text:
Octet rule
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The bonding in carbon dioxide (CO2): all atoms are surrounded by 8 electrons, fulfilling the octet rule.
The octet rule is a chemical rule of thumb that reflects observation that atoms of main-group elements tend to combine in such a way that each atom has eight electrons in its valence shell, giving it the same electron configuration as a noble gas. The rule is especially applicable to carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and the halogens, but also to metals such as sodium or magnesium.
The valence electrons can be counted using a Lewis electron dot diagram as shown at the right for carbon dioxide. The electrons shared by the two atoms in a covalent bond are counted twice, once for each atom. In carbon dioxide each oxygen shares four electrons with the central carbon, two (shown in red) from the oxygen itself and two (shown in black) from the carbon. All four of these electrons are counted in both the carbon octet and the oxygen octet.
Contents
[hide]
1 Example: sodium chloride
2 History
3 Explanation in quantum theory
4 Exceptions
5 Three-electron bonds
6 Hypervalent molecules
7 See also
8 References
Example: sodium chloride[edit]
Ionic bonding is common between pairs of atoms, where one of the pair is a metal of low electronegativity (such as sodium) and the second a nonmetal of high electronegativity (such as chlorine).
A chlorine atom has seven electrons in its outer electron shell, the first and second shells being filled with two and eight electrons respectively. The first electron affinity of chlorine (the energy release when chlorine gains an electron) is +328.8 kJ per mole of chlorine atoms. Adding a second electron to chlorine requires energy, energy that cannot be recovered by formation of a chemical bond. The result is that chlorine will very often form a compound in which it has eight electrons in its outer shell (a complete octet).
A sodium atom has a single electron in its outermost electron shell, the first and second shells again being full with two and eight electrons respectively. To remove this outer electron requires only the first ionization energy, which is +495.8 kJ per mole of sodium atoms, a small amount of energy. By contrast, the second electron resides in the deeper second electron shell, and the second ionization energy required for its removal is much larger: +4562.4 kJ per mole. Thus sodium will, in most cases, form a compound in which it has lost a single electron and have a full outer shell of eight electrons, or octet.
The energy required to transfer an electron from a sodium atom to a chlorine atom (the difference of the 1st ionization energy of sodium and the electron affinity of chlorine) is small: +495.8 − 328.8 = +167 kJ mol−1. This energy is easily offset by the lattice energy of sodium chloride: −787.3 kJ mol−1. This completes the explanation of the octet rule in this case.
History[edit]
In the late 19th century it was known that coordination compounds (formerly called “molecular compounds”) were formed by the combination of atoms or molecules in such a manner that the valencies of the atoms involved apparently became satisfied. In 1893, Alfred Werner showed that the number of atoms or groups associated with a central atom (the “coordination number”) is often 4 or 6; other coordination numbers up to a maximum of 8 were known, but less frequent. In 1904 Richard Abegg was one of the first to extend the concept of coordination number to a concept of valence in which he distinguished atoms as electron donors or acceptors, leading to positive and negative valence states that greatly resemble the modern concept of oxidation states. Abegg noted that the difference between the maximum positive and negative valences of an element under his model is frequently eight.[1] In 1916, Gilbert N. Lewis referred to this insight as Abegg's rule and used it to help formulate his cubical atom model and the "rule of eight", which began to distinguish between valence and valence electrons.[2] In 1919 Irving Langmuir refined these concepts further and renamed them the "cubical octet atom" and "octet theory".[3] The "octet theory" evolved into what is now known as the "octet rule".
Explanation in quantum theory[edit]
The quantum theory of the atom explains the eight electrons as a closed shell with an s2p6 electron configuration. A closed-shell configuration is one in which low-lying energy levels are full and higher energy levels are empty. For example, the neon atom ground state has a full n = 2 shell (2s2 2p6) and an empty n = 3 shell. According to the octet rule, the atoms immediately before and after neon in the periodic table (i.e. C, N, O, F, Na, Mg and Al), tend to attain a similar configuration by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons.
The argon atom has an analogous 3s2 3p6 configuration. There is also an empty 3d level, but it is at considerably higher energy than 3s and 3p (unlike in the hydrogen atom), so that 3s2 3p6 is still considered a closed shell for chemical purposes. The atoms immediately before and after argon tend to attain this configuration in compounds. There are, however, some hypervalent molecules in which the 3d level may play a part in the bonding, although this is controversial (see below).
For helium there is no 1p level according to the quantum theory, so that 1s2 is a closed shell with no p electrons. The atoms before and after helium (H and Li) follow a duet rule and tend to have the same 1s2 configuration as helium.
Exceptions[edit]
Incomplete valence shell:
Seven-electron species are free radicals with unpaired electrons. For example, the methyl radical (CH3) has an unpaired electron in a non-bonding orbital on the carbon atom, and no electron of opposite spin in the same orbital. Another example is the chlorine radical produced by CFCs, known to be harmful to the ozone layer.
Six-electron species are highly reactive and short lived. An example is the carbenes, which have two unshared valence electrons on the same carbon atom in a triplet or singlet state. Another example is BH3, which dimerizes into diborane (B2H6) to achieve stability.
Other rules:
The duet rule of the first shell—the noble gas helium has two electrons in its outer shell, which is very stable. (Since there is no 1p subshell, 1s is followed immediately by 2s, and thus shell 1 can only have at most 2 valence electrons). Hydrogen only needs one additional electron to attain this stable configuration, while lithium needs to lose one.
