text:
Gold reserve
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For private and state holdings in gold, see Gold holdings.
World Gold Reserves from 1845 to 2013, in tonnes (also known as metric tons in the United States)
Official U.S. gold reserve since 1900
Changes in Central Bank Gold Reserves by Country 1993-2014
Changes in Central Bank Gold Reserves by Country versus time for the last 10 years
Gold reserves per capita
A gold reserve was the gold held by a national central bank, intended mainly as a guarantee to redeem promises to pay depositors, note holders (e.g. paper money), or trading peers, during the eras of the gold standard, and also as a store of value, or to support the value of the national currency.
The World Gold Council estimates that all the gold ever mined totaled 187,200 tonnes in 2017[1] but other independent estimates vary by as much as 20%.[2] At a price of US$1,250 per troy ounce, reached on 16 August 2017, one tonne of gold has a value of approximately US$40.2 million. The total value of all gold ever mined would exceed US$7.5 trillion at that valuation and using WGC 2017 estimates.[note 1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Wartime relevance
2 IMF holdings
3 Officially reported holdings
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
Wartime relevance[edit]
During most of history, a nation's gold reserves were considered its key financial asset and a major prize of war.
A typical view was expressed in a secret memorandum by the British Chief of the Imperial General Staff from October 1939, at the beginning of World War II. The British Military and the British Secret Service laid out "measures to be taken in the event of an invasion of Holland and Belgium by Germany" and presented them to the War Cabinet:
It will be for the Treasury in collaboration with the Bank of England, and the Foreign Office, to examine the possible means of getting the bullion and negotiable securities into the same place of safety. The transport of many hundreds of tons of bullion presents a difficult problem and the loading would take a long time. The ideal would of course be to have the gold transferred to this country or to the United States of America. [...] The gold reserves of Belgium and Holland amount to about £70 million and £110 million respectively. [Foot]Note: H. M. Treasury has particularly requested that this information, which is highly confidential should in no circumstances be divulged. The total weight of this bullion amounts to about 1800 tons and its evacuation would be a matter of the utmost importance would present a considerable problem if it had to be undertaken in a hurry when transport facilities were disorganized. At present this gold is believed to be stored at Brussels and The Hague respectively, neither of which is very well placed for its rapid evacuation in an emergency.[3]
The Belgian government rushed to ship the gold to a safe place: Dakar, the capital of Senegal, then part of the French colonial empire. After the Germans occupied Belgium and France in 1940, they demanded the Belgian gold reserve back. In 1941, Vichy French officials arranged the transport of 4,944 boxes with 198 tons of gold to officials of the German Reichsbank.[4]
IMF holdings[edit]
Since early 2011, the gold holdings of the IMF have been constant at 90.5 million troy ounces (2,814.1 metric tons).[5]
Officially reported holdings[edit]
The IMF regularly maintains statistics of national assets as reported by various countries.[6] This data is used by the World Gold Council to periodically rank and report the gold holdings of countries and official organizations.
On 17 July 2015, China announced that it increased its gold reserves by about 57 percent from 1,054 to 1,658 metric tons, while disclosing its official gold reserves for the first time in six years.[7][8]
The gold listed for each of the countries in the table may not be physically stored in the country listed, as central banks generally have not allowed independent audits of their reserves. Gold leasing by central banks could place into doubt the reported gold holdings in the table below.[9]
Top 20 according to World Gold Council's latest rankings (as of March 2018)[10][11][12][13]
Rank
Country/Organization
Gold holdings
(in tonnes)
Gold's share of
forex reserves
1 United States 8,133.5 75.3%
2 Germany 3,373.6 71.0%
3 International Monetary Fund 2,814.0 N/A
4 Italy 2,451.8 68.3%
5 France 2,436.0 64.6%
6 Russia 1,857.7 17.9%
7 China 1,842.6 2.4%
8 Switzerland 1,040.0 5.5%
9 Japan 765.2 2.6%
10 Netherlands 612.5 67.5%
11 Turkey[14] 582.2 21.9%
12 India 558.1 5.8%
13 European Central Bank 504.8 28.7%
14 Taiwan 423.6 3.9%
15 Portugal 382.5 63.6%
16 Saudi Arabia 322.9 2.8%
17 United Kingdom 310.3 8.6%
18 Kazakhstan 303.0 41.3%
19 Lebanon 286.8 22.2%
20 Spain 281.6 17.3%
See also[edit]
Gold Reserve (company)
Black Friday (1869) -- Also referred to as the Gold Panic of 1869
Federal Reserve Bank of New York
Gold as an investment
Gold repatriation
Gold reserves of Norway
Gold reserves of the United Kingdom
Gold standard
List of countries by gold production
Moscow gold, the reserves of the Bank of Spain sent to the Soviet Union during the Spanish Civil War
Peak gold
Romanian Treasure, the Romanian gold reserves sent (alongside other valuable objects) to Russia for safekeeping during World War I, but never returned
Silver as an investment
Strategic Petroleum Reserve (United States)
United States Bullion Depository, often known as Fort Knox
Vaulted gold
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ One tonne is equal to approximately 32,150.75 troy ounces. Gold, silver, & other precious metals & gems are weighed by the troy ounce: 12 troy ounces = 1 pound (and not 16 to 1 as in most other normal weights), so there would be 24,000 troy ounces to one ton of weight.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "How much gold has been mined?", World Gold Council
Jump up ^ "How much gold is there in the world?" by Ed Prior, BBC News, 1 April 2013
Jump up ^ Memorandum by War Cabinet Secretary E. E. Bridges from October 6, 1939, Secret: Holland and Belgium: Measures to be taken in the event of an invasion by Germany. P. 1 and 4. The National Archives (United Kingdom)
Jump up ^ "Belgian gold in foreign hands". Museum of the National Bank of Belgium. 4 March 2010. Retrieved 19 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "Gold in the IMF". International Monetary Fund. Archived from the original on April 22, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Data Template on International Reserves and Foreign Currency Liquidity -- Reporting Countries".
Jump up ^ "Gold & Foreign Exchange Reserves".
Jump up ^ "Major Factors Affecting Gold Prices Fluctuation". FXdailyReport.Com. 2016-07-22. Retrieved 2016-10-28.
Jump up ^ "- Sprott Global Resource Investments Ltd".
Jump up ^ "Research - World Gold Council".
Jump up ^ "Latest World Official Gold Reserves - World Gold Council".
Jump up ^ "Gold Demand Trends - World Gold Council".
Jump up ^ [ "Top 40 reported official gold holdings (as at March 2018)"
Jump up ^ Gold has been added to Turkey's balance sheet as a result of a policy accepting gold in its reserve requirements from commercial banks.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gold_reserve&oldid=830530127"
Categories:
Gold
Gold standard
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Azərbaycanca
Български
Deutsch
Español
فارسی
Français
한국어
Italiano
Қазақша
Lietuvių
Bahasa Melayu
Монгол
Nederlands
日本語
Português
Русский
Саха тыла
Svenska
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
ไทย
Українська
اردو
Tiếng Việt
中文
17 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 15 March 2018, at 12:17.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

