thickly-accented English
1999 – the Portuguese Star Maria Ana Charrua covered the song in the Portuguese version of "the Idols"
2000 – a re-make by Hubert von Goisern on his album Fön (2000)
2001 – the key line was interpolated into the opera Jeppe: The Cruel Comedy
2006 – Pink covered the song on her I'm Not Dead Tour
2009 – a cover version was made by Kendel Carson and released on her album Alright Dynamite
2010 – a version recorded by Dave Clark & Friends in the early 1970s was released
2010 – the song was covered by Jon Boden as part of his A Folk Song a Day project
2010 – a cover version by Jackyl on the When Moonshine and Dynamite Collide album
2011 – a cover version by Chimène Badi on the Gospel & Soul album
2011 – hip-hop artist G-Eazy samples the song in "Mercedes Benz (The American Dream)"
2012 – the song was covered and translated into Ukrainian by singer-songwriter Yuriy Veres for the album 60/70
2012 – Singer Masha covered the song on her popular YouTube channel on September 22, 2012 [6]
2016 – a re-production feat. Janis Joplin by producer duo Hecchi & Kethmer as a single
2017 – The Spanish Folk Metal band Mägo de Oz performed a live version of the song in the concert with the Symphony Orchestra of Mexico Diabulus In Ópera. Previously they made a version like B Side of the song "Deja de llorar (y vuélvete a levantar)".
In popular culture[edit]
The pianist Glenn Gould used the song prominently in the third and final radio documentary he made for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in 1977. The documentary, titled The Quiet In The Land, is part of what is often referred to as Gould's Solitude Trilogy.
The song was used in the 1989 mini-series Bangkok Hilton and in opening of the 2008 German film Der Baader Meinhof Komplex.
The song has been used several times in car advertisements. Mercedes-Benz used it in television commercials for their cars as early as 1995. The song appeared again in an advertisement which aired on February 6, 2011 during a Super Bowl commercial in addition to advertisements in 2007. Another commercial, for the BMW Z3, had the driver listening to a cassette tape of the song, frowning after Mercedes-Benz was mentioned, and throwing the tape out of the car after the Porsche is mentioned.
In 2011, on the initiative of the British music and lifestyle BLAG Magazine, singer and songwriter Estelle, rapper and producer David Banner and the musician Daley composed the new song "Benz", inspired by Joplin's "Mercedes Benz".[7][8][9]
In a 2012 episode of the British TV Series Citizen Khan, the title character sings his own version when driving his yellow Mercedes. "Oh lord bought me a Mercedes-Benz. My friends all drive Datsuns. They are infidels."
References[edit]
Notes
^ Jump up to: a b Neal, Chris. "Janis Joplin's Mercedes Benz". Performing Songwriter. Retrieved March 27, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Myers, Marc (7 July 2015). "The Story Behind Janis Joplin's 'Mercedes Benz'". Wall St. Journal. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Singer Bobby Womack asserts in his autobiography that Joplin was inspired to come up with the lyrics after going for a ride with him in his Mercedes-Benz. Womack, Bobby with Ashton, Robert (2006). "Midnight Mover: Autobiography". John Blake Publishing. We rode a couple of blocks while she fixed a tune in her head and then started singing. A line just spilled out. 'Oh Lord, won't you buy me a Mercedes Benz. 'My friends all drive Porsches, I must make amends.' CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Pearl album by Janis Joplin, Superseventies.com
Jump up ^ http://www.bobrivers.com/index.php/honda-accord/
Jump up ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-IVladJEWZ0
Jump up ^ Estelle x David Banner x Daley – Making Of The New "Benz" Song | Behind The Scene Video
Jump up ^ Music project by the magazine BLAG – inspired by Janis Joplin: Estelle, David Banner and Daley create a new Mercedes song
Jump up ^ Artists Estelle, David Banner and Daley with BLAG Magazine Create "Benz" Inspired by Janis Joplin
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
[hide]
v
t
e
Janis Joplin
Studio albums
Big Brother & the Holding Company (1967)
Cheap Thrills (1968)
I Got Dem Ol' Kozmic Blues Again Mama! (1969)