For transition metals, some classes of molecule tend to obey the 18-electron rule which corresponds to the utilization of valence-shell s, p and d orbitals to form bonding and non-bonding orbitals. However newer theoretical treatments support a model with the duodectet rule (12 electrons) using mainly the d and s valence orbitals.[4] The exclusion of p orbitals for transition metal atoms is analogous to the exclusion of d orbitals for hypervalent molecules of main group atoms. (See hypervalent molecules below).
Three-electron bonds[edit]
Comparison of the electronic structure of the three-electron bond to the conventional covalent bond.
Some stable molecular radicals (e.g. nitric oxide, NO) obtain octet configurations by means of a three-electron bond which contributes one shared and one unshared electron to the octet of each bonded atom.[5] In NO, the octet on each atom is completed by four electrons from two two-electron bonds, plus a lone pair of non-bonding electrons on that atom alone. The bond order is 2.5, since each two-electron bond counts as one bond while the three-electron bond has only one shared electron and therefore corresponds to a half-bond.
Dioxygen is sometimes represented as obeying the octet rule with a double bond (O=O) containing two pairs of shared electrons.[6] However the ground state of this molecule is paramagnetic, indicating the presence of unpaired electrons. Pauling proposed that this molecule actually contains two three-electron bonds and one normal covalent (two-electron) bond.[7] The octet on each atom then consists of two electrons from each three-electron bond, plus the two electrons of the covalent bond, plus one lone pair of non-bonding electrons.
Hypervalent molecules[edit]
Main article: Hypervalent molecule
Main-group elements in the third and later rows of the periodic table can form hypercoordinate or hypervalent molecules in which the central main-group atom is bonded to more than four other atoms, such as phosphorus pentachloride, PCl5, and sulfur hexafluoride, SF6. For example, in PCl5, if it is supposed that there are five true covalent bonds in which five distinct electron pairs are shared, then the phosphorus would be surrounded by 10 valence electrons in violation of the octet rule. In the early days of quantum mechanics, Pauling proposed that third-row atoms can form five bonds by using one s, three p and one d orbitals, or six bonds by using one s, three p and two d orbitals.[8] To form five bonds, the one s, three p and one d orbitals combine to form five sp3d hybrid orbitals which each share an electron pair with a halogen atom, for a total of 10 shared electrons, two more than the octet rule predicts. Similarly to form six bonds, the six sp3d2 hybrid orbitals form six bonds with 12 shared electrons.[9] In this model the availability of empty d orbitals is used to explain the fact that third-row atoms such as phosphorus and sulfur can form more than four covalent bonds, whereas second-row atoms such as nitrogen and oxygen are strictly limited by the octet rule.[10]
However other models describe the bonding using only s and p orbitals in agreement with the octet rule. A valence bond description of PF5 uses resonance between different PF4+ F− structures, so that each F is bonded by a covalent bond in four structures and an ionic bond in one structure. Each resonance structure has eight valence electrons on P.[11] A molecular orbital theory description considers the highest occupied molecular orbital to be a non-bonding orbital localized on the five fluorine atoms, in addition to four occupied bonding orbitals, so again there are only eight valence electrons on the phosphorus.[citation needed] The validity of the octet rule for hypervalent molecules is further supported by ab initio molecular orbital calculations, which show that the contribution of d functions to the bonding orbitals is small.[12][13]
See also[edit]
Lewis structure
Electron counting
18-Electron rule
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Abegg, R. (1904). "Die Valenz und das periodische System. Versuch einer Theorie der Molekularverbindungen (Valency and the periodic system – Attempt at a theory of molecular compounds)". Zeitschrift für anorganische Chemie. 39 (1): 330–380. doi:10.1002/zaac.19040390125.
Jump up ^ Lewis, Gilbert N. (1916). "The Atom and the Molecule". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 38 (4): 762–785. doi:10.1021/ja02261a002.
Jump up ^ Langmuir, Irving (1919). "The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 41 (6): 868–934. doi:10.1021/ja02227a002.
Jump up ^ Frenking, Gernot; Shaik, Sason, eds. (May 2014). "Chapter 7: Chemical bonding in Transition Metal Compounds". The Chemical Bond: Chemical Bonding Across the Periodic Table. Wiley -VCH. ISBN 978-3-527-33315-8.
Jump up ^ Harcourt, Richard D., ed. (2015). "Chapter 2: Pauling "3-Electron Bonds", 4-Electron 3-Centre Bonding, and the Need for an "Increased-Valence" Theory". Bonding in Electron-Rich Molecules: Qualitative Valence-Bond Approach via Increased-Valence Structures. Springer. ISBN 9783319166766.
Jump up ^ For example, General chemistry by R.H.Petrucci, W.S.Harwood and F.G.Herring (8th ed., Prentice-Hall 2002, ISBN 0-13-014329-4, p.395) writes the Lewis structure with a double bond, but adds a question mark with the explanation that there is some doubt about the validity of this structure because it fails to account for the observed paramagnetism.
Jump up ^ L. Pauling The Nature of the Chemical Bond (3rd ed., Oxford University Press 1960) chapter 10.
