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History of chocolate
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"Traités nouveaux & curieux du café du thé et du chocolate", by Philippe Sylvestre Dufour, 1685.
The history of chocolate begins in Mesoamerica. Fermented beverages made from chocolate date back to 1900 BC.[1] The Aztecs believed that cacao seeds were the gift of Quetzalcoatl, the god of wisdom, and the seeds once had so much value that they were used as a form of currency. Originally prepared only as a drink, chocolate was served as a bitter, from a liquid, mixed with spices or corn puree. It was believed to have aphrodisiac powers and to give the drinker strength. Today, such drinks are also known as "Chilate" and are made by locals in the South of Mexico.
After its arrival to Europe in the sixteenth century, sugar was added to it and it became popular throughout society, first among the ruling classes and then among the common people. In the 20th century, chocolate was considered essential in the rations of United States soldiers at war.[2]
The word "chocolate" comes from the Classical Nahuatl word chocolātl, and entered the English language from the Spanish language.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 History in Europe
2.1 Early history
2.2 Expansion
3 Modern usage
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
An Aztec woman generates foam by pouring chocolate from one vessel to another in the Codex Tudela
Cultivation, consumption, and cultural use of cacao were extensive in Mesoamerica where the cacao tree is native.[4] When pollinated, the seed of the cacao tree eventually forms a kind of sheath, or ear, 20" long, hanging from the tree trunk itself. Within the sheath are 30 to 40 brownish-red almond-shaped beans embedded in a sweet viscous pulp. While the beans themselves are bitter due to the alkaloids within them, the sweet pulp may have been the first element consumed by humans. Evidence suggests that it may have been fermented and served as an alcoholic beverage as early as 1400 BC.[5]
While researchers do not agree which Mesoamerican culture first domesticated the cacao tree, the use of the fermented bean in a drink seems to have arisen in North America (Mexico). Scientists have been able to confirm its presence in vessels around the world by evaluating the "chemical footprint" detectable in the microsamples of contents that remain.[1] Ceramic vessel with residues from the preparation of chocolate beverages have been found at archaeological sites dating back to the Early Formative (1900–900 BC) period. For example, one such vessel found at an Olmec archaeological site on the Gulf Coast of Veracruz, Mexico dates chocolate's preparation by pre-Olmec peoples as early as 1750 BC.[6] On the Pacific coast of Chiapas, Mexico, a Mokayanan archaeological site provides evidence of cacao beverages dating even earlier, to 1900 BC.[6]
Earliest evidence of domestication of the cacao plant dates to the Olmec culture from the Preclassic period.[7] The Olmecs used it for religious rituals or as a medicinal drink, with no recipes for personal use. Little evidence remains of how the beverage was processed.
The Mayan people, by contrast, do leave some surviving writings about cacao which confirm the identification of the drink with the gods. The Dresden Codex specifies that it is the food of the rain deity Kon, the Madrid Codex that gods shed their blood on the cacao pods as part of its production.[8] The consumption of the chocolate drink is also depicted on pre-Hispanic vases. The Mayans seasoned their chocolate by mixing the roasted cacao seed paste into a drink with water, chile peppers and cornmeal, transferring the mixture repeatedly between pots until the top was covered with a thick foam.[2]
By 1400, the Aztec empire took over a sizable part of Mesoamerica. They were not able to grow cacao themselves, but were forced to import it.[2] All of the areas that were conquered by the Aztecs that grew cacao beans were ordered to pay them as a tax, or as the Aztecs called it, a "tribute". The cacao bean became a form of currency. The Spanish conquistadors left records of the value of the cacao bean, noting for instance that 100 beans could purchase a canoe filled with fresh water or a turkey hen.[5][9] The Aztecs associated cacao with the god Quetzacoatl, whom they believed had been condemned by the other gods for sharing chocolate with humans.[2] Unlike the Maya of Yucatán, the Aztecs drank chocolate cold. It was consumed for a variety of purposes, as an aphrodisiac or as a treat for men after banquets, and it was also included in the rations of Aztec soldiers.[10]