Pearl (1971)
Live albums
In Concert (1972)
Live at Winterland '68 (1998)
The Woodstock Experience (2009)
Live at the Carousel Ballroom 1968 (2012)
Compilations
Janis Joplin's Greatest Hits (1973)
Janis (1975)
Wicked Woman (1976)
Farewell Song (1982)
Janis (1993)
This Is Janis Joplin (1995)
18 Essential Songs (1995)
Love, Janis (2001)
The Lost Tapes (2008)
Move Over! (2011)
Blow All My Blues Away (2012)
Songs
"Ball and Chain"
"Careless Love"
"Cry Baby"
"Down on Me"
"Flower in the Sun"
"Hesitation Blues"
"Kozmic Blues"
"Mary Jane"
"Me and Bobby McGee"
"Mercedes Benz"
"Move Over"
"Nobody Knows You When You're Down and Out"
"Piece of My Heart"
"See See Rider"
"Silver Threads and Golden Needles"
"Summertime"
"Tell Mama"
"To Love Somebody"
"Trouble in Mind"
"What Good Can Drinkin' Do"
"Work Me, Lord"
Related
Big Brother and the Holding Company
Full Tilt Boogie Band
Janis (1974 documentary)
Love, Janis (2001 musical)
Nine Hundred Nights (2001 documentary)
Janis: Little Girl Blue (2015 documentary)
Sam Andrew
Jorma Kaukonen
Gabriel Mekler
Michael Monarch
Book
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercedes_Benz_(song)&oldid=836751340"
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text:
Wave Hill walk-off
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Coordinates: 17°23′13″S 131°06′59″E / 17.38698°S 131.11641°E / -17.38698; 131.11641 Wave Hill walk-off or The Gurindji strike was a walk-off and strike by 200 Gurindji stockmen, house servants and their families in August 1966 at Wave Hill cattle station in Kalkarindji (formerly known as Wave Hill), Northern Territory.
The Gurindji people's traditional lands are approximately 3,250 km² of the Northern Territory. Gurindji first encountered Europeans in the 1850s, when explorer Augustus Gregory crossed into their territory. Several other explorers traversed the area over the following decades until the 1880s, when large pastoral operations were established.
Contents
[hide]
1 Gurindji and the pastoralists
2 Conditions on the station
3 The walk off
4 1966–75 – The strike years
4.1 Gurindji efforts during the strike years
4.2 Attempts to entice and stymie Gurindji
4.3 Support for the Gurindji grows
4.3.1 1967 Referendum
4.3.2 1972–75 Whitlam Labor Government
4.3.3 1972 Woodward Royal Commission
4.3.4 1973–74 Gove land rights case
4.3.5 1976 Aboriginal Land Rights Act
5 1975 – Handback
6 Legacy of the strike
7 The Gurindji Strike in popular culture
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Gurindji and the pastoralists[edit]
Wave Hill cattle station, which included the Kalkaringi and Daguragu area, was first stocked in 1883.
Gurindji – along with all Aboriginal groups in this predicament – found their waterholes and soakages fenced off or fouled by cattle, which also ate or trampled fragile desert plant life, such as bush tomato. Dingo hunters regularly shot the people's invaluable hunting dogs, and kangaroo, a staple meat, was also routinely shot since it competed with cattle for water and grazing land. Gurindji suffered lethal "reprisals" for any attempt to eat the cattle – anything from a skirmish to a massacre. The last recorded massacre in the area occurred at Coniston in 1928. There was little choice to stay alive but to move onto the cattle stations, receive rations, adopt a more sedentary life and, where possible, take work as stockmen and domestic help. If they couldn't continue their traditional way of life, then at least to be on their own land – the foundation for their religion and spiritual beliefs – seemed crucial.
In 1914, Wave Hill Station was bought by Vesteys, a British pastoral company comprising a large conglomerate of cattle companies owned by Baron Vestey. Pastoralists were able to make use of the now landless Aboriginal people as extremely cheap labour. On stations across the north, Aboriginal people became the backbone of the cattle industry, working for little or no money, minimal food and appalling housing.
Conditions on the station[edit]
There had been complaints from Indigenous employees about conditions over many years. A Northern Territory government inquiry held in the 1930s said of Vesteys:
"It was obvious that they had been ... quite ruthless in denying their Aboriginal labour proper access to basic human rights."
