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Bird nest
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For animal nests in general, see Nest. For other uses, see Bird's nest.
Deep cup nest of the Great Reed-warbler
A bird nest is the spot in which a bird lays and incubates its eggs and raises its young. Although the term popularly refers to a specific structure made by the bird itself—such as the grassy cup nest of the American robin or Eurasian blackbird, or the elaborately woven hanging nest of the Montezuma oropendola or the village weaver—that is too restrictive a definition. For some species, a nest is simply a shallow depression made in sand; for others, it is the knot-hole left by a broken branch, a burrow dug into the ground, a chamber drilled into a tree, an enormous rotting pile of vegetation and earth, a shelf made of dried saliva or a mud dome with an entrance tunnel. The smallest bird nests are those of some hummingbirds, tiny cups which can be a mere 2 cm (0.79 in) across and 2–3 cm (0.79–1.18 in) high.[1] At the other extreme, some nest mounds built by the dusky scrubfowl measure more than 11 m (36 ft) in diameter and stand nearly 5 m (16 ft) tall.[2]
Not all bird species build nests. Some species lay their eggs directly on the ground or rocky ledges, while brood parasites lay theirs in the nests of other birds, letting unwitting "foster parents" do all the work of rearing the young. Although nests are primarily used for breeding, they may also be reused in the non-breeding season for roosting and some species build special dormitory nests or roost nests (or winter-nest) that are used only for roosting.[3] Most birds build a new nest each year, though some refurbish their old nests. [4] The large eyries (or aeries) of some eagles are platform nests that have been used and refurbished for several years.
In most species, the female does most or all of the nest construction, though the male often helps.[5] In some polygynous species, however, the male does most or all of the nest building. The nest may also form a part of the courtship display such as in weaver birds. The ability to choose and maintain good nest sites and build high quality nests may be selected for by females in these species. In some species the young from previous broods may also act as helpers for the adults.
Contents
[hide]
1 Types
1.1 Scrape
1.2 Mound
1.3 Burrow
1.4 Cavity
1.5 Cup
1.6 Saucer or plate
1.7 Platform
1.8 Pendant
1.9 Sphere
2 Nest protection and sanitation
3 Colonial nesting
4 In human culture
5 Artificial bird nests
6 See also
7 References
7.1 Notes
7.2 Cited texts
8 External links
Types[edit]
An overview of the diversity in nest placement and construction.
Not every bird species builds or uses a nest. Some auks, for instance—including common murre, thick-billed murre and razorbill—lay their eggs directly onto the narrow rocky ledges they use as breeding sites.[6] The eggs of these species are dramatically pointed at one end, so that they roll in a circle when disturbed. This is critical for the survival of the developing eggs, as there are no nests to keep them from rolling off the side of the cliff. Presumably because of the vulnerability of their unprotected eggs, parent birds of these auk species rarely leave them unattended.[7] Nest location and architecture is strongly influenced by local topography and other abiotic factors.[8]
King penguins and emperor penguins also do not build nests; instead, they tuck their eggs and chicks between their feet and folds of skin on their lower bellies. They are thus able to move about while incubating, though in practice only the emperor penguin regularly does so. Emperor penguins breed during the harshest months of the Antarctic winter, and their mobility allows them to form huge huddled masses which help them to withstand the extremely high winds and low temperatures of the season. Without the ability to share body heat (temperatures in the centre of tight groups can be as much as 10C above the ambient air temperature), the penguins would expend far more energy trying to stay warm, and breeding attempts would probably fail.[9]
Some crevice-nesting species, including ashy storm-petrel, pigeon guillemot, Eurasian eagle-owl and Hume's tawny owl, lay their eggs in the relative shelter of a crevice in the rocks or a gap between boulders, but provide no additional nest material.[10][11] Potoos lay their single egg directly atop a broken stump, or into a shallow depression on a branch—typically where an upward-pointing branch died and fell off, leaving a small scar or knot-hole.[12] Brood parasites, such as the New World cowbirds, the honeyguides, and many of the Old World and Australasian cuckoos, lay their eggs in the active nests of other species.[13][14][15]
Scrape[edit]
Some nest linings, such as the shell fragments in this Charadrius plover scrape, may help to prevent the eggs from sinking into muddy or sandy soil.
The simplest nest construction is the scrape, which is merely a shallow depression in soil or vegetation.[16] This nest type, which typically has a rim deep enough to keep the eggs from rolling away, is sometimes lined with bits of vegetation, small stones, shell fragments or feathers.[17] These materials may help to camouflage the eggs or may provide some level of insulation; they may also help to keep the eggs in place, and prevent them from sinking into muddy or sandy soil if the nest is accidentally flooded.[18] Ostriches, most tinamous, many ducks, most shorebirds, most terns, some falcons, pheasants, quail, partridges, bustards and sandgrouse are among the species that build scrape nests.
Eggs and young in scrape nests, and the adults that brood them, are more exposed to predators and the elements than those in more sheltered nests; they are on the ground and typically in the open, with little to hide them. The eggs of most ground-nesting birds (including those that use scrape nests) are cryptically coloured to help camouflage them when the adult is not covering them; the actual colour generally corresponds to the substrate on which they are laid.[19] Brooding adults also tend to be well camouflaged, and may be difficult to flush from the nest. Most ground-nesting species have well-developed distraction displays, which are used to draw (or drive) potential predators from the area around the nest.[20] Most species with this type of nest have precocial young, which quickly leave the nest upon hatching.[21]
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Female peregrine falcon nest-scraping on artificial ledge on Derby Cathedral. Both sexes contribute to the creation of a bare, shallow depression in soil or gravel.
In cool climates (such as in the high Arctic or at high elevations), the depth of a scrape nest can be critical to both the survival of developing eggs and the fitness of the parent bird incubating them. The scrape must be deep enough that eggs are protected from the convective cooling caused by cold winds, but shallow enough that they and the parent bird are not too exposed to the cooling influences of ground temperatures, particularly where the permafrost layer rises to mere centimeters below the nest. Studies have shown that an egg within a scrape nest loses heat 9% more slowly than an egg placed on the ground beside the nest; in such a nest lined with natural vegetation, heat loss is reduced by an additional 25%.[22] The insulating factor of nest lining is apparently so critical to egg survival that some species, including Kentish plovers, will restore experimentally altered levels of insulation to their pre-adjustment levels (adding or subtracting material as necessary) within 24 hours.[23]
Other nest linings, like the lichen in this American golden-plover scrape, may provide some level of insulation for the eggs, or may help to camouflage them.
