text:
Duck test
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For the use of "the duck test" within the Wikipedia community, see Wikipedia:DUCK.
A mallard, shown looking like a duck and swimming like a duck.
A mallard, quacking like a duck
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The duck test is a form of abductive reasoning. This is its usual expression:
If it looks like a duck, swims like a duck, and quacks like a duck, then it probably is a duck.
The test implies that a person can identify an unknown subject by observing that subject's habitual characteristics. It is sometimes used to counter abstruse, or even valid, arguments that something is not what it appears to be.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Elephant test
3 See also
4 References
4.1 Notes
4.2 Citations
4.3 Further reading
History[edit]
Indiana poet James Whitcomb Riley (1849–1916) may have coined the phrase when he wrote:
When I see a bird that walks like a duck and swims like a duck and quacks like a duck, I call that bird a duck.[1]
A common variation of the wording of the phrase may have originated much later with Emil Mazey, secretary-treasurer of the United Auto Workers, at a labor meeting in 1946 accusing a person of being a communist:
I can’t prove you are a Communist. But when I see a bird that quacks like a duck, walks like a duck, has feathers and webbed feet and associates with ducks—I’m certainly going to assume that he is a duck.[2]
The term was later popularized in the United States by Richard Cunningham Patterson Jr., United States ambassador to Guatemala in 1950 during the Cold War, who used the phrase when he accused the Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán government of being Communist. Patterson explained his reasoning as follows:
Suppose you see a bird walking around in a farm yard. This bird has no label that says 'duck'. But the bird certainly looks like a duck. Also, he goes to the pond and you notice that he swims like a duck. Then he opens his beak and quacks like a duck. Well, by this time you have probably reached the conclusion that the bird is a duck, whether he's wearing a label or not.[3]
Later references to the duck test include Cardinal Richard Cushing's, who used the phrase in 1964 in reference to Fidel Castro.[4][5]
Douglas Adams parodied this test in his book Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency:
If it looks like a duck, and quacks like a duck, we have at least to consider the possibility that we have a small aquatic bird of the family Anatidae on our hands.[6]
A claimed recent application of the duck test was the denial of tax exempt "nonprofit" status to Blue Shield of California.[A]
The Liskov Substitution Principle in computer science is sometimes expressed as a counter-example to the duck test:
If it looks like a duck and quacks like a duck but it needs batteries, you probably have the wrong abstraction.[8]
Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs Sergey Lavrov used a version of the Duck Test in 2015 in response to allegations that Russian airstrikes in Syria were not targeting terrorist groups, primarily ISIS, but rather West-supported groups such as the Free Syrian Army. When asked to elaborate his definition of 'terrorist groups', he replied:
If it looks like a terrorist, if it acts like a terrorist, if it walks like a terrorist, if it fights like a terrorist, it's a terrorist, right?[9]
Elephant test[edit]
See also: Blind men and an elephant, Elephant in the room, and Seeing the elephant
Similarly, the term elephant test refers to situations in which an idea or thing, "is hard to describe, but instantly recognizable when spotted".[10]
The term is often used in legal cases when there is an issue which may be open to interpretation,[11][12] such as in the case of Cadogan Estates Ltd v Morris, when Lord Justice Stuart-Smith referred to "the well known elephant test. It is difficult to describe, but you know it when you see it",[13] and in Ivey v Genting Casinos, when Lord Hughes (in discussing dishonesty) opined "like the elephant, it is characterised more by recognition when encountered than by definition." Overruling in part R v Ghosh.[14]
A similar incantation (used however as a rule of exclusion) was invoked by the concurring opinion of Justice Potter Stewart in Jacobellis v. Ohio, 378 U.S. 184 (1964), an obscenity case. He stated that the Constitution protected all obscenity except "hard-core pornography". Stewart opined, "I shall not today attempt further to define the kinds of material I understand to be embraced within that shorthand description; and perhaps I could never succeed in intelligibly doing so. But I know it when I see it, and the motion picture involved in this case is not that."
See also[edit]
Call a spade a spade
Duck typing
Extensionality
I know it when I see it
Identity of indiscernibles
Inductive reasoning
Operational definition
Razor (philosophy)
Sympathetic magic
Zebra (medicine)
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "In a startling blow to one of California's biggest health insurers, the state has revoked the tax-exempt status of Blue Shield of California, forcing the company to pay tens of millions of dollars in back taxes and unleashing a torrent of calls for it to return billions of dollars to customers. The tax board's action 'was an acknowledgment of what Blue Shield was already doing, or not doing,' said Anthony Wright, head of Health Access California, a consumer advocacy group. 'And if it looks like a duck and talks like a duck, it should be taxed like a duck."[7]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Heim, Michael (2007). Exploring Indiana Highways. Exploring America's Highway. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-9744358-3-1.
Jump up ^ Sentinel, John (September 29, 1946). "Communist Expose The Case of the Duck". Milwaukee (WI) Sentinel.
Jump up ^ Immerman, Richard H. (1982), The CIA in Guatemala: The Foreign Policy of Intervention, Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, p. 102
Jump up ^ Denver, Joseph; Ethel Franklin Betts (1965), Cushing of Boston: A Candid Portrait
Jump up ^ Platt, Suzy. Respectfully quoted. Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service. ISBN 978-0-88029-768-4. "Attributed to Richard Cardinal Cushing. Everett Dirksen and Herbert V. Prochnow, Quotation Finder, p. 55 (1971). Unverified."
Jump up ^ Adams, Douglas (1987). Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency.
Jump up ^ Seipel, Tracy (March 19, 2015). "California drops hammer on Blue Shield tax-exempt status". San Jose Mercury News. Retrieved March 19, 2015.
Jump up ^ Bailey, Derick. "SOLID Development Principles – In Motivational Pictures".
