text:
pH
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see PH (disambiguation).
pH values of some common substances
Acids and bases
pH
Reaction
Titration
Extraction
Dissociation constant (acid)
Acid strength
Acidity function
Buffer solutions
Proton affinity
Self-ionization of water
Amphoterism
Acid types
Brønsted
Lewis
Mineral
Organic
Strong
Superacids
Weak
Monobasic acid
Dibasic acid
Tribasic acid
Solid
Base types
Brønsted
Lewis
Organic
Strong
Superbases
Non-nucleophilic
Weak
v
t
e
In chemistry, pH (/piːˈ(h)eɪtʃ/) (potential of hydrogen) is a numeric scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. It is approximately the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the molar concentration, measured in units of moles per liter, of hydrogen ions. More precisely it is the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the activity of the hydrogen ion.[1] Solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. Pure water is neutral, at pH 7 (25 °C), being neither an acid nor a base. Contrary to popular belief, the pH value can be less than 0 or greater than 14 for very strong acids and bases respectively.[2]
Measurements of pH are important in agronomy, medicine, biology, chemistry, agriculture, forestry, food science, environmental science, oceanography, civil engineering, chemical engineering, nutrition, water treatment and water purification, and many other applications.
The pH scale is traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement.[3] Primary pH standard values are determined using a concentration cell with transference, by measuring the potential difference between a hydrogen electrode and a standard electrode such as the silver chloride electrode. The pH of aqueous solutions can be measured with a glass electrode and a pH meter, or an indicator.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Definition and measurement
2.1 pH
2.2 p[H]
2.3 pH indicators
2.4 pOH
2.5 Extremes of pH
2.6 Non-aqueous solutions
3 Applications
3.1 pH in soil
3.1.1 Classification of soil pH ranges
3.2 pH in nature
3.3 Seawater
3.4 Living systems
4 Calculations of pH
4.1 Strong acids and bases
4.2 Weak acids and bases
4.3 General method
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History
The concept of pH was first introduced by the Danish chemist Søren Peder Lauritz Sørensen at the Carlsberg Laboratory in 1909[4] and revised to the modern pH in 1924 to accommodate definitions and measurements in terms of electrochemical cells. In the first papers, the notation had the "H" as a subscript to the lowercase "p", as so: pH.
The exact meaning of the "p" in "pH" is disputed, but according to the Carlsberg Foundation, pH stands for "power of hydrogen".[5] It has also been suggested that the "p" stands for the German Potenz[not in citation given] (meaning "power"), others refer to French puissance (also meaning "power", based on the fact that the Carlsberg Laboratory was French-speaking). Another suggestion is that the "p" stands for the Latin terms pondus hydrogenii (quantity of hydrogen), potentia hydrogenii (capacity of hydrogen), or potential hydrogen. It is also suggested that Sørensen used the letters "p" and "q" (commonly paired letters in mathematics) simply to label the test solution (p) and the reference solution (q).[6] Currently in chemistry, the p stands for "decimal cologarithm of", and is also used in the term pKa, used for acid dissociation constants.[7]
Definition and measurement
pH
pH is defined as the decimal logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion activity, aH+, in a solution.[3]
p H = − log 10  ( a H + ) = log 10  ( 1 a H + ) {\displaystyle \mathrm {pH} =-\log _{10}(a_{{\textrm {H}}^{+}})=\log _{10}\left({\frac {1}{a_{{\textrm {H}}^{+}}}}\right)}
For example, a solution with a hydrogen ion activity of 5×10−6 = 1/(2×105) (at that level essentially the number of moles of hydrogen ions per liter of solution) has a pH of log10(2×105) = 5.3. For a commonplace example based on the facts that the masses of a mole of water, a mole of hydrogen ions, and a mole of hydroxide ions are respectively 18 g, 1 g, and 17 g, a quantity of 107 moles of pure (pH 7) water, or 180 tonnes (18×107 g), contains close to 1 g of dissociated hydrogen ions (or rather 19 g of H3O+ hydronium ions) and 17 g of hydroxide ions.
Note that pH depends on temperature. For instance at 0 °C the pH of pure water is 7.47. At 25 °C it's 7.00, and at 100 °C it's 6.14.
This definition was adopted because ion-selective electrodes, which are used to measure pH, respond to activity. Ideally, electrode potential, E, follows the Nernst equation, which, for the hydrogen ion can be written as
E = E 0 + R T F ln  ( a H + ) = E 0 − 2.303 R T F p H {\displaystyle E=E^{0}+{\frac {RT}{F}}\ln(a_{{\textrm {H}}^{+}})=E^{0}-{\frac {2.303RT}{F}}\mathrm {pH} }
where E is a measured potential, E0 is the standard electrode potential, R is the gas constant, T is the temperature in kelvins, F is the Faraday constant. For H+ number of electrons transferred is one. It follows that electrode potential is proportional to pH when pH is defined in terms of activity. Precise measurement of pH is presented in International Standard ISO 31-8 as follows:[8] A galvanic cell is set up to measure the electromotive force (e.m.f.) between a reference electrode and an electrode sensitive to the hydrogen ion activity when they are both immersed in the same aqueous solution. The reference electrode may be a silver chloride electrode or a calomel electrode. The hydrogen-ion selective electrode is a standard hydrogen electrode.
Reference electrode | concentrated solution of KCl || test solution | H2 | Pt[clarification needed]
Firstly, the cell is filled with a solution of known hydrogen ion activity and the emf, ES, is measured. Then the emf, EX, of the same cell containing the solution of unknown pH is measured.
pH(X) = pH(S) + E S − E X z {\displaystyle {\text{pH(X)}}={\text{pH(S)}}+{\frac {E_{\text{S}}-E_{\text{X}}}{z}}}
The difference between the two measured emf values is proportional to pH. This method of calibration avoids the need to know the standard electrode potential. The proportionality constant, 1/z is ideally equal to 1 2.303 R T / F {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{2.303RT/F}}\ } the "Nernstian slope".
To apply this process in practice, a glass electrode is used rather than the cumbersome hydrogen electrode. A combined glass electrode has an in-built reference electrode. It is calibrated against buffer solutions of known hydrogen ion activity. IUPAC has proposed the use of a set of buffer solutions of known H+ activity.[3] Two or more buffer solutions are used in order to accommodate the fact that the "slope" may differ slightly from ideal. To implement this approach to calibration, the electrode is first immersed in a standard solution and the reading on a pH meter is adjusted to be equal to the standard buffer's value. The reading from a second standard buffer solution is then adjusted, using the "slope" control, to be equal to the pH for that solution. Further details, are given in the IUPAC recommendations.[3] When more than two buffer solutions are used the electrode is calibrated by fitting observed pH values to a straight line with respect to standard buffer values. Commercial standard buffer solutions usually come with information on the value at 25 °C and a correction factor to be applied for other temperatures.
The pH scale is logarithmic and therefore pH is a dimensionless quantity.
p[H]
This was the original definition of Sørensen,[5] which was superseded in favor of pH in 1909. However, it is possible to measure the concentration of hydrogen ions directly, if the electrode is calibrated in terms of hydrogen ion concentrations. One way to do this, which has been used extensively, is to titrate a solution of known concentration of a strong acid with a solution of known concentration of strong alkaline in the presence of a relatively high concentration of background electrolyte. Since the concentrations of acid and alkaline are known, it is easy to calculate the concentration of hydrogen ions so that the measured potential can be correlated with concentrations. The calibration is usually carried out using a Gran plot.[9] The calibration yields a value for the standard electrode potential, E0, and a slope factor, f, so that the Nernst equation in the form
E = E 0 + f 2.303 R T F log  [ H + ] {\displaystyle E=E^{0}+f{\frac {2.303RT}{F}}\log[{\mbox{H}}^{+}]}
can be used to derive hydrogen ion concentrations from experimental measurements of E. The slope factor, f, is usually slightly less than one. A slope factor of less than 0.95 indicates that the electrode is not functioning correctly. The presence of background electrolyte ensures that the hydrogen ion activity coefficient is effectively constant during the titration. As it is constant, its value can be set to one by defining the standard state as being the solution containing the background electrolyte. Thus, the effect of using this procedure is to make activity equal to the numerical value of concentration.
The glass electrode (and other ion selective electrodes) should be calibrated in a medium similar to the one being investigated. For instance, if one wishes to measure the pH of a seawater sample, the electrode should be calibrated in a solution resembling seawater in its chemical composition, as detailed below.
The difference between p[H] and pH is quite small. It has been stated[10] that pH = p[H] + 0.04. It is common practice to use the term "pH" for both types of measurement.
pH indicators
Main article: pH indicator
Chart showing the variation of color of universal indicator paper with pH
Indicators may be used to measure pH, by making use of the fact that their color changes with pH. Visual comparison of the color of a test solution with a standard color chart provides a means to measure pH accurate to the nearest whole number. More precise measurements are possible if the color is measured spectrophotometrically, using a colorimeter or spectrophotometer. Universal indicator consists of a mixture of indicators such that there is a continuous color change from about pH 2 to pH 10. Universal indicator paper is made from absorbent paper that has been impregnated with universal indicator. Another method of measuring pH is using an electronic pH meter.
pOH
Relation between p[OH] and p[H] (red = acidic region, blue = basic region)
pOH is sometimes used as a measure of the concentration of hydroxide ions. OH−. pOH values are derived from pH measurements. The concentration of hydroxide ions in water is related to the concentration of hydrogen ions by
[ O H − ] = K W [ H + ] {\displaystyle [\mathrm {OH} ^{-}]={\frac {K_{W}}{[\mathrm {H} ^{+}]}}}
where KW is the self-ionisation constant of water. Taking logarithms
p O H = p K W − p H {\displaystyle \mathrm {pOH} =\mathrm {pK_{W}} -\mathrm {pH} }
So, at room temperature, pOH ≈ 14 − pH. However this relationship is not strictly valid in other circumstances, such as in measurements of soil alkalinity.
Extremes of pH
Measurement of pH below about 2.5 (ca. 0.003 mol dm−3 acid) and above about 10.5 (ca. 0.0003 mol dm−3 alkaline) requires special procedures because, when using the glass electrode, the Nernst law breaks down under those conditions. Various factors contribute to this. It cannot be assumed that liquid junction potentials are independent of pH.[11] Also, extreme pH implies that the solution is concentrated, so electrode potentials are affected by ionic strength variation. At high pH the glass electrode may be affected by "alkaline error", because the electrode becomes sensitive to the concentration of cations such as Na+ and K+ in the solution.[12] Specially constructed electrodes are available which partly overcome these problems.
Runoff from mines or mine tailings can produce some very low pH values.[13]
Non-aqueous solutions
Hydrogen ion concentrations (activities) can be measured in non-aqueous solvents. pH values based on these measurements belong to a different scale from aqueous pH values, because activities relate to different standard states. Hydrogen ion activity, aH+, can be defined[14][15] as:
a H + = exp  ( μ H + − μ H + ⊖ R T ) {\displaystyle a_{H^{+}}=\exp \left({\frac {\mu _{H^{+}}-\mu _{H^{+}}^{\ominus }}{RT}}\right)}
where μH+ is the chemical potential of the hydrogen ion, μoH+ is its chemical potential in the chosen standard state, R is the gas constant and T is the thermodynamic temperature. Therefore, pH values on the different scales cannot be compared directly due to different solvated proton ions such as lyonium ions, requiring an intersolvent scale which involves the transfer activity coefficient of hydronium/lyonium ion.
pH is an example of an acidity function. Other acidity functions can be defined. For example, the Hammett acidity function, H0, has been developed in connection with superacids.
The concept of "Unified pH scale" has been developed on the basis of the absolute chemical potential of the proton. This scale applies to liquids, gases and even solids.[16]
Applications
Pure water is neutral. When an acid is dissolved in water, the pH will be less than 7 (25 °C). When a base, or alkali, is dissolved in water, the pH will be greater than 7. A solution of a strong acid, such as hydrochloric acid, at concentration 1 mol dm−3 has a pH of 0. A solution of a strong alkali, such as sodium hydroxide, at concentration 1 mol dm−3, has a pH of 14. Thus, measured pH values will lie mostly in the range 0 to 14, though negative pH values and values above 14 are entirely possible. Since pH is a logarithmic scale, a difference of one pH unit is equivalent to a tenfold difference in hydrogen ion concentration.
The pH of neutrality is not exactly 7 (25 °C), although this is a good approximation in most cases. Neutrality is defined as the condition where [H+] = [OH−] (or the activities are equal). Since self-ionization of water holds the product of these concentration [H+]×[OH−] = Kw, it can be seen that at neutrality [H+] = [OH−] =√(Kw), or pH = pKw/2. pKw is approximately 14 but depends on ionic strength and temperature, and so the pH of neutrality does also. Pure water and a solution of NaCl in pure water are both neutral, since dissociation of water produces equal numbers of both ions. However the pH of the neutral NaCl solution will be slightly different from that of neutral pure water because the hydrogen and hydroxide ions' activity is dependent on ionic strength, so Kw varies with ionic strength.
If pure water is exposed to air it becomes mildly acidic. This is because water absorbs carbon dioxide from the air, which is then slowly converted into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions (essentially creating carbonic acid).
CO 2 + H 2 O ↽ − − ⇀ HCO 3 − + H + {\displaystyle {\ce {{CO2}+{H2O}<=>{HCO3^{-}}+{H+}}}}
pH in soil
Classification of soil pH ranges
The United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service, formerly Soil Conservation Service classifies soil pH ranges as follows: [17]
Denomination
pH range
Ultra acidic < 3.5
Extremely acidic 3.5–4.4
Very strongly acidic 4.5–5.0
Strongly acidic 5.1–5.5
Moderately acidic 5.6–6.0
Slightly acidic 6.1–6.5
Neutral 6.6–7.3
Slightly alkaline 7.4–7.8
Moderately alkaline 7.9–8.4
Strongly alkaline 8.5–9.0
Very strongly alkaline > 9.0
pH in nature
Lemon juice tastes sour because it contains 5% to 6% citric acid and has a pH of 2.2. (high acidity)
pH-dependent plant pigments that can be used as pH indicators occur in many plants, including hibiscus, red cabbage (anthocyanin) and red wine. The juice of citrus fruits is acidic mainly because it contains citric acid. Other carboxylic acids occur in many living systems. For example, lactic acid is produced by muscle activity. The state of protonation of phosphate derivatives, such as ATP, is pH-dependent. The functioning of the oxygen-transport enzyme hemoglobin is affected by pH in a process known as the Root effect.
Seawater
See also: Ocean acidification
The pH of seawater is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4.[18] It plays an important role in the ocean's carbon cycle, and there is evidence of ongoing ocean acidification caused by carbon dioxide emissions.[19] However, pH measurement is complicated by the chemical properties of seawater, and several distinct pH scales exist in chemical oceanography.[20]
As part of its operational definition of the pH scale, the IUPAC defines a series of buffer solutions across a range of pH values (often denoted with NBS or NIST designation). These solutions have a relatively low ionic strength (≈0.1) compared to that of seawater (≈0.7), and, as a consequence, are not recommended for use in characterizing the pH of seawater, since the ionic strength differences cause changes in electrode potential. To resolve this problem, an alternative series of buffers based on artificial seawater was developed.[21] This new series resolves the problem of ionic strength differences between samples and the buffers, and the new pH scale is referred to as the 'total scale', often denoted as pHT. The total scale was defined using a medium containing sulfate ions. These ions experience protonation, H+ + SO2−
4 ⇌ HSO−
4, such that the total scale includes the effect of both protons (free hydrogen ions) and hydrogen sulfate ions:
[H+]T = [H+]F + [HSO−
4]
An alternative scale, the 'free scale', often denoted 'pHF', omits this consideration and focuses solely on [H+]F, in principle making it a simpler representation of hydrogen ion concentration. Only [H+]T can be determined,[22] therefore [H+]F must be estimated using the [SO2−
4] and the stability constant of HSO−
4, K*
S:
[H+]F = [H+]T − [HSO−
4] = [H+]T ( 1 + [SO2−
4] / K*
S )−1
However, it is difficult to estimate K*
S in seawater, limiting the utility of the otherwise more straightforward free scale.
Another scale, known as the 'seawater scale', often denoted 'pHSWS', takes account of a further protonation relationship between hydrogen ions and fluoride ions, H+ + F− ⇌ HF. Resulting in the following expression for [H+]SWS:
[H+]SWS = [H+]F + [HSO−
4] + [HF]
However, the advantage of considering this additional complexity is dependent upon the abundance of fluoride in the medium. In seawater, for instance, sulfate ions occur at much greater concentrations (>400 times) than those of fluoride. As a consequence, for most practical purposes, the difference between the total and seawater scales is very small.
The following three equations summarise the three scales of pH:
pHF = − log [H+]F
pHT = − log ( [H+]F + [HSO−
4] ) = − log [H+]T
pHSWS = − log ( [H+]F + [HSO−
4] + [HF] ) = − log [H+]SWS
In practical terms, the three seawater pH scales differ in their values by up to 0.12 pH units, differences that are much larger than the accuracy of pH measurements typically required, in particular, in relation to the ocean's carbonate system.[20] Since it omits consideration of sulfate and fluoride ions, the free scale is significantly different from both the total and seawater scales. Because of the relative unimportance of the fluoride ion, the total and seawater scales differ only very slightly.
Living systems
pH in living systems[23]
Compartment
pH
Gastric acid 1.5-3.5[24]
Lysosomes 4.5
Human skin 4.7[25]
Granules of chromaffin cells 5.5
Urine 6.0
Cytosol 7.2
Blood (natural pH) 7.34–7.45
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) 7.5
Mitochondrial matrix 7.5
Pancreas secretions 8.1
The pH of different cellular compartments, body fluids, and organs is usually tightly regulated in a process called acid-base homeostasis. The most common disorder in acid-base homeostasis is acidosis, which means an acid overload in the body, generally defined by pH falling below 7.35. Alkalosis is the opposite condition, with blood pH being excessively high.
The pH of blood is usually slightly basic with a value of pH 7.365. This value is often referred to as physiological pH in biology and medicine. Plaque can create a local acidic environment that can result in tooth decay by demineralization. Enzymes and other proteins have an optimum pH range and can become inactivated or denatured outside this range.
Calculations of pH
The calculation of the pH of a solution containing acids and/or bases is an example of a chemical speciation calculation, that is, a mathematical procedure for calculating the concentrations of all chemical species that are present in the solution. The complexity of the procedure depends on the nature of the solution. For strong acids and bases no calculations are necessary except in extreme situations. The pH of a solution containing a weak acid requires the solution of a quadratic equation. The pH of a solution containing a weak base may require the solution of a cubic equation. The general case requires the solution of a set of non-linear simultaneous equations.
A complicating factor is that water itself is a weak acid and a weak base (see amphoterism). It dissociates according to the equilibrium
2 H 2 O ↽ − − ⇀ H 3 O + ( aq ) + OH − ( aq ) {\displaystyle {\ce {2H2O<=>{H3O+(aq)}+{OH^{-}(aq)}}}}
with a dissociation constant, Kw defined as
K w = [ H + ] [ OH − ] {\displaystyle K_{w}={\ce {[H+][OH^-]}}}
where [H+] stands for the concentration of the aqueous hydronium ion and [OH−] represents the concentration of the hydroxide ion. This equilibrium needs to be taken into account at high pH and when the solute concentration is extremely low.
Strong acids and bases
Strong acids and bases are compounds that, for practical purposes, are completely dissociated in water. Under normal circumstances this means that the concentration of hydrogen ions in acidic solution can be taken to be equal to the concentration of the acid. The pH is then equal to minus the logarithm of the concentration value. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is an example of a strong acid. The pH of a 0.01M solution of HCl is equal to −log10(0.01), that is, pH = 2. Sodium hydroxide, NaOH, is an example of a strong base. The p[OH] value of a 0.01M solution of NaOH is equal to −log10(0.01), that is, p[OH] = 2. From the definition of p[OH] above, this means that the pH is equal to about 12. For solutions of sodium hydroxide at higher concentrations the self-ionization equilibrium must be taken into account.
Self-ionization must also be considered when concentrations are extremely low. Consider, for example, a solution of hydrochloric acid at a concentration of 5×10−8M. The simple procedure given above would suggest that it has a pH of 7.3. This is clearly wrong as an acid solution should have a pH of less than 7. Treating the system as a mixture of hydrochloric acid and the amphoteric substance water, a pH of 6.89 results.[26]
Weak acids and bases
A weak acid or the conjugate acid of a weak base can be treated using the same formalism.
Acid: HA ↽ − − ⇀ H + + A − {\displaystyle {\ce {HA<=>{H+}+{A^{-}}}}}
Base: HA + ↽ − − ⇀ H + + A {\displaystyle {\ce {HA+ <=> {H+}+ A}}}
First, an acid dissociation constant is defined as follows. Electrical charges are omitted from subsequent equations for the sake of generality
K a = [ H ] [ A ] [ HA ] {\displaystyle K_{a}={\frac {{\ce {[H] [A]}}}{{\ce {[HA]}}}}}
and its value is assumed to have been determined by experiment. This being so, there are three unknown concentrations, [HA], [H+] and [A−] to determine by calculation. Two additional equations are needed. One way to provide them is to apply the law of mass conservation in terms of the two "reagents" H and A.
C A = [ A ] + [ HA ] {\displaystyle C_{{\ce {A}}}={\ce {[A]}}+{\ce {[HA]}}}
C H = [ H ] + [ HA ] {\displaystyle C_{{\ce {H}}}={\ce {[H]}}+{\ce {[HA]}}}
C stands for analytical concentration. In some texts one mass balance equation is replaced by an equation of charge balance. This is satisfactory for simple cases like this one, but is more difficult to apply to more complicated cases as those below. Together with the equation defining Ka, there are now three equations in three unknowns. When an acid is dissolved in water CA = CH = Ca, the concentration of the acid, so [A] = [H]. After some further algebraic manipulation an equation in the hydrogen ion concentration may be obtained.
[ H ] 2 + K a [ H ] − K a C a = 0 {\displaystyle [{\ce {H}}]^{2}+K_{a}[{\ce {H}}]-K_{a}C_{a}=0}