In warm climates, such as deserts and salt flats, heat rather than cold can kill the developing embryos. In such places, scrapes are shallower and tend to be lined with non-vegetative material (including shells, feathers, sticks and soil),[24] which allows convective cooling to occur as air moves over the eggs. Some species, such as the lesser nighthawk and the red-tailed tropicbird, help reduce the nest's temperature by placing it in partial or full shade.[25][26] Others, including some shorebirds, cast shade with their bodies as they stand over their eggs. Some shorebirds also soak their breast feathers with water and then sit on the eggs, providing moisture to enable evaporative cooling.[27] Parent birds keep from overheating themselves by gular panting while they are incubating, frequently exchanging incubation duties, and standing in water when they are not incubating.[28]
The technique used to construct a scrape nest varies slightly depending on the species. Beach-nesting terns, for instance, fashion their nests by rocking their bodies on the sand in the place they have chosen to site their nest,[29] while skimmers build their scrapes with their feet, kicking sand backwards while resting on their bellies and turning slowly in circles.[30] The ostrich also scratches out its scrape with its feet, though it stands while doing so.[31] Many tinamous lay their eggs on a shallow mat of dead leaves they have collected and placed under bushes or between the root buttresses of trees,[32] and kagus lay theirs on a pile of dead leaves against a log, tree trunk or vegetation.[33] Marbled godwits stomp a grassy area flat with their feet, then lay their eggs, while other grass-nesting waders bend vegetation over their nests so as to avoid detection from above.[34] Many female ducks, particularly in the northern latitudes, line their shallow scrape nests with down feathers plucked from their own breasts, as well as with small amounts of vegetation.[35] Among scrape-nesting birds, the three-banded courser and Egyptian plover are unique in their habit of partially burying their eggs in the sand of their scrapes.[36]
Mound[edit]
The huge mound nest of the malleefowl acts like a compost heap, warming and incubating the eggs as it rots around them.
Burying eggs as a form of incubation reaches its zenith with the Australasian megapodes. Several megapode species construct enormous mound nests made of soil, branches, sticks, twigs and leaves, and lay their eggs within the rotting mass. The heat generated by these mounds, which are in effect giant compost heaps, warms and incubates the eggs.[1] The nest heat results from the respiration of thermophilic fungi and other microorganisms.[37] The size of some of these mounds can be truly staggering; several of the largest—which contain more than 100 cubic metres (130 cu yd) of material, and probably weigh more than 50 tons (45,000 kg)[37]—were initially thought to be Aboriginal middens.[38]
In most mound-building species, males do most or all of the nest construction and maintenance. Using his strong legs and feet, the male scrapes together material from the area around his chosen nest site, gradually building a conical or bell-shaped pile. This process can take five to seven hours a day for more than a month. While mounds are typically reused for multiple breeding seasons, new material must be added each year in order to generate the appropriate amount of heat. A female will begin to lay eggs in the nest only when the mound's temperature has reached an optimal level.[39]
The mound nests of flamingos, like these Chilean flamingos, help to protect their eggs from fluctuating water levels.
Both the temperature and the moisture content of the mound are critical to the survival and development of the eggs, so both are carefully regulated for the entire length of the breeding season (which may last for as long as eight months), principally by the male.[37] Ornithologists believe that megapodes may use sensitive areas in their mouths to assess mound temperatures; each day during the breeding season, the male digs a pit into his mound and sticks his head in.[40] If the mound's core temperature is a bit low, he adds fresh moist material to the mound, and stirs it in; if it is too high, he opens the top of the mound to allow some of the excess heat to escape. This regular monitoring also keeps the mound's material from becoming compacted, which would inhibit oxygen diffusion to the eggs and make it more difficult for the chicks to emerge after hatching.[39] The malleefowl, which lives in more open forest than do other megapodes, uses the sun to help warm its nest as well—opening the mound at midday during the cool spring and autumn months to expose the plentiful sand incorporated into the nest to the sun's warming rays, then using that warm sand to insulate the eggs during the cold nights. During hot summer months, the malleefowl opens its nest mound only in the cool early morning hours, allowing excess heat to escape before recovering the mound completely.[41] One recent study showed that the sex ratio of Australian brushturkey hatchlings correlated strongly with mound temperatures; females hatched from eggs incubated at higher mean temperatures.[42]
Flamingos make a different type of mound nest. Using their beaks to pull material towards them,[43] they fashion a cone-shaped pile of mud between 15–46 cm (6–18 in) tall, with a small depression in the top to house their single egg.[44] The height of the nest varies with the substrate upon which it is built; those on clay sites are taller on average than those on dry or sandy sites.[43] The height of the nest and the circular, often water-filled trench which surrounds it (the result of the removal of material for the nest) help to protect the egg from fluctuating water levels and excessive heat at ground level. In East Africa, for example, temperatures at the top of the nest mound average some 20 °C (40 °F) cooler than those of the surrounding ground.[43]
The base of the horned coot's enormous nest is a mound built of stones, gathered one at a time by the pair, using their beaks. These stones, which may weigh as much as 450 g (about a pound) each, are dropped into the shallow water of a lake, making a cone-shaped pile which can measure as much as 4 m2 (43 sq ft) at the bottom and 1 m2 (11 sq ft) at the top, and 0.6 m (2.0 ft) in height. The total combined weight of the mound's stones may approach 1.5 tons (1,400 kg). Once the mound has been completed, a sizable platform of aquatic vegetation is constructed on top. The entire structure is typically reused for many years.[45]
Burrow[edit]
Like most burrow-nesting species, sand martins dig a horizontal tunnel into a vertical dirt cliff.
Soil plays a different role in the burrow nest; here, the eggs and young—and in most cases the incubating parent bird—are sheltered under the earth. Most burrow-nesting birds excavate their own burrows, but some use those excavated by other species and are known as secondary nesters; burrowing owls, for example, sometimes use the burrows of prairie dogs, ground squirrels, badgers or tortoises,[46] China's endemic white-browed tits use the holes of ground-nesting rodents[47] and common kingfishers occasionally nest in rabbit burrows.[48] Burrow nests are particularly common among seabirds at high latitudes, as they provide protection against both cold temperatures and predators.[49] Puffins, shearwaters, some megapodes, motmots, todies, most kingfishers, the crab plover, miners and leaftossers are among the species which use burrow nests.
Most burrow nesting species dig a horizontal tunnel into a vertical (or nearly vertical) dirt cliff, with a chamber at the tunnel's end to house the eggs.[50] The length of the tunnel varies depending on the substrate and the species; sand martins make relatively short tunnels ranging from 50–90 cm (20–35 in),[51] for example, while those of the burrowing parakeet can extend for more than three meters (nearly 10 ft).[52] Some species, including the ground-nesting puffbirds, prefer flat or gently sloping land, digging their entrance tunnels into the ground at an angle.[53] In a more extreme example, the D'Arnaud's barbet digs a vertical tunnel shaft more than a meter (39 in) deep, with its nest chamber excavated off to the side at some height above the shaft's bottom; this arrangement helps to keep the nest from being flooded during heavy rain.[54] Buff-breasted paradise-kingfishers dig their nests into the compacted mud of active termite mounds, either on the ground or in trees.[48] Specific soil types may favour certain species and it is speculated that several species of bee-eater favor loess soils which are easy to penetrate.[55][56]
Increased vulnerability to predators may have led some burrow-nesting species, like the European bee-eater, to become colonial breeders.
Birds use a combination of their beaks and feet to excavate burrow nests. The tunnel is started with the beak; the bird either probes at the ground to create a depression, or flies toward its chosen nest site on a cliff wall and hits it with its bill. The latter method is not without its dangers; there are reports of kingfishers being fatally injured in such attempts.[48] Some birds remove tunnel material with their bills, while others use their bodies or shovel the dirt out with one or both feet. Female paradise-kingfishers are known to use their long tails to clear the loose soil.[48]
Some crepuscular petrels and prions are able to identify their own burrows within dense colonies by smell.[57] Sand martins learn the location of their nest within a colony, and will accept any chick put into that nest until right before the young fledge.[58]
Not all burrow-nesting species incubate their young directly. Some megapode species bury their eggs in sandy pits dug where sunlight, subterranean volcanic activity, or decaying tree roots will warm the eggs.[1][37] The crab plover also uses a burrow nest, the warmth of which allows it to leave the eggs unattended for as long as 58 hours.[59]
Predation levels on some burrow-nesting species can be quite high; on Alaska's Wooded Islands, for example, river otters munched their way through some 23 percent of the island's fork-tailed storm-petrel population during a single breeding season in 1977.[60] There is some evidence that increased vulnerability may lead some burrow-nesting species to form colonies, or to nest closer to rival pairs in areas of high predation than they might otherwise do.[61]
Cavity[edit]
"Secondary cavity nesters", like this blue-winged parrotlet, use natural cavities or holes excavated by other species.