Jump up ^ Melvin, Don; Cullinane, Susannah; Tawfeeq, Mohammed (October 1, 2015). "Russia's Lavrov on Syria targets: 'If it looks like a terrorist, walks like a terrorist ...'". CNN. Retrieved 9 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Valuing and Judging Partners — Beyond the Elephant Test! Archived 2013-06-03 at the Wayback Machine., Edge International Review, Summer 2006
Jump up ^ B.Wedderburn, The Worker and the Law (3rd ed, Harmondsworth, Penguin,1986), 116.
Jump up ^ Catherine Barnard, The Personal Scope of the Employment Relationship Archived 2013-01-26 at the Wayback Machine., in T.Araki and S.Ouchi (eds), The Mechanism for establishing and Changing Terms and Conditions of Employment/The Scope of Labor Law and the Notion of Employees, The Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training Report, 2004, vol.1, 131-136.
Jump up ^ Cadogan Estates Ltd v Morris; EWCA Civ 1671 (4 November 1998) (at paragraph 17)
Jump up ^ Ivey v Genting Casinos (UK) Ltd t/a Crockfords; [2017] UKSC 67 (25 Oct 2017) (at paragraph 48)
Further reading[edit]
Christy, Howard Chandler; Ethel Franklin Betts (1982), The complete works of James Whitcomb Riley
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text:
Sex differences in humans
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is one of a series on:
Sex differences in humans
Physiology
Medicine
Sexual differentiation
Autism
Depression
Schizophrenia
Stroke care
Neuroscience
Memory
Eyewitness memory
Cognition
Intelligence
Emotional intelligence
Psychology
Gender psychology
Sociology
Crime
Education
Leadership
Social capital
Suicide
v
t
e
Sex differences in humans, or gender differences in humans, have been studied in a variety of fields. In humans, biological sex is determined by five factors present at birth: the presence or absence of a Y chromosome, the type of gonads, the sex hormones, the internal reproductive anatomy (such as the uterus in females), and the external genitalia.[1] Genetic sex is determined solely by the presence or absence of a Y chromosome. A child's presumed sex is determined at birth by observation of the external genitalia.
A distinction is sometimes made between sex and gender. Sex differences generally refer to traits that are sexually dimorphic. Such differences are hypothesized to be products of the evolutionary process of sexual selection.[2][3] By contrast, the term gender differences refers to average group differences between males and females that are presumably based on sexually monomorphic (the same between the sexes) biological adaptations.
Contents
[hide]
1 Medicine
2 Physiology
3 Psychology
4 Sociology
4.1 Crime
4.2 Education
4.3 Leadership
4.4 Religion
4.5 Social capital
4.6 Suicide
4.7 Financial risk-taking
5 References
6 External links
Medicine[edit]
Main article: Sex differences in medicine
Sex differences in medicine include sex-specific diseases, which are diseases that occur only in people of one sex; and sex-related diseases, which are diseases that are more usual to one sex, or which manifest differently in each sex. For example, certain autoimmune diseases may occur predominantly in one sex, for unknown reasons. 90% of primary biliary cirrhosis cases are women, whereas primary sclerosing cholangitis is more common in men. Gender-based medicine, also called "gender medicine", is the field of medicine that studies the biological and physiological differences between the human sexes and how that affects differences in disease. Traditionally, medical research has mostly been conducted using the male body as the basis for clinical studies. Similar findings are also reported in the sport medicine literature where males typically account for >60% of the individuals studied.[4] The findings of these studies have often been applied across the sexes and healthcare providers have assumed a uniform approach in treating both male and female patients. More recently, medical research has started to understand the importance of taking the sex into account as the symptoms and responses to medical treatment may be very different between sexes.[5]
Neither concept should be confused with sexually transmitted diseases, which are diseases that have a significant probability of transmission through sexual contact.
Sex-related illnesses have various causes:[citation needed]
Sex-linked genetic illnesses
Parts of the reproductive system that are specific to one sex
Social causes that relate to the gender role expected of that sex in a particular society.
Different levels of prevention, reporting, diagnosis or treatment in each gender.
Research has found that female doctors may be providing better care than male doctors in the U.S.[6] and also in Canada.[7]
Physiology[edit]
Main article: Sex differences in human physiology
Sex differences in human physiology are distinctions of physiological characteristics associated with either male or female humans. These can be of several types, including direct and indirect. Direct being the direct result of differences prescribed by the Y-chromosome, and indirect being a characteristic influenced indirectly (e.g., hormonally) by the Y-chromosome. Sexual dimorphism is a term for the phenotypic difference between males and females of the same species.
Direct sex differences follow a bimodal distribution. Through the process of meiosis and fertilization (with rare exceptions), each individual is created with zero or one Y-chromosome. The complementary result for the X-chromosome follows, either a double or a single X. Therefore, direct sex differences are usually binary in expression (although the deviations in complex biological processes produce a menagerie of exceptions). These include, most conspicuously, male (vs female) gonads.
Indirect sex differences are general differences as quantified by empirical data and statistical analysis. Most differing characteristics will conform to a bell-curve (i.e., normal) distribution which can be broadly described by the mean (peak distribution) and standard deviation (indicator of size of range). Often only the mean or mean difference between sexes is given. This may or may not preclude overlap in distributions. For example, most males are taller and stronger than females,[8] but an individual female could be taller and stronger than an individual male. The extents of these differences vary across societies.[9]
The most obvious differences between males and females include all the features related to reproductive role, notably the endocrine (hormonal) systems and their physiological and behavioral effects, including gonadal differentiation, internal and external genital and breast differentiation, and differentiation of muscle mass, height, and hair distribution. There are also differences in the structure of specific areas of the brain. For example, on average, the SDN (INAH3 in humans) has been repeatedly found to be considerably larger in males than in females.[10]
Psychology[edit]
Main article: Sex differences in human psychology
Research on biological sex differences in human psychology investigates cognitive and behavioral differences between men and women. This research employs experimental tests of cognition, which take a variety of forms. Tests focus on possible differences in areas such as IQ, spatial reasoning, aggression, emotion, and brain structure and function.