Solution of this quadratic equation gives the hydrogen ion concentration and hence p[H] or, more loosely, pH. This procedure is illustrated in an ICE table which can also be used to calculate the pH when some additional (strong) acid or alkaline has been added to the system, that is, when CA ≠ CH.
For example, what is the pH of a 0.01M solution of benzoic acid, pKa = 4.19?
Step 1: K a = 10 − 4.19 = 6.46 × 10 − 5 {\displaystyle K_{a}=10^{-4.19}=6.46\times 10^{-5}}
Step 2: Set up the quadratic equation. [ H ] 2 + 6 ⋅ 46 × 10 − 5 [ H ] − 6 ⋅ 46 × 10 − 7 = 0 {\displaystyle {\ce {{[H]^{2}}+{6.46\times 10^{-5}[H]}-6.46\times 10^{-7}=0}}}
Step 3: Solve the quadratic equation. [ H + ] = 7 ⋅ 74 × 10 − 4 {\displaystyle {\ce {{[H+]}=7.74\times 10^{-4}}}} ; pH = 3.11
For alkaline solutions an additional term is added to the mass-balance equation for hydrogen. Since addition of hydroxide reduces the hydrogen ion concentration, and the hydroxide ion concentration is constrained by the self-ionization equilibrium to be equal to K w [ H + ] {\displaystyle {\frac {K_{w}}{{\ce {[H+]}}}}}
C H = [ H ] + [ HA ] − K w [ H ] {\displaystyle C_{\ce {H}}={\frac {[{\ce {H}}]+[{\ce {HA}}]-K_{w}}{\ce {[H]}}}}
In this case the resulting equation in [H] is a cubic equation.
General method
Some systems, such as with polyprotic acids, are amenable to spreadsheet calculations.[27] With three or more reagents or when many complexes are formed with general formulae such as ApBqHr the following general method can be used to calculate the pH of a solution. For example, with three reagents, each equilibrium is characterized by an equilibrium constant, β.
[ A p B q H r ] = β p q r [ A ] p [ B ] q [ H ] r {\displaystyle [{\ce {A}}_{p}{\ce {B}}_{q}{\ce {H}}_{r}]=\beta _{pqr}[{\ce {A}}]^{p}[{\ce {B}}]^{q}[{\ce {H}}]^{r}}
Next, write down the mass-balance equations for each reagent:
C A = [ A ] + Σ p β p q r [ A ] p [ B ] q [ H ] r C B = [ B ] + Σ q β p q r [ A ] p [ B ] q [ H ] r C H = [ H ] + Σ r β p q r [ A ] p [ B ] q [ H ] r − K w [ H ] − 1 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}C_{\ce {A}}&=[{\ce {A}}]+\Sigma p\beta _{pqr}[{\ce {A}}]^{p}[{\ce {B}}]^{q}[{\ce {H}}]^{r}\\C_{\ce {B}}&=[{\ce {B}}]+\Sigma q\beta _{pqr}[{\ce {A}}]^{p}[{\ce {B}}]^{q}[{\ce {H}}]^{r}\\C_{\ce {H}}&=[{\ce {H}}]+\Sigma r\beta _{pqr}[{\ce {A}}]^{p}[{\ce {B}}]^{q}[{\ce {H}}]^{r}-K_{w}[{\ce {H}}]^{-1}\end{aligned}}}
Note that there are no approximations involved in these equations, except that each stability constant is defined as a quotient of concentrations, not activities. Much more complicated expressions are required if activities are to be used.
There are 3 non-linear simultaneous equations in the three unknowns, [A], [B] and [H]. Because the equations are non-linear, and because concentrations may range over many powers of 10, the solution of these equations is not straightforward. However, many computer programs are available which can be used to perform these calculations. There may be more than three reagents. The calculation of hydrogen ion concentrations, using this formalism, is a key element in the determination of equilibrium constants by potentiometric titration.
See also
Alkaline diet
Arterial blood gas
Bel
Chemical equilibrium
pCO2
References
Jump up ^ Bates, Roger G. Determination of pH: theory and practice. Wiley, 1973.
Jump up ^ Lim, Kieran F. (2006). "Negative pH Does Exist". Journal of Chemical Education. 83 (10): 1465. Bibcode:2006JChEd..83.1465L. doi:10.1021/ed083p1465.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Covington, A. K.; Bates, R. G.; Durst, R. A. (1985). "Definitions of pH scales, standard reference values, measurement of pH, and related terminology" (PDF). Pure Appl. Chem. 57 (3): 531–542. doi:10.1351/pac198557030531. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2007.
Jump up ^ Sorensen, S. P. L. (1909). "Über die Messung und die Bedeutung der Wasserstoffionenkonzentration bei enzymatischen Prozessen". Biochem. Zeitschr. 21: 131–304. Two other publications appeared in 1909 one in French and one in Danish
^ Jump up to: a b "Carlsberg Group Company History Page". Carlsberggroup.com. Archived from the original on 18 January 2014. Retrieved 7 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Myers, Rollie J. (2010). "One-Hundred Years of pH". Journal of Chemical Education. 87: 30–32. Bibcode:2010JChEd..87...30M. doi:10.1021/ed800002c.
Jump up ^ Nørby, Jens (2000). "The origin and the meaning of the little p in pH". Trends in Biochemical Sciences. 25 (1): 36–37. doi:10.1016/S0968-0004(99)01517-0. PMID 10637613.
Jump up ^ Quantities and units – Part 8: Physical chemistry and molecular physics, Annex C (normative): pH. International Organization for Standardization, 1992.
Jump up ^ Rossotti, F.J.C.; Rossotti, H. (1965). "Potentiometric titrations using Gran plots: A textbook omission". J. Chem. Educ. 42 (7): 375–378. Bibcode:1965JChEd..42..375R. doi:10.1021/ed042p375.
Jump up ^ Mendham, J.; Denney, R. C.; Barnes, J. D.; Thomas, M. J. K. (2000), Vogel's Quantitative Chemical Analysis (6th ed.), New York: Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-582-22628-7 , Section 13.23, "Determination of pH"
Jump up ^ Feldman, Isaac (1956). "Use and Abuse of pH measurements". Analytical Chemistry. 28 (12): 1859–1866. doi:10.1021/ac60120a014.
Jump up ^ Mendham, J.; Denney, R. C.; Barnes, J. D.; Thomas, M. J. K. (2000), Vogel's Quantitative Chemical Analysis (6th ed.), New York: Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-582-22628-7 , Section 13.19 The glass electrode
Jump up ^ Nordstrom, D. Kirk; Alpers, Charles N. (March 1999). "Negative pH, efflorescent mineralogy, and consequences for environmental restoration at the Iron Mountain Superfund site, California". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. PNAS. 96 (7): 3455–62. Bibcode:1999PNAS...96.3455N. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.7.3455. PMC 34288  . PMID 10097057.
Jump up ^ IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "activity (relative activity), a".
Jump up ^ International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (1993). Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry, 2nd edition, Oxford: Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-632-03583-8. pp. 49–50. Electronic version.
Jump up ^ Himmel, D.; Goll, S. K.; Leito, I.; Krossing, I. (2010). "A Unified pH Scale for all Phases". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 49 (38): 6885–6888. doi:10.1002/anie.201000252.
Jump up ^ Soil Survey Division Staff. "Soil survey manual.1993. Chapter 3, selected chemical properties". Soil Conservation Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 18. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 12 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Chester, Jickells, Roy, Tim (2012). Marine Geochemistry. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-118-34907-6.
Jump up ^ Royal Society (2005). Ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide (PDF). ISBN 0-85403-617-2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 July 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Zeebe, R. E. and Wolf-Gladrow, D. (2001) CO2 in seawater: equilibrium, kinetics, isotopes, Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam, Netherlands ISBN 0-444-50946-1
Jump up ^ Hansson, I. (1973). "A new set of pH-scales and standard buffers for seawater". Deep-Sea Research. 20 (5): 479–491. Bibcode:1973DSROA..20..479H. doi:10.1016/0011-7471(73)90101-0.
Jump up ^ Dickson, A. G. (1984). "pH scales and proton-transfer reactions in saline media such as sea water". Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta. 48 (11): 2299–2308. Bibcode:1984GeCoA..48.2299D. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(84)90225-4.
Jump up ^ Boron, Walter, F.; Boulpaep, E.L. (2004). Medical Physiology: A Cellular And Molecular Approach. Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 1-4160-2328-3.
Jump up ^ Marieb EN, Hoehn K (2010). Human anatomy & physiology. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-9591-1.
Jump up ^ Lambers, H.; Piessens, S.; Bloem, A.; Pronk, H.; Finkel, P. (2006-10-01). "Natural skin surface pH is on average below 5, which is beneficial for its resident flora". International Journal of Cosmetic Science. 28 (5): 359–370. doi:10.1111/j.1467-2494.2006.00344.x. ISSN 1468-2494. PMID 18489300.
Jump up ^ Maloney, Chris. "pH calculation of a very small concentration of a strong acid". Archived from the original on 8 July 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Billo, E.J. (2011). EXCEL for Chemists (3rd ed.). Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-0-470-38123-6.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to pH.
The pH Scale
Chem1 Virtual Textbook, Acid-base Equilibria and Calculations
Red Cabbage pH Indicator
Food and Foodstuff – pH Values
Online pH Calculator for about 100 inorganic Acids, Bases, and Salts
[hide]
v
t
e
Wastewater
Sources
Acid mine drainage
Ballast water
Bathroom
Blackwater (coal)
Blackwater (waste)
Boiler blowdown
Brine
Combined sewer
Cooling tower
Cooling water
Fecal sludge
Greywater
Infiltration/Inflow
Industrial effluent
Ion exchange
Leachate
Manure
Papermaking
Produced water
Return flow
Reverse osmosis
Sanitary sewer
Septage
Sewage
Sewage sludge
Toilet
Urban runoff
Quality indicators
Adsorbable organic halides
Biochemical oxygen demand
Chemical oxygen demand
Coliform index
Dissolved oxygen
Heavy metals
pH
Salinity
Temperature
Total dissolved solids
Total suspended solids
Turbidity
Treatment options
Activated sludge
Aerated lagoon
Agricultural wastewater treatment
API oil-water separator
Carbon filtration
Chlorination
Clarifier
Constructed wetland
Decentralized wastewater system
Extended aeration
Facultative lagoon
Fecal sludge management
Filtration
Imhoff tank
Industrial wastewater treatment
Ion exchange
Membrane bioreactor
Reverse osmosis
Rotating biological contactor
Secondary treatment
Sedimentation
Septic tank
Settling basin
Sewage sludge treatment
Sewage treatment
Sewer mining
Stabilization pond
Trickling filter
Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation
UASB
Vermifilter
Wastewater treatment plant
Disposal options
Combined sewer
Evaporation pond
Groundwater recharge
Infiltration basin
Injection well
Irrigation
Marine dumping
Marine outfall
Reclaimed water
Sanitary sewer
Septic drain field
Sewage farm
Storm drain
Surface runoff
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PH&oldid=822234750"
Categories:
Acid–base chemistry
Equilibrium chemistry
Units of measurement
Water quality indicators
Logarithmic scales of measurement
General chemistry
Hidden categories:
Wikipedia semi-protected pages
Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages
All articles with failed verification
Articles with failed verification from December 2017
Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2014
Commons category with local link different than on Wikidata
Use dmy dates from March 2012
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
View source
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
বাংলা
Bân-lâm-gú
Беларуская
भोजपुरी
Български
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Davvisámegiella
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Gaeilge
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Ido
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
ಕನ್ನಡ
Kapampangan
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Latina
Latviešu
Lietuvių
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
Bahasa Melayu
Монгол
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
日本語
Nordfriisk
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Novial
Occitan
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Scots
Shqip
Sicilianu
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Soomaaliga
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Basa Sunda
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
తెలుగు
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
Tiếng Việt
文言
West-Vlams
Winaray
粵語
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 25 January 2018, at 04:55.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