The cavity nest is a chamber, typically in living or dead wood, but sometimes in the trunks of tree ferns[62] or large cacti, including saguaro.[62][63] In tropical areas, cavities are sometimes excavated in arboreal insect nests.[64][65] A relatively small number of species, including woodpeckers, trogons, some nuthatches and many barbets, can excavate their own cavities. Far more species—including parrots, tits, bluebirds, most hornbills, some kingfishers, some owls, some ducks and some flycatchers—use natural cavities, or those abandoned by species able to excavate them; they also sometimes usurp cavity nests from their excavating owners. Those species that excavate their own cavities are known as "primary cavity nesters", while those that use natural cavities or those excavated by other species are called "secondary cavity nesters". Both primary and secondary cavity nesters can be enticed to use nest boxes (also known as bird houses); these mimic natural cavities, and can be critical to the survival of species in areas where natural cavities are lacking.[66]
Woodpeckers use their chisel-like bills to excavate their cavity nests, a process which takes, on average, about two weeks.[63] Cavities are normally excavated on the downward-facing side of a branch, presumably to make it more difficult for predators to access the nest, and to reduce the chance that rain floods the nest.[67] There is also some evidence that fungal rot may make the wood on the underside of leaning trunks and branches easier to excavate.[67] Most woodpeckers use a cavity for only a single year. The endangered red-cockaded woodpecker is an exception; it takes far longer—up to two years—to excavate its nest cavity, and may reuse it for more than two decades.[63] The typical woodpecker nest has a short horizontal tunnel which leads to a vertical chamber within the trunk. The size and shape of the chamber depends on species, and the entrance hole is typically only as large as is needed to allow access for the adult birds. While wood chips are removed during the excavation process, most species line the floor of the cavity with a fresh bed of them before laying their eggs.
Only a relatively small number of species, including the woodpeckers, are capable of excavating their own cavity nests.
Trogons excavate their nests by chewing cavities into very soft dead wood; some species make completely enclosed chambers (accessed by upward-slanting entrance tunnels), while others—like the extravagantly plumed resplendent quetzal—construct more open niches.[65] In most trogon species, both sexes help with nest construction. The process may take several months, and a single pair may start several excavations before finding a tree or stump with wood of the right consistency.
Species which use natural cavities or old woodpecker nests sometimes line the cavity with soft material such as grass, moss, lichen, feathers or fur. Though a number of studies have attempted to determine whether secondary cavity nesters preferentially choose cavities with entrance holes facing certain directions, the results remain inconclusive.[68] While some species appear to preferentially choose holes with certain orientations, studies (to date) have not shown consistent differences in fledging rates between nests oriented in different directions.[68]
Cavity-dwelling species have to contend with the danger of predators accessing their nest, catching them and their young inside and unable to get out.[69] They have a variety of methods for decreasing the likelihood of this happening. Red-cockaded woodpeckers peel bark around the entrance, and drill wells above and below the hole; since they nest in live trees, the resulting flow of resin forms a barrier that prevents snakes from reaching the nests.[70] Red-breasted nuthatches smear sap around the entrance holes to their nests, while white-breasted nuthatches rub foul-smelling insects around theirs.[71] Eurasian nuthatches wall up part of their entrance holes with mud, decreasing the size and sometimes extending the tunnel part of the chamber. Most female hornbills seal themselves into their cavity nests, using a combination of mud (in some species brought by their mates), food remains and their own droppings to reduce the entrance hole to a narrow slit.[72]
Cup[edit]
Like many small birds, the purple-crowned fairy uses considerable amounts of spider silk in its cup nest.
The cup nest is smoothly hemispherical inside, with a deep depression to house the eggs. Most are made of pliable materials—including grasses—though a small number are made of mud or saliva.[73] Many passerines and a few non-passerines, including some hummingbirds and some swifts, build this type of nest.
Cup nest of a common blackbird
Small bird species in more than 20 passerine families, and a few non-passerines—including most hummingbirds, kinglets and crests in the genus Regulus, some tyrant flycatchers and several New World warblers—use considerable amounts of spider silk in the construction of their nests.[74][75] The lightweight material is strong and extremely flexible, allowing the nest to mold to the adult during incubation (reducing heat loss), then to stretch to accommodate the growing nestlings; as it is sticky, it also helps to bind the nest to the branch or leaf to which it is attached.[75]
Museum specimen of a blue-gray gnatcatcher cup nest, made with lichens, hair, and spiderwebs.
Many swifts and some hummingbirds[76] use thick, quick-drying saliva to anchor their nests. The chimney swift starts by dabbing two globs of saliva onto the wall of a chimney or tree trunk. In flight, it breaks a small twig from a tree and presses it into the saliva, angling the twig downwards so that the central part of the nest is the lowest. It continues adding globs of saliva and twigs until it has made a crescent-shaped cup.[77]
Cup-shaped nest insulation has been found to be related to nest mass,[78][79] nest wall thickness,[79][80][81] nest depth,[78][79] nest weave density/porosity,[78][80][82] surface area,[79] height above ground [78] and elevation above sea level.[82]
More recently, nest insulation has been found to be related to the mass of the incubating parent.[79] This is known as an allometric relationship. Nest walls are constructed with an adequate quantity of nesting material so that the nest will be capable of supporting the contents of the nest. Nest thickness, nest mass and nest dimensions therefore correlate with the mass of the adult bird.[79] The flow-on consequence of this is that nest insulation is also related to parent mass.[79]
Saucer or plate[edit]
The saucer or plate nest, though superficially similar to a cup nest, has at most only a shallow depression to house the eggs.
Platform[edit]
Many raptors, like the osprey, use the same huge platform nest for years, adding new material each season.
Some waterbirds, including the grebes, build floating platform nests.
The platform nest is a large structure, often many times the size of the (typically large) bird which has built it. Depending on the species, these nests can be on the ground or elevated.[83] In the case of raptor nests, or eyries (also spelt aerie), these are often used for many years, with new material added each breeding season. In some cases, the nests grow large enough to cause structural damage to the tree itself, particularly during bad storms where the weight of the nest can cause additional stress on wind-tossed branches.
Pendant[edit]
Taveta golden weaver building pendant nest.
The pendant nest is an elongated sac woven of pliable materials such as grasses and plant fibers and suspended from a branch. Oropendolas, caciques, orioles, weavers and sunbirds are among the species that weave pendant nests.
Sphere[edit]
The sphere nest is a roundish structure; it is completely enclosed, except for a small opening which allows access.
Nest protection and sanitation[edit]
Many species of bird conceal their nests to protect them from predators. Some species may choose nest sites that are inaccessible or build the nest so as to deter predators.[84] Bird nests can also act as habitats for other inquiline species which may not affect the bird directly. Birds have also evolved nest sanitation measures to reduce the effects of parasites and pathogens on nestlings.