Chromosomal make up is important in human psychology. Women have two X chromosomes while males have an X and Y chromosomal structure. The X chromosome is much more active than Y and it affects behavior.[11] Genetic researchers theorize that the X chromosome may contain a gene responsible for sociability.[12]
Most IQ tests are constructed so that there are no overall score differences between females and males. Areas where differences have been found include verbal and mathematical ability.[13][14] IQ tests that measure fluid g and have not been constructed to eliminate sex differences also tend to show that sex differences are either non-existent or negligible.[14][15] 2008 research found that, for grades 2 to 11, there were no significant gender differences in math skills among the general population.[16]
Because social and environmental factors affect brain activity and behavior, where differences are found, it can be difficult for researchers to assess whether or not the differences are innate. Studies on this topic explore the possibility of social influences on how both sexes perform in cognitive and behavioral tests. Stereotypes about differences between men and women have been shown to affect a person's behavior (this is called stereotype threat).[17][18]
In his book titled Gender, Nature, and Nurture, psychologist Richard Lippa found that there were large differences in women's and men's preferences for realistic occupations (for example, mechanic or carpenters) and moderate differences in their preferences for social and artistic occupations. His results also found that women tend to be more people-oriented and men more thing-oriented.[19]
Hartung & Widiger (1998) found that many kinds of mental illnesses and behavioral problems show gender differences in prevalence and incidence. "Of the 80 disorders diagnosed in adulthood for which sex ratios are provided, 35 are said to be more common in men than in women (17 of which are substance related or a paraphilia), 31 are said to be more common in women than men, and 14 are said to be equally common in both sexes."[20]
Differences in male and female jealousy can also be observed. While female jealousy is more likely to be inspired by emotional infidelity, male jealousy is most likely to be brought on by sexual infidelity. A clear majority of approximately 62% to 86% of women reported that they would be more bothered by emotional infidelity and 47% to 60% of men reported that they would be more bothered by sexual infidelity.[21]
In 2005, Janet Shibley Hyde from the University of Wisconsin-Madison introduced the gender similarities hypothesis, which suggests that males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables. The research focused on cognitive variables (for example, reading comprehension, mathematics), communication (for example, talkativeness, facial expressions), social and personality (for example, aggression, sexuality), psychological well-being, and motor behaviors. Using results from a review of 46 meta-analyses, she found that 78% of gender differences were small or close to zero. A few exceptions were some motor behaviors (such as throwing distance) and some aspects of sexuality (such as attitudes about casual sex), which show the largest gender differences. She concludes her article by stating: "It is time to consider the costs of overinflated claims of gender differences. Arguably, they cause harm in numerous realms, including women’s opportunities in the workplace, couple conflict and communication, and analyses of self-esteem problems among adolescents."[22]
Hyde also stated elsewhere that "variations within genders are greater than variations between genders."[23]
In 2012 Irina Trofimova[24] reported “middle age – middle sex” phenomenon and suggested that the significant female advantage in verbal fluency and male advantage in physical power fade after age 25 in an asymmetric manner. She pointed out to several other studies on humans and other primates showing a levelling of sex differences in sociability and physical strength. Males and females might indeed have different timings of maturation of physical and verbal systems: according to McGuinness and Pribram (1978) during the first two years of life talking and walking rarely occur simultaneously, which suggests that these two abilities compete for the same set of neural connections, or that one type of neural organization inhibits the other. This coincides with the higher mobility of boys, accompanied by their lower rates of speech development in childhood, in comparison to girls. These different timings in maturation appear as sex differences in early age, and likely level off in later adulthood (Barbu, Cabanes, & Le Maner-Idrissi, 2011). This middle age – middle sex phenomenon might explain why meta-analytic reports and several experimental studies of verbal abilities and dominance using adult participants reported no sex differences.
Sociology[edit]
Crime[edit]
Main article: Sex differences in crime
Sex differences in crime are differences between men and women as the perpetrators or victims of crime. Such studies may belong to fields such as criminology (the scientific study of criminal behavior), sociobiology (which investigates the causal relationship between biological factors, in this case biological sex and human behaviors), or feminist studies. Statistics have been consistent in reporting that men commit more criminal acts than women.[25][26] Self-reported delinquent acts are also higher for men than women across many different actions.[27] Many professionals have offered explanations for this sex difference. Some differing explanations include men's evolutionary tendency toward risk and violent behavior, sex differences in activity, social support, and gender inequality.
Despite the difficulty of interpreting them, crime statistics may provide a way to investigate such a relationship from a gender differences perspective. An observable difference in crime rates between men and women might be due to social and cultural factors, crimes going unreported, or to biological factors (for example, testosterone or sociobiological theories). Taking the nature of the crime itself into consideration may also be a factor. Crime can be measured by such data as arrest records, imprisonment rates, and surveys. However, not all crimes are reported or investigated. Moreover, some studies show that men can have an overwhelming bias against reporting themselves to be the victims of a crime (particularly when victimized by a woman), and some studies have argued that men reporting intimate partner violence find disadvantageous biases in law enforcement.[28][29][30] Burton et al. (1998) found that low levels of self control are associated with criminal activity.[31]
Education[edit]
Main article: Sex differences in education
A world map showing countries by gender education disparity, 2010.