However, little was done over the decades leading up to the strike. While it was illegal up until 1968 to pay Aboriginal workers more than a specified amount in goods and money, a 1945 inquiry found Vesteys was not even paying Aboriginal workers the 5 shillings a day minimum wage set up for Aborigines under a 1918 Ordinance. Non-Indigenous males were receiving £2/8/- a week in 1945. Gurindji lived in corrugated iron humpies without floors, lighting, sanitation, furniture or cooking facilities. Billy Bunter Jampijinpa, who lived on Wave Hill Station at the time said
"We were treated just like dogs. We were lucky to get paid the 50 quid a month we were due, and we lived in tin humpies you had to crawl in and out on your knees. There was no running water. The food was bad – just flour, tea, sugar and bits of beef like the head or feet of a bullock. The Vesteys mob were hard men. They didn't care about blackfellas."
Gurindji who received minimal government benefits had these paid into pastoral company accounts over which they had no control. In contrast, non-Aboriginal workers enjoyed minimum wage security with no legal limit on the maximum they could be paid. They were housed in comfortable homes with gardens and had full control over their finances.
The walk off[edit]
On 23 August 1966, led by spokesman Vincent Lingiari, the workers and families walked off Wave Hill and began their ten-year strike. Lingiari led Gurindji, as well as Ngarinman, Bilinara, Warlpiri and Mudbara workers to an important sacred site nearby at Wattie Creek (Daguragu). Initially, the action was interpreted as purely a strike against work and living conditions. However, it soon became apparent that it was not just – or even primarily – improved conditions Gurindji were campaigning for. Their primary demand was for return of their land. Novelist Frank Hardy was one of the many non-Indigenous Australians who supported the Gurindji struggle through the strike years as was Darwin based trade unionist Brian Manning.
"This bin [been] Gurindji country long time before them Vestey mob," Vincent Lingiari told Hardy at the time.
While Hardy records Pincher Manguari as saying:
"We want them Vestey mob all go away from here. Wave Hill Aboriginal people bin called Gurindji. We bin here long time before them Vestey mob. This is our country, all this bin Gurindji country. Wave Hill bin our country. We want this land; we strike for that."
The Gurindji strike was not the first or the only demand by Aborigines for the return of their lands – but it was the first one to attract wide public support within Australia for Land Rights.
In 1968, 60 Aboriginal workers at another Vestey's property, Limbunya, also joined the strike when they walked off the job.[1]
1966–75 – The strike years[edit]
The Gurindji established a settlement near by at Wattie Creek, which Gurindji have always called Daguragu. These were hard years, but they held strong to their belief in their right to the land.
Gurindji efforts during the strike years[edit]
While living at Daguragu, Gurindji drew up maps showing areas they wanted excised from pastoralist land and returned to them. In 1967, Gurindji petitioned the Governor-General, claiming 1,295 km² of land near Wave Hill. Their claim was rejected. While Dagaragu would eventually become the first cattle station to be owned and managed by an Aboriginal community, today known as the Murramulla Gurindji Company, it would be many years before the Gurindji achieved this.
In this period, Vincent Lingiari, Billy Bunter Jampijinpa and others toured Australia, with the support of workers' unions, to give talks, raise awareness, build support for their cause and have meetings with major lawyers and politicians. Frank Hardy recalled one fundraising meeting at which a donor gave $500 after hearing Vincent Lingiari speak. The donor – who said he had never before met an Aboriginal person – was a young Dr Fred Hollows, the eye surgeon and Communist activist.
Attempts to entice and stymie Gurindji[edit]
Billy Bunter Jampijinpa was 16 at the time of the walk-off:
"The Vesteys mob came and said they would get two killers (slaughtered beasts) and raise our wages if we came back. But old Vincent said, 'No, we're stopping here'. Then in early 1967 we walked to our new promised land, we call it Daguragu (Wattie Creek), back to our sacred places and our country, our new homeland."
In late 1966 the Northern Territory government offered a compromise pay rise of 125 per cent, but the strikers still demanded wages equal to those of white stockmen and return of their land. The Government also made moves to cut off means of Gurindji obtaining food supplies and threatened evictions. Offers of houses, which the Government had built for them at Wave Hill Welfare settlement, were resisted. The Gurindji persisted with their protest and stayed at Daguragu.
In 1969 the Liberal-National Country Coalition government was given a proposal to give eight square kilometres back to the Gurindji. Cabinet refused even to discuss the issue.
Support for the Gurindji grows[edit]
However, the tide of public opinion was beginning to turn in Australia. There were demonstrations and arrests in southern Australia in support of the walk-off, and many church, student and trade union groups gave practical and fundraising support to the Gurindji struggle. Several significant events marked the change in opinion in Australia.