Jump up ^ L. Pauling The Nature of the Chemical Bond (3rd ed., Oxford University Press 1960) p.63. In this source Pauling considers as examples PCl5 and the PF6− ion. ISBN 0-8014-0333-2
Jump up ^ R.H. Petrucci, W.S. Harwood and F.G. Herring, General Chemistry (8th ed., Prentice-Hall 2002) p.408 and p.445 ISBN 0-13-014329-4
Jump up ^ Douglas B.E., McDaniel D.H. and Alexander J.J. Concepts and Models of Inorganic Chemistry (2nd ed., John Wiley 1983) pp.45-47 ISBN 0-471-21984-3
Jump up ^ Housecroft C.E. and Sharpe A.G., Inorganic Chemistry, 2nd ed. (Pearson Education Ltd. 2005), p.390-1
Jump up ^ Miessler D.L. and Tarr G.A., Inorganic Chemistry, 2nd ed. (Prentice-Hall 1999), p.48
Jump up ^ Magnusson, E., J.Am.Chem.Soc. (1990), v.112, p.7940-51 Hypercoordinate Molecules of Second-Row Elements: d Functions or d Orbitals?
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Electron configuration
Introduction to quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics
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Digital Revolution
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The Digital Revolution is the change from mechanical and analogue electronic technology to digital electronics which began anywhere from the late 1950s to the late 1970s with the adoption and proliferation of digital computers and digital record keeping that continues to the present day.[1] Implicitly, the term also refers to the sweeping changes brought about by digital computing and communication technology during (and after) the latter half of the 20th century. Analogous to the Agricultural Revolution and Industrial Revolution, the Digital Revolution marked the beginning of the Information Age.
Central to this revolution is the mass production and widespread use of digital logic circuits, and its derived technologies, including the computer, digital cellular phone, and the Internet.
The notion of the digital revolution is part of the Schumpeterian theory of socio-economic evolution,[2] which consists of an incessant process of creative destruction that modernizes the modus operandi of society as a whole, including its economic, social, cultural, and political organization.[3][4]
The motor of this incessant force of creative destruction is technological change.[5][6] While the key carrier technology of the first Industrial Revolution (1770–1850) was based on water-powered mechanization, the second Kondratiev wave (1850–1900) was enabled by steam-powered technology, the third (1900–1940) was characterized by the electrification of social and productive organization, the fourth by motorization and the automated mobilization of society (1940–1970), and the most recent one by the digitization of social systems.[2] Each one of those so-called long waves has been characterized by a sustained period of social modernization, most notably by sustained periods of increasing economic productivity. According to Carlota Perez: "this quantum jump in productivity can be seen as a technological revolution, which is made possible by the appearance in the general cost structure of a particular input that we could call the 'key factor', fulfilling the following conditions: (1) clearly perceived low-and descending-relative cost; (2) unlimited supply for all practical purposes; (3) potential all-pervasiveness; (4) a capacity to reduce the costs of capital, labour and products as well as to change them qualitatively".[6] Digital Information and Communication Technologies fulfill those requirements and therefore represent a general purpose technology that can transform an entire economy, leading to a modern, and more developed form of socio-economic and political organization often referred to as the post-industrial society, the fifth Kondratiev, Information society, digital age, and network society, among others.[7]
The Agricultural Revolution led to agricultural cities in the ancient world in the Middle East, Mesoamerica, China, the Indus Valley, Southern Europe and South America.
The Industrial Revolution and Digital Revolution are now taking place concurrently in China and India as people leave the rural areas for industrial and high tech cities like Beijing, Shanghai, and Mumbai.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Brief history
1.2 Origins (1947–1969)
1.3 1970s
1.4 1980s
1.5 1990s
1.6 2000s
1.7 2010s
2 Rise in digital technology use of computers, 1980–2016
2.1 1990
2.2 2002
2.3 2010
2.4 2016
3 Converted technologies
4 Technological basis
5 Socio-economic impact
5.1 Information sharing and privacy
5.2 Copyright and trademark issues
6 Concerns
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
Brief history[edit]
The underlying technology was invented in the later half of the 19th century, including Babbage's analytical engine and the telegraph. Digital communication became economical for widespread adoption after the invention of the personal computer. Claude Shannon, a Bell Labs mathematician, is credited for having laid out the foundations of digitalization in his pioneering 1948 article, A Mathematical Theory of Communication.[8] The digital revolution converted technology that had been analog into a digital format. By doing this, it became possible to make copies that were identical to the original. In digital communications, for example, repeating hardware was able to amplify the digital signal and pass it on with no loss of information in the signal. Of equal importance to the revolution was the ability to easily move the digital information between media, and to access or distribute it remotely.
The turning point of the revolution was the change from analogue to digitally recorded music.[9] During the 1980s the digital format of optical compact discs gradually replaced analog formats, such as vinyl records and cassette tapes, as the popular medium of choice.[10]
Origins (1947–1969)[edit]
In 1947 the transistor was invented,[11] leading the way to more advanced digital computers. In the 1950s and 1960s the military, governments and other organizations had computer systems.
From 1969 to 1971, Intel developed the Intel 4004, an early microprocessor that laid the foundations for the microcomputer revolution that began in the 1970s.
The public was first introduced to the concepts that would lead to the Internet when a message was sent over the ARPANET in 1969. Packet switched networks such as ARPANET, Mark I, CYCLADES, Merit Network, Tymnet, and Telenet, were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s using a variety of protocols. The ARPANET in particular led to the development of protocols for internetworking, in which multiple separate networks could be joined together into a network of networks.
The Whole Earth movement of the 1960s advocated the use of new technology.[12]
1970s[edit]
In the 1970s the home computer was introduced,[13] time-sharing computers,[14] the video game console, the first coin-op video games,[15][16] and the golden age of arcade video games began with Space Invaders. As digital technology proliferated, and the switch from analog to digital record keeping became the new standard in business, a relatively new job description was popularized, the data entry clerk. Culled from the ranks of secretaries and typists from earlier decades, the data entry clerk's job was to convert analog data (customer records, invoices, etc.) into digital data.