Sometimes and at some places, there are sex differences in educational achievement. This may be caused by sex discrimination in the law, in the culture, or may reflect natural differences in the interests of the sexes.[32]
Leadership[edit]
Main article: Sex differences in leadership
Research has been undertaken to examine whether or not there are sex differences in leadership. Until recently, leadership positions have predominantly been held by men. Women were rarely seen in senior leadership positions leading to a lack of data on how they behave in such positions.[33] The two main lines of research contradict one another, the first being that there are significant sex differences in leadership and the second being that gender does not have an effect on leadership.
Women and men have been surveyed by Gallup each year concerning workplace topics, and when questioned about preferences of a female boss or a male boss, women chose a preference for a male boss 39% of the time, compared to 26% of men displaying preference for a male boss. Only 27% of females would prefer a boss of the same gender.[34] This preference, among both sexes, for male leadership in the workplace has continued unabated for sixty years, according to the survey results.
Religion[edit]
Main article: Sex differences in religion
Sex differences in religion can be classified as either "internal" or "external." Internal religious issues are studied from the perspective of a given religion, and might include religious beliefs and practices about the roles and rights of men and women in government, education and worship; beliefs about the sex or gender of deities and religious figures; and beliefs about the origin and meaning of human gender. External religious issues can be broadly defined as an examination of a given religion from an outsider's perspective, including possible clashes between religious leaders and laity;[35] and the influence of, and differences between, religious perspectives on social issues. For example, various religious perspectives have either endorsed or condemned alternative family structures, homosexual relationships, and abortion.[36] External religious issues can also be examined from the "lens of gender" perspective embraced by some in feminism or critical theory and its offshoots.
Social capital[edit]
Main article: Sex differences in social capital
Sex differences in social capital are differences between men and women in their ability to coordinate actions and achieve their aims through trust, norms and networks.[37] Social capital is often seen as the missing link in development; as social networks facilitate access to resources and protect the commons, while cooperation makes markets work more efficiently.[38] Social capital has been thought of as women's capital as whereas there are gendered barriers to accessing economic capital, women's role in family, and community ensures that they have strong networks. There is potential that the concept can help to bring women's unpaid 'community and household labor',[39] vital to survival and development, to the attention of economists. However, research analyzing social capital from a gendered perspective is rare, and the notable exceptions are very critical.[40][41][42]
Suicide[edit]
Main article: Sex differences in suicide
Sex differences in suicide have been shown to be significant; there are highly asymmetric rates of attempted and completed suicide between males and females.[43] The gap, also called the gender paradox of suicidal behavior, can vary significantly between different countries.[44] Statistics indicate that males die much more often by means of suicide than do females, however reported suicide attempts are 3 times more common among females than males.[45] This paradox is partially explained by the methodology, with females more often choosing medication-induced overdosage, and males more often turning to weapons such as firearms or knives.[46]
Financial risk-taking[edit]
Sex differences in financial decision making are relevant and significant. Numerous studies have found that women tend to be financially more risk-averse than men and hold safer portfolios.[47][48] A May 3, 2015 article in the Wall Street Journal by Georgette Jasen reported that "when it comes to investing, men sometimes have their way of doing things, and women have different ways."[49] Scholarly research has documented systematic differences in financial decisions such as buying investments versus insurance, donating to ingroups versus outgroups (such as terrorism victims in Iraq versus USA), spending in stores,[50] and the endowment effect-or asking price for goods people have.[51] The majority of these studies are based on the theory of agency-communion developed by David Bakan in 1966;[52] according to this theory, due to factors such as socialization, males are typically more agentic (focus on self, upside potential, aggressiveness) and females typically more communal (focus on others, downside potential, and nurturing). This framework robustly explains many financial decision making outcomes.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Knox, David; Schacht, Caroline. Choices in Relationships: An Introduction to Marriage and the Family. 11 ed. Cengage Learning; 2011-10-10 [cited 17 June 2013]. ISBN 9781111833220. p. 64–66.
Jump up ^ Mealey, L. (2000). Sex differences. NY: Academic Press.
Jump up ^ Geary, D. C. (2009) Male, Female: The Evolution of Human Sex Differences. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association
Jump up ^ Costello, Joseph T.; Bieuzen, Francois; Bleakley, Chris M. (2014-01-01). "Where are all the female participants in Sports and Exercise Medicine research?". European Journal of Sport Science. 14 (8): 847–851. doi:10.1080/17461391.2014.911354. ISSN 1536-7290. PMID 24766579.
Jump up ^ Cuozzo, Karen; Bratman, Steven (reviewer) (September 2005). "Women, Men, and Medicine: We're Not Equal". EBSCO Publishing. Archived from the original on July 10, 2006.
Jump up ^ Tsugawa, Yusuke; Jena, Anupam B.; Figueroa, Jose F.; Orav, E. John; Blumenthal, Daniel M.; Jha, Ashish K. (2017-02-01). "Comparison of Hospital Mortality and Readmission Rates for Medicare Patients Treated by Male vs Female Physicians". JAMA Internal Medicine. 177 (2): 206. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.7875. ISSN 2168-6106. PMID 27992617.
Jump up ^ Wallis, Christopher JD; Ravi, Bheeshma; Coburn, Natalie; Nam, Robert K.; Detsky, Allan S.; Satkunasivam, Raj (2017-10-10). "Comparison of postoperative outcomes among patients treated by male and female surgeons: a population based matched cohort study". BMJ. 359: j4366. doi:10.1136/bmj.j4366. ISSN 0959-8138. PMID 29018008.
Jump up ^ Gustafsson A & Lindenfors P (2004). "Human size evolution: no allometric relationship between male and female stature". Journal of Human Evolution. 47 (4): 253–266. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.07.004. PMID 15454336.