1967 Referendum[edit]
Main article: Australian referendum, 1967 (Aboriginals)
An overwhelming majority of Australians – over 90 per cent of voters and a majority in all six states – voted "Yes" to giving the Federal Government power to make laws for Indigenous Australians.
1972–75 Whitlam Labor Government[edit]
Gough Whitlam and Vincent Lingiari
In 1972 the Australian Labor Party (ALP) came to power. Aboriginal land rights was an issue high on its agenda, and it was quick to set up an Inquiry, and subsequently draft legislation, to this end. The Labor Government called a halt to development leases granted by the Northern Territory Land Board that might damage Indigenous rights, suspended mining exploration licences, and gave a small grant of land at Daguragu/Wattie Creek, as an initial step towards the final land handback.
1972 Woodward Royal Commission[edit]
The Whitlam government established the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Land Rights in the Northern Territory, headed by Justice Woodward. The Inquiry's task was to examine the legal establishment of land rights. The Commission recommended government financial support for the creation of reserves and incorporated land trusts, administered by traditional owners or land councils.
1973–74 Gove land rights case[edit]
Main article: Gove land rights case
Meanwhile, the Yolngu of northeast Arnhem Land were taking their grievances to the courts, in the case of Milirrpum v Nabalco, after unsuccessfully petitioning the Commonwealth government with a bark petition. The judge's decision in Gove had relied on the doctrine of terra nullius to deny the Yolngu rights to their land and ensure the security of a bauxite mine by Nabalco. Coupled with the ongoing Gurindji strike, this case highlighted the very real need for Aboriginal land rights in Australia.
1976 Aboriginal Land Rights Act[edit]
Main article: Aboriginal Land Rights Act
As a result of the recommendations of the Woodward Inquiry, the Whitlam government drafted the Aboriginal Land Rights Bill. The legislation was not passed by parliament prior to the Whitlam government's dismissal in 1975. The subsequent Fraser government passed effectively similar legislation – the Aboriginal Land Rights Act – on 9 December 1976.
1975 – Handback[edit]
In 1975, the Labor government of Gough Whitlam finally negotiated with Vesteys to give the Gurindji back a portion of their land. This was a landmark in the land rights movement in Australia for Indigenous Australians. The handback took place on 16 August 1975 at Kalkaringi. Gough Whitlam addressed Vincent Lingiari and the Gurindji people, saying:
"On this great day, I, Prime Minister of Australia, speak to you on behalf of all Australian people – all those who honour and love this land we live in. For them I want to say to you: I want this to acknowledge that we Australians have still much to do to redress the injustice and oppression that has for so long been the lot of Black Australians."
"Vincent Lingiari, I solemnly hand to you these deeds as proof, in Australian law, that these lands belong to the Gurindji people and I put into your hands part of the earth itself as a sign that this land will be the possession of you and your children forever."
Mervyn Bishop's photograph of Whitlam pouring sand into Lingiari's hand on that day, has become an iconic one in Australian history.[2]
Legacy of the strike[edit]
Vincent Lingiari confronted the vast economic and political forces arrayed against him and his people. The walk-off and strike were landmark events in the struggle for Aboriginal land rights in Australia. For the first time recognition was given of Indigenous people, their rights and responsibilities for the land, and their ability to practise their law, language and culture. In August every year, a large celebration is held at Kalkaringi to mark the anniversary of the strike and walk-off. Known as Freedom Day, people gather from many parts of Australia to celebrate and re-enact the walk-off.
In 2006 an Australian Senate report looked into the matter of underpayment of indigenous workers in the past. A group of those involved in the Wave Hill walk-off have said that they would be prepared to make a reparation claim for underpaid and stolen wages as a test case.[3]
The walk-off route has been entered on the Australian National Heritage List.