value: mw-page-base noprint

value: mw-head-base noprint

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attr: role class

value:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

attr: href class title

tag: b

attr: class style

value:
/wiki/Paper_money
mw-redirect
Paper money

value:
/wiki/British_Military
mw-redirect
British Military

value:
/wiki/British_Secret_Service
mw-redirect
British Secret Service

value:
/wiki/Foreign_Office
mw-redirect
Foreign Office

value:
/wiki/Vichy_French
mw-redirect
Vichy French

value: Edit section: Officially reported holdings

attr: style data-sort-type class tabindex role title

value:
text-align:left
number
headerSort
0
columnheader button
Sort ascending

value:
text-align:left
headerSort
0
columnheader button
Sort ascending

value:
text-align:right
number
headerSort
0
columnheader button
Sort ascending

value:
/wiki/Forex_reserves
mw-redirect
Forex reserves

attr: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

value:
/wiki/Gold_reserves_of_Norway
mw-redirect
Gold reserves of Norway

value:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.gold.org/research

value: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

value:
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
interface

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value:
/wiki/Gold_reserve
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

value: Find background information on current events

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

value:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

value: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

value: Permanent link to this revision of the page

value: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

value: احتياطي الذهب – Arabic

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

value: Златен резерв – Bulgarian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

value: ذخیره طلا – Persian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

value: Алтын резерві – Kazakh

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

value: Алтан сан – Mongolian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mn
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

value: Золотой резерв – Russian

value: Көмүс резерв – Sakha

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sah
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

value: தங்க ஒதுக்கீடு – Tamil

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tt
display: none;

value: ทองคำสำรอง – Thai

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

value: Золотий резерв – Ukrainian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

value: محفوظ طلا – Urdu

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

value: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Gold_reserve rootpage-Gold_reserve skin-vector action-view


