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Santiago de Compostela
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Santiago de Compostela
City and Municipality
Santiago de Compostela, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Flag
Coat of arms
Location of the municipality of Santiago de Compostela within Galicia
Santiago de Compostela
Santiago de Compostela
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Location of Santiago de Compostela
Coordinates: 42°52′40″N 8°32′40″W / 42.87778°N 8.54444°W / 42.87778; -8.54444Coordinates: 42°52′40″N 8°32′40″W / 42.87778°N 8.54444°W / 42.87778; -8.54444
Country
Spain
Autonomous Community
Galicia
Province
A Coruña
Comarca
Santiago
Parishes
30[show]
Aríns
Bando
A Barciela
Busto
O Carballal
O Castiñeiriño
Cesar
Conxo
O Eixo
A Enfesta
Fecha
Figueiras
Fontiñas
Grixoa
Laraño
Marantes
Marrozos
Nemenzo
A Peregrina
Sabugueira
San Caetano
San Lázaro
San Paio
Santa Cristina de Fecha
Santiago de Compostela
Sar
Verdía
Vidán
Villestro
Vista Alegre
Government
• Type
Mayor-council
• Body
Council of Santiago
• Mayor
Martiño Noriega Sánchez (Compostela Aberta)
Area
• Total
220 km2 (80 sq mi)
Elevation
260 m (850 ft)
Population (2012)INE
• Total
95,671
• Density
428.81/km2 (1,110.6/sq mi)
Demonym(s)
Santiagan
santiagués, -guesa (gl / es)
compostelán, -á (gl)
compostelano, -na (es)
Time zone
CET (GMT +1)
• Summer (DST)
CEST (GMT +2) (UTC)
Area code(s)
+34
Website
www.santiagodecompostela.gal
Santiago de Compostela,[a] commonly known as Santiago (/ˌsæntiˈɑːɡoʊ/, Galician: [sanˈtiaɣo], Spanish: [sanˈtjaɣo]), is the capital of the autonomous community of Galicia in northwestern Spain.
The city has its origin in the shrine of Saint James the Great, now the city's cathedral, as destination of the Way of St. James, a leading Catholic pilgrimage route originated in the 9th century. In 1985 the city's Old Town was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Contents
[hide]
1 Toponym
2 The city
2.1 Climate
3 Administration
3.1 2015 city council elections results
4 Population
5 History
6 Economy
7 Way of St. James
7.1 Legends
7.2 Establishment of the shrine
7.3 Pre-Christian legends
7.4 In popular culture
8 Main sights
9 Transport
10 Notable people
10.1 sport
11 International relations
11.1 Twin towns/Sister cities
12 See also
13 Notes
14 References
15 Bibliography
16 External links
Toponym[edit]
Santiago is the local Galician evolution of Vulgar Latin Sanctus Iacobus "Saint James". According to legend, Compostela derives from the Latin Campus Stellae (i.e., "field of the star"); it seems unlikely, however, that this phrase could have yielded the modern Compostela under normal evolution from Latin to Medieval Galician.
Other etymologies derive the name from Latin compositum, local Vulgar Latin Composita Tella, meaning "burial ground", or simply from Latin compositella, meaning "the well-composed one". Other sites in Galicia share this toponym, akin to Compostilla in the province of León. Compostela, camp of stars, long before Christianity appeared in the region, the area was part of a pilgrimage that came from France to this site following the stars.
The city[edit]
The cathedral borders the main plaza of the old and well-preserved city. Legend has it that the remains of the apostle James were brought to Galicia for burial. In 813, according to medieval legend, the light of a bright star guided a shepherd who was watching his flock at night to the burial site in Santiago de Compostela.[1] This site was originally called Mount Libredon and its physical topography leads prevalent sea borne winds to clear the cloud deck immediately overhead.[2][citation needed] The shepherd quickly reported his discovery to the bishop of Iria, Bishop Teodomiro.[3] The bishop declared that the remains were those of the apostle James and immediately notified King Alfonso II in Oviedo.[3] To honour St. James, the cathedral was built on the spot where his remains were said to have been found. The legend, which included numerous miraculous events, enabled the Catholic faithful to bolster support for their stronghold in northern Spain during the Christian crusades against the Moors, but also led to the growth and development of the city.[4]
Along the western side of the Praza do Obradoiro is the elegant 18th century Pazo de Raxoi, now the city hall. Across the square is the Pazo de Raxoi (Raxoi's Palace), the town hall, and on the right from the cathedral steps is the Hostal dos Reis Católicos, founded in 1492 by the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella of Castille and Ferdinand II of Aragon, as a pilgrims' hospice (now a parador). The Obradoiro façade of the cathedral, the best known, is depicted on the Spanish euro coins of 1 cent, 2 cents, and 5 cents (€0.01, €0.02, and €0.05).