The Gurindji Strike in popular culture[edit]
"Gurindji Blues"
Single by Galarrwuy Yunupingu
B-side
"The Tribal Land"
Released
1971
Format
7" Single
Length
Introduction by Vincent Lingiari – 1:06
Gurindji Blues – 2:30
Label
RCA Victor 101937
Songwriter(s)
Ted Egan
Producer(s)
Ron Wills
Ted Egan wrote the "Gurindji Blues" in the 1960s with Vincent Lingiari. The words to the first verse are:
"Poor Bugger Me, Gurindji
Me bin sit down this country
Long before no Lord Vesty
All about land belong to we"
In 1971 the song was recorded by Galarrwuy Yunupingu, a Yolngu man actively involved in land rights for his own people through the bark petition and Gove land rights case. Ted Egan says he was moved to write "Gurindji Blues" after he heard Peter Nixon, then Minister for the Interior, say in parliament that if the Gurindji wanted land, they should save up and buy it, like any other Australian. In 1991, Paul Kelly and Kev Carmody recorded "From Little Things Big Things Grow". The words to the first verse are:
"Gather round people let me tell you a story
An eight year-long story of power and pride
British Lord Vestey and Vincent Lingiari
Were opposite men on opposite sides"
The words to the last verse are:
"That was the story of Vincent Lingiari
But this is the story of something much more
How power and privilege can not move a people
Who know where they stand and stand in the law."
Irish folk musician Damien Dempsey's song "Wave Hill Walk Off" commemorates the Gurindji strike and the struggle for Aboriginal land rights.
The words to the first verse are:
"In the year of Lord Jesus nineteen and sixty six,
A great rumbling sound came from up in the sticks,
All these gentle black warriors they dreamed of a Bill,
And enough was enough, so they walked off Wave Hill."
The words to the last verse are:
"For nine hungry years they kept up their bold stand,
And took off with and poured land into Vincent’s hand
For indigenous land rights it was finally time,
For to make reparations for a giant of a crime."
See also[edit]
Organized labour portal
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Vincent Lingiari
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References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Aborigines walk off jobs". The Canberra Times. Australian Capital Territory: National Library of Australia. 27 July 1968. p. 3. Retrieved 2 June 2014.
Jump up ^ Prime Minister Gough Whitlam pours soil into hand of traditional landowner Vincent Lingiari, Northern Territory 1975
Jump up ^ "Wave Hill group prepares stolen wages claim". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 8 December 2006. Retrieved 9 December 2006.
Lingiari Foundation
Freedom Day
Daguragu Council
MP Warren Snowdon's Speech to Parliament in honour of Vincent Lingiari
GreenLeft Weekly transcript of an oral history of the Wave Hill Station Strike
ABC interview with Paul Kelly and Kev Carmody
External links[edit]
Listen to a clip from 'From Little Things Big Things Grow' and read more about it on australianscreen online
'From Little Things Big Things Grow' was added to the National Film and Sound Archive's Sounds of Australia registry in 2010
Collaborating for Indigenous Rights 1957–1973, National Museum of Australia
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wave_Hill_walk-off&oldid=827467471"
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text:
First Epistle of John
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The First Epistle of John, often referred to as First John and written 1 John, is the first of the Johannine epistles of the New Testament, and the fourth of the catholic epistles. It is attributed to John the Evangelist, traditionally thought to be the author of the Gospel of John and the other two Johannine epistles. This epistle was probably written in Ephesus in AD 95–110.[1] The work was written to counter docetism, which is the belief that Jesus did not come "in the flesh", but only as a spirit. It also defined how Christians are to discern true teachers: by their ethics, their proclamation of Jesus in the flesh, and by their love.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Content
1.1 Comma Johanneum
2 Style
3 Authorship
4 Purpose
5 See also
6 References
6.1 Notes
6.2 Footnotes
6.3 Bibliography
6.4 Further reading
7 External links
Content[edit]
The main themes of the epistle are love and fellowship with God.[2][3] The author describes various tests by which readers may ascertain whether or not their communion with God is genuine, and teaches that the proof of spiritual regeneration is a life of active righteousness.[4] It also distinguishes between the world (which is full of evil and under the dominion of Satan) and the children of God (who are set apart from the world).[5]
The main themes of the epistle are discernible in the writer's sectional organisation of his contents. There are four sections (arranged in the chiasm ABB'A'): 1:1–2:14; 2:15–3:10; 3:11–4:13; 4:14–5:20. The first, A, speaks of "the witness", given and received, to God who is "light" and the exhortation is "to live in his light". The second, B, is an exhortation "to love not the world", with earthly motives, in earthly ways. The third, B', a balance to B, emphasizes (rather) "love one another". The fourth, A', again begins with "the witness", but this time it is to God who is "love"; "life eternal" is theirs who live a life of loving God. The key requirements of Ancient Rhetoric, Purpose and Structure are clearly evidenced in this letter. So too are the other requirements of Style and Memory.[6]
Comma Johanneum[edit]
Main article: Comma Johanneum
Philip the Apostle. The visible text (in Old Church Slavonic) in the book is: "Whosoever shall confess that Jesus is the Son of God, God dwelleth in him, and he in God. And we have known and believed the love that God hath to us. God is love..."