text:
Crepuscular
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the atmospheric optical effect, see crepuscular rays.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Look up crepuscular in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
An adult firefly (Photuris lucicrescens) or "lightning bug" – a crepuscular beetle
Crepuscular animals are those that are active primarily during twilight (that is, the periods of dawn and dusk).[1] This is distinguished from diurnal and nocturnal behavior, where an animal is active during the hours of daylight or the hours of darkness, respectively. The term is not precise, however, as some crepuscular animals may also be active on a moonlit night or during an overcast day. The term matutinal is used for animals that are active only before sunrise, and vespertine for those active only after sunset.
The time of day an animal is active depends on a number of factors. Predators need to link their activities to times of day at which their prey is available, and prey try to avoid the times when their principal predators are at large. The temperature at midday may be too high or at night too low.[2] Some creatures may adjust their activities depending on local competition. Therefore, for many varied reasons, crepuscular activity may best meet an animal's requirements by compromise.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology and usage
2 Adaptive relevance
3 Occurrence of crepuscular behaviour
4 See also
5 References
Etymology and usage[edit]
The word crepuscular derives from the Latin crepusculum ("twilight").[3] Its sense accordingly differs from diurnal and nocturnal behavior, which respectively peak during hours of daylight and darkness. The distinction is not absolute however, because crepuscular animals may also be active on a bright moonlit night or on a dull day. Some animals casually described as nocturnal are in fact crepuscular.[2]
Special classes of crepuscular behaviour include matutinal (or "matinal") and vespertine, denoting species active only in the dawn or only in the dusk, respectively. Those that are active during both morning and evening twilight are said to have a bimodal activity pattern.
Adaptive relevance[edit]
Fireflies at twilight, long exposure
The various patterns of activity are thought to be mainly antipredator adaptations, though some could equally well be predatory adaptations. Many predators forage most intensively at night, whereas others are active at midday and see best in full sun. Thus, the crepuscular habit may both reduce predation pressure, thereby increasing the crepuscular populations, and in consequence offer better foraging opportunities to predators that increasingly focus their attention on crepuscular prey until a new balance is struck. Such shifting states of balance are often found in ecology.
Some predatory species adjust their habits in response to competition from other predators. For example, the subspecies of short-eared owl that lives on the Galápagos Islands is normally active during the day, but on islands like Santa Cruz that are home to the Galapagos hawk, the owl is crepuscular.[4][5]
Apart from the relevance to predation, crepuscular activity in hot regions also may be the most effective way of avoiding heat stress while capitalizing on available light.
Occurrence of crepuscular behaviour[edit]
Ocelots are active at night, especially during dawn and dusk.
Many familiar mammal species are crepuscular, including some bats,[2] hamsters, housecats, stray dogs[6], rabbits,[2] ferrets[7], guinea pigs and rats[8]. Other crepuscular mammals include jaguars, ocelots, bobcats, strepsirrhines, red pandas, bears,[9] deer,[2][10] moose, sitatunga, capybaras, chinchillas, the common mouse, skunks, Australian wombats, wallabies, quolls, possums[2] and marsupial gliders, tenrecidae, spotted hyenas, and African wild dogs.
Snakes and lizards, especially those in desert environments, may be crepuscular.[2]
Crepuscular birds include the common nighthawk, barn owl,[11] owlet-nightjar, chimney swift, American woodcock, spotted crake, and white-breasted waterhen.[12]
Many moths, beetles, flies, and other insects are crepuscular and vespertine.
See also[edit]
Cathemeral
Crypsis
Diurnality
Nocturnality
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Glossary". North American Mammals. Smithsonian – National Museum of Natural History. Retrieved July 16, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "Crepuscular". Macmillan Science Library: Animal Sciences. Macmillan Reference USA. 2001–2006. Retrieved 2011-07-11.
Jump up ^ Winn, Philip (2001). Dictionary of Biological Psychology. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-13606-7.
Jump up ^ Frederick, Prince (2006-04-15). "Night herons in the day!". Metro Plus Chennai. The Hindu. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
Jump up ^ Merck, John. "The community of terrestrial animals". Field Studies II: The Natural History of the Galápagos Islands. University of Maryland Department of Geology. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
Jump up ^ The Ecology of Stray Dogs: A Study of Free-Ranging Urban Animals – Alan M. Beck – Google Books. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2012-04-13.
Jump up ^ Williams, David L. (2012). Ophthalmology of Exotic Pets. John Wiley & Sons. p. 73. Retrieved 2017-06-23.
Jump up ^ Williams, David L. (2012). Ophthalmology of Exotic Pets. John Wiley & Sons. p. 88. Retrieved 2017-06-23.
Jump up ^ Schaul, Jordan Carlton (April 6, 2011). "The Kodiak Cubs Meet Their Neighbors, The American Black Bears". National Geographic Voices. National Geographic Society. Retrieved July 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "White-Tailed Deer". Animals. National Geographic Partners, LLC. Retrieved July 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ Audubon, John J. (1827–1838). "Plate 171: Barn Owl". Birds of America.
Jump up ^ Boyes, Steve (October 7, 2012). "Top 25 Wild Bird Photographs of the Week #23". National Geographic Voices. National Geographic Society. Retrieved July 15, 2017.
[hide]
v
t
e
Biological rhythms
Internal rhythms
Circadian rhythm
Infradian rhythm
Ultradian rhythm
Lunar rhythm
Annual rhythm
External cycles
Diurnality
Diurnal cycle
Nocturnality
Cathemeral
Crepuscular
Matutinal
Vespertine
Seasonality
Photoperiodism
Vernalization
Fields
Behavioural ecology
Chronobiology
Ethology
See also
Chronotype
Diel vertical migration
Light pollution
Solunar theory
Parts of the day
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crepuscular&oldid=807371425"
Categories:
Ethology
Night
Hidden categories:
Articles needing additional references from November 2016
All articles needing additional references
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
বাংলা
Català
Deutsch
Esperanto
فارسی
한국어
Bahasa Indonesia
Íslenska
עברית
മലയാളം
Bahasa Melayu
Nederlands
日本語
Português
اردو
Edit links
This page was last edited on 27 October 2017, at 14:50.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