1980s[edit]
In developed nations, computers achieved semi-ubiquity during the 1980s as they made their way into schools, homes, business, and industry. Automated teller machines, industrial robots, CGI in film and television, electronic music, bulletin board systems, and video games all fueled what became the zeitgeist of the 1980s. Millions of people purchased home computers, making household names of early personal computer manufacturers such as Apple, Commodore, and Tandy. To this day the Commodore 64 is often cited as the best selling computer of all time, having sold 17 million units (by some accounts)[17] between 1982 and 1994.
In 1984, the U.S. Census Bureau began collecting data on computer and Internet use in the United States; their first survey showed that 8.2% of all U.S. households owned a personal computer in 1984, and that households with children under the age of 18 were nearly twice as likely to own one at 15.3% (middle and upper middle class households were the most likely to own one, at 22.9%).[18] By 1989, 15% of all U.S. households owned a computer, and nearly 30% of households with children under the age of 18 owned one.[19] By the late 1980s, many businesses were dependent on computers and digital technology.
Motorola created the first mobile phone, Motorola DynaTac, in 1983. However, this device used analog communication - digital cell phones were not sold commercially until 1991 when the 2G network started to be opened in Finland to accommodate the unexpected demand for cell phones that was becoming apparent in the late 1980s.
Compute! magazine predicted that CD-ROM would be the centerpiece of the revolution, with multiple household devices reading the discs.[20]
The first true digital camera was created in 1988, and the first were marketed in December 1989 in Japan and in 1990 in the United States.[21] By the mid-2000s, they would eclipse traditional film in popularity.
Digital ink was also invented in the late 1980s. Disney's CAPS system (created 1988) was used for a scene in 1989's The Little Mermaid and for all their animation films between 1990's The Rescuers Down Under and 2004's Home On The Range.
Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989.
1990s[edit]
The first public digital HDTV broadcast was of the 1990 World Cup that June; it was played in 10 theaters in Spain and Italy. However HDTV did not become a standard until the mid-2000s outside Japan.
The World Wide Web became publicly accessible in 1991, which had been available only to government and universities.[22] In 1993 Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina introduced Mosaic, the first web browser capable of displaying inline images[23] and the basis for later browsers such as Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer. The Internet expanded quickly, and by 1996, it was part of mass culture and many businesses listed websites in their ads. By 1999 almost every country had a connection, and nearly half of Americans and people in several other countries used the Internet on a regular basis. However throughout the 1990s, "getting online" entailed complicated configuration, and dial-up was the only connection type affordable by individual users; the present day mass Internet culture was not possible.
In 1989 about 15% of all households in the United States owned a personal computer, by 2000, this was up to 51%;[24] for households with children nearly 30% owned a computer in 1989, and in 2000 65% owned one.
2000s[edit]
Cell phones became as ubiquitous as computers by the early 2000s, with movie theaters beginning to show ads telling people to silence their phones. They also became much more advanced than phones of the 1990s, most of which only took calls or at most allowed for the playing of simple games.
Text messaging existed in the 1990s but was not widely used until the early 2000s, when it became a cultural phenomenon.
The digital revolution became truly global in this time as well - after revolutionizing society in the developed world in the 1990s, the digital revolution spread to the masses in the developing world in the 2000s.
In late 2005 the population of the Internet reached 1 billion,[25] and 3 billion people worldwide used cell phones by the end of the decade. HDTV became the standard television broadcasting format in many countries by the end of the decade.
2010s[edit]
By 2012, over 2 billion people used the Internet, twice the number using it in 2007. Cloud computing had entered the mainstream by the early 2010s. By 2015, tablet computers and smartphones were expected to exceed personal computers in Internet usage.[26] In 2016, half of the world's population is connected.[27]
Rise in digital technology use of computers, 1980–2016[edit]
Further information: History of the Internet
Analog to digital transition 1986 - 2014
In the late 1980s, less than 1% of the world's technologically stored information was in digital format, while it was 94% in 2007, with more than 99% by 2014.[28] The year 2002 is estimated to be the year when human kind was able to store more information in digital, than in analog format (the "beginning of the digital age").[29]
It is estimated that the world's capacity to store information has increased from 2.6 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 1986, to some 5,000 exabytes in 2014 (5 zettabytes).[28][30]
1990[edit]
Cell phone subscribers: 12.5 million (0.25% of world population in 1990)[31]
Internet users: 2.8 million (0.05% of world population in 1990)[32]
2002[edit]
Cell phone subscribers: 1.2 billion (19% of world population in 2002)[32]
Internet users: 631 million (11% of world population in 2002)[32]
2010[edit]
Cell phone subscribers: 4 billion (68% of world population in 2010)[33]
Internet users: 1.8 billion (26.6% of world population in 2010)[27]
2016[edit]
Internet users: 3.6 billion (49.5% of world population in 2016)[27]
A university computer lab containing many desktop PCs
Converted technologies[edit]
Conversion of below analog technologies to digital. (The decade indicated is the period when digital became dominant form.)