Santiago is the site of the University of Santiago de Compostela, established in the early 16th century. The main campus can be seen best from an alcove in the large municipal park in the centre of the city.
Within the old town there are many narrow winding streets full of historic buildings. The new town all around it has less character though some of the older parts of the new town have some big flats in them.
Santiago de Compostela has a substantial nightlife. Both in the new town (a zona nova in Galician, la zona nueva in Spanish or ensanche) and the old town (a zona vella in Galician or la zona vieja in Spanish, trade-branded as zona monumental), a mix of middle-aged residents and younger students maintain a lively presence until the early hours of the morning. Radiating from the centre of the city, the historic cathedral is surrounded by paved granite streets, tucked away in the old town, and separated from the newer part of the city by the largest of many parks throughout the city, Parque da Alameda.
Santiago gives its name to one of the four military orders of Spain: Santiago, Calatrava, Alcántara and Montesa.
One of the most important economic centres in Galicia, Santiago is the seat for organisations like Association for Equal and Fair Trade Pangaea.
Climate[edit]
Under the Köppen climate classification, Santiago de Compostela has a temperate oceanic (Cfb) climate, with mild to warm and somewhat dry summers and mild, wet winters. The prevailing winds from the Atlantic and the surrounding mountains combine to give Santiago some of Spain’s highest rainfall: about 1,545 millimetres (60.8 in) annually. The climate is mild: frosts are common only in December, January and February, with an average of just 8 days per year,[5] while snow is rare; temperatures over 30 °C (86 °F) are exceptional.
[hide]Climate data for Santiago de Compostela (1981-2010)
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Record high °C (°F)
20.3
(68.5) 23.2
(73.8) 27.6
(81.7) 30.2
(86.4) 34.0
(93.2) 37.8
(100) 39.4
(102.9) 39.0
(102.2) 39.0
(102.2) 30.4
(86.7) 24.2
(75.6) 23.4
(74.1) 39.4
(102.9)
Average high °C (°F)
11.2
(52.2) 12.5
(54.5) 15.0
(59) 16.1
(61) 18.6
(65.5) 22.2
(72) 24.3
(75.7) 24.7
(76.5) 22.8
(73) 18.1
(64.6) 14.1
(57.4) 11.9
(53.4) 17.6
(63.7)
Daily mean °C (°F)
7.7
(45.9) 8.3
(46.9) 10.2
(50.4) 11.2
(52.2) 13.6
(56.5) 16.8
(62.2) 18.6
(65.5) 19.0
(66.2) 17.4
(63.3) 13.8
(56.8) 10.4
(50.7) 8.5
(47.3) 13.0
(55.4)
Average low °C (°F)
4.1
(39.4) 4.1
(39.4) 5.4
(41.7) 6.2
(43.2) 8.5
(47.3) 11.3
(52.3) 13.0
(55.4) 13.3
(55.9) 11.9
(53.4) 9.5
(49.1) 6.7
(44.1) 5.0
(41) 8.3
(46.9)
Record low °C (°F)
−7.0
(19.4) −9.0
(15.8) −5.6
(21.9) −3.0
(26.6) −2.0
(28.4) 3.4
(38.1) 3.4
(38.1) 1.0
(33.8) 3.0
(37.4) −1.6
(29.1) −3.2
(26.2) −6.5
(20.3) −9.0
(15.8)
Average rainfall mm (inches)
210
(8.27) 167
(6.57) 146
(5.75) 146
(5.75) 135
(5.31) 72
(2.83) 43
(1.69) 57
(2.24) 107
(4.21) 226
(8.9) 217
(8.54) 261
(10.28) 1,787
(70.35)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm)
15.2 12.6 12.8 14.4 12.7 7.6 5.7 5.5 8.4 14.0 14.9 15.9 139.5
Average snowy days
1.0 0.7 0.2 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.3 2.7
Average relative humidity (%)
84 79 75 76 76 74 74 74 75 82 86 85 78
Mean monthly sunshine hours
93 114 151 165 187 225 243 237 184 132 95 85 1,911
Source: Agencia Estatal de Meteorología[6]
In Compostela it rarely snows more than once or twice a year
Santiago de Compostela (Old Town)
UNESCO World Heritage Site
The Obradoiro façade of the grand Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela
Criteria
Cultural: i, ii, vi
Reference
347
Inscription
1985 (9th Session)
Area
107.59 ha
Buffer zone
216.88 ha
Administration[edit]
The city is governed by a mayor-council form of government. Following the May 24, 2015 municipal elections the mayor of Santiago is Martiño Noriega Sánchez of Compostela Aberta (CA).[7] No party has a majority in the city council (concello).