Pueblo people, who lived in an area that is now the U.S. Southwest, imported cacao from Mesoamerican cultures in southern Mexico or Central America between 900 and 1400. They used it in a common beverage consumed by everyone in their society.[1]
History in Europe[edit]
See also: History of chocolate in Spain
Early history[edit]
Until the 16th century, the cacao tree was wholly unknown to Europeans.[2]
Christopher Columbus encountered the cacao bean on his fourth mission to the Americas on August 15, 1502, when he and his crew seized a large native canoe that proved to contain among other goods for trade, cacao beans.[11] His son Ferdinand commented that the natives greatly valued the beans, which he termed almonds, "for when they were brought on board ship together with their goods, I observed that when any of these almonds fell, they all stooped to pick it up, as if an eye had fallen."[11] But while Columbus took cacao beans with him back to Spain,[11] it made no impact until Spanish friars introduced chocolate to the Spanish court.[2]
A Lady Pouring Chocolate by Jean-Étienne Liotard (1744)
Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés may have been the first European to encounter chocolate when he observed it in the court of Montezuma in 1519.[12] In 1568, Bernal Diaz, who accompanied Cortés in the conquest of Mexico, wrote of this encounter which he witnessed:
From time to time they served him [Montezuma] in cups of pure gold a certain drink made from cacao. It was said that it gave one power over women, but this I never saw. I did see them bring in more than fifty large pitchers of cacao with froth in it, and he drank some of it, the women serving with great reverence.[13]
Jose de Acosta, a Spanish Jesuit missionary who lived in Peru and then Mexico in the later 16th century, described its use more generally:
Loathsome to such as are not acquainted with it, having a scum or froth that is very unpleasant taste. Yet it is a drink very much esteemed among the Indians, where with they feast noble men who pass through their country. The Spaniards, both men and women that are accustomed to the country are very greedy of this Chocolate. They say they make diverse sorts of it, some hot, some cold, and some temperate, and put therein much of that "chili"; yea, they make paste thereof, the which they say is good for the stomach and against the catarrh.
After the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs, chocolate was imported to Europe. There, it quickly became a court favorite. It was still served as a beverage, but the Spanish added sugar or honey to counteract the natural bitterness.[5] The Spaniards initially intended to recreate the original taste of the Mesoamerican chocolate by adding similar spices, but this habit had faded away by the end of the eighteenth century.[14] Within about a hundred years, chocolate established a foothold throughout Europe.[2]
How the word "chocolate" came into Spanish is not certain. The authority on the Spanish language, the Royal Spanish Academy, derives it from the Nahuatl word "xocolatl" (pronounced [ ʃoˈkolaːtɬ]) made up from the words "xococ" meaning sour or bitter, and "atl" meaning water or drink.[15] However, as William Bright noted[16] the word "chocolatl" doesn't occur in central Mexican colonial sources making this an unlikely derivation. Santamaria[17] gives a derivation from the Yucatec Maya word "chokol" meaning hot, and the Nahuatl "atl" meaning water. More recently Dakin and Wichman derive it from another Nahuatl term, "chicolatl" from Eastern Nahuatl meaning "beaten drink".[18] They derive this term from the word for the frothing stick, "chicoli". The word xocoatl means beverage of maize.[19] The words "cacaua atl" mean drink of cacao.[19] The word "xocolatl" does not appear in Molina's dictionary.[19]
Expansion[edit]
An early 20th century chocolate advert
The new craze for chocolate brought with it a thriving slave market, as between the early 17th and late 19th centuries the laborious and slow processing of the cacao bean was manual.[2] Cacao plantations spread, as the English, Dutch, and French colonized and planted. With the depletion of Mesoamerican workers, largely to disease, cacao production was often the work of poor wage laborers and African slaves. Wind-powered and horse-drawn mills were used to speed production, augmenting human labor. Heating the working areas of the table-mill, an innovation that emerged in France in 1732, also assisted in extraction.[20] The Chocolaterie Lombart, created in 1760, claimed to be the first chocolate company in France, ten years before Pelletier et Pelletier.[21]