value: mw-page-base noprint

value: mw-head-base noprint

value: This article is semi-protected until February 3, 2020.

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value:
/wiki/PH_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
PH (disambiguation)

attr: role class

value:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0.2em 0 0.75em;

value:
/wiki/Strong_acid
mw-redirect
Strong acid

value:
/wiki/Dibasic_acid
mw-redirect
Dibasic acid

value: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

value:
/wiki/Activity_(chemistry)
mw-redirect
Activity (chemistry)

value:
/wiki/Basic_(chemistry)
mw-redirect
Basic (chemistry)

value:
/wiki/Hydrogen_electrode
mw-redirect
Hydrogen electrode

value:
/wiki/Danish_people
mw-redirect
Danish people

value: The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (December 2017)

value:
/wiki/Latin_language
mw-redirect
Latin language

value: vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:34.984ex; height:6.176ex;

value:
/wiki/Hydroxide_ion
mw-redirect
Hydroxide ion

value:
/wiki/Ion-selective_electrode
mw-redirect
Ion-selective electrode

value: vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:44.187ex; height:5.176ex;

value: The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (October 2014)

value:
noprint Inline-Template
margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;

value: vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:28.382ex; height:5.343ex;

value: {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{2.303RT/F}}\ }

value: vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:13.017ex; height:6.009ex;

value: vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:29.281ex; height:5.176ex;

value: {\displaystyle [\mathrm {OH} ^{-}]={\frac {K_{W}}{[\mathrm {H} ^{+}]}}}

value: vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:14.838ex; height:6.343ex;

value: {\displaystyle \mathrm {pOH} =\mathrm {pK_{W}} -\mathrm {pH} }

value: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:18.84ex; height:2.509ex;

value: \mathrm {pOH} =\mathrm {pK_{W}} -\mathrm {pH}

value:
/wiki/Alkaline_soils
mw-redirect
Alkaline soils

value: vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:26.808ex; height:7.509ex;

value: vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:29.469ex; height:3.343ex;

value:
/wiki/Lemon_juice
mw-redirect
Lemon juice

value:
/wiki/Plant_pigment
mw-redirect
Plant pigment

value:
/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Standards
mw-redirect
National Bureau of Standards

value: National Institute of Standards and Technology

value:
/wiki/Acid-base_homeostasis
mw-redirect
Acid-base homeostasis

value:
/wiki/Cubic_equation
mw-redirect
Cubic equation

value:
/wiki/Simultaneous_equation
mw-redirect
Simultaneous equation

value: vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:33.22ex; height:3.343ex;

value: vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:17.681ex; height:3.009ex;

value:
/wiki/Hydronium_ion
mw-redirect
Hydronium ion

value:
/wiki/Strong_base
mw-redirect
Strong base

value: vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:17.482ex; height:2.843ex;

value: vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:13.083ex; height:6.509ex;

value:
/wiki/Mass_conservation
mw-redirect
Mass conservation

value: vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:16.882ex; height:2.843ex;

value:
/wiki/Analytical_concentration
mw-redirect
Analytical concentration

value: vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:25.983ex; height:3.176ex;

value: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:27.663ex; height:3.009ex;

value: vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:42.399ex; height:3.343ex;

value: vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:20.182ex; height:3.176ex;

value: {\displaystyle {\frac {K_{w}}{{\ce {[H+]}}}}}

value: vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:5.384ex; height:6.176ex;

value: vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:23.941ex; height:6.509ex;

value: vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:28.452ex; height:3.009ex;

attr: columnalign rowspacing columnspacing displaystyle

value: right left right left right left right left right left right left

value: 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em

value: vertical-align: -4.338ex; width:43.079ex; height:9.676ex;

value:
/wiki/Arterial_blood_gas
mw-redirect
Arterial blood gas

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1021%2Fed083p1465

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1351%2Fpac198557030531

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1021%2Fed800002c

value:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10637613

value: International Organization for Standardization

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1021%2Fed042p375

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1021%2Fac60120a014

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.96.7.3455

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10097057

value: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

value:
nofollow
external text
http://goldbook.iupac.org/A00115.html

value: Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry

value:
/wiki/Angew._Chem._Int._Ed.
mw-redirect
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Fanie.201000252

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1468-2494

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18489300

value: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

value:
nofollow
external text
http://www.aqion.onl

value: Ballast water discharge and the environment

value:
/wiki/Fecal_sludge
mw-redirect
Fecal sludge

value:
/wiki/Dissolved_oxygen
mw-redirect
Dissolved oxygen

value:
/wiki/Heavy_metal_(chemistry)
mw-redirect
Heavy metal (chemistry)

value:
/wiki/API_oil-water_separator
mw-redirect
API oil-water separator

value:
/wiki/Carbon_filtration
mw-redirect
Carbon filtration

value:
/wiki/Stabilization_pond
mw-redirect
Stabilization pond

value: Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket digestion

value:
/wiki/Wastewater_treatment_plant
mw-redirect
Wastewater treatment plant

value:
/wiki/Marine_dumping
mw-redirect
Marine dumping

value: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value: navigation navbox Wastewater padding:3px

value: Category:Logarithmic scales of measurement

value: Category:Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages

value: Category:All articles with failed verification

value: Category:Articles with failed verification from December 2017

value: Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2014

value: Category:Commons category with local link different than on Wikidata

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value:
/wiki/PH
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

value:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

value:
This page is protected.
You can view its source [ctrl-alt-e]

value: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

value: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

value:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

value:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

value:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Find background information on current events

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

value:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

value:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH-Wert
PH-Wert – Alemannisch
als
als
interlanguage-link-target

value: أس هيدروجيني – Arabic

value: Вадародны паказчык – Belarusian

value: Водороден показател – Bulgarian

value:
https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Bosnian
bs
bs
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Welsh
cy
cy
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Northern Sami
se
se
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH-Wert
PH-Wert – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Greek
el
el
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Irish
ga
ga
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Hakka Chinese
hak
hak
interlanguage-link-target

value: 수소 이온 농도 – Korean

value: Ջրածնային ցուցիչ – Armenian

value:
https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Hindi
hi
hi
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Ido
io
io
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Hebrew
he
he
interlanguage-link-target

value: ಪಿ ಹೆಚ್ – Kannada

value:
https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Pampanga
pam
pam
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Kazakh
kk
kk
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Haitian Creole
ht
ht
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirxa_pH
Nirxa pH – Kurdish
ku
ku
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Latvian
lv
lv
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

value: Водороден показател – Macedonian

value: പി.എച്ച്. മൂല്യം – Malayalam

value: पी.एच. मूल्य – Marathi

value:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Burmese
my
my
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

value: 水素イオン指数 – Japanese

value:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Novial
nov
nov
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

value: ਪੀ.ਐੱਚ. (ਹਾਈਡਰੋਜਨ ਸ਼ਕਤੀ) – Punjabi

value:
https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH-Weert
PH-Weert – Low German
nds
nds
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skala_pH
Skala pH – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

value: Водородный показатель – Russian

value:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Albanian
sq
sq
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Sicilian
scn
scn
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Simple English
simple
simple
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Somali
so
so
interlanguage-link-target

value: PH вредност – Serbian

value:
https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Sundanese
su
su
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happamuus
Happamuus – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

value: காரகாடித்தன்மைச் சுட்டெண் – Tamil

value:
https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Telugu
te
te
interlanguage-link-target