2015 city council elections results[edit]
Party
Vote
Seats
Votes
%
±pp
Won
+/−
Compostela Aberta (CA)[8] 16,327 34.58 29.36 10 10
People's Party (PP) 15,869 33.61 9.61 9 4
Socialists' Party of Galicia-Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSdeG-PSOE) 6,919 14.65 16.31 4 5
Galician Nationalist Bloc-Open Assemblies (BNG) 3,277 6.94 6.94 2 1
Citizens 2,285 4.84 New 0 ±0
Commitment to Galicia-Transparent Municipalities (CxG-CCTT) 1,112 2.35 New 0 ±0
Solidarity and Internationalist Self-management (SAIn) 301 0.64 0.23 0 ±0
Converxencia XXI (C21) 139 0.29 0.29 0 ±0
Blank ballots 991 2.10 1.73
Total 47,220 100.00 25 ±0
Valid votes 47,220 98.46
Invalid votes 738 1.54
Votes cast / turnout 47,958 61.13 1.31
Abstentions 30,492 38.87 1.31
Registered voters 78,450
Source: Ministry of the Interior
Population[edit]
The population of the city in 2012 was 95,671 inhabitants, while the metropolitan area reaches 178,695.
In 2010 there were 4,111 foreigners living in the city, representing 4.3% of the total population. The main nationalities are Brazilians (11%), Portuguese (8%) and Colombians (7%).
By language, according to 2008 data, 21.17% of the population always speak in Galician, 15% always speak in Spanish, 31.00 mostly in Galician and the 32.17% mostly in Spanish[9]. According to a Xunta de Galicia 2010 study the 38.5% of the city primary and secondary education students had Galician as their mother tongue[10].
History[edit]
Interior of the Cathedral.
Knockers in the city's old quarter
The Library and the Chapter at the Cathedral, Collotype 1889
Calvary of St Franciscus church.
Portico da Groria, old façade of the Romanesque cathedral, 12th century
Sepulcher of king Ferdinand II (d. 1187), in the Royal Pantheon of the cathedral
The area of Santiago de Compostela was a Roman cemetery by the 4th century[11] and was occupied by the Suebi in the early 5th century, when they settled in Galicia and Portugal during the initial collapse of the Roman Empire. The area was later attributed to the bishopric of Iria Flavia in the 6th century, in the partition usually known as Parochiale Suevorum, ordered by King Theodemar. In 585, the settlement was annexed along with the rest of Suebi Kingdom by Leovigild as the sixth province of the Visigothic Kingdom.
Possibly raided from 711 to 739 by the Arabs,[citation needed] the bishopric of Iria was incorporated into the Kingdom of Asturias c. 750. At some point between 818 and 842,[12] during the reign of Alfonso II of Asturias, bishop Theodemar of Iria (d. 847) claimed to have found some remains which were attributed to Saint James the Greater. This discovery was accepted in part because the Pope[which?] and Charlemagne—who had died in 814—had acknowledged Asturias as a kingdom and Alfonso II as king, and had also crafted close political and ecclesiastic ties.[13] Around the place of the discovery a new settlement and centre of pilgrimage emerged, which was known to the author Usuard in 865[14] and which was called Compostella by the 10th century.