Some aquatic species such as grebes are very careful when approaching and leaving the nest so as not to reveal the location. Some species will use leaves to cover up the nest prior to leaving.
Ground birds such as plovers may use broken wing or rodent run displays to distract predators from nests.[85]
Many species attack predators or apparent predators near their nests. Kingbirds attack other birds that come too close. In North America, northern mockingbirds, blue jays, and Arctic terns can peck hard enough to draw blood.[86] In Australia, a bird attacking a person near its nest is said to swoop the person. The Australian magpie is particularly well known for this behavior.[87]
Nests can become home to many other organisms including parasites and pathogens.[88] The excreta of the fledglings also pose a problem. In most passerines, the adults actively dispose the fecal sacs of young at a distance or consume them. This is believed to help prevent ground predators from detecting nests.[89] Young birds of prey however usually void their excreta beyond the rims of their nests.[90] Blowflies of the genus Protocalliphora have specialized to become obligate nest parasites with the maggots feeding on the blood of nestlings.[91]
Some birds have been shown to choose aromatic green plant material for constructing nests that may have insecticidal properties,[92][93] while others may use materials such as carnivore scat to repel smaller predators.[94]
Nesting colony of Montezuma oropendolas
Some birds use pieces of snake slough in their nests.[95] It has been suggested that these may deter some nest predators such as squirrels.[96]
Colonial nesting[edit]
Main article: Bird colony
Though most birds nest individually, some species—including seabirds, penguins, flamingos, many herons, gulls, terns, weaver, some corvids and some sparrows—gather together in sizeable colonies. Birds that nest colonially may benefit from increased protection against predation. They may also be able to better utilize food supplies, by following more successful foragers to their foraging sites.[97]
In human culture[edit]
A human-made nest platform in Poland built as a conservation measure and to prevent storks disrupting electricity supplies through nesting on pylons. Three young white storks are on the top of the nest and two Eurasian tree sparrows are perching on the side of the nest.
Many birds nest close to human habitations and some have been specially encouraged. Nesting white storks have been protected and held in reverence in many cultures.[98] Nest boxes are often used to encourage cavity nesting birds. The nesting of peregrine falcons on tall buildings has captured popular interest.[99] Colonial breeders produce guano which is a valuable fertilizer. The saliva nest of the edible-nest swiftlet is used to make bird's nest soup,[100] long considered a delicacy in China.[101] Collection of the swiftlet nests is big business: in one year, more than 3.5 million nests were exported from Borneo to China,[102] and the industry was estimated at $1 billion US per year (and increasing) in 2008.[100] While the collection is regulated in some areas (at the Gomantong Caves, for example, where nests can be collected only from February to April or July to September), it is not in others, and the swiftlets are declining in areas where the harvest reaches unsustainable levels.[100]
Brooklyn Museum - Bird's Nest - H. Lynde
Some species of birds are also considered nuisances when they nest in the proximity of human habitations. Feral pigeons are often unwelcome and sometimes also considered as a health risk.[103]
The Beijing National Stadium, principal venue of the 2008 Summer Olympics, has been nicknamed "The Bird Nest" because of its architectural design, which its designers likened to a bird's woven nest.[104]
In the Victorian era, naturalists often collected bird's eggs and their nests. The study of bird nests is called caliology.[105]
Artificial bird nests[edit]
Bird nests are also built by humans to help in the conservation of certain birds (such as swallows). Swallow nests are generally built with plaster, wood, terracotta or stucco.[106][107]
See also[edit]
Nest box
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
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Jump up ^ Howell, Thomas R.; Bartholomew, George A (1962), "Temperature Regulation in the Red-tailed Tropicbird and the Red-footed Booby", The Condor, 64 (1): 6–18, doi:10.2307/1365438.
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^ Jump up to: a b c d Elliott 1994, p. 287
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^ Jump up to: a b Elliott 1994, p. 288
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^ Jump up to: a b c del Hoyo 1992, p. 516
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Jump up ^ Behrstock 2001, p. 344
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Jump up ^ Davenport, John (1992), Animal Life at Low Temperature, Springer, pp. 81–82, ISBN 0-412-40350-1
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Jump up ^ Heneberg, P. (2009). "Soil penetrability as a key factor affecting nesting of burrowing birds". Ecological Research. 24: 453–459. doi:10.1007/s11284-008-0520-2.
Jump up ^ Bonadonna, Francesco; Cunningham, Gregory B.; Jouventin, Pierre; Hesters, Florence; Nevitt, Gabrielle A. (2003), "Evidence for nest-odour recognition in two species of diving petrel", J. Exp. Biol., 206 (Pt 20): 3719–3722, PMID 12966063, doi:10.1242/jeb.00610.
Jump up ^ Goodenough, Judith; McGuire, Betty; Wallace, Robert A.; Jacob, Elizabeth, Perspectives on Animal Behavior, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, p. 430, ISBN 0-470-04517-5
Jump up ^ De Marchi, G.; Chiozzi, G.; Fasola, M. (2008), "Solar incubation cuts down parental care in a burrow nesting tropical shorebird, the crab plover Dromas ardeola", Journal of Avian Biology, 39 (5): 484–486, doi:10.1111/j.0908-8857.2008.04523.x
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Jump up ^ Ehrlich et al. 1994, p. 17
^ Jump up to: a b Collar 2001, p. 94
^ Jump up to: a b c Reed 2001, pp. 380–1
Jump up ^ Brightsmith, Donald J. (2000), "Use of Arboreal Termitaria by Nesting Peruvian Amazon" (PDF), Condor, 102 (3): 529–538, doi:10.1650/0010-5422(2000)102[0529:UOATBN]2.0.CO;2
^ Jump up to: a b Collar 2001, p. 96
Jump up ^ Phillips, Tina (Winter 2005), "Nest Boxes: More than Just Birdhouses", BirdScope, Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, 19 (1)
^ Jump up to: a b Conner 1975, p. 373
^ Jump up to: a b Rendell, Wallace B.; Robertson, Raleigh J. (1994), "Cavity Entry Orientation and Nest-site Use by Secondary Hole-nesting Birds" (PDF), Journal of Field Ornithology, 65 (1): 27–35
Jump up ^ Perrins, Christopher M; Attenborough, David; Arlott, Norman (1987), New Generation Guide to the Birds of Britain and Europe, Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, p. 230, ISBN 0-292-75532-5
Jump up ^ Rudolph, Kyle & Conner 1990
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Jump up ^ Hansell, Mike (2000), Bird Nests & Construction Behaviour, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 280, ISBN 978-0-521-46038-5
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^ Jump up to: a b Erickson, Laura (Spring 2008), "The Wonders of Spider Silk", BirdScope, 22 (2): 7
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^ Jump up to: a b c d Kern, M (1984), "Racial differences in nests of white-crowned sparrows", Condor, 86: 455–466, doi:10.2307/1366826
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Heenan, Caragh; Seymour, R. (2011), "Structural support, not insulation, is the primary driver for avian cup-shaped nest design", Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 278 (1720): 2924–2929, doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.2798
^ Jump up to: a b Skowron, C; Kern, M. (1980), "The insulation in nests of selected North-American songbirds", Auk, 97: 816–824
Jump up ^ Whittow, F.N.; Berger, A.J. (1977), "Heat loss from the nest of the Hawaiian honeycreeper, 'Amakihi'", Wilson Bulletin, 89: 480–483
^ Jump up to: a b Kern, M. D.; Van Riper, C. (1984), "Altitudinal variations in nests of the Hawaiian honeycreeper Hemignathus virens virens", Condor, 86: 443–454, doi:10.2307/1366825
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Jump up ^ Strecker, John K (1926), "On the use, by birds, of snakes' sloughs as nesting material" (PDF), Auk, 53 (4): 501–507, doi:10.2307/4075138
Jump up ^ Medlin, Elizabeth C.; Risch, Thomas S. (2006), "An experimental test of snake skin use to deter nest predation", The Condor, 108 (4): 963–965, doi:10.1650/0010-5422(2006)108[963:AETOSS]2.0.CO;2
Jump up ^ Ward & Zahavi 1973
Jump up ^ Kushlan, James A. (1997), "The Conservation of Wading Birds", Colonial Waterbirds, Waterbird Society, 20 (1): 129–137, JSTOR 1521775, doi:10.2307/1521775.