value: พีเอช (เคมี) – Thai

value:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Ukrainian
uk
uk
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Vietnamese
vi
vi
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – West Flemish
vls
vls
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH
PH – Waray
war
war
interlanguage-link-target

value: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

value: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

value:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-PH rootpage-PH skin-vector action-view


text:
Edible bird's nest
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Edible bird's nest
Edible bird's nest
Place of origin
Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam
Region or state
Southeast Asia
Cookbook: Edible bird's nest Media: Edible bird's nest
Edible bird's nest
Traditional Chinese
燕窩
Simplified Chinese
燕窝
Literal meaning
"swallow nest"
[show]Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin
yànwō
Wade–Giles
yen4-wo1
IPA
[jɛ̂n.wó]
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization
yin-wō
IPA
[jīːn.wɔ́ː]
Jyutping
jin3-wo1
Southern Min
Hokkien POJ
iàn-o
Edible bird's nests are bird nests created by edible-nest swiftlets using solidified saliva, which are harvested for human consumption. They are particularly prized in Chinese culture due to their rarity, and supposedly high nutritional value and exquisite flavor. Edible bird's nests are among the most expensive animal products consumed by humans[citation needed], with nests being sold recently at prices up to about US$2,000 per kilogram, depending on grading.[1] The type or grading of bird's nest depends on the type of bird as well as the diet of the bird. It differs in colour from white to dark brown. The Chinese believe that it promotes good health, especially for the skin.[2] The nests have been used in Chinese cooking for over 400 years, most often as bird's nest soup.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Culinary use
3 Harvesting
4 Import restrictions
5 See also
6 Notes
7 Bibliography
8 External links
Etymology[edit]
The Chinese name for edible bird's nest, 燕窝 [yàn wō], translates literally as "swallow's (or swift's) nest", in indonesia called "sarang walet" and often serves as a synonym for bird's nest soup. However, 燕窝 [yàn wō] strictly speaking is the uncooked nest.[citation needed]
Culinary use[edit]
A bowl of bird nest soup in Miri, Malaysia.
The most famous use of edible birds nest is bird's nest soup, a delicacy[4] in Chinese cuisine. When dissolved in water, the birds' nests have a gelatinous texture used for soup or sweet soup [tàhng suay]. It is mostly referred to as 燕窝 [yàn wō] unless references are made to the savoury or sweet soup in Chinese cuisine. According to the Qing Dynasty manual of gastronomy, the Suiyuan shidan, bird nest was a delicate ingredient that must not be flavoured or cooked with anything strong tasting or oily. As well, while it is incredibly precious, it must also be served in relatively large quantities otherwise its texture cannot be fully experienced and enjoyed.[5]
In addition to their use in soup, edible bird's nests can be used as an ingredient in many other dishes. They can be cooked with rice to produce bird's nest congee or bird's nest boiled rice, or they can be added to egg tarts and other desserts. A bird's nest jelly can be made by placing the bird's nest in a ceramic container with minimal water and sugar (or salt) and double steamed. Ready-to-eat bird's nest jelly is available in jars as a commercial product.
Harvesting[edit]
The most heavily harvested nests are from the edible-nest swiftlet or white-nest swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus) and the black-nest swiftlet (Aerodramus maximus).[6] The white nests and the red nests are supposedly rich in nutrients, which are traditionally believed to provide health benefits.[3]
Most nests are built during the breeding season by the male swiftlet over a period of 35 days. They take the shape of a shallow cup stuck to the cave wall. The nests are composed of interwoven strands of salivary cement. Both nests have high levels of calcium, iron, potassium, and magnesium.[4]
Natural birds' nests on the Thai island called Bird's Nest Island.
Hong Kong and the United States are the largest importers of these nests.[7] In Hong Kong, a bowl of bird's nest soup would cost US$30 to US$100.[3][7] A kilogram of white nest can cost up to US$2,000, and a kilogram of red nests can cost up to US$10,000. The white nests are commonly treated with a red pigment, but methods have been developed to determine an adulterated nest. Natural red cave nests are often only found in limestone caves in a bird nest concession island in Thailand.[4] The high cost and demand has attracted counterfeiters, leading to the halt of Malaysian nest exports to China; the Malaysian government has undertaken to employ RFID technology to thwart counterfeiting by micro-chipping nests with details about harvesting, packaging and transport.[8] Industrial quality-control techniques such as failure mode and effects analysis have been applied to edible bird's nest processing at nesting houses in Sarawak, Malaysia and reported by a research team in by Universiti Malaysia Sarawak.[9][10][11]
The nests were formerly harvested from caves, principally the enormous limestone caves at Gomantong and Niah in Borneo. With the escalation in demand these sources have been supplanted since the late 1990s by purpose-built nesting houses, usually reinforced concrete structures following the design of the Southeast Asian shop-house ("rumah toko"/"ruko").[12] These nesting houses are normally found in urban areas near the sea, since the birds have a propensity to flock in such places. This has become an extraordinary industry, mainly based on a series of towns in the Indonesian province of North Sumatra, which have been completely transformed by the activity. From there the nests are mostly exported to the markets in Hong Kong, which has become the centre of the world trade, though most of the final consumers are from mainland China. It has been estimated[citation needed] that the products now account for 0.5% of the Indonesian GDP, equivalent to about a quarter of the country's fishing industry. The entire global industry is an estimated US$5 billion.[13]
Dried swiftlet nests ready for cooking
A box of bird nests selling for US$888.99
Ko Lao Liang Tai island, in southern Thailand, where bird nests are collected
A typical nesting house for swiftlets in Baan Laem, Phetchaburi province, Thailand.
Import restrictions[edit]
Because the bird's nest is an animal product, it is subject to strict import restrictions in some countries, particularly with regard to H5N1 avian flu. Import of nests into Australia is strictly prohibited unless imported with an official Customs and Quarantine import permit from the Australian Department of Agriculture.[citation needed] In Canada commercially prepared, canned and sterile bird's nest preparations are generally acceptable but may be subject to restrictions.[14]
See also[edit]
Traditional Chinese medicine
List of Chinese soups
List of delicacies
List of soups
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "eBay search: edible bird's nest, sold". Retrieved 7 March 2017.
Jump up ^ Maierbrugger, Arno (20 August 2013). "Vietnam seeks investors for edible bird's nest industry". Inside Investor. Retrieved 20 August 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hobbs, Joseph J. (2004). "Problems in the harvest of edible birds' nests in Sarawak and Sabah, Malaysian Borneo". Biodiversity and Conservation. 13: 2209–2226. doi:10.1023/b:bioc.0000047905.79709.7f. A few species of swift, the cave swifts, are renowned for building the saliva nests used to produce the unique texture of this soup.
^ Jump up to: a b c Marcone, Massimo F. (December 2005). "Characterization of the edible bird's nest the "Caviar of the East"". Food Research International. 38 (10): 1125–1134. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2005.02.008.
Jump up ^ "Seafoods 1: Bird's Nest (燕窩)". Translating the Suiyuan Shidan. 2014.
Jump up ^ Gausset, Quentin (2004). "Chronicle of a Foreseeable Tragedy: Birds' Nests Management in the Niah Caves (Sarawak)". Human Ecology. 32: 487–506. doi:10.1023/b:huec.0000043517.23277.54.
^ Jump up to: a b Park, Therese (8 February 2005). "Bird-nest Soup, Anyone?". Koreabridge Writings.
Jump up ^ "Chinese Delicacy Tagged with RFID". RFID World. 30 June 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Jong, Chian Haur; Tay, Kai Meng; Lim, Chee Peng (August 2013). "Application of the fuzzy Failure Mode and Effect Analysis methodology to edible bird nest processing". Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. 96: 90–108. doi:10.1016/j.compag.2013.04.015.
Jump up ^ Tay, Kai Meng; Jong, Chian Haur; Lim, Chee Peng (July 2014). "A clustering-based failure mode and effect analysis model and its application to the edible bird nest industry". Neural Computing and Applications. pp. 551–560.
Jump up ^ Chang, Wui Lee; Tay, Kai Meng; Lim, Chee Peng (Nov 2015). "Clustering and visualization of failure modes using an evolving tree". Expert Systems with Applications. 42: 7235–7244. doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2015.04.036.
Jump up ^ "Inside of a Successful Bird's Nest House". House of Bird's Nest. Retrieved 9 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Vietnam Seeks Millions for Edible Bird Spit Industry". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 9 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Egg Products - Import Procedures". Canadian Food Inspection Agency. 2014. Retrieved 29 July 2014.
Bibliography[edit]
Jordan, David (2004). "Globalisation and Bird's Nest Soup". International Development Planning Review. Liverpool University Press. 26 (1). Archived from the original on 21 October 2008.
Lau, Amy S. M.; Melville, David S. (April 1994). International Trade in Swiftlet Nests with Special Reference to Hong Kong. Traffic Network. ISBN 1-85850-030-3.
Jong, Chian Haur; Tay, Kai Meng; Lim, Chee Peng (August 2013). "Application of the fuzzy Failure Mode and Effect Analysis methodology to edible bird nest processing". Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. 96: 90–108. doi:10.1016/j.compag.2013.04.015.
Tay, Kai Meng; Jong, Chian Haur; Lim, Chee Peng (April 2015). "A clustering-based failure mode and effect analysis model and its application to the edible bird nest industry". Neural Computing and Applications. 26: 551–560. doi:10.1007/s00521-014-1647-4.
Chang, Wui Lee; Tay, Kai Meng; Lim, Chee Peng (Nov 2015). "Clustering and visualization of failure modes using an evolving tree". Expert Systems with Applications. 42: 7235–7244. doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2015.04.036.
Chai, Kok Chin; Jong, Chian Haur; Tay, Kai Meng; Lim, Chee Peng (Aug 2016). "A Perceptual Computing-based Method to Prioritize Failure Modes in Failure Mode and Effect Analysis and Its Application to Edible Bird Nest Farming". Applied Soft Computing. 49: 734–747. doi:10.1016/j.asoc.2016.08.043.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bird nest soup.
[show]
v
t
e
Cantonese cuisine
Main dishes
Bao yu
Bird's nest soup
Buddha's delight
Cantonese seafood soup
Chinese steamed eggs
Congee
Crispy fried chicken
Dragon tiger phoenix
Egg foo young
Hot pot
Lemon chicken
Pork Knuckles and Ginger Stew
Seafood birdsnest
Shark fin soup
Snake bite chicken
Soy sauce chicken
Steam minced pork
Subgum
Suckling pig
Sweet and sour pork
White boiled shrimp
White cut chicken
Wonton noodles
Yangzhou fried rice
Dim sum and yum cha
Annin tofu
Beef tripe
Cha siu bao
Chicken feet
Coconut bar
Har gow
Jian dui
Jiaozi
Lo mai gai
Nian gao
Ox-tongue pastry
Rice noodle roll
Shumai
Spring roll
Steamed meatball
Swiss wing
Taro cake
Taro dumpling
Tendon
Tofu skin roll
Turnip cake
Water chestnut cake
Yau gok
Youtiao
Zhaliang
Siu laap
Char siu
Chinese sausage
Lou mei
Orange cuttlefish
Roast goose
Siu mei
Siu yuk
White cut chicken
Desserts and pastry
Almond biscuit
Biscuit roll
Deuk Deuk Tong
Douhua
Ginger milk curd
Lo mai chi
Mooncake
Red bean cake
Red bean soup
Sausage bun
Tong sui
White sugar sponge cake
Condiments and spices
Fermented bean curd
Five-spice powder
XO sauce
Ingredients
Beef ball
Black bean paste
Chenpi
Conpoy
Fermented black beans
Fish ball
Fish slice
Frog legs
Garland chrysanthemum
Kai-lan
Mantis shrimp
Ong choy
Pig blood curd
Pig's ear
Prawn ball
Rapeseed
Saang mein
Sea cucumber
Shahe fen
Shrimp roe noodles
Spare ribs
Suan cai
Tofu skin
Wonton
Yi mein
Youmian
Zha cai
Others
Chinese herb tea
Dried shredded squid
Cantonese restaurant
Beijing cuisine
Shanghai cuisine
Hong Kong cuisine
Macanese cuisine
Chinese cuisine
History of Chinese cuisine
[show]
v
t
e
Guangdong topics
Guangzhou (capital)
General
History
Politics
Economy
Geography
Cities
Metropolitan areas
Chaoshan
Pearl River Delta
Sanyi (Sam Yup)
Sze Yup (Siyi)
Leizhou Peninsula
Regions
Pearl River Delta
Yuexi
Yuebei
Yuedong
Pearl River (China)
East River
West River
Nanling Mountains
Pratas Islands
Shamian Island
Education
Guangzhou Education
Shenzhen Education
Shenzhen University
Huizhou University
Guangdong Institute of Education
Guangzhou University
Culture
Lingnan culture
Cantonese people
Cantonese language
Taishanese language
Hailufeng dialect
Lingnan architecture
Tong lau
Lingnan garden
Cantonese embroidery
Teochew woodcarving
Lingnan penjing
Canton porcelain
Lingnan school of painting
Music
Cantonese opera
Nam Hoi Chiu
Nam yum
Cantonese music
Gou Wu
Cantonese poetry
Yum cha
Hung Ga
Wing Chun
Lingnan Confucianism
Flowermarket
Cantonese lion dance
Wong Tai Sin
Hung Shing
Cantonese merchants
Red cotton flower
Cantonese folktales
The Legend of Five Goats
Villain hitting
Hakka people
Teochew people
Cuisine
Cantonese cuisine
White boiled shrimp
Chinese steamed eggs
Beef chow fun
Chow mein
Char siu
Roasted suckling pig
Bird's nest soup
Seafood birdsnest
Cantonese fried rice
Dim sum
Leung cha
Tong sui
Hakka cuisine
Teochew cuisine
Visitor attractions
Danxia Mountain
Seven Star Crags
Dinghu Mountain
Xinfengjiang Reservoir
Zhongshan Park
Guangdong Provincial Museum
Humen Pearl River Bridge
Zhenhai Tower
Guangji Bridge
Canton Tower
Chime-Long Paradise
New South China Mall
Kaiping Diaolou
Nanhua Temple
Happy Valley Shenzhen
Chung Ying Street
Window of the World
Minsk World
Baiyun Mountain
Foshan Ancestral Temple
Dapeng Fortress
Nanfeng Kiln
Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall
Sacred Heart Cathedral
Chen Clan Ancestral Hall
Huaisheng Mosque
Temple of the Six Banyan Trees
Museum of the Mausoleum of the Nanyue King
Temple of Madam Xian
Category
Commons
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edible_bird%27s_nest&oldid=834529281"
Categories:
Chinese soups
Cantonese cuisine
Hong Kong cuisine
Bird breeding
Hidden categories:
EngvarB from July 2014
Use dmy dates from July 2014
Articles containing Chinese-language text
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from January 2016
Articles with unsourced statements from September 2014
Articles with unsourced statements from August 2013
Articles with unsourced statements from September 2015
Commons category with local link different than on Wikidata
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
العربية
Български
Español
Français
한국어
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
Lietuvių
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
日本語
Polski
Русский
Svenska
ไทย
Tiếng Việt
粵語
中文
9 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 6 April 2018, at 05:16.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