The cult of Saint James of Compostela was just one of many arising throughout northern Iberia during the 10th and 11th centuries, as rulers encouraged their own region-specific cults, such as Saint Eulalia in Oviedo and Saint Aemilian in Castile.[15] After the centre of Asturian political power moved from Oviedo to León in 910, Compostela became more politically relevant, and several kings of Galicia and of León were acclaimed by the Galician noblemen and crowned and anointed by the local bishop at the cathedral, among them Ordoño IV in 958,[16] Bermudo II in 982, and Alfonso VII in 1111, by which time Compostela had become capital of the Kingdom of Galicia. Later, 12th-century kings were also sepulchered in the cathedral, namely Fernando II and Alfonso IX, last of the Kings of León and Galicia before both kingdoms were united with the Kingdom of Castile.
During this same 10th century and in the first years of the 11th century Viking raiders tried to assault the town[17]—Galicia is known in the Nordic sagas as Jackobsland or Gallizaland—and bishop Sisenand II, who was killed in battle against them in 968,[18] ordered the construction of a walled fortress to protect the sacred place. In 997 Compostela was assaulted and partially destroyed by Ibn Abi Aamir (known as al-Mansur), Andalusian leader accompanied in his raid by Christian lords, who all received a share of the booty.[19] However, the Andalusian commander showed no interest in the alleged relics of St James. In response to these challenges bishop Cresconio, in the mid-11th century, fortified the entire town, building walls and defensive towers.
According to some authors, by the middle years of the 11th century the site had already become a pan-European place of peregrination,[20] while others maintain that the cult to Saint James was before 11-12th centuries an essentially Galician affair, supported by Asturian and Leonese kings to win over faltering Galician loyalties.[15] Santiago would become in the course of the following century a main Catholic shrine second only to Rome and Jerusalem. In the 12th century, under the impulse of bishop Diego Gelmírez, Compostela became an archbishopric, attracting a large and multinational population. Under the rule of this prelate, the townspeople rebelled, headed by the local council, beginning a secular tradition of confrontation by the people of the city—who fought for self-government—against the local bishop, the secular and jurisdictional lord of the city and of its fief, the semi-independent Terra de Santiago ("land of Saint James"). The culminating moment in this confrontation was reached in the 14th century, when the new prelate, the Frenchman Bérenger de Landore, treacherously executed the counselors of the city in his castle of A Rocha Forte ("the strong rock, castle"), after inviting them for talks.
Santiago de Compostela was captured and sacked by the French during the Napoleonic Wars; as a result, the remains attributed to the apostle were lost for near a century, hidden inside a cist in the crypts of the cathedral of the city.
The excavations conducted in the cathedral during the 19th and 20th centuries uncovered a Roman cella memoriae or martyrium, around which grew a small cemetery in Roman and Suevi times which was later abandoned. This martyrium, which proves the existence of an old Christian holy place, has been sometimes attributed to Priscillian, although without further proof.[21]
Economy[edit]
Santiago's economy, although still heavily dependent on public administration (i.e. being the headquarters of the autonomous government of Galicia), cultural tourism, industry, and higher education through its university, is becoming increasingly diversified. New industries such as timber transformation (FINSA), the automotive industry (UROVESA), and telecommunications and electronics (Blusens and Televés) have been established. Banco Gallego, a banking institution owned by Novacaixagalicia, has its headquarters in downtown rúa do Hórreo.
Tourism is very important thanks to the Way of St. James, particularly in Holy Compostelan Years (when 25 July falls on a Sunday). Following the Xunta's considerable investment and hugely successful advertising campaign for the Holy Year of 1993, the number of pilgrims completing the route has been steadily rising. More than 272,000 pilgrims made the trip during the course of the Holy Year of 2010. Following 2010, the next Holy Year will not be for another 11 years when St James feast day again falls on a Sunday. Outside of Holy Years, the city still receives a remarkable number of pilgrims. In 2013, 215,880 people completed the pilgrimage. In 2014, there were 237,983 persons. In 2015, there were 262,513 persons and in 2016, there were 277,854 persons.[22]
Editorial Compostela owns daily newspaper El Correo Gallego, a local TV, and a radio station. Galician language online news portal Galicia Hoxe is also based in the city. Televisión de Galicia, the public broadcaster corporation of Galicia, has its headquarters in Santiago.