tag: div

attr: id class

value: mw-page-base noprint

key: html

type: local

value: mw-head-base noprint

tag: a

attr: id class lang

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attr: href title

value:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

tag: img

attr: href class

tag: td

attr: class href

value: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

tag: span

tag: i

tag: small

value: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove

attr: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

value: Bimodal activity pattern (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Antipredator_adaptation
mw-redirect
Antipredator adaptation

value: Edit section: Occurrence of crepuscular behaviour

value:
/wiki/John_J._Audubon
mw-redirect
John J. Audubon

value:
/wiki/Biological_rhythms
mw-redirect
Biological rhythms

value:
/wiki/Lunar_rhythms
mw-redirect
Lunar rhythms

value:
navbox-image
4
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

value:
/wiki/Behavioural_ecology
mw-redirect
Behavioural ecology

value: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value: Category:Articles needing additional references from November 2016

value: Category:All articles needing additional references

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value:
/wiki/Crepuscular
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

value:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

value: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

value: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

value:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

value:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

value:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Find background information on current events

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

value:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

value: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

value: Permanent link to this revision of the page

value: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

value: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

value:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

value: ক্রেপাসকুলার – Bangla

value: پگاه‌رو – Persian

value: 박명박모성 – Korean

value: פעיל דמדומים – Hebrew

value: ക്രിപസ്ക്യൂലെർ – Malayalam

value:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krepuskul
Krepuskul – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

value: اڑنے والا پتنگا – Urdu

value: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

value: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

value:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Crepuscular rootpage-Crepuscular skin-vector action-view