tag: div

attr: id class

value: mw-page-base noprint

key: html

type: local

value: mw-head-base noprint

tag: a

attr: id class lang

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

tag: p

tag: span

tag: caption

tag: img

attr: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attr: href class

tag: td

attr: colspan style

tag: tr

tag: th

attr: scope style

attr: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attr: href class title

value: wikibooks:Special:Search/Cookbook: Edible bird's nest

value: text-align:center;font-size: 125%; background-color: #b0c4de;

value: text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold;font-size: 100%; text-align: left; background-color: #f9ffbc;

value:
/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin
mw-redirect
Hanyu Pinyin

value: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2016)

value:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

value: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2014)

value:
/wiki/Qing_Dynasty
mw-redirect
Qing Dynasty

value: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)

value: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2015)

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.eswa.2015.04.036

value: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.asoc.2016.08.043

value:
/wiki/Bird%27s_nest_soup
mw-redirect
Bird's nest soup

value:
/wiki/Sweet_and_sour_pork
mw-redirect
Sweet and sour pork

value:
/wiki/Red_bean_soup
mw-redirect
Red bean soup

value:
/wiki/Sausage_bun
mw-redirect
Sausage bun

value: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

value: List of current and former capitals of subnational entities of China

value:
/wiki/Shamian_Island
mw-redirect
Shamian Island

value: List of universities and colleges in Guangdong

value:
/wiki/Hailufeng_dialect
mw-redirect
Hailufeng dialect

value:
/wiki/Guangdong_cuisine
mw-redirect
Guangdong cuisine

value:
/wiki/Danxia_Mountain
mw-redirect
Danxia Mountain

value:
/wiki/Guangdong_Provincial_Museum
mw-redirect
Guangdong Provincial Museum

value:
/wiki/Chime-Long_Paradise
mw-redirect
Chime-Long Paradise

value:
/wiki/New_South_China_Mall
mw-redirect
New South China Mall

value:
/wiki/Kaiping_Diaolou
mw-redirect
Kaiping Diaolou

value:
/wiki/Baiyun_Mountain_(Guangzhou)
mw-redirect
Baiyun Mountain (Guangzhou)

value: Museum of the Mausoleum of the Nanyue King

attr: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

value: Category:Articles containing Chinese-language text

value: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

value: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2016

value: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2014

value: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2013

value: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2015

value: Category:Commons category with local link different than on Wikidata

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value:
/wiki/Edible_bird%27s_nest
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

value:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

value: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

value: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

value:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

value:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

value:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Find background information on current events

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

value:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

value: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

value: Permanent link to this revision of the page

value: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

value: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

value: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

value: عش قابل للأكل – Arabic

value: Ядливо птиче гнездо – Bulgarian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

value: ငှက်သိုက် – Burmese

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-my
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

value: Съедобные птичьи гнёзда – Russian

value:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbon
Svalbon – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

value: รังนก (อาหาร) – Thai

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

value: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Edible_bird_s_nest rootpage-Edible_bird_s_nest skin-vector action-view


text:
Startup neutron source
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
RBMK reactor control rod positions at the moment of the Chernobyl disaster; blue=startup neutron sources (12), yellow=shortened control rods from the reactor bottom (32), grey=pressure tubes (1661), green=control rods (167), red=automatic control rods (12)
Startup neutron source is a neutron source used for stable and reliable initiation of nuclear chain reaction in nuclear reactors, when they are loaded with fresh nuclear fuel, whose neutron flux from spontaneous fission is insufficient for a reliable startup, or after prolonged shutdown periods. Neutron sources ensure a constant minimal population of neutrons in the reactor core, sufficient for a smooth startup. Without them, the reactor could suffer fast power excursions during startup from state with too few self-generated neutrons (new core or after extended shutdown).
The startup sources are typically inserted in regularly spaced positions inside the reactor core, in place of some of the fuel rods.
The sources are important for safe reactor startup. The spontaneous fission and cosmic rays serve as weak neutron sources, but these are too weak for the reactor instrumentation to detect; relying on them could lead to a "blind" start, which is an unsafe condition.[1] The sources are therefore positioned so the neutron flux they produce is always detectable by the reactor monitoring instruments. When the reactor is in shutdown state, the neutron sources serve to provide signals for neutron detectors monitoring the reactor, to ensure they are operable.[2] The equilibrium level of neutron flux in a subcritical reactor is dependent on the neutron source strength; a certain minimum level of source activity therefore has to be ensured in order to maintain control over the reactor when in strongly subcritical state, namely during startups.[3]
The sources can be of two types:[4]
Primary sources, used for startup of a fresh reactor core; conventional neutron sources are used. The primary sources are removed from the reactor after the first fuel campaign, usually after few months, as neutron capture resulting from the thermal neutron flux in an operating reactor changes the composition of the isotopes used, and thus reduces their useful lifetime as neutron sources.
Californium-252 (spontaneous fission)
Plutonium-238 & beryllium, (α,n) reaction
americium-241 & beryllium, (α,n) reaction
polonium-210 & beryllium, (α,n) reaction
radium-226 & beryllium, (α,n) reaction[5]
When plutonium-238/beryllium primary sources are utilized, they can be either affixed to control rods which are removed from the reactor when it is powered, or clad in a cadmium alloy, which is opaque to thermal neutrons (reducing transmutation of the plutonium-238 by neutron capture) but transparent to fast neutrons produced by the source.[2]
Secondary sources, originally inert, become radioactive and neutron-producing only after neutron activation in the reactor. Due to this, they tend to be less expensive. Exposure to thermal neutrons also serves to maintain the source activity (the radioactive isotopes are both burned and generated in neutron flux).
Sb-Be photoneutron source; antimony becomes radioactive in the reactor and its strong gamma emissions (1.7 MeV for 124Sb) interact with beryllium-9 by an (γ,n) reaction and provide photoneutrons. In a PWR reactor one neutron source rod contains 160 grams of antimony, and stay in the reactor for 5–7 years.[6] The sources are often constructed as an antimony rod surrounded by beryllium layer and clad in stainless steel.[5][7] Antimony-beryllium alloy can be also used.
The chain reaction in the first critical reactor, CP-1, was initiated by neutron sources generated during its prior subcritical test runs. The very first of those could have been initiated by ambient cosmic-ray neutrons. Similarly, in modern reactors (after startup), delayed neutron emission from fission products suffices to sustain the amplification reaction while yielding controllable growth times. (In comparison, a bomb is based on immediate neutrons and grows exponentially in nanoseconds.)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Atomic Energy of Canada (1997). Canada enters the nuclear age: a technical history of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. p. 224. ISBN 0-7735-1601-8.
^ Jump up to: a b U.S. Patent 4,208,247 Neutron source
Jump up ^ "Microsoft Word - lecture25.doc" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on June 29, 2011. Retrieved 2010-03-28.
Jump up ^ Ken Kok (2009). Nuclear Engineering Handbook. CRC Press. p. 27. ISBN 1-4200-5390-6.
^ Jump up to: a b Integrated Publishing. "Neutron Sources Summary". Tpub.com. Retrieved 2010-03-28.
Jump up ^ Karl-Heinz Neeb (1997). The radiochemistry of nuclear power plants with light water reactors. Walter de Gruyter. p. 147. ISBN 3-11-013242-7.
Jump up ^ "Memorandum from Raymond L. Murray to Dr. Clifford K. Beck". Lib.ncsu.edu. Retrieved 2010-03-28.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Startup_neutron_source&oldid=784766060"
Categories:
Neutron sources
Nuclear reactors
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Add links
This page was last edited on 9 June 2017, at 23:05.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