Jump up ^ Cade & Bird 1990
^ Jump up to: a b c Couzens, Dominic (2008), Top 100 Birding Sites of the World, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, pp. 85–86, ISBN 978-0-520-25932-4
Jump up ^ Deutsch, Jonathan; Murakhver, Natalya (2012), They Eat That?: A Cultural Encyclopedia of Weird and Exotic Food from Around the World, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, p. 17, ISBN 978-0-313-38058-7
Jump up ^ Khanna, D. R.; Yadav, P. R. (2005), Biology of Birds, New Dehli, India: Discovery Publishing House, p. 129, ISBN 978-81-7141-933-3
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Jump up ^ Dixon, Charles (1902), Birds' nests, New York: Frederick A Stokes, p. v
Jump up ^ Artificial swallow nests
Jump up ^ Terracotta nests
Cited texts[edit]
Behrstock, Robert A. (2001), "Typical Owls", in Elphick, Chris; Dunning, Jr., John B.; Sibley, David, The Sibley Guide to Bird Life & Behaviour, London: Christopher Helm, ISBN 0-7136-6250-6
Byrktedal, Ingvar (1989), "Nest defense behavior of Lesser Golden-Plovers" (PDF), Wilson Bull., 101 (4): 579–590
Cade, T.J.; Bird, D.M. (1990), "Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus) nesting in an urban environment: a review", Can. Field-Naturalist, 104: 209–218
Campbell, Bruce; Lack, Elizabeth, eds. (1985), A Dictionary of Birds, Carlton, England: T and A D Poyser, ISBN 0-85661-039-9
Clark, L.; Mason, J. Russell (1985), "Use of nest material as insecticidal and anti-pathogenic agents by the European Starling", Oecologia, 67 (2): 169–176, doi:10.1007/BF00384280
Cohn-Haft, Mario (1999), "Family Nyctibiidae (Potoos)", in del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi, Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 5: Barn-owls to Hummingbirds, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, ISBN 84-87334-25-3
Collar, N. J. (2001), "Family Trogonidae (Trogons)", in del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi, Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 6: Mousebirds to Hornbills, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, ISBN 84-87334-30-X
Collias, Nicholas E. (1997), "On the origin and evolution of nest building by passerine birds" (PDF), Condor, 99 (2): 253–270, JSTOR 1369932, doi:10.2307/1369932
Conner, Richard N. (1975), "Orientation of entrances to woodpecker nest cavities", Auk, 92 (2): 371–374, doi:10.2307/4084566
del Hoyo, Josep (1992), "Family Phoenicopteridae (Flamingos)", in del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi, Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 1: Ostrich to Ducks, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, ISBN 84-87334-10-5
del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi, eds. (1996), Handbook of Birds of the World, vol. 3, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, ISBN 84-87334-20-2
Ehrlich, Paul R.; Dobkin, David S.; Wheye, Darryl; Pimm, Stuart L. (1994), The Birdwatcher's Handbook, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-858407-5
Elliott, Andrew (1994), "Family Megapodiidae (Megapodes)", in del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi, Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 2: New World Vultures to Guineafowl, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, ISBN 84-87334-15-6
Gould, James L; Gould, Carol Grant (2007), Animal Architects: Building and the Evolution of Intelligence, New York, NY: Basic Books, ISBN 0-465-02782-2
Grant, Gilbert (1982), Avian Incubation in a Hot Environment: Ornithological Monographs #30, Washington, DC: American Ornithologists' Union, ISBN 0-943610-30-3
Haag-Wackernagel, D; Moch, H. (2004), "Health hazards posed by feral pigeons", J. Infect., 48 (4): 307–313, PMID 15066331, doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2003.11.001
Gill, Frank B. (1995), Ornithology, Macmillan, p. 383, ISBN 0-7167-2415-4, retrieved 2009-12-16
Hansell, Mike (2000), Bird Nests and Construction Behaviour, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-01764-5
Harrap, Simon; Quinn, David (1996), Tits, Nuthatches & Treecreepers, London: Christopher Helm, ISBN 0-7136-3964-4
C.Michael Hogan. 2010. Abiotic factor. Encyclopedia of Earth. eds Emily Monosson and C. Cleveland. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC
Jaramillo, Alvaro (2001), "Blackbirds, Orioles and Allies", in Elphick, Chris; Dunning, Jr., John B.; Sibley, David, The Sibley Guide to Bird Life & Behaviour, London: Christopher Helm, ISBN 0-7136-6250-6
Juniper, Tony; Parr, Mike (2003), Parrots: A Guide to the Parrots of the World, London: Christopher Helm, ISBN 0-7136-6933-0
Kaplan, Gisela (2004), Australian Magpie: Biology and Behaviour of an Unusual Songbird, Melbourne, Victoria: CSIRO Publishing, p. 121, ISBN 0-643-09068-1, retrieved 2009-12-16
Kemp, A. C. (2001), "Family Bucerotidae (Hornbills)", in del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi, Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 6: Mousebirds to Hornbills, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, ISBN 84-87334-30-X
Petit, Kenneth E.; Petit, Lisa J.; Petit, Daniel R. (1989), "Fecal Sac Removal: Do the Pattern and Distance of Dispersal Affect the Chance of Nest Predation?" (PDF), The Condor, Cooper Ornithological Society, 91 (2): 479–482, JSTOR 1368331, doi:10.2307/1368331
Reed, J. Michael (2001), "Woodpeckers and Allies", in Elphick, Chris; Dunning, Jr., John B.; Sibley, David, The Sibley Guide to Bird Life & Behaviour, London: Christopher Helm, ISBN 0-7136-6250-6
Rasmussen, Pamela C.; Collar, Nigel J. (2002), "Family Bucconidae (Puffbirds)", in del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi, Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 7: Jacamars to Woodpeckers, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, ISBN 84-87334-37-7
Rosenfeld, R.N.; Rosenfeld, A. J.; Gratson, M. W. (1982), "Unusual Nest Sanitation by a Broad-Winged Hawk" (PDF), The Wilson Bulletin, 94 (3): 2365–366
Rudolph, D. C.; Kyle, H.; Conner, R. N. (1990), "Red-cockaded woodpeckers vs. Rat Snakes: The effectiveness of the resin barrier" (PDF), Wilson Bull., 102(l): 14–22
Sabrosky, Curtis W.; Bennett, G. F.; Whitworth, T. L. (1989), Bird blow-flies (Protocalliphora) (Diptera: Calliphoridae) in North America with notes on the Palearctic species, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington.