Analog computer to digital computer (1950s)
Telex to fax (1980s)
Phonograph cylinder, gramophone record and compact cassette to compact disc (1980s)
VHS to DVD (2000s)
Analog photography (photographic plate and photographic film) to digital photography (2000s)
Analog cinematography (film stock) to digital cinematography (2010s)
Analog television to digital television (2010s (expected))
Analog radio to digital radio (2020s (expected))
Analog mobile phone (1G) to digital mobile phone (2G) (1990s)
Analog watch and clock to digital watch and clock (not yet predictable)
Analog thermometer to digital thermometer (2010s)
Offset printing to digital printing (2020s (expected))
Decline or disappearance of below analog technologies:
Mail (parcel to continue, others to be discontinued) (2020s (expected))
Telegram (2010s)
Typewriter (2010s)
Fax (2010s (expected))
Landline phone (2020s (expected)) (only offices will continue using landlines)
Payphone (2020s (expected))
Disappearance of other technologies also attributed to digital revolution. (Analog–digital classification doesn't apply to these.)
CRT (2010s)
Plasma display (2010s)
CCFL backlit LCDs (2010s)
Improvements in digital technologies.
Desktop computer to laptop to tablet computer
DVD to Blu-ray Disc to 4K Blu-ray Disc
2G to 3G to 4G
Mobile phone to smartphone
Digital watch to smartwatch
Analog weighing scale to digital weighing scale
Technological basis[edit]
Underlying the digital revolution was the development of the digital electronic computer, the personal computer, and particularly the microprocessor with its steadily increasing performance (as described by Moore's law), which enabled computer technology to be embedded into a huge range of objects from cameras to personal music players. Equally important was the development of transmission technologies including computer networking, the Internet and digital broadcasting. 3G phones, whose social penetration grew exponentially in the 2000s, also played a very large role in the digital revolution as they simultaneously provide ubiquitous entertainment, communications, and online connectivity.
Socio-economic impact[edit]
Positive aspects include greater interconnectedness, easier communication, and the exposure of information that in the past could have more easily been suppressed by totalitarian regimes. Michio Kaku wrote in his books Physics of the Future that the failure of the Soviet coup of 1991 was due largely to the existence of technology such as the fax machine and computers that exposed classified information.
The Revolutions of 2011 were enabled by social networking and smartphone technology; however these revolutions in hindsight largely failed to reach their goals as hardcore Islamist governments and in Syria a civil war have formed in the absence of the dictatorships that were toppled.
The economic impact of the digital revolution has been large. Without the World Wide Web (WWW), for example, globalization and outsourcing would not be nearly as feasible as they are today. The digital revolution radically changed the way individuals and companies interact. Small regional companies were suddenly given access to much larger markets. Concepts such as On-demand services and manufacturing and rapidly dropping technology costs made possible innovations in all aspects of industry and everyday life.
After initial concerns of an IT productivity paradox, evidence is mounting that digital technologies have significantly increased the productivity and performance of businesses.[34]
Negative effects include information overload, Internet predators, forms of social isolation, and media saturation. In a poll of prominent members of the national news media, 65 percent said the Internet is hurting journalism more than it is helping[35] by allowing anyone no matter how amateur and unskilled to become a journalist; causing information to be muddier and the rise of conspiracy theory in a way it didn't exist in the past.
In some cases, company employees' pervasive use of portable digital devices and work related computers for personal use—email, instant messaging, computer games—were often found to, or perceived to, reduce those companies' productivity. Personal computing and other non-work related digital activities in the workplace thus helped lead to stronger forms of privacy invasion, such as keystroke recording and information filtering applications (spyware and content-control software).
Information sharing and privacy[edit]
Privacy in general became a concern during the digital revolution. The ability to store and utilize such large amounts of diverse information opened possibilities for tracking of individual activities and interests. Libertarians and privacy rights advocates feared the possibility of an Orwellian future where centralized power structures control the populace via automatic surveillance and monitoring of personal information in such programs as the CIA's Information Awareness Office.[36] Consumer and labor advocates opposed the ability to direct market to individuals, discriminate in hiring and lending decisions, invasively monitor employee behavior and communications and generally profit from involuntarily shared personal information.
The Internet, especially the WWW in the 1990s, opened whole new avenues for communication and information sharing. The ability to easily and rapidly share information on a global scale brought with it a whole new level of freedom of speech. Individuals and organizations were suddenly given the ability to publish on any topic, to a global audience, at a negligible cost, particularly in comparison to any previous communication technology.
Large cooperative projects could be endeavored (e.g. Open-source software projects, SETI@home). Communities of like-minded individuals were formed (e.g. MySpace, Tribe.net). Small regional companies were suddenly given access to a larger marketplace.
In other cases, special interest groups as well as social and religious institutions found much of the content objectionable, even dangerous. Many parents and religious organizations, especially in the United States, became alarmed by pornography being more readily available to minors. In other circumstances the proliferation of information on such topics as child pornography, building bombs, committing acts of terrorism, and other violent activities were alarming to many different groups of people. Such concerns contributed to arguments for censorship and regulation on the WWW.
Copyright and trademark issues[edit]
Main article: File sharing and the law
Copyright and trademark issues also found new life in the digital revolution. The widespread ability of consumers to produce and distribute exact reproductions of protected works dramatically changed the intellectual property landscape, especially in the music, film, and television industries.
The digital revolution, especially regarding privacy, copyright, censorship and information sharing, remains a controversial topic. As the digital revolution progresses it remains unclear to what extent society has been impacted and will be altered in the future.
Concerns[edit]
While there have been huge benefits to society from the digital revolution, especially in terms of the accessibility of information, there are a number of concerns. Expanded powers of communication and information sharing, increased capabilities for existing technologies, and the advent of new technology brought with it many potential opportunities for exploitation. The digital revolution helped usher in a new age of mass surveillance, generating a range of new civil and human rights issues. Reliability of data became an issue as information could easily be replicated, but not easily verified. The digital revolution made it possible to store and track facts, articles, statistics, as well as minutiae hitherto unfeasible.