text:
Computer program
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the TV program, see The Computer Programme.
C-language "Hello, World" source code. This first known "Hello, world" snippet from the seminal book The C Programming Language originates from Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie in 1974.
A computer program is a collection of instructions[1] that performs a specific task when executed by a computer. A computer requires programs to function.
A computer program is usually written by a computer programmer in a programming language. From the program in its human-readable form of source code, a compiler can derive machine code—a form consisting of instructions that the computer can directly execute. Alternatively, a computer program may be executed with the aid of an interpreter.
A part of a computer program that performs a well-defined task is known as an algorithm. A collection of computer programs, libraries, and related data are referred to as software. Computer programs may be categorized along functional lines, such as application software and system software.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Early programmable machines
1.2 Analytical Engine
1.3 Universal Turing machine
1.4 Early programmable computers
1.5 Later computers
2 Computer programming
2.1 Programming languages
2.1.1 Imperative languages
2.1.2 Declarative languages
2.2 Compilation and interpretation
3 Storage and execution
3.1 Simultaneous execution
3.2 Self-modifying programs
4 Functional categories
4.1 Application software
4.2 Utility programs
4.3 Operating system
4.4 Boot program
4.5 Embedded programs
4.6 Microcode programs
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
History[edit]
See also: History of computing, History of programming languages, and History of software
Early programmable machines[edit]
The earliest programmable machines preceded the invention of the digital computer. In 1801, Joseph-Marie Jacquard devised a loom that would weave a pattern by following a series of perforated cards. Patterns could be woven and repeated by arranging the cards.[2]
Analytical Engine[edit]
Lovelace's diagram from Note G, the first published computer algorithm
In 1837, Charles Babbage was inspired by Jacquard's loom to attempt to build the Analytical Engine.[2] The names of the components of the calculating device were borrowed from the textile industry. In the textile industry, yarn was brought from the store to be milled. The device would have had a "store"—memory to hold 1,000 numbers of 40 decimal digits each. Numbers from the "store" would then have then been transferred to the "mill" (analogous to the CPU of a modern machine), for processing. It was programmed using two sets of perforated cards—one to direct the operation and the other for the input variables.[2] [3] However, after more than 17,000 pounds of the British government's money, the thousands of cogged wheels and gears never fully worked together.[4]
During a nine-month period in 1842–43, Ada Lovelace translated the memoir of Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea. The memoir covered the Analytical Engine. The translation contained Note G which completely detailed a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers using the Analytical Engine. This note is recognized by some historians as the world's first written computer program.[5]
Universal Turing machine[edit]
In 1936, Alan Turing introduced the Universal Turing machine—a theoretical device that can model every computation that can be performed on a Turing complete computing machine.[6] It is a finite-state machine that has an infinitely long read/write tape. The machine can move the tape back and forth, changing its contents as it performs an algorithm. The machine starts in the initial state, goes through a sequence of steps, and halts when it encounters the halt state.[7] This machine is considered by some to be the origin of the stored-program computer—used by John von Neumann (1946) for the "Electronic Computing Instrument" that now bears the von Neumann architecture name.[8]
Early programmable computers[edit]
The Z3 computer, invented by Konrad Zuse (1941) in Germany, was a digital and programmable computer.[9] A digital computer uses electricity as the calculating component. The Z3 contained 2,400 relays to create the circuits. The circuits provided a binary, floating-point, nine-instruction computer. Programming the Z3 was through a specially designed keyboard and punched tape.
The Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (Fall 1945) was a Turing complete, general-purpose computer that used 17,468 vacuum tubes to create the circuits. At its core, it was a series of Pascalines wired together.[10] Its 40 units weighed 30 tons, occupied 1,800 square feet (167 m2), and consumed $650 per hour (in 1940s currency) in electricity when idle.[10] It had 20 base-10 accumulators. Programming the ENIAC took up to two months.[10] Three function tables were on wheels and needed to be rolled to fixed function panels. Function tables were connected to function panels using heavy black cables. Each function table had 728 rotating knobs. Programming the ENIAC also involved setting some of the 3,000 switches. Debugging a program took a week.[10] The ENIAC featured parallel operations. Different sets of accumulators could simultaneously work on different algorithms. It used punched card machines for input and output, and it was controlled with a clock signal. It ran for eight years, calculating hydrogen bomb parameters, predicting weather patterns, and producing firing tables to aim artillery guns.
The Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (June 1948) was a stored-program computer.[11] Programming transitioned away from moving cables and setting dials; instead, a computer program was stored in memory as numbers. Only three bits of memory were available to store each instruction, so it was limited to eight instructions. 32 switches were available for programming.
Later computers[edit]
Switches for manual input on a Data General Nova 3, manufactured in the mid-1970s
Computers manufactured until the 1970s had front-panel switches for programming. The computer program was written on paper for reference. An instruction was represented by a configuration of on/off settings. After setting the configuration, an execute button was pressed. This process was then repeated. Computer programs also were manually input via paper tape or punched cards. After the medium was loaded, the starting address was set via switches and the execute button pressed.[12]
In 1961, the Burroughs B5000 was built specifically to be programmed in the ALGOL 60 language. The hardware featured circuits to ease the compile phase.[13]
In 1964, the IBM System/360 was a line of six computers each having the same instruction set architecture. The Model 30 was the smallest and least expensive. Customers could upgrade and retain the same application software.[14] Each System/360 model featured multiprogramming. With operating system support, multiple programs could be in memory at once. When one was waiting for input/output, another could compute. Each model also could emulate other computers. Customers could upgrade to the System/360 and retain their IBM 7094 or IBM 1401 application software.[14]
Computer programming[edit]
Main article: Computer programming
Computer programming is the process of writing or editing source code. Editing source code involves testing, analyzing, refining, and sometimes coordinating with other programmers on a jointly developed program. A person who practices this skill is referred to as a computer programmer, software developer, and sometimes coder.
The sometimes lengthy process of computer programming is usually referred to as software development. The term software engineering is becoming popular as the process is seen as an engineering discipline.
Programming languages[edit]
Main article: Programming language
A computer program written in the imperative programming style
Computer programs can be categorized by the programming language paradigm used to produce them. Two of the main paradigms are imperative and declarative.
Imperative languages[edit]