Schuetz, Justin G. (2005), "Common waxbills use carnivore scat to reduce the risk of nest predation", Behavioral Ecology, 16 (1): 133–137, doi:10.1093/beheco/arh139
Seng, William J. (2001), "Flamingos", in Elphick, Chris; Dunning, Jr., John B.; Sibley, David, The Sibley Guide to Bird Life & Behaviour, London: Christopher Helm, ISBN 0-7136-6250-6
Short, Lester L.; Horne, Jennifer F. M. (2002a), "Family Capitonidae (Barbets)", in del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi, Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 7: Jacamars to Woodpeckers, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, ISBN 84-87334-37-7
Short, Lester L.; Horne, Jennifer F. M. (2002b), "Family Indicatoridae (Honeyguides)", in del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi, Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 7: Jacamars to Woodpeckers, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, ISBN 84-87334-37-7
Skowron, C; Kern, M. (1980), "The insulation in nests of selected North-American songbirds", Auk, 97: 816–824
Ward, P.; Zahavi, A. (1973), "The importance of certain assemblages of birds as "information centers" for food finding", Ibis, 115 (4): 517–534, doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1973.tb01990.x
Whittow, F.N.; Berger, A.J. (1977), "Heat loss from the nest of the Hawaiian honeycreeper, 'Amakihi'", Wilson Bulletin, 89: 480–483
Wimberger, P. H. (1984), "The use of green plant material in bird nests to avoid ectoparasites" (PDF), Auk, 101: 615–616
Woodall, Peter F. (2001), "Family Alcedinidae (Kingfishers)", in del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi, Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 6: Mousebirds to Hornbills, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, ISBN 84-87334-30-X
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bird nests.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Nidification.
Lecture notes on bird nesting
Department of natural resources Illinois state
Earthlife site on bird nests
Point Reyes Bird Observatory Teacher Resource Packet—Activity 4: Building Bird Nests
Ingersoll, Ernest (1920). "Birds, Nests of". Encyclopedia Americana.
"Nidification". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
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Avian incubation

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Egg (biology)

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Eurasian blackbird

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Dusky scrubfowl

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Ashy storm-petrel

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Hume's tawny owl

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American golden-plover

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Evaporative cooling

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Fender amplifier
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (May 2009)
Fender amp "tailed" logo
Fender amp "tailless" logo
Fender amplifiers have a long history. Leo Fender began building guitar amps before he started manufacturing guitars. The first of these amps were the K&F models, which were produced between 1945 and 1946. The original Fender amps were tube-powered and the company also started producing solid-state models in the late 1960s.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early amplifiers: K&F and Woodie
2 Tweed amplifiers
3 Brownface (Brown and Blonde)
4 Blackface
5 Silverface
6 Early solid-state models
7 Second series blackface
8 II Series and the Rivera Era
9 Red Knob
10 Popular Fender amps
11 References
Early amplifiers: K&F and Woodie[edit]
The K&F amplifiers were the first "Fender" amps made. They were made by the K&F Manufacturing Corporation, which was run by Leo Fender and Doc Kauffman.[1] Most of the amps were finished in a "gray crinkle" finish. The finishes were baked in the Kauffman family oven. They were made in three different sizes, 1×8" (one 8" speaker), 1×10", and 1×15". They are all very rare today and few have survived.
The first amplifiers made in-house by Fender is the Woodie series, built in 1946 through 1948. They included the Model 26 Deluxe, the Princeton, and the Professional.
Tweed amplifiers[edit]
1953 Fender Champ in tweed covering, wide-panel cabinet
Main article: Fender tweed
Fender amplifiers began making a name for themselves with the Tweed series, so called because of their cloth covering, which is actually varnished cotton twill (tweed is a coarse woollen fabric, commonly used for jackets, coats and caps; it is often woven in a twill pattern, which is likely the reason for the confusion over naming.) They were produced for more than a decade and are now eminently collectible and praised for their sound quality. The twill was first used in 1946 on the Dual Professional a twin 10" 6L6 powered model of which only 400 were made before being renamed "the Super Amp" in 1948. These early models are commonly referred to as "TV-Fronts" due to the shape of the cabinet when viewed from above. The Dual Pro was the first twin speaker amp and also the first amp to employ a finger-jointed pine cabinet and the first amp with a top facing control panel. The construction of the amplifiers was changed as well: the chassis are mounted to the back with the tubes pointed down, as opposed to having the chassis mounted on the top of the cabinet. This has the benefit of providing ease of access to the inside while providing a strong top.
Fender mostly stopped using the twill covering in 1960, though the Harvard was still covered in twill until 1963, and the Champ until 1964. The first kind used was an off-white fabric, followed by a horizontal-stripe two-tone pattern, and finally a two-tone twill.
At the beginning of the "tweed" era, Fender constructed many of its cabinets in "TV front" style, changing around 1950 predominantly to the"wide panel", where the top and bottom panel is wider than the side. Fender later on constructed them with "narrow panel", in which all the panels have more or less the same width. Toward the end, despite keeping such construction, Fender utilized tolex to cover its amps.
Brownface (Brown and Blonde)[edit]
Blonde twin, 1963
The Brownface series was introduced in 1959 and discontinued in 1963. This period marked the beginning of Fender's use of Tolex to cover amp cabinets. The name 'brownface' stems from the brown-colored control panels, common to both the brown- and cream/blonde- Tolex-covered amps. The brownface amps originally featured a dark maroon or "oxblood" grillcloth, which was changed to "wheat" in 1962-63.
The Brown amplifiers included all of the all-in-one combo amps except the flagship Twin and Vibrasonic, and the little Champ which retained its "tweed" (twill) covering. The Blonde amplifiers included all of the piggyback Fender amps (the Tremolux, Bassman, Showman, and Bandmaster) as well as the Twin and Vibrasonic combos. Two different colors of grillclothes were featured on the blondes, oxblood and wheat. There are several experimental Fender Tweed amps in blonde. While the majority of the piggybacks were produced in blonde tolex, there are a few examples of the brown tolex Bassman amplifiers.
There were many notable accomplishments for the company's amplifier division during these years. Namely, the introduction of the stand-alone spring reverb unit in 1961, followed by the subsequent incorporation of the reverb circuit within a combo-amp design with the 1963 Vibroverb. Other notable accomplishments of this period include the shift of the top-of-the-line model from the traditional Twin-Amp to include other models, like the Vibrasonic Amp in early 1960, as well as the blonde Showman Amp in 1961. Fender began using silicon rectifiers to reduce heat and voltage sag caused by tube rectifiers, and introduced an all-new, very complex vibrato circuit.
The shift from the tweed design to tolex occurred in limited production in 1960. The tolex on the earliest versions in this era was pinkish brown and rough textured. There were only six amplifiers covered in tolex originally, and they were called the Professional Series: Bandmaster-Amp, Concert-Amp, Pro-Amp, Super-Amp, the Twin-Amp (production halted Feb-May 1960, resumed as the blonde Twin) and the Vibrasonic-Amp. These were considered a step above the student models (Champ, Harvard, Princeton) which remained tweed-covered in 1960. Grillclothes were initially the same as those used in the previous tweed era (i.e.: maroon with gold stripe). Beginning in mid to late 1961, Fender introduced another color combination: a smoother but still light brown tolex with a dark maroon or "oxblood" grillcloth. By mid-1961, after this short-lived look, Fender was using the darker brown tolex which was a mainstay for many of the mid-1961 to 1963 amps. Between 1961 and 1963, there were three different grillcloth colors: wheat, brown, and maroon and many tolex-grille color combinations are found suggesting that Leo Fender and Co. was not hesitant to use up whatever stocks of materials were on hand. This mode of operation would seem to extend to the electrical components as well given that it is not uncommon to find actual production amps that vary from the published schematics.