From the perspective of the historian, a large part of human history is known through physical objects from the past that have been found or preserved, particularly in written documents. Digital records are easy to create but also easy to delete and modify. Changes in storage formats can make recovery of data difficult or near impossible, as can the storage of information on obsolete media for which reproduction equipment is unavailable, and even identifying what such data is and whether it is of interest can be near impossible if it is no longer easily readable, or if there is a large number of such files to identify. Information passed off as authentic research or study must be scrutinized and verified.[citation needed]
These problems are further compounded by the use of digital rights management and other copy prevention technologies which, being designed to only allow the data to be read on specific machines, may well make future data recovery impossible. Interestingly, the Voyager Golden Record, which is intended to be read by an intelligent extraterrestrial (perhaps a suitable parallel to a human from the distant future), is recorded in analog rather than digital format specifically for easy interpretation and analysis.
See also[edit]
Revolution
Neolithic Revolution
Agricultural Revolution
Scientific Revolution
Industrial Revolution
Second Industrial Revolution
Information revolution
Microcomputer revolution
Nanotechnology
Technological revolution
The Triple Revolution
Dot-com company
Digital native
Digital omnivore
Digital addict
Digital phobic
Electronic document
Industry 4.0
Paperless office
Post Cold War era
Semiconductors
Telework
Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering
References[edit]
Jump up ^ E. Schoenherr, Steven (5 May 2004). "The Digital Revolution". Archived from the original on 7 October 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b C. Freeman and F. Louçã, As Time Goes By: From the Industrial Revolutions to the Information Revolution, Oxford University Press, USA, 2002.
Jump up ^ Schumpeter, Joseph Alois (1939). Business Cycles: A Theoretical, Historical, and Statistical Analysis of the Capitalist Process. Martino Pub. ISBN 9781578985562.
Jump up ^ Online Course "Digital Technology & Social Change" (University of California), Hilbert M., DT&SC 4-2: Long Waves of Social Evolution
Jump up ^ C. Perez, "Technological Revolutions, Paradigm Shifts and Socio-Institutional Change" in E. Reinert, Globalization, Economic Development and Inequality: An alternative Perspective, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2004, pp. 217–242.
^ Jump up to: a b C. Perez, "Structural change and assimilation of new technologies in the economic and social systems Archived 2011-08-13 at the Wayback Machine." Futures, vol. 15, 1983, pp. 357–375.
Jump up ^ Online Course "Digital Technology & Social Change" (University of California), Hilbert M., DT&SC 4-3: How Societies evolve
Jump up ^ Shannon, Claude E.; Weaver, Warren (1963). The mathematical theory of communication (4. print. ed.). Urbana: University of Illinois Press. p. 144. ISBN 0252725484.
Jump up ^ "Museum Of Applied Arts And Sciences - About". Museum Of Applied Arts And Sciences. Retrieved 2017-08-22.
Jump up ^ "The Digital Revolution Ahead for the Audio Industry," Business Week. New York, March 16, 1981, p. 40D.
Jump up ^ Phil Ament (17 April 2015). "Transistor History - Invention of the Transistor". Retrieved 17 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "History of Whole Earth Catalog". Retrieved 17 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "Personal Computer Milestones". Retrieved 17 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Criss, Fillur (14 August 2014). "2,076 IT jobs from 492 companies". ICTerGezocht.nl (in Dutch). Retrieved 19 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "Atari - Arcade/Coin-op". Retrieved 17 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Vincze Miklós. "Forgotten arcade games let you shoot space men and catch live lobsters". io9. Retrieved 17 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "How many Commodore 64 computers were really sold?". pagetable.com. Retrieved 17 April 2015.
Jump up ^ http://www.census.gov/hhes/computer/files/1984/p23-155.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.census.gov/hhes/computer/files/1989/p23-171.pdf
Jump up ^ "COMPUTE! magazine issue 93 Feb 1988". If the wheels behind the CD-ROM industry have their way, this product will help open the door to a brave, new multimedia world for microcomputers, where the computer is intimately linked with the other household electronics, and every gadget in the house reads tons of video, audio, and text data from CD-ROM disks.
Jump up ^ "1988". Retrieved 17 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Martin Bryant (6 August 2011). "20 years ago today, the World Wide Web was born - TNW Insider". The Next Web. Retrieved 17 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "The World Wide Web". Retrieved 17 April 2015.
Jump up ^ http://www.census.gov/prod/2005pubs/p23-208.pdf
Jump up ^ "One Billion People Online!". Retrieved 17 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Tablets, Phones to Surpass PCs for Internet Use in Four Years. PCWorld.
^ Jump up to: a b c "World Internet Users Statistics and 2014 World Population Stats". Retrieved 17 April 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "The World’s Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information", especially Supporting online material, Martin Hilbert and Priscila López (2011), Science (journal), 332(6025), 60-65; free access to the article through here: http://www.martinhilbert.net/worldinfocapacity-html/
Jump up ^ Martin Hilbert (11 June 2011). "World_info_capacity_animation" – via YouTube.