Jump up ^ Birke, Lydia. The Gender and Science Reader ed. Muriel Lederman and Ingrid Bartsch. New York, Routledge, 2001. 306-322
Jump up ^ Savic, Ivanka; Garcia-Falgueras, Alicia; Swaab, Dick F. (2010-01-01). "Sexual differentiation of the human brain in relation to gender identity and sexual orientation". Progress in Brain Research. Progress in Brain Research. 186: 41–62. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-53630-3.00004-X. ISBN 9780444536303. ISSN 1875-7855. PMID 21094885.
Jump up ^ Tanoyouye, Elyse (June 28, 1996). "Heredity Theory Says Intelligence in Males is 'Like Mother, Like Son'". Wall Street Journal: B1.
Jump up ^ Langreth, Robert (1997). "Hey guys, for your next party, try borrowing women's genes". Wall Street Journal.
Jump up ^ Neisser, U.; Boodoo, G.; Bouchard, T. J., J.; Boykin, A. W.; Brody, N.; Ceci, S. J.; Halpern, D. F.; Loehlin, J. C.; Perloff, R.; Sternberg, R. J.; Urbina, S. (1996). "Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns". American Psychologist. 51 (2): 77–101. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.51.2.77.
^ Jump up to: a b Nisbett, R. E.; Aronson, J.; Blair, C.; Dickens, W.; Flynn, J.; Halpern, D. F.; Turkheimer, E. (2012). "Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments". American Psychologist. 67 (2): 130–159. doi:10.1037/a0026699. PMID 22233090.
Jump up ^ Colom, R.; Juan-Espinosa, M.; Abad, F.; Garcı́a, L. ́S. F. (2000). "Negligible Sex Differences in General Intelligence". Intelligence. 28: 57–68. doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(99)00035-5.
Jump up ^ Hyde, J. S.; Lindberg, S. M.; Linn, M. C.; Ellis, A. B.; Williams, C. C. (July 2008). "DIVERSITY: Gender Similarities Characterize Math Performance". Science. 321 (5888): 494–495. doi:10.1126/science.1160364. PMID 18653867.
Jump up ^ Fine, Cordelia (2010). Delusions of Gender: How Our Minds, Society, and Neurosexism Create Difference. W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-06838-2.
Jump up ^ Ann M. Gallagher, James C. Kaufman, Gender differences in mathematics: an integrative psychological approach, Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-521-82605-5, ISBN 978-0-521-82605-1
Jump up ^ Lippa, Richard A. (2005). Gender, nature, and nurture (2. ed.). Mahwah, NJ [u.a.]: Erlbaum. pp. 12–44. ISBN 0-8058-5344-8.
Jump up ^ Hartung, CM; Widiger, TA (May 1998). "Gender differences in the diagnosis of mental disorders: conclusions and controversies of the DSM-IV". Psychological Bulletin. 123 (3): 260–78. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.123.3.260. PMID 9602559.
Jump up ^ Pietrzak, Laird, Stevens, Thompson, Robert, James, David, Nicholas (March 2002). "Sex differences in human jealousy: A coordinated study of forced-choice, continuous rating-scale, and physiological responses on the same subjects". Evolution and Human Behavior. 23 (2): 83–94. doi:10.1016/s1090-5138(01)00078-2. Retrieved 21 March 2013. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Hyde, Janet Shibley (September 2005). "The Gender Similarities Hypothesis". American Psychologist. 60 (6): 581–592. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.60.6.581. PMID 16173891.
Jump up ^ Tugend, Alina. "Engendering Sons". California (Winter 2014): 50.
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Jump up ^ Jeffery T. Walker, Sean Maddan (2013). Understanding Statistics for the Social Sciences, Criminal Justice, and Criminology. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 99. ISBN 1449634036. Retrieved August 7, 2016. [...] it is well supported in research that more men than women commit crimes. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Rowe, David; Vazsonyi, Alexander; Flannery, Daniel (1995). "Sex Differences in Crime: Do Means and Within-Sex Variation Have Similar Causes?" (PDF). Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. 32: 84–100. doi:10.1177/0022427895032001004.
Jump up ^ "[M]en who are involved in disputes with their partners, whether as alleged victims or as alleged offenders or both, are disadvantaged and treated less favorably than women by the law-enforcement system at almost every step." Brown, G. (2004). Gender as a factor in the response of the law-enforcement system to violence against partners. Sexuality and Culture, 8, (3-4), 3-139.
Jump up ^ Felson, R. B., & Pare, P. (2005). The reporting of domestic violence and sexual assault by nonstrangers to the police. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67, 597-610
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Jump up ^ Dommer, Sara Loughran; Swaminathan, Vanitha (2013). "Explaining the endowment effect through ownership: The role of identity, gender, and self-threat". Journal of Consumer Research. 39 (5): 1034–1050. doi:10.1086/666737.
Jump up ^ Bakan, David. "The duality of human existence: An essay on psychology and religion." (1966).
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Exploitation colonialism
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Exploitation colonialism: The world in 1898; European empires colonised the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Oceania.
Exploitation colonialism is the national economic policy of conquering a country to exploit its population as labour and its natural resources as raw material. The practice of exploitation colonialism contrasts with settler colonialism, the policy of conquering a country to establish a branch of the metropole (motherland). A reason for which a country might practice exploitation colonialism is the immediate financial gain produced by the low-cost extraction of raw materials by means of a native people, usually administered by a colonial government.
The geopolitics of an Imperialist power determine which of these colonial practices it will follow. In the example of the British Empire, colonists settled mainly in northern North America and in Australia, where the native populations declined due to disease and violence in the course of establishing a facsimile society of the metropole. Whereas the densely populated countries of the British Raj (1858–1947), in the Indian subcontinent, and the British occupation of Egypt and South Africa, as well as the island of Barbados, were ruled by a small populace of colonial administrators (colonial government) that redirected the local economies to exploitation management to supply the metropole with food, raw materials, and some finished goods.