Among the most controversial verses of the Bible is what some consider an explicit reference that supports the doctrine of the trinity, the Comma Johanneum: "For there are three that bear record in heaven, the Father, the Word, and the Holy Ghost: and these three are one. And there are three that bear witness in earth, the Spirit, and the water, and the blood: and these agree in one." (1 John 5:7–8, King James Version). Verse 7 does not appear in any version of the Greek text prior to the ninth century, and first appears in most of the Latin manuscripts, especially in the Vetus Itala (Old Latin predating Jerome) before being translated into Greek and added to later Greek manuscripts.[7] It was included in the King James Bible, something Isaac Newton commented on in An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture. This is sometimes used as evidence to counter the King-James-Only Movement. Bart Ehrman suggests in his book Misquoting Jesus that the King James Version would not have included the passage if Desiderius Erasmus had not given in to pressure to include it in the Textus Receptus even though he doubted its authenticity.[citation needed]
The majority of modern translations (for example English Standard Version and New American Standard Bible) do not include this text, or (for example the New Revised Standard Version) include it as a footnote. Albert Barnes (1798–1870) said regarding its authenticity:
On the whole, therefore, the evidence seems to me to be clear that this passage is not a genuine portion of the inspired writings, and should not be appealed to in proof of the doctrine of the Trinity.[8]
Style[edit]
The epistle is not written in the same form as the other biblical epistles, lacking an epistolary opening or conclusion.[9] The epistle is written in a simple style, without syntactical flourishes,[9] and makes frequent use of asyndeton, where related thoughts are placed next to one another without conjunctions.[10] In contrast to the linear style used in the Pauline epistles, John's thought moves in loops or circles forming a slowly advancing sequence of thought.[5] This is similar to the parallel structure of Hebrew poetry, in which the second verse of a couplet often carries the same meaning as the first, though in the epistle the frequent recapitulations of already expressed ideas serve also to add to what has previously been said.[11] In summary, the epistle may be said to exhibit a paraenetic style which is "marked by personal appeal, contrasts of right and wrong, true and false, and an occasional rhetorical question".[9]
Some scholars have proposed the idea that the epistle is really John's commentary on a selection of traditional parallel couplets. While this theory, first propounded by Ernst von Dobschütz and Rudolf Bultmann, is not universally accepted, Amos Wilder writes that, "It is at least clear that there are considerable and sometimes continuous elements in the epistle whose style distinguishes them from that of the author both with respect to poetic structure and syntactic usage."[12]
Authorship[edit]
Main article: Authorship of the Johannine works
The epistle is traditionally held to have been composed by John the Evangelist, at Ephesus,[13] when the writer was in advanced age. The epistle's content, language and conceptual style are very similar to the Gospel of John, 2 John, and 3 John, indicating that they were written by the same author.[1] Indeed, at the end of the 19th century scholar Ernest DeWitt Burton wrote that there could be "no reasonable doubt" that 1 John and the gospel were written by the same author,[14] and Amos Wilder has said that, "Early Christian tradition and the great majority of modern scholars have agreed on the common authorship of these writings, even where the author has not been identified with the apostle John."[2]
However, other modern scholars have challenged this position. Though the common authorship of the three epistles is still almost universally accepted, scholars such as Heinrich Julius Holtzmann and C. H. Dodd have maintained that the epistle and the gospel were written by different authors.[2] There are at least two principal arguments for this view. The first is that the epistle often uses a demonstrative pronoun at the beginning of a sentence, then a particle or conjunction, followed by an explanation or definition of the demonstrative at the end of the sentence, a stylistic technique which is not used in the gospel.[9] The second is that the author of the epistle "uses the conditional sentence in a variety of rhetorical figures which are unknown to the gospel".[15]
Purpose[edit]