Jump up ^ Information in the Biosphere: Biological and Digital Worlds, doi:10.1016/j.tree.2015.12.013, Gillings, M. R., Hilbert, M., & Kemp, D. J. (2016), Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 31(3), 180–189
Jump up ^ "Worldmapper: The world as you've never seen it before - Cellular Subscribers 1990". Retrieved 17 April 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Worldmapper: The world as you've never seen it before - Communication Maps". Retrieved 17 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Arms, Michael (2013). "Cell Phone Dangers - Protecting Our Homes From Cell Phone Radiation". Computer User. Archived from the original on 29 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Computing Productivity: Firm-Level Evidence". SSRN 290325  . Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Cyra Master (10 April 2009). "Media Insiders Say Internet Hurts Journalism". The Atlantic. Retrieved 17 April 2015.
Jump up ^ John Markoff (November 22, 2002). "Pentagon Plans a Computer System That Would Peek at Personal Data of Americans". The New York Times.
External links[edit]
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: The Information Age
Virginia Heffernan (New York Times) - The Digital Revolution
Virginia Heffernan (New York Times), an interview
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Category:Filipino sociologists
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Duluth model
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The Duluth Model or Domestic Abuse Intervention Project is a program developed to reduce domestic violence against women. It is named after Duluth, Minnesota, the city where it was developed.[1] The program was largely founded by Ellen Pence and Michael Paymar.[1]
As of 2006[update], the Duluth Model is the most common batterer intervention program used in the United States.[2] Critics argue that the method can be ineffective as it was developed without minority communities in mind and can fail to address root psychological or emotional causes of abuse, in addition to completely neglecting male victims and female perpetrators of abuse.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin and theory
2 Implementation
3 Effectiveness
4 Criticism
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Origin and theory[edit]
The Domestic Abuse Intervention Project was the first multi-disciplinary program designed to address the issue of domestic violence. This experimental program, conducted in Duluth in 1981, coordinated the actions of a variety of agencies dealing with domestic conflict. The Duluth model curriculum was developed by a "small group of activists in the battered women’s movement" [3] with 5 battered women and 4 men as subjects. The program has become a model for programs in other jurisdictions seeking to deal more effectively with domestic violence.[4]
The feminist theory underlying the Duluth Model is that men use violence within relationships to exercise power and control. This is illustrated by the "Power and Control Wheel," a graphic typically displayed as a poster in participating locations.[5][6] According to the Duluth Model, "women and children are vulnerable to violence because of their unequal social, economic, and political status in society."[7] Treatment of abusive men is focused on re-education, as "we do not see men’s violence against women as stemming from individual pathology, but rather from a socially reinforced sense of entitlement." [8] The program's philosophy is intended to help batterers work to change their attitudes and personal behavior so they would learn to be nonviolent in any relationship.
Implementation[edit]
This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (January 2017)
Effectiveness[edit]
A U.S. study published in 2002 sponsored by the federal government found that batterers who complete programs based on the Duluth model are less likely to repeat acts of domestic violence than those who do not complete any batterers' intervention program.[9]
A 2003 study conducted by the U.S. National Institute of Justice found the Duluth Model to have "little or no effect."[10] However, this study had considerable shortfalls. The National Institute of Justice said in its introduction, "...response rates were low, many people dropped out of the program, and victims could not be found for subsequent interviews. The tests used to measure batterers' attitudes toward domestic violence and their likelihood to engage in future abuse were of questionable validity."[11]
A 2003 longitudinal, four-year evaluation by E W Gondolf, covering four cities, shows clear deescalation of reassault and other abuse, with 80% of men reaching sustained non-violence.[12]
A 2005 study led by Larry Bennett, a professor of social work at the University of Illinois at Chicago and an expert on batterer intervention programs, found that of the 30 batterer intervention programs in Cook County, Illinois, 15 percent of batterers who completed the programs were rearrested for domestic violence, compared with 37 percent of those who dropped out of the programs.[9] However, Bennett said the studies are largely meaningless because they lacked a proper control group.[9] He added that participants who complete domestic violence programs are likely to be more motivated than others to improve behavior and would be less inclined to offend again.[9]
A 2011 review of the effectiveness of batterers intervention programs (BIP) (primarily Duluth Model) found that "there is no solid empirical evidence for either the effectiveness or relative superiority of any of the current group interventions," and that "the more rigorous the methodology of evaluation studies, the less encouraging their findings."[13] That is, as BIPs in general, and Duluth Model programs in particular are subject to increasingly rigorous review, their success rate approaches zero.
A 2014 news report reported zero percent recidivism within 5 years for a batterers intervention program based on Nonviolent Communication, and contrasted this with a recidivism rate of 40 percent within 5 years for a batterers intervention program based on the Duluth Model as reported by the Domestic Abuse Intervention Project.[14]
Criticism[edit]
Criticism of the Duluth Model has centered on the program's insistence that men are perpetrators who are violent because they have been socialized in a patriarchy that condones male violence, and that women are victims who are violent only in self-defense.[15] Some critics argue that "programs based on the Duluth Model may ignore research linking domestic violence to substance abuse and psychological problems, such as attachment disorders, traced to childhood abuse or neglect, or the absence of a history of adequate socialization and training."[9][16] Others criticize the Duluth model as being overly confrontational rather than therapeutic, focusing solely on changing the abuser's actions and attitudes rather than dealing with underlying emotional and psychological issues.[16] Donald Dutton, a psychology professor at the University of British Columbia who has studied abusive personalities, states: "The Duluth Model was developed by people who didn't understand anything about therapy,"[9] and also points out that "lesbian battering is more frequent than heterosexual battering."[17] Philip W. Cook points out that in the case of homosexual domestic violence, the patriarchy is absent: there is no male dominance of women in same-sex relationships, and in fact, female on female abuse is reported more than twice as frequently as male on male abuse.[18] Furthermore, some critics point out that the model ignores the reality that women are sometimes the perpetrators of domestic violence in heterosexual relationships, as well.