value: mw-page-base noprint

value: mw-head-base noprint

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attr: href title

tag: b

attr: class style

value:
/wiki/Reactor_core
mw-redirect
Reactor core

value:
/wiki/Fast_neutron
mw-redirect
Fast neutron

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.google.com/patents/US4208247

value: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

value:
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
interface

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value:
/wiki/Startup_neutron_source
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

value:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

value: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

value: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

value:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

value:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

value:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Find background information on current events

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

value:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

value: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

value:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

value: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

value: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

value:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Startup_neutron_source rootpage-Startup_neutron_source skin-vector action-view


text:
List of pig breeds
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
There are hundreds of breeds of the domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus).
Contents
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
See also
References
List with classification and standards[edit]
Breed
Origin
Height
Weight
Color
Image
Aksai Black Pied Kazakhstan 167–182 cm 240–320 kg (530–710 lb) Black & White
Red & Black
[1]
American Yorkshire United States --- --- White
Angeln Saddleback Germany --- 300–350 kg (660–770 lb) Black & White
Appalachian English --- --- --- --- ---
Arapawa Island New Zealand --- 100–180 kg (220–400 lb) Red & Black
[2]
Auckland Island Pig New Zealand --- --- Black, Black & Tan
[3]
Australian Yorkshire Australia --- --- --- ---
Babi Kampung --- --- --- --- ---
Ba Xuyen Vietnam --- 100 kg (220 lb) Black & White ---
Bantu --- --- --- --- ---
Basque France --- --- ---
Bazna Romania --- --- Black & White ---
Beijing Black China --- --- Black ---
Belarus Black Pied Belarus --- --- Black & White ---
Belgian Landrace Belgium --- --- White
Bengali Brown Shannaj --- --- --- --- ---
Bentheim Black Pied Germany 70–75 cm (28–30 in) 180–250 kg (400–550 lb) Black & White
Berkshire United Kingdom --- --- Black with some White markings
Bisaro Portugal --- --- Black & White ---
Bangur pig Nepal --- 205–600 kg (452–1,323 lb) Black and White ---
Black Slavonian --- --- --- Black ---
Black Canarian Pig --- --- --- Black ---
Breitovo Russia --- --- --- ---
British Landrace United Kingdom --- --- White ---
British Lop United Kingdom --- --- White
British Saddleback United Kingdom --- --- Black & White
Bulgarian White Bulgaria 21 --- White ---
Cantonese --- --- --- --- ---
Celtic pig Galicia, Spain 80 cm (31 in) --- Black & White
Chato Murciano Spain --- 180 kg (400 lb) Black or White or Black & White ---
Chester White United States --- --- White
Chiangmai Blackpig aka MooDum Chiangmai Thailand --- --- Black ---
Choctaw Hog United States --- 60 kg (130 lb) Black ---
Creole Pig Haiti --- --- --- ---
Cumberland Pig United Kingdom --- --- White
Czech Improved White --- --- --- White ---
Danish Landrace Denmark --- --- White ---
Danish Protest Pig Germany 92 cm (36 in) 350 kg (770 lb) Red & White
Dermantsi Pied --- --- --- --- ---
Li Yan Pig --- Singapore Boon Lay --- --- ---
Dharane Kalo sungur Dharan, Nepal --- --- --- ---
Duroc United States --- --- Red or Black
Dutch Landrace pig Netherlands --- --- --- ---
East Balkan pig --- --- --- --- ---
Essex United Kingdom --- --- Black & White
Estonian Bacon Estonia --- --- --- ---
Fengjing pig China --- --- --- ---
Finnish Landrance Finland --- --- --- ---
Forest Mountain Armenia --- 165–260 kg (364–573 lb) White ---
French Landrace France --- --- White
Gascon France --- --- Black
German Landrace Germany 80–90 cm 250–320 kg (550–710 lb) White
Gloucestershire Old Spot United Kingdom --- 220–280 kg (490–620 lb) White with Black spots
Göttingen minipig Germany 35 cm 34 kg (75 lb) White
Grice United Kingdom --- --- --- ---
Guinea Hog United States --- 200 kg (440 lb) Black
Hampshire United Kingdom --- --- Black & White
Hante --- --- --- --- ---
Hereford United States --- 200–370 kg (440–820 lb) Red & White ---
Hezuo --- --- --- --- ---
Hogan Hog Baraga, MI, United States --- --- --- ---
Huntingdon Black Hog United Kingdom --- --- Black with White socks ---
Iberian Iberian Peninsula --- --- Black, Red
Italian Landrace Italy --- --- White
Japanese Landrace Japan --- --- --- ---
Jeju Black Pig Jeju Island, South Korea --- --- Black
Jinhua pig --- --- --- --- ---
Juliana Europe --- --- Tri-Colored ---
Kakhetian Georgia --- --- ---
Kele pig --- --- --- --- ---
Kemerovo Russia --- --- --- ---
Korean Native Pig Korea --- --- Black ---
Krskopolje Slovenia --- --- --- ---
Kunekune New Zealand 60 cm (24 in) 68–100 kg (150–220 lb) Red, Black & White, Cream, Gold-tip, Black, Brown & Tri-colored
Lacombe Canada --- --- --- ---
Large Black United Kingdom --- 270–360 kg (600–790 lb) Black
Large Black-white --- --- --- Black & White ---
Large White United Kingdom --- --- White
Latvian White Latvia --- --- White ---
Leicoma --- --- --- --- ---
Lithuanian Native Lithuania --- --- Black & White, Red, Black & Tri-Colored ---
Lithuanian White Lithuania --- --- White ---
Lincolnshire Curly-Coated Pig United Kingdom --- --- White ---
Livny Russia --- --- --- ---
Malhado de Alcobaça Portugal --- --- Black & White ---
Mangalitsa Hungary --- --- Blonde, Swallow-Bellied, Red
Meishan China --- --- Black
Middle White United Kingdom --- --- White
Minzhu --- --- --- --- ---
Minokawa Buta --- --- --- --- ---
Mong Cai --- --- --- --- ---
Mora Romagnola --- --- --- --- ---
Moura --- --- --- --- ---
Mukota Zimbabwe --- --- --- ---
Mulefoot Gulf Coast --- --- --- ---
Murom --- --- --- --- ---
Myrhorod Ukraine --- --- Black & White ---
Nero dei Nebrodi Italy - Sicily 60–65 cm (24–26 in) 150 kg (330 lb) Black
Neijiang --- --- --- --- ---
Ningxiang --- --- --- --- ---
North Caucasian Russia & Uzbekistan --- --- --- ---
North Siberian Russia --- --- --- ---
Norwegian Landrace Norway --- --- White
Norwegian Yorkshire Norway --- --- --- ---
Ossabaw Island Ossabaw Island 51 cm (20 in) 90 kg (200 lb) Black, Spotted
Oxford Sandy and Black United Kingdom --- --- Red & Black spotted
Pakchong 5 Thailand --- --- --- ---
Philippine Native --- --- --- --- ---
Piétrain Wallonia --- --- White spotted
Poland China United States --- --- ---
Red Wattle United States 120 cm (47 in) 270–680 kg (600–1,500 lb) Red
Semirechensk Kazakhstan --- --- --- ---
Siberian Black Pied Russia --- --- Black & White ---
Small Black United Kingdom --- --- Black
Small White United Kingdom --- --- White
Spots --- --- --- --- ---
Surabaya Babi --- --- --- --- ---
Swabian-Hall Germany --- --- Black & White
Swedish Landrace Sweden --- --- White ---
Taihu pig China --- --- Black ---
Tamworth United Kingdom 50–65 cm (20–26 in) 250–370 kg (550–820 lb) Red
Thuoc Nhieu --- --- --- --- ---
Tibetan --- --- --- ---
Tokyo-X Japan --- --- --- ---
Tsivilsk Russia --- --- White ---
Turopolje Croatia --- --- ---
Ukrainian Spotted Steppe Ukraine --- --- --- ---
Ukrainian White Steppe Ukraine --- --- White ---
Urzhum Russia --- --- --- ---
Vietnamese Potbelly Vietnam 40–66 cm (16–26 in) 45–90 kg (99–198 lb) Black, Black with white markings
Welsh United Kingdom --- 110–140 kg (240–310 lb) White ---
Wessex Saddleback United Kingdom --- --- Black & White
West French White France --- --- White
Windsnyer --- --- --- --- ---
Wuzishan --- --- --- --- ---
Yanan --- --- --- --- ---
Yorkshire Blue and White United Kingdom --- --- --- ---
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pig breeds.
Animals portal
List of sheep breeds
List of goat breeds
List of cattle breeds
Lists of domestic animal breeds
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Aksai Black Pied Pig Info, Farming, Meat Production, Pictures | Breeds List". www.breedslist.com. Retrieved 2017-02-25.
Jump up ^ "Aksai Black Pied Pig Info, Farming, Meat Production, Pictures | Breeds List". www.breedslist.com. Retrieved 2017-02-25.
Jump up ^ "Aksai Black Pied Pig Info, Farming, Meat Production, Pictures | Breeds List". www.breedslist.com. Retrieved 2017-02-25.
"Breeds of Livestock - Swine Breeds". ansi.okstate.edu. Oklahoma State University Dept. of Animal Science.
Ekarius, Carol (2008). Storey's Illustrated Breed Guide to Sheep, Goats, Cattle and Pigs. Storey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60342-036-5.
[show]
v
t
e
Pigs
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Mammalia
Order Artiodactyla
Suborder Suina
Family Suidae
Subfamily Suinae
Genus Sus
Domestic
Breeding
Shows
Farming
Intensive farming
Sty
Pannage
Toilet
Hog oiler
Gestation crate
Cross-fostering
Swineherd
As food
Bacon
Ham
Lard
Pork
Scalder
Slaughter
Suckling
Blood
Religious restrictions
Scottish pork taboo
Cuts
Back bacon
Boston butt
Fatback
Ham hock
Pig's trotters
Pork belly
Pork chop
Pork jowl
Loin
Tenderloin
Ribs
Spare ribs
Pork rind
Pork steak
Ear
Tail
Other uses
Bladder
Racing
War
Wrestling
Truffling
Wild and Feral
Wild boar
Heraldry
Hunting
In the Philippines
Razorback
Pigs in culture
Iron Age pig
Flitch of bacon custom
Miss Piggy
Pigs in Space
Porky Pig
Piglet
"The Three Little Pigs"
Animal Farm
Old Major
Napoleon
Snowball
Squealer
Babe
Babe: Pig in the City
Bad Piggies
My Brother the Pig
Charlotte's Web
The Sheep-Pig
Peppa Pig
Super Pig
Fair, then Partly Piggy
Jakers! The Adventures of Piggley Winks
Olivia (character
TV series)
Pink Floyd pigs
Pinky and Perky
Preston Pig
Rasher
Spider-Ham
Spider pig
The Tale of Little Pig Robinson
The Tale of Pigling Bland
"This Little Piggy"
Huxley Pig
Wibbly Pig
Zhu Bajie
Other
List of pigs
List of fictional pigs
Piganino
Pigasus (politics)
"When pigs fly"
[show]
v
t
e
Breeds and cultivars
Lists of breeds
Lists of cultivars
Methods
Backcrossing
Crossbreed
Inbreeding
Marker-assisted selection
Mutation breeding
Outcrossing
Preservation breeding
Selective breeding
Smart breeding
Hybrid
Purebred
Animal breeds
Cat
Cattle
Chicken
Dog
breeding
Donkey
Duck
Goat
Goose
Guinea pig
Horse
breeding
Pig
Pigeon
breeding
Rabbit
Sheep
Turkey
Water buffalo
Backyard breeder
Breed standard
Breed type
Breeding back
Breeding pair
Breeding program
Captive breeding
Designer crossbreed
Plant cultivars
Apple
Banana
Basil
Callistemon
Canna
Cannabis
Cherimoya
Citrus (hybrids)
Coffee
Cucumber
Gazania
Grape
Grevillea
Hop
Mango
Narcissus (daffodils)
Nemesia
Nepenthes
Olives
Onion
Pear
Pumpkin
Rice
Rose (breeders · cultivars)
Strawberry
Sweet potato
Sweetcorn
Tomato
Venus flytrap
Heirloom plant
Plant breeding in Nepal
Tree breeding
Selection methods
and genetics
Culling
Marker-assisted selection
Natural selection
balancing
directional
disruptive
negative
selective sweep
stabilizing
Selection methods in plant breeding
Genotype
Phenotype
Dominance
Codominance
Epistasis
Dwarfing
Heterosis
Outbreeding depression
Inbreeding depression
Recessive trait
Sex linkage
F1 hybrid
Other
Breed registry
Breeder
Germline
Landrace
Rare breed
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_pig_breeds&oldid=819118689"
Categories:
Pig breeds
Lists of breeds
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Čeština
Deutsch
Français
Galego
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
Norsk
Русский
Slovenščina
Tiếng Việt
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 7 January 2018, at 15:30.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