Way of St. James[edit]
Main article: Way of St. James
Way of St. James
A partial view of Santiago de Compostela, with the Pico Sacro in the background
Depiction of Saint James in the 12th century Codex Calixtinus
The legend that St James found his way to the Iberian Peninsula, and had preached there is one of a number of early traditions concerning the missionary activities and final resting places of the apostles of Jesus. Although the 1884 Bull of Pope Leo XIII Omnipotens Deus accepted the authenticity of the relics at Compostela, the Vatican remains uncommitted as to whether the relics are those of Saint James the Greater, while continuing to promote the more general benefits of pilgrimage to the site. Pope Benedict XVI undertook a ceremonial pilgrimage to the site on his visit to Spain in 2010.[23]
Legends[edit]
According to a tradition that can be traced back at least to the 12th century, when it was recorded in the Codex Calixtinus, Saint James decided to return to the Holy Land after preaching in Galicia. There he was beheaded, but his disciples managed to get his body to Jaffa, where they found a marvelous stone ship which miraculously conducted them and the apostle's body to Iria Flavia, back in Galicia. There, the disciples asked the local pagan queen Loba ('She-wolf') for permission to bury the body; she, annoyed, decided to deceive them, sending them to pick a pair of oxen she allegedly had by the Pico Sacro, a local sacred mountain where a dragon dwelt, hoping that the dragon would kill the Christians, but as soon as the beast attacked the disciples, at the sight of the cross, the dragon exploded. Then the disciples marched to collect the oxen, which were actually wild bulls which the queen used to punish her enemies; but again, at the sight of the Christian's cross, the bulls calmed down, and after being subjected to a yoke they carried the apostle's body to the place where now Compostela is. The legend was again referred with minor changes by the Czech traveller Jaroslav Lev of Rožmitál, in the 15th century.[24]
The relics were said to have been later rediscovered in the 9th century by a hermit named Pelagius, who after observing strange lights in a local forest went for help after the local bishop, Theodemar of Iria, in the west of Galicia. The legend affirms that Theodemar was then guided to the spot by a star, drawing upon a familiar myth-element, hence "Compostela" was given an etymology as a corruption of Campus Stellae, "Field of Stars."
In the 15th century, the red banner which guided the Galician armies to battle, was still preserved in the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, in the centre Saint James riding a white horse and wearing a white cloak, sword in hand:[25] The legend of the miraculous armed intervention of Saint James, disguised as a white knight to help the Christians when battling the Muslims, was a recurrent myth during the High Middle Ages.
Establishment of the shrine[edit]
The Scallop Shell, emblem of St James, worn by pilgrims
The 1,000-year-old pilgrimage to the shrine of St. James in the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela is known in English as the Way of St. James and in Spanish as the Camino de Santiago. Over 100,000 pilgrims travel to the city each year from points all over Europe and other parts of the world. The pilgrimage has been the subject of many books, television programmes, and films, notably Brian Sewell's The Naked Pilgrim produced for the British television channel Channel 5 and the Martin Sheen/Emilio Estevez collaboration The Way.
Pre-Christian legends[edit]
As the lowest-lying land on that stretch of coast, the city's site took on added significance. Legends supposed of Celtic origin made it the place where the souls of the dead gathered to follow the sun across the sea. Those unworthy of going to the Land of the Dead haunted Galicia as the Santa Compaña or Estadea.
In popular culture[edit]
Santiago de Compostela is featured prominently in the 1988 historical fiction novel Sharpe's Rifles, by Bernard Cornwell, which takes place during the French Invasion of Galicia, January 1809, during the Napoleonic Wars.
The music video for Una Cerveza, by Ráfaga, is set in the historic part of Santiago de Compostela.
A pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela provides the narrative framework of the Luis Buñuel film La Voie lactée (The Milky Way).