New processes that speed the production of chocolate emerged early in the Industrial Revolution. In 1815, Dutch chemist Coenraad van Houten introduced alkaline salts to chocolate, which reduced its bitterness.[2] A few years thereafter, in 1828, he created a press to remove about half the natural fat (cacao butter) from chocolate liquor, which made chocolate both cheaper to produce and more consistent in quality. This innovation introduced the modern era of chocolate.[11] Known as "Dutch cocoa", this machine-pressed chocolate was instrumental in the transformation of chocolate to its solid form when in 1847 Joseph Fry learned to make chocolate moldable by adding back melted cacao butter.[5] Milk had sometimes been used as an addition to chocolate beverages since the mid-17th century, but in 1875 Daniel Peter invented milk chocolate by mixing a powdered milk developed by Henri Nestlé with the liquor.[2][11] In 1879, the texture and taste of chocolate was further improved when Rodolphe Lindt invented the conching machine.[22]
Lindt & Sprüngli AG, a Swiss-based concern with global reach, had its start in 1845 as the Sprüngli family confectionery shop in Zurich that added a solid-chocolate factory the same year the process for making solid chocolate was developed and later bought Lindt's factory. Besides Nestlé, several chocolate companies had their start in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Cadbury was manufacturing boxed chocolates in England by 1868.[2] In 1893, Milton S. Hershey purchased chocolate processing equipment at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago and soon began the career of Hershey's chocolates with chocolate-coated caramels.
Modern usage[edit]
Main article: Cocoa production in Côte d'Ivoire
Roughly two-thirds of the world's cocoa is produced in Western Africa, with Côte d'Ivoire being the largest source, producing a total crop of 1,448,992 tonnes[23]. Ghana, Nigeria, and Cameroon are other West African countries among the top 5 cocoa producing countries in the world. Like many food industry producers, individual cocoa farmers are at the mercy of volatile world markets. The price can vary from between £500 ($945) and £3,000 ($5,672) per ton in the space of just a few years.[citation needed] While investors trading in cocoa can dump shares at will, individual cocoa farmers can not ramp up production and abandon trees at anywhere near that pace.
Only three to four percent of "cocoa futures" contracts traded in the cocoa markets ever end up in the physical delivery of cocoa. Every year seven to nine times more cocoa is bought and sold on the exchange than exists.
It has been alleged that an estimated 90% of cocoa farms in Côte d'Ivoire have used some form of slave labor in order to remain viable.[24][unreliable source?] When cocoa prices drop, farmers in West Africa sometimes cut costs by resorting to slave labor.[dubious – discuss][25]
See also[edit]
Food portal
History portal
Alonso de Molina's dictionary of 1571 and of 1555
Food history
History of yerba mate
List of English words of Nahuatl origin
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Watson, Traci (22 January 2013). "Earliest Evidence of Chocolate in North America". Science. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Kerr, Justin (2007). "History of Chocolate". Field Museum. Retrieved 2014-03-03.
Jump up ^ "The American Heritage Dictionary". Archived from the original on October 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-05-09.
Jump up ^ Kiple, Kenneth F.; Kriemhild Coneè Ornelas (2000). The Cambridge world history of food. Cambridge University Press. pp. 635–638. ISBN 978-0-521-40214-9.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bensen, Amanda (March 1, 2008). "A Brief History of Chocolate". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Terry G. Powis; W. Jeffrey Hurst; María del Carmen Rodríguez; Ponciano Ortíz C.; Michael Blake; David Cheetham; Michael D. Coe; John G. Hodgson (December 2007). "Oldest chocolate in the New World". Antiquity. 81 (314). ISSN 0003-598X. Retrieved 2011-02-15.
Jump up ^ Coe, Sophie Dobzhansky; Coe, Michael D. (2007). The True History of Chocolate. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-28696-8.
Jump up ^ Thompson, J. Eric S. (1956). "Notes on the use of cacao in Middle America". Middle American Archaeology. Cambridge Mass. 128: 95–116.