"The Fourth Gospel addresses itself to the challenges posed by Judaism and others outside Johannine circles who have rejected the community's vision of Jesus as preexistent Son, sent by the Father. The epistles (First, Second, and Third John) "describe the fracturing of the Johannine community itself".[16]
The author wrote the epistle so that the joy of his audience would "be full" (1:4) and that they would "not practice sin" (2:1) and that "you who believe in the name of the Son of God... may know that you have eternal life" (5:13). We can therefore distinguish in the epistle both a general purpose (to increase mutual joy) and a specific purpose (to provide readers with tests by which they might assure themselves of their salvation).[17] It appears as though the author was concerned about heretical teachers that had been influencing churches under his care.[13] Such teachers were considered Antichrists (2:18–19) who had once been church leaders but whose teaching became heterodox. It appears that these teachers taught a form of docetism in which Jesus came to earth as a spirit without a real body of flesh (4:2) that his death on the cross was not as a true atonement for sins (1:7).[13] It appears that John might have also been rebuking a proto-Gnostic named Cerinthus, who also denied the true humanity of Christ.[citation needed]
The purpose of the author (1:1–4) is to declare the Word of Life to those to whom he writes, in order that they might be united in fellowship with the Father and his Son Jesus Christ. He shows that the means of union with God are, (1) on the part of Christ, his atoning work (1:7; 2:2; 3:5; 4:10, 14; 5:11, 12) and his advocacy (2:1); and (2), on the part of man, holiness (1:6), obedience (2:3), purity (3:3), faith (3:23; 4:3; 5:5), and love (2:7, 8; 3:14; 4:7; 5:1).
Whereas the Gospel of John was written to unbelievers, this epistle was written to those who were already believers (5:13).[17] It seems likely that its audience was largely gentile rather than Jewish, since it contains few Old Testament quotations or distinctly Jewish forms of expression.[13] The epistle was probably carried by itinerant missionaries to different churches throughout the region and read aloud to the congregations.[18]
See also[edit]
If the world hates you
John the Apostle
John the Evangelist
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Footnotes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible (Palo Alto: Mayfield, 1985) "1 John," p. 355–356
^ Jump up to: a b c Wilder, p. 214
Jump up ^ Barbour, p. 346
Jump up ^ Barbour, p. 348
^ Jump up to: a b Burton, Ernest DeWitt (1896). "The Epistles of John". The Biblical World. University of Chicago Press. 7 (5): 368. JSTOR 3140373.
Jump up ^ New Testament: New Testimony to the skills of the writers and first readers, David G Palmer, 2006
Jump up ^ Kurt Aland, et al., The Greek New Testament, Third Edition (Corrected), United Bible Societies, 1983, p. 824, n. 4 ISBN 3-438-05110-9
Jump up ^ Barnes, Albert (2007-02-07). "Albert Barnes New Testament Notes". StudyLight.org. Retrieved 2007-02-07.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Wilder, Amos (1957). "Introduction to the First, Second, and Third Epistles of John". In Harmon, Nolan. The Interpreter's Bible. 12. Abingdon Press. p. 211.
Jump up ^ Barbour, J. H. (1896). "The Structure of the First Epistle of Saint John". The Biblical World. 9 (5): 343. JSTOR 3140289.
Jump up ^ Barbour, p. 342
Jump up ^ Wilder, p. 212
^ Jump up to: a b c d Burton, p. 367
Jump up ^ Burton, p. 366
Jump up ^ C. H. Dodd, “The First Epistle of John and the Fourth Gospel,” Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, XXI (1937)
Jump up ^ The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, Edited by Raymond E. Brown, S.S., Union Theological Seminary, New York; NY, William J. Dalton, S. J.; Roland E. Murphy, O. Carm. (emeritus) The Divinity School, Duke University, Durham, NC; [The Johannine Epistles, Pheme Perkins], with a foreword by His Eminence Carlo Maria Cardinal Martini, S.J.; Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1990
^ Jump up to: a b Barbour, p. 341
Jump up ^ Wilder, p. 210
Bibliography[edit]
Robert Dabney, "The Doctrinal Various Readings of the New Testament Greek", 1894: p. 32.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Easton, Matthew George (1897). "article name needed". Easton's Bible Dictionary (New and revised ed.). T. Nelson and Sons.
Further reading[edit]
1 John from the Biblical Resource Database
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
1 John
Wikiquote has quotations related to: First Epistle of John
Online translations of the First Epistle of John
Online Bible at GospelHall.org
Bible: 1 John public domain audiobook at LibriVox Various versions
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Epistle_of_John&oldid=784630484"
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