Exploitation was often reinforced by colonial European geographers who implemented theories such as environmental determinism, which suggested warmer climates produced less civilized people.[1] These theories were among the scholarly canon that helped legitimize colonial activity and expansion into overseas territories.[1]
Geographers such as Friedrich Ratzel suggested that the survival of empire relied on its ability to expand its control and influence around the world.[1] By implying a correlation between colonial expansion and national success, geographers were able to produce a sense of nationalism within many European nations. Their influence created a sense of pride that was able to reassure subjects that their nation’s activity abroad was beneficial to not only them, but that their presence was necessary within the territories being occupied.[1]
Barbados was claimed for the English in 1625 by Captain John Powell, and by the 1660s the English had come to regard Barbados as being by far and away their most highly prized possession anywhere in the New World. The island's value to England, and the enormous wealth of a minority of its English inhabitants, hinged on the relationship that had been forged during the previous twenty years between sugar and slavery.[2]
See also[edit]
Banana republic
Dependency theory
Globalization
Impact of Western European colonialism and colonisation
Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917)
Political economy
Settler colonialism
Singer–Prebisch thesis
The Accumulation of Capital: A Contribution to an Economic Explanation of Imperialism (1913)
Ultra-imperialism
Canada/China FIPA
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Gilmartin, Mary (April 2009). Key Concepts in Political Geography. UK: SAGE Publications Ltd. p. 116.
Jump up ^ Wood, Betty (1997). The Origins of American Slavery: Freedom and Bondage in the English Colonies. New York: Hill and Wang. p. 45. ISBN 0-8090-7456-7.
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Diary of a Wimpy Kid (book series)
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This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 22 April 2018.
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"Diary of a Wimpy Kid (series)" redirects here. For the film series, see Diary of a Wimpy Kid (film series).
Diary of a Wimpy Kid
The logo of the series, appearing on the book covers, blogs, web comic, and the films.
Diary of a Wimpy Kid
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Rodrick Rules
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Last Straw
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Ugly Truth
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Cabin Fever
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Third Wheel
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Hard Luck
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Old School
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Double Down
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Getaway
Author
Jeff Kinney
Country
United States
Language
English
Genre
Realistic fiction
Publisher
Scholastic Publishing / Amulet Books / Puffin Books
Published
April 1, 2007 – present
Media type
Print (hardback & paperback)
Audiobook
E-book
Diary of a Wimpy Kid is a series of fiction books written by the American author and cartoonist Jeff Kinney.[1][2] All the main books are the journals of the main character, Greg Heffley. Befitting a teen's diary, the books are filled with hand-written notes and simple drawings of Greg's daily adventures.[3]
Since the release of the online version in May 2004, most of the books have garnered positive reviews and commercial success. As of February 2008[update], it has been purchased one million times.
The first, second, fourth, and ninth installments have been adapted into films by 20th Century Fox.[4]
The website Poptropica released islands in the theme of Diary of a Wimpy Kid called Wimpy Wonderland and Wimpy Boardwalk, both of which credit Kinney in an ambiguous contributor's role.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Chronology
2.1 Supplementary books
2.2 Toys and games
2.3 Audiobooks
3 Characters
4 Achievements
4.1 Awards and honors
4.2 Commercial success
5 Films
6 Musical
7 References
8 External links
Background[edit]
In January 1998, Diary of a Wimpy Kid officially began, when Kinney brought up an idea about a middle-school weakling named Greg Heffley, who wrote about his personal life. In May 2004, FunBrain and Kinney released an online version of Diary of a Wimpy Kid. The website made daily entries until June 2005.[5] He worked on his book for almost eight years, before showing it to a publisher in New York.
In February 2006, during the New York Comic Con, Jeff signed a multi book deal with publisher Harry N. Abrams, Inc., to turn Diary of a Wimpy Kid into a print series.[6]
The book became an instant hit, and the online version received about 20 million views as of 2009; many online readers requested a printed version. Kinney had agreed, and in April 2007, Diary of a Wimpy Kid was published.[5] To date, twelve Wimpy Kid books have been released, plus one do-it-yourself book and two movie diaries. In April 2009, TIME named Kinney one of The World's Most Influential People.[7]
Chronology[edit]
#
Title
Date
ISBN
1 Diary of a Wimpy Kid April 1, 2007 ISBN 978-0-8109-9313-6
The introduction to the series introduces the protagonist, Greg Heffley, his best friend Rowley, his middle school problems, Halloween, and the Cheese Touch.
2 Rodrick Rules February 1, 2008 ISBN 978-0-8109-9473-7
Greg must stop Rodrick from revealing the secrets that had happened last summer.
3 The Last Straw January 13, 2009 ISBN 978-0-8109-7068-7
When Greg's father threatens to send Greg to a military academy, Greg must find a way to prevent this from happening.
4 Dog Days October 12, 2009 ISBN 978-0-8109-8391-5
Summer is here, but when the family has not that much money to go to the beach (money is tight at that time), it might not be the best summer ever.
5 The Ugly Truth November 9, 2010 ISBN 978-0-8109-8491-2
Greg is growing up, and he will have to face the challenges of this period (like changing dentists, and a school lock-in).
6 Cabin Fever November 15, 2011 ISBN 978-1-4197-0223-5
The family is stranded in the house as snow begins to fall.
7 The Third Wheel November 13, 2012 ISBN 978-1-4197-0584-7
The Valentine's Day dance is coming up, and Greg has no one go with. But when Michael Sampson (Abigail's date) will not be going, things turn around.
8 Hard Luck November 5, 2013 ISBN 978-1-4197-1132-9
Greg's friend count is dropping as Rowley now has a girlfriend, named Abigail (continuing the last book).