Jump up ^ Keoke, Emory Dean; Porterfield, Kay Marie (1 January 2009). Encyclopedia of American Indian Contributions to the World: 15,000 Years of Inventions and Innovations. Infobase Publishing. p. 43. ISBN 978-1-4381-0990-9.
Jump up ^ Szogyi, Alex (1 January 1997). Chocolate: Food of the Gods. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 149–151. ISBN 978-0-313-30506-1.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Spadaccini, Jim. "The Sweet Lure of Chocolate". Exploratorium. Retrieved 2014-03-03.
Jump up ^ Burleigh, Robert (2002). Chocolate: Riches from the Rainforest. Harry N. Abrams, Ins., Publishers. ISBN 0-8109-5734-5.
Jump up ^ The Bernal Diaz Chronicles, translated and edited by Albert Idell, published by Doubleday Dolphin, 1956, p.160
Jump up ^ Norton, Marcy (April 2004). "Conquests of Chocolate". OAH Magazine of History. 18 (3): 16. Retrieved 5 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "Diccionario de la lengua española, Real Academia Española". rae.es.
Jump up ^ Campbell, Lyle. Quichean Linguistic Prehistory; University of California Publications in Linguistics No. 81. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. p. 104.
Jump up ^ Santamaria, Francisco. Diccionario de Mejicanismos. Mexico: Editorial Porrúa S. A. pp. 412–413.
Jump up ^ Dakin, Karen; Wichmann, Soren (2000). "Cacao and Chocolate A Uto-Aztecan perspective". Ancient Mesoamerica. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 11 (1): 55–75. doi:10.1017/S0956536100111058.
^ Jump up to: a b c Molina, Fray Alonso de (1977). Vocabulario en Lengua Castellana y Mexicana y Mexicana y Castellana. Edicion Facsimile. Mexico: Editorial Porrua, S.A. p. 10.
Jump up ^ Wilson & Hurst, "Chocolate and Health: Chemistry, Nutrition and Therapy", p. 219, Royal Society of Chemistry, 2015
Jump up ^ Clarence-Smith, William Gervase (2003-09-02), Cocoa and Chocolate, 1765-1914, Routledge, p. 48, ISBN 978-1-134-60778-5, retrieved 2017-09-12
Jump up ^ Klein, Christopher (February 14, 2014). "The Sweet History of Chocolate". History. Retrieved 2014-03-03.
Jump up ^ "Top 10 Cocoa Producing Countries". WorldAtlas. Retrieved 2017-10-09.
Jump up ^ "Truevision TV Slavery - a global investigation". Archived from the original on April 22, 2006. Retrieved 2006-06-27.
Jump up ^ "Bittersweet Chocolate". Archived from the original on 2007-02-10. Retrieved 2006-06-27.
External links[edit]
Gutenberg’s “Chocolate: or, An Indian Drinke”
LibriVox’s Audio Book “Chocolate: or, An Indian Drinke”
The Chocolate and Ancient Maya
A Brief History of Chocolate. Smithsonian.com
Chocolate: Food of the Gods. Cornell University, Mann Library
"Chocolate. From Mesoamerica To Modern Master Chocolatiers", ICEX
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Lotta Love
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Lotta Love"
Single by Nicolette Larson
from the album Nicolette
B-side
"Angels Rejoiced"
Released
1978
Format
7" single
Genre
Country rock[1]
Length
3:11 (radio edit)
4:14 (extended)
Label
Warner Bros.
Songwriter(s)
Neil Young
Producer(s)
Ted Templeman
Nicolette Larson singles chronology
"Lotta Love"
(1978) "Rhumba Girl"
(1979)
"Lotta Love"
(1978) "Rhumba Girl"
(1979)
"Lotta Love"
Song by Neil Young
from the album Comes a Time
Released
1978
Length
2:38
Label
Reprise
Songwriter(s)
Neil Young
Producer(s)
Neil Young
Tim Mulligan
"Lotta Love" is a song written and recorded by Neil Young and released on his 1978 Comes a Time album. "Lotta Love" was also covered by Nicolette Larson in 1978. Larson's version reached No. 8 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and No. 8 on the Cash Box Top 100 in February 1979. It also hit No. 1 on the Easy Listening chart[2] and was a hit in Australia (No. 11) and New Zealand (No. 22).