Imperative programming languages specify a sequential algorithm using declarations, expressions, and statements:[15]
A declaration couples a variable name to a datatype – for example: var x: integer;
An expression yields a value – for example: 2 + 2 yields 4
A statement might assign an expression to a variable or use the value of a variable to alter the program's control flow – for example: x := 2 + 2; if x = 4 then do_something();
One criticism of imperative languages is the side effect of an assignment statement on a class of variables called non-local variables.[16]
Declarative languages[edit]
Declarative programming languages describe what computation should be performed and not how to compute it. Declarative programs omit the control flow and are considered sets of instructions. Two broad categories of declarative languages are functional languages and logical languages. The principle behind functional languages (like Haskell) is to not allow side effects, which makes it easier to reason about programs like mathematical functions.[16] The principle behind logical languages (like Prolog) is to define the problem to be solved – the goal – and leave the detailed solution to the Prolog system itself.[17] The goal is defined by providing a list of subgoals. Then each subgoal is defined by further providing a list of its subgoals, etc. If a path of subgoals fails to find a solution, then that subgoal is backtracked and another path is systematically attempted.
Compilation and interpretation[edit]
A computer program in the form of a human-readable, computer programming language is called source code. Source code may be converted into an executable image by a compiler or executed immediately with the aid of an interpreter.
Compilers are used to translate source code from a programming language into either object code or machine code.[18] Object code needs further processing to become machine code, and machine code consists of the central processing unit's native instructions, ready for execution. Compiled computer programs are commonly referred to as executables, binary images, or simply as binaries – a reference to the binary file format used to store the executable code.
Interpreters are used to execute source code from a programming language line-by-line. The interpreter decodes each statement and performs its behavior. One advantage of interpreters is that they can easily be extended to an interactive session. The programmer is presented with a prompt, and individual lines of code are typed in and performed immediately.
The main disadvantage of interpreters is computer programs run slower than when compiled. Interpreting code is slower because the interpreter must decode each statement and then perform it. However, software development may be faster using an interpreter because testing is immediate when the compiling step is omitted. Another disadvantage of interpreters is an interpreter must be present on the executing computer. By contrast, compiled computer programs need no compiler present during execution.
Just in time compilers pre-compile computer programs just before execution. For example, the Java virtual machine Hotspot contains a Just In Time Compiler which selectively compiles Java bytecode into machine code - but only code which Hotspot predicts is likely to be used many times.
Either compiled or interpreted programs might be executed in a batch process without human interaction.
Scripting languages are often used to create batch processes. One common scripting language is Unix shell, and its executing environment is called the command-line interface.
No properties of a programming language require it to be exclusively compiled or exclusively interpreted. The categorization usually reflects the most popular method of language execution. For example, Java is thought of as an interpreted language and C a compiled language, despite the existence of Java compilers and C interpreters.
Storage and execution[edit]
In the 1950s, computer programs were stored on perforated paper tape
Typically, computer programs are stored in non-volatile memory until requested either directly or indirectly to be executed by the computer user. Upon such a request, the program is loaded into random-access memory, by a computer program called an operating system, where it can be accessed directly by the central processor. The central processor then executes ("runs") the program, instruction by instruction, until termination. A program in execution is called a process.[19] Termination is either by normal self-termination or by error – software or hardware error.
Simultaneous execution[edit]
See also: Process (computing) and Multiprocessing
Many operating systems support multitasking which enables many computer programs to appear to run simultaneously on one computer. Operating systems may run multiple programs through process scheduling – a software mechanism to switch the CPU among processes often so users can interact with each program while it runs.[20] Within hardware, modern day multiprocessor computers or computers with multicore processors may run multiple programs.[21]
Multiple lines of the same computer program may be simultaneously executed using threads. Multithreading processors are optimized to execute multiple threads efficiently.
Self-modifying programs[edit]
Main article: Self-modifying code
A computer program in execution is normally treated as being different from the data the program operates on. However, in some cases, this distinction is blurred when a computer program modifies itself. The modified computer program is subsequently executed as part of the same program. Self-modifying code is possible for programs written in machine code, assembly language, Lisp, C, COBOL, PL/1, and Prolog.
Functional categories[edit]
Computer programs may be categorized along functional lines. The main functional categories are application software and system software. System software includes the operating system which couples computer hardware with application software.[22] The purpose of the operating system is to provide an environment in which application software executes in a convenient and efficient manner.[22] In addition to the operating system, system software includes embedded programs, boot programs, and micro programs. Application software designed for end users have a user interface. Application software not designed for the end user includes middleware, which couples one application with another. Application software also includes utility programs. The distinction between system software and application software is under debate.
Application software[edit]
Main article: Application software
Example of an app: GCalctool, a software calculator
There are many types of application software:
The word app came to being in 21st century. It is a clipping of the word "application". They have been designed for many platforms, but the word was first used for smaller mobile apps. Desktop apps are traditional computer programs that run on desktop computers. Mobile apps run on mobile devices. Web apps run inside a web browser. Both mobile and desktop apps may be downloaded from the developers' website or purchased from app stores such as Windows Store, Apple App Store, Mac App Store, Google Play or Intel AppUp.
An application suite consists of multiple applications bundled together. Examples include Microsoft Office, LibreOffice, and iWork. They bundle a word processor, spreadsheet, and other applications.
Enterprise applications bundle accounting, personnel, customer, and vendor applications. Examples include enterprise resource planning, customer relationship management, and supply chain management software.
Enterprise infrastructure software supports the enterprise's software systems. Examples include databases, email servers, and network servers.
Information worker software are designed for workers at the departmental level. Examples include time management, resource management, analytical, collaborative and documentation tools. Word processors, spreadsheets, email and blog clients, personal information system, and individual media editors may aid in multiple information worker tasks.