value: mw-page-base noprint

value: mw-head-base noprint

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

tag: i

attr: id style

value: tocheading font-weight:bold;

value: toctitle text-align:center;

tag: li

value: Edit section: List with classification and standards

value:
headerSort
0
columnheader button
Sort ascending

value:
/wiki/Aksai_Black_Pied_(pig)
mw-redirect
Aksai Black Pied (pig)

value: Appalachian English (pig) (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Arapawa_Pig
mw-redirect
Arapawa Pig

value:
/wiki/Auckland_Island_Pig
mw-redirect
Auckland Island Pig

value:
/wiki/Basque_(pig)
mw-redirect
Basque (pig)

value:
/wiki/Bazna_(pig)
mw-redirect
Bazna (pig)

value:
/wiki/Belarus_Black_Pied
mw-redirect
Belarus Black Pied

value: Bengali Brown Shannaj (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Bentheim_Black_Pied
mw-redirect
Bentheim Black Pied

value:
/wiki/Berkshire_(pig)
mw-redirect
Berkshire (pig)

value: Adelaide champion Berkshire boar 2005.jpg

value: Black Canarian Pig (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/British_Landrace
mw-redirect
British Landrace

value: British Lop sow at Stoneleigh Park, Warwickshire.jpg

value: Chiangmai Blackpig aka MooDum Chiangmai (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Choctaw_Hog
mw-redirect
Choctaw Hog

value:
/wiki/Cumberland_Pig
mw-redirect
Cumberland Pig

value: Czech Improved White (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Danish_Landrace_(pig)
mw-redirect
Danish Landrace (pig)

value: Singapore Boon Lay (page does not exist)

value: Dharane Kalo sungur (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Duroc_(pig)
mw-redirect
Duroc (pig)

value:
/wiki/Essex_(pig)
mw-redirect
Essex (pig)

value:
/wiki/Estonian_Bacon
mw-redirect
Estonian Bacon

value:
/wiki/Forest_Mountain
mw-redirect
Forest Mountain

value:
/wiki/Gascon_(pig)
mw-redirect
Gascon (pig)

value:
/wiki/Hampshire_(pig)
mw-redirect
Hampshire (pig)

value:
/wiki/Hereford_(pig)
mw-redirect
Hereford (pig)

value: Huntingdon Black Hog (pig) (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Jeju_Black_Pig
mw-redirect
Jeju Black Pig

value:
/wiki/Juliana_(pig)
mw-redirect
Juliana (pig)

value:
/wiki/Kakhetian_(pig)
mw-redirect
Kakhetian (pig)

value:
/wiki/Kemerovo_(pig)
mw-redirect
Kemerovo (pig)

value:
/wiki/Korean_native_pig
mw-redirect
Korean native pig

value:
/wiki/Lacombe_(pig)
mw-redirect
Lacombe (pig)

value:
/wiki/Large_Black_(pig)
mw-redirect
Large Black (pig)

value:
/wiki/Latvian_White_(pig)
mw-redirect
Latvian White (pig)

value:
/wiki/Lithuanian_White_(pig)
mw-redirect
Lithuanian White (pig)

value:
/wiki/Lincolnshire_curly-coated_pig
mw-redirect
Lincolnshire curly-coated pig

value:
/wiki/Livny_(pig)
mw-redirect
Livny (pig)

value: Malhado de Alcobaça (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Meishan_(pig)
mw-redirect
Meishan (pig)

value:
/wiki/Myrhorod_(pig)
mw-redirect
Myrhorod (pig)

value:
/wiki/Nero_dei_Nebrodi
mw-redirect
Nero dei Nebrodi

value:
/wiki/North_Caucasian_(pig)
mw-redirect
North Caucasian (pig)

value:
/wiki/North_Siberian_(pig)
mw-redirect
North Siberian (pig)

value:
/wiki/Norwegian_Landrace
mw-redirect
Norwegian Landrace

value: Norwegian Yorkshire (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Ossabaw_Island_Hog
mw-redirect
Ossabaw Island Hog

value:
/wiki/Red_Wattle_Hog
mw-redirect
Red Wattle Hog

value:
/wiki/Siberian_Black_Pied_(pig)
mw-redirect
Siberian Black Pied (pig)

value:
/wiki/Small_Black_(pig)
mw-redirect
Small Black (pig)

value:
/wiki/Small_White_(pig)
mw-redirect
Small White (pig)

value: Surabaya Babi (pig) (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Swedish_Landrace_(pig)
mw-redirect
Swedish Landrace (pig)

value:
/wiki/Tamworth_(pig)
mw-redirect
Tamworth (pig)

value:
/wiki/Tsivilsk_(pig)
mw-redirect
Tsivilsk (pig)

value:
/wiki/Vietnamese_Potbelly
mw-redirect
Vietnamese Potbelly

value:
/wiki/Welsh_(pig)
mw-redirect
Welsh (pig)

value: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

value: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

value:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

value:
/wiki/Oklahoma_State_University
mw-redirect
Oklahoma State University

value:
/wiki/Storey_Publishing
mw-redirect
Storey Publishing

value:
/wiki/Hog_farming
mw-redirect
Hog farming

value: Religious restrictions on the consumption of pork

value:
navbox-image
4
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

value:
/wiki/Pigs_in_Space
mw-redirect
Pigs in Space

value: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value:
/wiki/Citrus_hybrid
mw-redirect
Citrus hybrid

value: List of Narcissus horticultural divisions

value: List of pumpkin varieties grown in the United States

value: Selection methods in plant breeding based on mode of reproduction

value:
/wiki/Recessive_trait
mw-redirect
Recessive trait

value:
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
interface

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value:
/wiki/List_of_pig_breeds
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

value:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

value: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

value: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

value:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

value:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

value:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Permanent link to this revision of the page

value: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

value: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

value: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

value: Проект:Сельское хозяйство/Списки/Список пород домашних свиней – Russian

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-List_of_pig_breeds rootpage-List_of_pig_breeds skin-vector action-view