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
1.1 Claims of Linda Ronstadt
1.2 Claims of Nicolette Larson
2 Versions
3 Releases
3.1 Single
3.2 Extended version
3.3 Live versions
4 More recent versions
5 Chart performance
5.1 Weekly charts
5.2 Year-end charts
6 See also
7 References
Origins[edit]
Claims of Linda Ronstadt[edit]
Linda Ronstadt, who had sung back-up for Young with Larson, has stated that it was at her [i.e. Ronstadt's] suggestion that Larson recorded "Lotta Love" and that Larson's producer thanked Ronstadt by having a top-of-the-line sound system installed in her Mercedes convertible.[3]
Claims of Nicolette Larson[edit]
However, Larson's own recollection was that the suggestion she record "Lotta Love" originated with Neil Young, with whom she had formed a personal relationship while backing him vocally on American Stars 'n Bars. The publishers of Neil Young News quoted Larson as saying:
"I got that song off a tape I found lying on the floor of Neil's car. I popped it in the tape player and commented on what a great song it was. Neil said: 'You want it? It's yours.'"[4]
Versions[edit]
Neil Young recorded "Lotta Love" for his Comes a Time album with backing from Crazy Horse. Larson provided background vocals for the album but did not sing on its "Lotta Love" track, a spare version which emphasized the song's melancholy.
Larson's version of "Lotta Love"—which featured a string arrangement by Jimmie Haskell (whose credits include work with Bobbie Gentry), plus a classic soft rock horn riff and a flute solo—presented the song as optimistic. Larson would recall: "It was a very positive song and people don't want to hear how bad the world is all the time. It had a nice sound rhythm and groove."[5]
Releases[edit]
Single[edit]
"Lotta Love" served as lead single for Larson's Ted Templeman-produced Nicolette album. Due to a delay in release, Comes a Time was released on the same day — in October, 1978 — as Nicolette. The release of a single from the Nicolette album was held off until October 31 when it was clear Young's version would not have a single release as an A-side (although Young's "Lotta Love" was released as the B-side of a non-charting "Comes a Time" single).
Extended version[edit]
Much as extended dance versions of hits by the Doobie Brothers — who Templeman also produced — were released, a 12" single of Larson's "Lotta Love" was issued, with Jim Burgess performing remixing duties: this disco version differentiated from the album track and 7" single in its pure "four on the floor" disco drum track (replacing the radio version's "pop heartbeat" drum rhythm) and a sax solo on the bridge, replacing the 7" single's bridge flute solo which was shifted to an extended intro. The track did not heavily impact the club scene. Its meager length for a 12" single — at 4:20 barely a minute longer than the 7" — a likely deterrent. The B-side of the 7" single was "Angels Rejoiced" featuring a harmony vocal by Herb Pedersen while on its 12" single "Lotta Love" was backed by Larson's rendition of "You Send Me".
Live versions[edit]
A live version of "Lotta Love" was included on the Live at the Roxy album consisting of Larson's December 20, 1978 concert at the Sunset Boulevard nightclub. The album was originally a limited issue (5000 copies) promo-only release. The first full release was on Rhino in 2006.
Larson also performed "Lotta Love" at the No Nukes concerts held at Madison Square Garden in September 1979. This version — with backing by the Doobie Brothers — was included on the No Nukes album. The performance was not included in the No Nukes film in which, however, Larson can be seen.
More recent versions[edit]
In February 1998, friends and associates of Nicolette Larson, who had died on December 16, 1997, mounted a tribute at the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium which raised over $165,000 for the UCLA Children's Hospital. The two night engagement was billed as "The Lotta Love Concert" and opened with an ensemble performance of "Lotta Love" by Rosemary Butler, Valerie Carter, Carole King, and Bonnie Raitt. In December 2007, a "Lotta Love" memorial concert was held to mark the 10th anniversary of Larson's passing, and in December 2008, the Talking Stick[6] in Venice CA hosted a "Lotta Love" memorial concert which featured a performance of "Lotta Love" by Rosemary Butler and Andrew Gold.