Media development software generates print and electronic media for others to consume, most often in a commercial or educational setting. These produce graphics, publications, animations, and videos.
Product engineering software is used to help develop large machines and other application software. Examples includes computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided engineering (CAE), and integrated development environments.
Entertainment Software can refer to video games, movie recorders and players, and music recorders and players.
Utility programs[edit]
Utility programs are application programs designed to aid system administrators and computer programmers.
Operating system[edit]
See also: Operating system
An operating system is a computer program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and the computer hardware. [22]
In the 1950s, the programmer, who was also the operator, would write a program and run it.[12] After the program finished executing, the output may have been printed, or it may have been punched onto paper tape or cards for later processing.[12] More often than not the program did not work. [23] The programmer then looked at the console lights and fiddled with the console switches. If less fortunate, a memory printout was made for further study.[23] In the 1960s, programmers reduced the amount of wasted time by automating the operator's job.[23] A program called an operating system was kept in the computer at all times.[23]
Originally, operating systems were programmed in assembly; however, modern operating systems are typically written in C.
Boot program[edit]
A stored-program computer requires an initial computer program stored in its read-only memory to boot. The boot process is to identify and initialize all aspects of the system, from processor registers to device controllers to memory contents.[24] Following the initialization process, this initial computer program loads the operating system and sets the program counter to begin normal operations.
Embedded programs[edit]
The microcontroller on the right of this USB flash drive is controlled with embedded firmware.
Independent of the host computer, a hardware device might have embedded firmware to control its operation. Firmware is used when the computer program is rarely or never expected to change, or when the program must not be lost when the power is off.[23]
Microcode programs[edit]
Main article: Microcode
Microcode programs control some central processing units and some other hardware. This code moves data between the registers, buses, arithmetic logic units, and other functional units in the CPU. Unlike conventional programs, microcode is not usually written by, or even visible to, the end users of systems, and is usually provided by the manufacturer, and is considered internal to the device.
See also[edit]
Automatic programming
Killer application
Software bug
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Rochkind, Marc J. (2004). Advanced Unix Programming, Second Edition. Addison-Wesley. p. 1.1.2.
^ Jump up to: a b c McCartney, Scott (1999). ENIAC – The Triumphs and Tragedies of the World's First Computer. Walker and Company. p. 16. ISBN 0-8027-1348-3.
Jump up ^ Bromley, Allan G. (1998). "Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine, 1838" (PDF). IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 20 (4).
Jump up ^ Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (1990). Structured Computer Organization, Third Edition. Prentice Hall. p. 15. ISBN 0-13-854662-2.
Jump up ^ J. Fuegi; J. Francis (October–December 2003), "Lovelace & Babbage and the creation of the 1843 'notes'", Annals of the History of Computing, 25 (4): 16, 19, 25, doi:10.1109/MAHC.2003.1253887
Jump up ^ Rosen, Kenneth H. (1991). Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications. McGraw-Hill, Inc. p. 654. ISBN 0-07-053744-5.
Jump up ^ Linz, Peter (1990). An Introduction to Formal Languages and Automata. D. C. Heath and Company. p. 234. ISBN 0-669-17342-8.
Jump up ^ Davis, Martin (2000), Engines of Logic: Mathematicians and the origin of the Computer (1st ed.), New York NY: W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 0-393-32229-7, (pb.)
Jump up ^ "History of Computing".
^ Jump up to: a b c d McCartney, Scott (1999). ENIAC – The Triumphs and Tragedies of the World's First Computer. Walker and Company. p. 102. ISBN 0-8027-1348-3.
Jump up ^ Enticknap, Nicholas (Summer 1998), "Computing's Golden Jubilee", Resurrection, The Computer Conservation Society (20), ISSN 0958-7403, retrieved 19 April 2008
^ Jump up to: a b c Silberschatz, Abraham (1994). Operating System Concepts, Fourth Edition. Addison-Wesley. p. 6. ISBN 0-201-50480-4.
Jump up ^ Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (1990). Structured Computer Organization, Third Edition. Prentice Hall. p. 20. ISBN 0-13-854662-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (1990). Structured Computer Organization, Third Edition. Prentice Hall. p. 21. ISBN 0-13-854662-2.
Jump up ^ Wilson, Leslie B. (1993). Comparative Programming Languages, Second Edition. Addison-Wesley. p. 75. ISBN 0-201-56885-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wilson, Leslie B. (1993). Comparative Programming Languages, Second Edition. Addison-Wesley. p. 213. ISBN 0-201-56885-3.
Jump up ^ Wilson, Leslie B. (1993). Comparative Programming Languages, Second Edition. Addison-Wesley. p. 244. ISBN 0-201-56885-3.
Jump up ^ "What is a Compiler?". Retrieved 2012-01-10.
Jump up ^ Silberschatz, Abraham (1994). Operating System Concepts, Fourth Edition. Addison-Wesley. p. 97. ISBN 0-201-50480-4.
Jump up ^ Silberschatz, Abraham (1994). Operating System Concepts, Fourth Edition. Addison-Wesley. p. 100. ISBN 0-201-50480-4.
Jump up ^ Akhter, Shameem (2006). Multi-Core Programming. Richard Bowles (Intel Press). pp. 11–13. ISBN 0-9764832-4-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c Silberschatz, Abraham (1994). Operating System Concepts, Fourth Edition. Addison-Wesley. p. 1. ISBN 0-201-50480-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (1990). Structured Computer Organization, Third Edition. Prentice Hall. p. 11. ISBN 0-13-854662-2.
Jump up ^ Silberschatz, Abraham (1994). Operating System Concepts, Fourth Edition. Addison-Wesley. p. 30. ISBN 0-201-50480-4.
Further reading[edit]
Knuth, Donald E. (1997). The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 1, 3rd Edition. Boston: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-89683-4.
Knuth, Donald E. (1997). The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 2, 3rd Edition. Boston: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-89684-2.
Knuth, Donald E. (1997). The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 3, 3rd Edition. Boston: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-89685-0.
Authority control
LCCN: sh85029524
GND: 4047394-6
BNE: XX526558
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_program&oldid=821491986"
Categories:
Computer programming
Software
Mathematical and quantitative methods (economics)
Hidden categories:
Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Articles with example Java code
Articles with example C code
Articles with example C Sharp code
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Afrikaans
العربية
অসমীয়া
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bân-lâm-gú
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
Български
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Català
Čeština
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gàidhlig
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Ido
Bahasa Indonesia
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
La .lojban.
Magyar
Македонски
Malagasy
മലയാളം
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
Mirandés
Монгол
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
नेपाली
日本語
Norsk
Олык марий
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
پنجابی
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русиньскый
Русский
Scots
Shqip
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Taqbaylit
తెలుగు
ไทย
Тоҷикӣ
Türkçe
ᨅᨔ ᨕᨘᨁᨗ
Українська
اردو
Tiếng Việt
Võro
Walon
Wolof
ייִדיש
粵語
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 20 January 2018, at 20:38.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