The Deluxe made the transition in 1961. The circuit was also changed to include a tremolo effect, and the output was increased.
As the brown-era wore on, the plight of the smaller amps was varied. They all remained in name at least except for the 1x10" Harvard which was not continued through 1961.[2] The 1x8" Champ-Amp remained a tweed-covered through 1963 and into 64 when it made the change to black tolex. The 1x10" Vibrolux amp remained a tweed amp until it was upgraded in 1961 to a single 12" speaker powered by a duet of 6L6 power tubes and a larger output transformer. Also upgraded from tweed was the Princeton-Amp which acquired its brown tolex in 1962 along with a completely redesigned, more powerful twin-6v6 circuit and a larger speaker array: 1x10".
Blackface[edit]
Blackface Deluxe Reverb
Blackface Princeton Reverb
The Blackface amplifiers were produced between 1963 and 1967 (some units continued to be made into early 1968). The earliest blackface piggyback amps (as well as the Princeton) had bodies covered in white tolex, but with the new back control panel with black skirted "hat shaped" numbered knobs and new circuitry featuring bright switches. In 1964 the piggyback units began to be covered in black tolex. The blackface cosmetics were phased out at the end of 1967 (though some continued to be made on into early 1968); they returned for a brief period in 1981 before their discontinuation the following year.
Blackfaced cosmetics do not necessarily mean "pre-CBS" since the CBS company takeover took place in 1965 and amps with blackfaced cosmetics were produced up to 1967. After the buyout the front panels were changed from "Fender Electric Instrument Co." to "Fender Musical Instruments". No real changes were made to the amps until the silverfaced amps of 1968 where certain circuit changes made them less desirable than the blackfaced amps. This affected some models more than others. For example, the Twin Reverb and Super Reverb combos, along with the Dual Showman Reverb and Bandmaster Reverb "piggyback" heads were equipped with a master volume control while other models such as the Deluxe Reverb were not altered in any way except for the change in cosmetics.
Silverface cosmetics do not necessarily denote silverface circuitry, however. Leo Fender was notorious for tweaking his designs.[3] During the transitional period from late 1967 to mid-1968, the circuit designs of the Twin Reverb and Super Reverb were altered to eliminate an uncommon but serious oscillation in the signal chain. These changes took some months to finalize, as Leo worked through some designs, and happened after the cosmetic changes. Furthermore, the schematic and tube charts that shipped with these models did not always reflect the actual circuitry. Fender had many leftover AB763 (blackface) tube charts left over well into 1969 and shipped these charts with silverface models.
Save for a few series (such as HotRod series), a majority of modern Fender amplifiers sports blackface cosmetics.
Silverface[edit]
Silverface Twin Reverb, 1973
Silverface Princeton
Fender Silverface amplifiers were built between 1967 and 1981. They are often referred to as Silverface (or Chromeface) because of their brushed aluminum face plate.
The first Silverface amps, manufactured between 1967 and 1969, had an aluminum frame (trim, known as a "drip edge") around the grillcloth, mid-1960s "tailed" amp logo and the AB763 blackface circuit. An even rarer feature were the vertical, narrow black lines, which separated knob groups in the control panel. This cosmetic detail (later referred to as "blackline") was quickly abandoned. All of the Silverface amps generally had blue labels on the face plate, but in some rare exceptions (such as the Bronco) the colour was red instead. Some transitional models produced before the "tailless" period in 1973 featured the AC568 circuit, still retaining the tailed Fender amp decal introduced in 1964.
In 1973 CBS changed the "tailed" Fender amp logo to the modern-looking "tailless" style (which was first introduced in 1967 on the student Bronco amp). A master volume knob and a pull-out "boost" pot were added on some amplifiers, followed by ultralinear output transformers and a "scripted tailless" amp decal (featuring a "Made in USA" script in the bottom) in 1977; the power was increased between 70 and 135 watts on certain models.
All Silverface models usually came with a sparkling silver/blue grillcloth (some later models had a non-standard sparkling silver/orange grillcloth, and a black grillcloth was even fitted to some production runs). The Silverface control face plate was discontinued in 1981 and the second series of the blackface amps designed by Paul Rivera were produced.[4] Paul Rivera went on to found Rivera Amplifiers.
Fender made a limited-edition Mini-Twin practice amplifier modeled after the mid-70s Twin Reverb models in 1996. The Silverface Edition MT-10 had the authentic look right down to the grillcloth. This 1-watt Twin featured 3 in. speakers, "skirted" style Fender knobs for Gain, Volume, Tone and Power and included a tilt-back stand.
In 2013, Fender released the silverface '68 Custom amplifiers as a part of their Vintage Modified series, modeled after the original drip-edge silverfaced amps of 1968. Models included the Twin Reverb, Deluxe Reverb, and Princeton Reverb, and a Vibrolux Reverb was added to the line the following year. Each amp incorporates reverb and tremolo on both channels. Other features include a Custom channel (which has a modified Bassman tone stack giving modern players greater tonal flexibility with pedals), quicker gain onset and reduced negative feedback for greater touch sensitivity.
Early solid-state models[edit]
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Fender's first transistor amplifiers were introduced in 1966. At the time they were the company's "flagship" range and aimed to make the tube-based designs obsolete. The amplifiers were naturally given traditional Fender model names, earliest including 'Dual Showman', 'Twin Reverb', and 'Bassman'. Other products in the line were the 'Solid-State Reverb Unit' and the 'Solid-State Public-Address System'. 'Super Reverb', 'Pro Reverb', 'Vibrolux Reverb' and 'Deluxe Reverb' amplifiers followed in 1967.
The amplifiers were mainly designed by Robert "Bob" Rissi, Sawa Jacobson and Paul Spranger, who came up with the novel idea of making a heatsink to operate like a chimney to achieve increased and non-restricted airflow. Paul also designed the distinctive angled chassis and overall cosmetic styling. He was granted patents for both accounts.
In 1969 more transistor amplifiers were introduced, including the 'Zodiac' series and the behemoth 'Super Showman System'. Seth Lover, the legendary designer of the Gibson "P.A.F." pickup, and another former Gibson employee, Richard Chauncey Evans, were hired to help in designing the latter series, which consisted of an 'SS-1000' preamplifier head and 'XFL-1000' and 'XFL-2000' self-powered speaker cabinets. The head featured three cascadable channels, a "Dimension V" oil can delay effect, reverb, vibrato, and a fuzz. The powered cabinets could switch between normal and "tube-emulated" operation.
Zodiac-series amplifiers consisted of 'Capricorn', 'Scorpio', 'Taurus' and 'Libra' models. Aside from being covered with fake alligator skin, they were cosmetically very similar to Super Showman. However, these were smaller combo amplifiers with fewer features and aimed for the lower end of the market.