Dinosaur Jr. covered the song for the album The Bridge: A Tribute to Neil Young, released in 1989.
Red Hot Chili Peppers covered the song during the Bridge School Benefit concerts (organized by Neil Young) in October 2004.
In 2008, She & Him released a cover of "Lotta Love" on the B-side of their single "Why Do You Let Me Stay Here?".[7]
Chart performance[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (1979)
Peak
position
Australia (Kent Music Report)[8] 11
Canada Adult Contemporary (RPM)[9] 1
Canada Top Singles (RPM)[10] 4
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[11] 22
US Billboard Hot 100[2] 8
US Cash Box[12] 8
US Billboard Easy Listening[2] 1
US Record World[13] 8
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1979)
Position
Australia (Kent Music Report)[14] 84
Canada (RPM Top 200 Singles)[15] 46
US Billboard Hot 100[16] 41
US Cash Box[17] 63
See also[edit]
List of number-one adult contemporary singles of 1979 (U.S.)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Erlewine, Stephen Thomas. "Nicolette Larson – Artist Biography". AllMusic. Retrieved September 16, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Nicolette – Awards". AllMusic. Retrieved July 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ Ronstadt, Linda (2013). Simple Dreams: a musical memoir (1st hardcover ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 101. ISBN 978-1-4516-6872-8.
Jump up ^ "Nicolette Larson's "Lotta Love" & Neil Young". Neil Young News. February 19, 2012. Retrieved January 16, 2014.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Joe (June 21, 1986). "Nicolette Larson : She's now a star". The Free Lance–Star. Retrieved July 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ "The Talking Stick". AHCdesigns.com. Retrieved July 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Domino – Singles – Why Do You Let Me Stay Here?". Archived from the original on January 31, 2010. . Domino.
Jump up ^ Kent, David (1993). Australian Chart Book 1970–1992 (Illustrated ed.). St Ives, N.S.W.: Australian Chart Book. p. 173. ISBN 0-646-11917-6.
Jump up ^ "Top RPM Adult Contemporary: Issue 0101." RPM. Library and Archives Canada. Retrieved July 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Top RPM Singles: Issue 0120a." RPM. Library and Archives Canada. Retrieved July 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Charts.org.nz – Nicolette Larson – Lotta Love". Top 40 Singles. Retrieved July 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ "CASH BOX Top 100 Singles – Week ending FEBRUARY 10, 1979". Archived from the original on September 14, 2011. . Cash Box.
Jump up ^ "Record World Singles" (PDF). Record World. February 3, 1979. p. 31. Retrieved September 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Forum – ARIA Charts: Special Occasion Charts – Top 100 End of Year AMR Charts – 1970s". Australian-charts.com. Hung Medien. Archived from the original on November 6, 2013. Retrieved July 15, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Top Singles – Volume 32, No. 13, December 22, 1979". RPM. Library and Archives Canada. Retrieved July 15, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Hits for 1979". The Longbored Surfer. Retrieved July 15, 2014.
Jump up ^ "The CASH BOX Year-End Charts: 1979". Archived from the original on August 25, 2012. . Cash Box.
Preceded by
"Too Much Heaven" by the Bee Gees Canadian RPM Adult Oriented Playlist number-one single
February 10–17, 1979 (2 weeks) Succeeded by
"I Just Fall in Love Again" by Anne Murray
Preceded by
"This Moment in Time" by Engelbert Humperdinck US Billboard Easy Listening number-one single
February 3, 1979 (1 week)
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Nicolette Larson
Studio albums
Nicolette (1978)
In the Nick of Time (1979)
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"Lotta Love"
"I Only Want to Be with You"
"Building Bridges"
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lotta_Love&oldid=816045647"
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