Its proponents counter that the Duluth model is effective and makes best use of scarce resources.[19] However, Ellen Pence herself has written,
"By determining that the need or desire for power was the motivating force behind battering, we created a conceptual framework that, in fact, did not fit the lived experience of many of the men and women we were working with. The DAIP staff [...] remained undaunted by the difference in our theory and the actual experiences of those we were working with [...] It was the cases themselves that created the chink in each of our theoretical suits of armor. Speaking for myself, I found that many of the men I interviewed did not seem to articulate a desire for power over their partner. Although I relentlessly took every opportunity to point out to men in the groups that they were so motivated and merely in denial, the fact that few men ever articulated such a desire went unnoticed by me and many of my coworkers. Eventually, we realized that we were finding what we had already predetermined to find."[20]
The Duluth Model is featured in the documentary Power and Control: Domestic Violence in America with commentary from its authors as well as its main critics, such as Dutton.[21]
Erin Pizzey the founder of Chiswick Womens' Aid, the first ever refuge in the world for victims of domestic violence notes in an interview in The Red Pill that men and women are equally capable of domestic violence, though over time domestic abuse shelters have shifted to be almost exclusively for battered women. [22]
Their [feminists] ideology also asserts that men were impervious to any therapeutic intervention, courtesy of their deeply ingrained patriarchal privilege.
According to this new model they precluded anything but criminal treatment for men’s alleged violence toward women and children. Laws were passed that specifically forbade any couples intervention for men accused.[23]
See also[edit]
Abusive power and control
Relationship counseling
Relationship education
Violence Against Women Act
Outline of domestic violence
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Linda G. Mills (2009). Violent Partners: A Breakthrough Plan for Ending the Cycle of Abuse. Basic Books. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-7867-3187-9.
^ Jump up to: a b Wayne Bennett; Kären Hess (2006). Criminal Investigation (8th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 281. ISBN 0-495-09340-8.
Jump up ^ Ellen Pence; Michael Paymar (1993). Education Groups for Men Who Batter: The Duluth Model. Springer Publishing Company. p. xiii. ISBN 978-0-8261-7990-6.
Jump up ^ Domestic Abuse Intervention Project: History Archived 28 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ http://www.theduluthmodel.org/pdf/PowerandControl.pdf
Jump up ^ Janice Haaken (2010). Hard Knocks: Domestic Violence and the Psychology of Storytelling. Routledge. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-135-15734-0.
Jump up ^ "The Duluth Model". Minnesota Program Development, Inc. Archived from the original on 28 August 2008.
Jump up ^ http://www.theduluthmodel.org/pdf/CounteringConfusion.pdf
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Twohey, Megan (2 January 2009). "How Can Domestic Violence Be Stopped?". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 28 January 2009.
Jump up ^ https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/195079.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.biscmi.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Gondolf-Reply-to-Dutton-on-Duluth-Model-1.pdf
Jump up ^ http://ncfm.org/libraryfiles/Children/DV/Evaluating%20Batterer%20Programs--CDC%20summary-fin.pdf
Jump up ^ http://fisafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/BIPsEffectiveness.pdf
Jump up ^ "Batterers' intervention recidivism rates lowest known to date". Mountain Democrat (Placerville, CA). 30 April 2014. Retrieved 21 September 2017.
Jump up ^ http://scholarship.law.umt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2027&context=mlr
^ Jump up to: a b Fisher, Andy, Rick Goodwin and Mark Patton. 2009. “Men & Healing: Theory, Research, and Practice in Working with Male Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse.”[permanent dead link] The Men's Project, Funded by the Cornwall Public Inquiry
Jump up ^ Patriarchy and Wife Assault: The Ecological Fallacy, Violence & Victims 1994,9, (2), 125 - 140. (1994)
Jump up ^ Cook, Philip W. (2009). Abused Men: The Hidden Side of Domestic Violence. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 36–39. ISBN 9780313356186. Retrieved 11 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Michael Paymar and Graham Barnes, "Countering Confusion About the Duluth Model Archived 19 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine.", Battered Women’s Justice Project, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Jump up ^ Pence, Ellen (1999). "Some Thoughts on Philosophy". In Shepherd, Melanie; Pence, Ellen. Coordinating Community Responses to Domestic Violence: Lessons from Duluth and Beyond. Thousand Oaks, CA.: Sage. pp. 29–30.
Jump up ^ "Power and Control Film". Power and Control: Domestic Violence in America. Retrieved 31 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Cassie Jaye (7 October 2016). The Red Pill (film)|format= requires |url= (help). Gravitas Ventures.
Jump up ^ Pizzy, Erin (3 March 2015). "Duluth Model buries key facts on domestic violence". Honest Ribbon. Retrieved 17 April 2018.
Further reading[edit]
Ellen Pence; Michael Paymar (1993). Education Groups for Men Who Batter: The Duluth Model. Springer Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8261-7990-6.
Donald G Dutton (2006). Rethinking Domestic Violence. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-5987-5. ; review by Walter S. DeKeseredy in Canadian Journal of Sociology Online November – December 2007
Muslim Wheel of Domestic Violence a variation of the Duluth Power and Control Wheel
External links[edit]
http://www.theduluthmodel.org/
"Power and Control: Domestic Violence in America" a documentary film and web site focusing on the Duluth Model. Founders Ellen Pence and Michael Paymar are interviewed in the film, with excerpts and transcripts on the web
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Duluth_model&oldid=838423166"
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