value: mw-page-base noprint

value: mw-head-base noprint

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value:
/wiki/The_C_Programming_Language_(book)
mw-redirect
The C Programming Language (book)

value:
/wiki/Instruction_set
mw-redirect
Instruction set

value:
/wiki/Computer_programmer
mw-redirect
Computer programmer

value: Edit section: Early programmable machines

value:
/wiki/Joseph-Marie_Jacquard
mw-redirect
Joseph-Marie Jacquard

value:
/wiki/Luigi_Menabrea
mw-redirect
Luigi Menabrea

value:
/wiki/Turing_complete
mw-redirect
Turing complete

value: Edit section: Early programmable computers

value:
/wiki/Punched_cards
mw-redirect
Punched cards

value:
/wiki/Declarative_language
mw-redirect
Declarative language

value:
/wiki/Variable_(programming)
mw-redirect
Variable (programming)

value:
/wiki/Functional_language
mw-redirect
Functional language

value:
/wiki/Logical_language
mw-redirect
Logical language

value: Edit section: Compilation and interpretation

value:
/wiki/Executable_file
mw-redirect
Executable file

value:
/wiki/Binary_numeral_system
mw-redirect
Binary numeral system

value:
/wiki/Process_scheduling
mw-redirect
Process scheduling

value:
/wiki/Utility_software
mw-redirect
Utility software

value:
/wiki/Windows_Store
mw-redirect
Windows Store

value:
/wiki/Apple_App_Store
mw-redirect
Apple App Store

value:
/wiki/Application_suite
mw-redirect
Application suite

value:
/wiki/Software_systems
mw-redirect
Software systems

value:
/wiki/Information_worker
mw-redirect
Information worker

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1109%2FMAHC.2003.1253887

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0958-7403

value: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

value:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4047394-6

value: Category:Mathematical and quantitative methods (economics)

value: Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers

value: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

value: Category:Articles with example Java code

value: Category:Articles with example C Sharp code

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value:
/wiki/Computer_program
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

value:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

value: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

value: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

value:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

value:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

value:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Find background information on current events

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

value: برنامج (حاسوب) – Arabic

value: কম্পিউটাৰ প্ৰ’গ্ৰাম – Assamese

value: কম্পিউটার প্রোগ্রাম – Bangla

value: Камп’ютарная праграма – Belarusian

value: Праграма – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

value: Компютърна програма – Bulgarian

value:
https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goulev
Goulev – Breton
br
br
interlanguage-link-target

value: Πρόγραμμα υπολογιστή – Greek

value: برنامه (رایانه) – Persian

value: 컴퓨터 프로그램 – Korean

value: Համակարգչային ծրագիր – Armenian

value: कम्प्यूटर प्रोग्राम – Hindi

value:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forrit
Forrit – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

value: תוכנית מחשב – Hebrew

value: კომპიუტერული პროგრამა – Georgian

value: Компьютерлік бағдарлама – Kazakh

value: Компьютердик программа – Kyrgyz

value: ໂປຣແກຣມຄອມພິວເຕີ – Lao

value: Сметачки програм – Macedonian

value: കമ്പ്യൂട്ടർ പ്രോഗ്രാം – Malayalam

value: კომპიუტერული პროგრამა – Mingrelian

value: Компьютерын програм – Mongolian

value: ကွန်ပျူတာ ပရိုဂရမ် – Burmese

value: कम्प्युटर प्रोग्राम – Nepali

value: プログラム (コンピュータ) – Japanese

value: کمپیوٹر پروگرام – Western Punjabi

value:
https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wakichi
Wakichi – Quechua
qu
qu
interlanguage-link-target

value: Компютеровый проґрам – Rusyn

value: Компьютерная программа – Russian

value: Рачунарски програм – Serbian

value: செய்நிரல் – Tamil

value:
https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahil
Ahil – Kabyle
kab
kab
interlanguage-link-target

value: కంప్యూటర్ ప్రోగ్రామ్ – Telugu

value: โปรแกรมคอมพิวเตอร์ – Thai

value: Барномаи компютерӣ – Tajik

value: ᨄᨛᨑᨚᨁᨛᨑᨆ ᨀᨚᨇᨘᨈᨛᨑᨛ – Buginese

value: Комп'ютерна програма – Ukrainian

value: کمپیوٹر پروگرام – Urdu

value: קאמפיוטער פראגראם – Yiddish

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Computer_program rootpage-Computer_program skin-vector action-view