9 The Long Haul November 4, 2014 ISBN 978-1-4197-1189-3
This is the family's second summer trip, but instead, it's a road trip. But with the Heffleys, you know what to expect from this disaster.
10 Old School November 3, 2015 ISBN 978-1-4197-1701-7
The neighborhood is going to cut electricity for the weekend, and as the family's car has a fender bender, it forces Greg to go to the farm trip. Will Greg survive the electricity-free days?
11 Double Down November 1, 2016 ISBN 978-1-4197-2344-5
Greg's mom wants him to do something else than video games, so he makes a movie in collaboration with Rowley and joins the music program.
12 The Getaway November 7, 2017 ISBN 978-1-4197-2545-6
Instead of celebrating the holidays at home, Greg and his family head on a tropical vacation to a resort. But what first starts as an relaxing trip, later turns into a Christmas nightmare. Will Greg be able to turn this vacation around?
Supplementary books[edit]
Diary of a Wimpy Kid Do-It-Yourself Book (published between Rodrick Rules and The Last Straw) is an activity book that features a blank section encouraging readers to keep their own journal in the style of the books.
The Wimpy Kid Do-It-Yourself Book: Extended Edition (published after Wimpy Kid Movie Diary 2 and before Cabin Fever) is the same book as the first Do-It-Yourself Book, but with extra 60 pages and 16 more full-color comics.
The Wimpy Kid Movie Diary is a book about the making of the first film, which features stills and brand-new illustrations. Jeff Kinney dedicated the book to the film's main stars, Zachary Gordon and Robert Capron.
The Wimpy Kid Movie Diary 2: Rodrick Rules is an updated version of the first book, now featuring stills from the second film Rodrick Rules, more new illustrations, and information on how the second film was made.[verification needed]
The Wimpy Kid Movie Diary 3: Dog Days is the second updated version of the first book, now adding stills from the third film Dog Days, and information on how this film was made.[verification needed]
The Wimpy Kid Movie Diary: The Next Chapter covers how the film The Long Haul was made. It is dedicated to Jason Drucker, the actor who played Greg in that movie.[8]
Toys and games[edit]
Action figures included a minifigure pack (with Greg, Rowley, and Fregley), a 6-inch Greg Heffley figure, a 6-inch holiday figure based on Cabin Fever, and a Greg and Rodrick plush doll.
Audiobooks[edit]
Twelve audiobooks have been released for the Diary of a Wimpy Kid series. The first six are read by Ramon de Ocampo and Dan Russell from number seven. They are presented by Recorded Books and distributed by Audible Inc.
Diary of a Wimpy Kid (April 1, 2007)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Rodrick Rules (February 1, 2008)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Last Straw (January 13, 2009)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days (October 12, 2009)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Ugly Truth (November 9, 2010)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Cabin Fever (November 15, 2011)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Third Wheel (November 13, 2012)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Hard Luck (November 5, 2013)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul (November 4, 2014)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Old School (November 3, 2015)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Double Down (November 1, 2016)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Getaway (November 7, 2017)
Characters[edit]
Main article: List of Diary of a Wimpy Kid characters
Greg Heffley is a wimpy student, who is the main character and narrator of the series.
Rowley Jefferson is Greg's childish best friend.
Rodrick Heffley is Greg and Manny's older brother, who is rude, and the drummer in his self-titled band, Löded Diper. He usually is noted for playing tricks on Greg.
Manny Heffley is Greg and Rodrick's spoiled younger brother, who is known to be a tattletale.
Susan Heffley is Greg's mother. She often embarrasses Greg.
Frank Heffley is Greg's father. He always wants Greg to do sports and "to become a man," and doesn't like giving up.
Gramma is Greg's grandmother on his mother's side.
Fregley is Greg's weird neighbor and classmate.
Chirag Gupta is one of Greg's friends whom he once played a trick on, pretending Chirag to have been invisible, then later pretended he was going deaf.
Holly Hills is Greg's crush, who once thought he was "Fregley."
Heather Hills is Holly's sister, and was Greg and Rodrick's crush.
Sweetheart otherwise known as Sweetie is the name given to the Heffleys' dog who Greg's dad buys in Dog Days. Later on, they give him to Greg's grandmother who spoils him and when he appears in later books, he is said to be very overweight.
The Heffleys' Pig was won by Manny in The Long Haul . The pig displays high intelligence, and walks upright in a reference to Animal Farm.
Abigail Brown is Rowley's girlfriend in The Third Wheel and in Hard Luck for the majority of pages, however it is later revealed that Abigail only did it to make her previous boyfriend feel bad.
Meemaw is Greg's great-grandmother on his mother's side (only in Hard Luck).
Gammie is Greg's great-grandmother on his father's side.
Vice Principal Roy The Vice Principal at Greg's school. He conducts most of the disciplinary action at his school.
Peepaw is Greg's great grandpa on his mother's side (only in Hard Luck).
Achievements[edit]
Awards and honors[edit]
Award
Category
Result
#1 New York Times Best Seller (114 weeks) Won
2008 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards Favorite Book
2009 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards Nominated
ALA Notable Book Won
2010 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards Favorite Book[9]
2010 Most Favorite Book Around the World
2011 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards Favorite Book
2012 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards
2013 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards Nominated
2014 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards Won
2015 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards
2016 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards
Commercial success[edit]
Diary of a Wimpy Kid was well received from The Princeton Review, Gold Card Association, The Dallas News, The TRR Editors, The NW Press, and The JJ Printing Company. The New York Times, which ranks children's serials collectively on a "Series Books" bestseller list, has included the Wimpy Kid series for 64 weeks as of August 10, 2015.[10] USA Today, which ranks best sellers based on sales alone regardless of genre or intended audience, has listed Diary of a Wimpy Kid in its top 150, peaking at number 8, for 141 weeks as of April 4, 2010.