Main sights[edit]
Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela
Pazo de Raxoi – city hall and office of the President of the Xunta of Galicia
12th century Colexiata de Santa María do Sar
16th century Baroque Abbey of San Martín Pinario
University of Santiago de Compostela
Centro Galego de Arte Contemporánea (Galician Center for Contemporary Art), designed by Alvaro Siza Vieira
Parque de San Domingos de Bonaval, redesigned by Eduardo Chillida and Alvaro Siza Vieira
City of Culture of Galicia, designed by Peter Eisenman
Parque da Alameda (Alameda's Park)
Parque de Carlomagno (Carlomagno's Park)
17th century Convent and Church of San Francisco
Transport[edit]
Santiago de Compostela Rail Station
Santiago de Compostela is served by Santiago de Compostela Airport and a rail service. The town is linked to the Spanish High Speed Railway Network. On 24 July 2013 there was a serious rail accident near the city in which 79 people died and at least 130 were injured when a train derailed on a bend as it approached Compostela station.[26]
Notable people[edit]
Rosalía de Castro
Carmen Babiano
Ana Romero Masiá 2012
Vero Boquete 2013
Bernal de Bonaval a 13th-century troubadour in the Kingdom of Galicia who wrote in the Galician-Portuguese language.
Sancho de Andrade de Figueroa (1632–1702) a Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Quito (1688–1702) and Bishop of Ayacucho o Huamanga (1679–1688)
Juan Antonio García de Bouzas (c.1680–1755) a Spanish Baroque painter, his principal works are in the churches at Santiago
Eugenio Montero Ríos (1832–1914) politician, served briefly as Prime Minister of Spain in 1905
Rosalía de Castro (1837–1885) a Spanish romanticist writer and poet
Antonio Machado Álvarez (1848–1893) known by his pseudonym Demófilo a writer, anthropologist and Spanish folklorist.
Modesto Brocos (1852–1936) a Brazilian painter, designer and engraver of Galician origin.
Carmen Babiano Méndez-Núñez (1852–1914) a Spanish painter and a pioneer in feminine art
Manuel Maria Puga y Parga aka "Picadillo" (1874-1918) a culinary writer and gastronome, popularized traditional Galician cooking
José Robles (1897–1937) a Spanish academic, left-wing activist, born to an aristocratic family, went into exile in the USA
Juan Sáenz-Díez García (1904–1990) a Spanish entrepreneur and Carlist politician
Isaac Díaz Pardo (1920-2012) a Galician intellectual and painter, ceramist, designer, editor and businessman.
Xohana Torres (1931–2017) a Spanish writer, poet, playwright, and member of the Royal Galician Academy
Adela Akers (born 1933) a Spanish-born textile and fiber artist, raised in Peru and Cuba, now lives in Guerneville, California
Xosé Manuel Beiras (born 1936) a Galician politician, economist, writer and intellectual
Roberto Vidal Bolaño (1950–2002) a Galician playwright and actor, celebrated by Galician Literature Day in 2013
Ana Romero Masiá (born 1952) a Galician historian, archaeologist and academic
Mariano Rajoy (born 1955) a Spanish politician and Prime Minister of Spain since 2011
Suso de Toro (born 1956) a Spanish writer of more than twenty novels and plays in Galician
Carlos Ferrás Sexto (born 1965) a Galician geographer and academic
Octavio Vázquez (born 1972) a Galician-American, New York-based composer of classical music
Yolanda Castaño (born 1977) a Galician painter, literary critic and poet
sport[edit]
Andrés Domínguez Candal (1918-1978) aka Pierita a Spanish footballer who played as a forward
José Luis Veloso (born 1937) a retired Spanish footballer, 278 pro appearances
Tomás Reñones (born 1960) known as Tomás, a retired Spanish footballer, nearly 500 pro appearances
Moncho Fernández (born 1969) a Spanish basketball manager and coach
Emilio José Viqueira (born 1974) a retired Spanish footballer who made 454 pro appearances
Manuel Castiñeiras (born 1979) a Spanish retired footballer, over 300 pro appearances
Rubén González Rocha (born 1982) known as Rubén, is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a central defender
Borja Golan (born 1983) a professional squash player who represents Spain
Iván Carril (born 1985) a Spanish professional footballer
Verónica Boquete (born 1987) a Galician-born Spanish footballer
José Ángel Antelo (born 1987) a Spanish professional basketball player
Alberto Manuel Domínguez Rivas (born 1988) known as Alberto, is a Spanish footballer who plays as a goalkeeper
International relations[edit]
See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Spain
Twin towns/Sister cities[edit]
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Santiago de Compostela is twinned with:
São Paulo, Brazil[27][28]
Santiago de Cali, Colombia
Coimbra, Portugal, since 1994
Santiago do Cacém, Portugal, since the 1980s
Mashhad, Iran
Buenos Aires, Argentina, since the 1980s
Qom, Iran
Santiago de Querétaro, México (2005)
Santiago de los Caballeros, Dominican Republic (2004)[29]
Assisi, Italy (2008)
Las Piedras, Uruguay (2010)
Pisa, Italy (2010)
Santiago de Cuba, Cuba
See also[edit]
Auditorio Monte do Gozo
Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela
Música en Compostela
Order of Santiago
Santiago de Compostela derailment
As Orfas
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Pronunciation:
English: /ˌsæntɪˈɑːɡoʊ deɪ ˌkɒmpɒˈstɛlə/ or /ˌsæntɪˈɑːɡoʊ də ˌkɒmpɒˈstɛlə/
Galician: [sanˈtiaɣo ðe komposˈtɛla]
Spanish: [sanˈtjaɣo ðe komposˈtela]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Marilyn Stokstad,Santiago de Compostela In the Age of the Great Pilgrimages.(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1978), 7.