Fender's early transistor amplifiers had an extensive marketing campaign but in the end they proved to be a major disaster. Many key executives of Fender had resigned after the CBS purchase and quality control of the PCB-constructed amps was rather sloppy during the times. Reputedly many of the early solid-state amplifiers failed simply because employees didn't bother to clean up the soldering machines or attach the semiconductors properly to their heat sinks. The infancy of semiconductor technology also meant that many designs failed due to thermal runaway caused by insufficient cooling or lack of knowledge concerning "safe" power ratings of transistors. The cascaded effects from all this created a very poor reputation for the transistor products and the entire solid-state line was discontinued already in 1971. Additionally the experience also scared Fender away from solid-state amplifier technology for the next ten years.
One well known player who took to the Fender Solid State amps was Jan Akkerman who used Super Showman full stacks during the early years of Focus, favouring their clear sound. He used them well into the seventies, often in conjunction with Marshalls to add low end.
Second series blackface[edit]
The Silverface amplifiers were succeeded by a new breed of Fender designs. Fender was now competing with manufacturers who were more in tune with the market; specifically, many guitar players were interested less in "cleanish" country amp and instead wanted more versatile tone controls and, perhaps more importantly, greater amounts of distortion. This market was dominated by companies such as Marshall and later Mesa Boogie—both of which had gotten started modifying Fender amps (the Bassman and the Princeton, respectively).
Certain elements of the Blackface cosmetics were reintroduced in the mid-1970s on a series of amplifiers designed by Ed Jahns. The first amplifiers in this new line included the infamous 180W 'Super Twin' and 'Super Twin Reverb' amplifiers which featured active tone controls and a built-in distortion circuit that blended between clean and distorted sounds. Some bass amplifiers with similar architecture were also released, namely the 'Studio Bass' and 'PS300'.
These amplifiers didn't yet render obsolete the Silverface series and manufacturing of both co-existed for years. In fact, many Silverface designs were revised to the ultra-linear architecture to step up their output power from 100 watts to 135 watts. Also, existing Silverface Princeton Reverb and Deluxe Reverb circuits were offered in a slightly modified Blackface cosmetic package from roughly 1978 to 1982, the difference from the 1960s versions being that the model designation on the faceplate did not include the word "Amp" after the script typeface model name, as the earlier versions had.
The new Blackfaces came in varying cosmetic styles. All of them had a black control panel and traditional knobs, but they no longer featured the Blackface-style lettering to depict the model name and the traditional control panel layout was partially redesigned. Some of these amplifiers had a silver grillcloth typical to previous BF and SF series amps, but more often the amplifiers sported a black grillcloth. Some amplifiers also had an aluminum trimming running around the grille. The styling didn't become consistent until the early 1980s, at which point all these designs were already discontinued to make way for the very similar looking "II Series".
In the late 1970s and very early 1980s the "Supers" were followed by the tube-based '30', '75 (Lead)', and '140' tube amps (with reverb and overdrive features) and two solid-state 'Harvard' amps (one with reverb), which were 15W practice amplifiers. Design-wise the tube amplifiers were quite different from their predecessors, as the active tone controls and blending distortion circuit had been removed and the latter feature replaced by a crude version of the channel switching concept. A new feature addition was a crude insert-style effects loop.
II Series and the Rivera Era[edit]
The II Series amplifiers[5] were produced from 1982 until 1986, being the last Fender amps to be made at Fullerton. The specifications for these amplifiers (all 14 of which are listed here), and leadership of the design team, came from Paul Rivera (then marketing director) and are known as Fender Rivera era amplifiers. Some amplifiers in the series used the II moniker; the Champ II, Princeton Reverb II, Deluxe Reverb II and Twin Reverb II, while others such as the Concert and Super Champ did not. Many of these amps had the normal Fender clean sound and in addition a switchable mid voiced gain channel, designed to compete with the Mesa Boogie Mark Series series amps that had gained popularity at the time. The tube amps in the series feature hand-wired eyelet board construction and are also becoming sought-after collectors items, due to the design and build quality. The range included one small tube-driven bass amp, the Bassman 20. There were also some solid-state amplifiers using the II moniker, such as the Harvard Reverb II. Other solid-state amps produced during the Rivera era included the Yale Reverb, Studio Lead, Stage Lead, London Reverb, Montreux, and a solid-state issue of the Showman. Many of these units shared the same circuitry boards in one capacity or another.
Red Knob[edit]
The Red Knob amplifiers were produced from 1987 until 1993. These were some of the first models produced by the newly formed Fender Musical Instrument Corporation. These amplifiers, named for their bright red control knobs, have a slightly similar appearance to the older Blackface cosmetics, having black control panels with white lettering and the late 1970s "scripted tailless" Fender logo. Many of these models were simply refitted with black knobs and early 1970s "unscripted tailless" Fender logos in 1996 when most Fender amplifier manufacturing moved to the Ensenada factory in Mexico. This series of amplifiers all used printed circuit board construction and can be difficult for amateur amp techs to service. The Red Knob amps, with their high-gain channels, had their own sound, not much like the older classic Blackface and Silverface designs.
Regarding the Solid State amps of this 'Red Knob' era, there were two that utilized the same circuit board and wattage, the Fender Eighty-Five and the Studio 10. [Note: The schematics you will find on the 'Eighty-Five' amp will be labeled 'Studio 85' which can be confusing to those trying to find an accurate schematic. This mislabeling we can assume happened because the amp was intended in the design phase to be released as the Studio 85, but for some reason this changed when it went into production. Paul Wentling is credited as the designer. He (Paul) has stated, years after the fact, that he created some fairly bad sounding tube amps during this time frame, owing to the cost limits given him by Fender management at the time.] The SS Eighty-Five and the Studio 10 are the same 65 (RMS) watt amp except for the use of a 12" speaker in one, and a 10" in the other. The 12" version, the Fender Eighty-Five, was notably used by Steve Miller (Steve Miller Band) and Jonny Greenwood (Radiohead) over the years on many recordings. They were made in Lake Oswego, Oregon at the old Sunn factory, a brand/company that Fender had purchased in 1985–86.
Popular Fender amps[edit]
Fender branded vacuum tube
Tag from a 1973/74 Fender Princeton guitar amplifier
Bandmaster
Bassman
Blues Junior
Champ
Deluxe
Deluxe Reverb
Excelsior
Frontman 212R
Harvard
Hot Rod Deluxe
Hot Rod DeVille
Princeton
Princeton Reverb
Pro Junior
Pro Reverb
Prosonic
Ramparte
Showman
Super
Super Reverb
Super-Sonic
Tremolux
Twin Amp
Twin Reverb
Vaporizer
Vibro Champ
Vibrosonic
Vibroverb
Vibrolux
References[edit]
Jump up ^ The Soul of Tone-Tom Wheeler
Jump up ^ However, in 1962-63 Fender built a small number of "Harvards" which were actually assembled from leftover tweed-Princeton parts, with Harvard nameplates.
Jump up ^ Gagliano, Greg. "Dating Fender Tube Amps". 20th Century Guitar. Archived from the original on 2007-10-08. Retrieved 2007-09-25.
Jump up ^ Fender Amps:The First Fifty Years (Teagle and Sprung, publ.Hal Leonard)
Jump up ^ http://www.stratopastor.org.uk/strato/amps/twoseriesfenders/rivera%20era%20amp%20catalogue.pdf 1983 Fender Amp Catalogue, Retrieved 19th April 2017
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