As of the same date, Rodrick Rules has been on the list for 117 weeks (peaking at number 4), The Last Straw has been on the list for 65 weeks (peaking at number 1), Dog Days has been on the list for all 25 weeks of its publication (peaking at number 1), and The Wimpy Kid Movie Diary has been listed for all three weeks of its publication, peaking at number 2.[11]
The series has sold over 194 million books [12][13][14] in more than 30 countries.[15] The series has also generated over $500 million in revenue.[16]
Films[edit]
Main article: Diary of a Wimpy Kid (film series)
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (March 2017)
Jeff Kinney announced that a film based on the first book would be produced by 20th Century Fox. The film was released on March 19, 2010, moved up from an April 2 release date.[17] It was directed by Thor Freudenthal, who also directed Hotel for Dogs. The film starred Zachary Gordon as Greg, Robert Capron as Rowley (Greg's best friend), Steve Zahn as Frank (Greg's father), Rachael Harris as Susan (Greg's mother), Devon Bostick as Rodrick (Greg's older brother), Connor and Owen Fielding as Manny (Greg's younger brother), Chloë Grace Moretz as a new character named Angie, and Grayson Russell as Fregley.[4][18]
There is a second film in the Diary of a Wimpy Kid film series that was released on March 25, 2011,[19] which was based on the second book Rodrick Rules, with Zachary Gordon returning as Greg Heffley. Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Rodrick Rules was also filmed in Vancouver, BC, Canada. The film also contains some scenes from The Last Straw.
The third film combines the third and fourth books The Last Straw and Dog Days, taking stories from both, but mainly from Dog Days, from which it took its title. The decision to blend the two films was made to keep up with the ages of the actors. The film was released on August 3, 2012.[20]
The likelihood of a fourth live action film was slim. Kinney has announced the possibility for an animated film to be based on Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Cabin Fever as the next installment. In an interview for the latest book Hard Luck, Jeff Kinney stated he was working with Fox on a half-hour special of Cabin Fever, which was to be aired in late 2014,[21][22] but has since been delayed. In September 2016, Jeff Kinney announced officially the production of a fourth film, Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul, on his Twitter account.[23]
Musical[edit]
A musical titled Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Musical is being produced by the Children's Theatre Company.[24]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Browne, David (March 20, 2011). "All about Jeff Kinney". Parade. Retrieved December 27, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Ten years ago, Jeff Kinney created a new kind of comic hero". The Washington Post. Associated Press. April 26, 2017. Retrieved April 27, 2017. Abrams Books said the 12th book, coming November 7, will be called “Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Getaway.”
Jump up ^ Kinney, Jeff (April 2007). Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Greg Heffley's journal. Diary of a Wimpy Kid. Amulet Books. ISBN 0-8109-9313-9.
^ Jump up to: a b ""Diary of a Wimpy Kid (2010)" on". Comingsoon.net. March 19, 2010. Retrieved May 7, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Diary of a Wimpy Kid". FunBrain. Family Education Network. Retrieved March 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ "WIMPY 2 LAST". 3 November 2015. Retrieved 6 March 2016.
Jump up ^ The 2009 TIME 100: Jeff Kinney Time magazine's 2009 list of The World's Most Influential People
Jump up ^ Kinney, Jeff. "The Wimpy Kid Movie Diary: The Next Chapter". Retrieved March 28, 2017.
Jump up ^ Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards, Nick.com
Jump up ^ Dixler, Elsa. "The New York Times Best Sellers: Children's Books". The New York Times. Retrieved August 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ "USA Today: Best-Selling Books Database". USA Today. April 21, 2011. Retrieved May 7, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Read the new Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Getaway before anyone else".
Jump up ^ "Diary of a Wimpy Kid author Jeff Kinney is coming to Bath and tickets are on sale today".
Jump up ^ "THE GETAWAY TAKES OFF ON NOVEMBER 7, 2017".
Jump up ^ "Release Date Revealed for Wimpy Kid No. 5". Publishers Weekly. May 20, 2010. Retrieved May 7, 2011.
Jump up ^ Lewis, Andy (June 27, 2011). "Inside 'Diary of a Wimpy Kid's' $500 Million Franchise". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved December 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Rodrick Rules – On Double DVD and Blu-ray Now". Diaryofawimpykidmovie.com. Retrieved May 7, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Diary of a Wimpy Kid (2010)" on IMDb.com
Jump up ^ 'Diary of a Wimpy Kid' Sequel to Bow Next March. Moviefone. Retrieved January 15, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days". ComingSoon.net. CraveOnline. Retrieved August 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Hard Luck and Big Dreams: SLJ Chats with "Wimpy Kid" Creator Jeff Kinney". School Library Journal. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Minzesheimer, Bob (August 8, 2013). "Narrator hits 'Hard Luck' in eighth Wimpy Kid book". USA Today. Retrieved November 11, 2013.
Jump up ^ Kinney, Jeff (September 13, 2016). "OK, this is really happening! Filming starts next week in Atlanta!". Twitter. Retrieved October 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Wimpy Kid #11 to Hit Shelves This November". Publishers Weekly. Retrieved 2017-01-07.
External links[edit]
Official website
Online book on FunBrain
Official blog
Official movie site
[hide]
v
t
e
The Diary of a Wimpy Kid series by Jeff Kinney
Novels
Diary of a Wimpy Kid
Rodrick Rules
The Last Straw
Dog Days
The Ugly Truth
Cabin Fever
The Third Wheel
Hard Luck
The Long Haul
Old School
Double Down
The Getaway
Characters
Greg Heffley
Film series
Diary of a Wimpy Kid
Rodrick Rules
Dog Days
The Long Haul
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