Jump up ^ http://www.fundacionxacobea.com/the-route/
^ Jump up to: a b Stokstad, Santiago de Compostela, 8.
Jump up ^ Stokstad, Santiago de Compostela, 6.
Jump up ^ In the five years 2006-2010, cf. Meteogalicia Archived 2015-09-03 at the Wayback Machine..
Jump up ^ "Guía resumida del clima en España (1981-2010)".
Jump up ^ Martiño Noriega, novo alcalde de Santiago, comprométese a gobernar para a maioría social nunha Compostela que exerza de capital. El Correo Gallego, 13/06/2015.
Jump up ^ Results compared with the combined results of United Left and Candidatura do Povo in 2011.
Jump up ^ . Instituto Galego de Estatística - 2008 - Uso da lingua nos grandes concellos - Santiago de Compostela
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ Fletcher, R. A. (1984). Saint James's catapult: the life and times of Diego Gelmírez of Santiago de Compostela. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Clarendon Press. pp. 57–59. ISBN 978-0-19-822581-2.
Jump up ^ Fletcher, R. A. (1984). Saint James's catapult : the life and times of Diego Gelmírez of Santiago de Compostela. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822581-2.
Jump up ^ Collins, Roger (1983). Early Medieval Spain. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 232. ISBN 0-312-22464-8.
Jump up ^ Fletcher, R. A. (1984). Saint James's catapult: the life and times of Diego Gelmírez of Santiago de Compostela. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Clarendon Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-19-822581-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Collins, Roger (1983). Early Medieval Spain. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 238. ISBN 0-312-22464-8.
Jump up ^ Portela Silva, Ermelindo (2001). García II de Galicia, el rey y el reino (1065-1090). Burgos: La Olmeda. p. 165. ISBN 84-89915-16-4.
Jump up ^ Fletcher, R. A. (1984). Saint James's catapult : the life and times of Diego Gelmírez of Santiago de Compostela. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-19-822581-2.
Jump up ^ Morales Romero, Eduardo (1997). Os viquingos en Galicia. Santiago de Compostela: USC. p. 125. ISBN 84-8121-661-5.
Jump up ^ Collins, Roger (1983). Early Medieval Spain. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 199. ISBN 0-312-22464-8.
Jump up ^ Fletcher, R. A. (1984). Saint James's catapult : the life and times of Diego Gelmírez of Santiago de Compostela. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Clarendon Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-19-822581-2.
Jump up ^ Fletcher, R. A. (1984). Saint James's catapult: the life and times of Diego Gelmírez of Santiago de Compostela. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Clarendon Press. pp. 59–60. ISBN 978-0-19-822581-2.
Jump up ^ "Camino de Santiago Statistics End 2016 Pilgrim Numbers Walking Camino". caminoadventures.com. 8 August 2017. Retrieved 21 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Apostolic Journey to Santiago de Compostela and Barcelona: Welcoming ceremony at the International Airport of Santiago de Compostela (November 6, 2010) - BENEDICT XVI". w2.vatican.va.
Jump up ^ Garrido Bugarín, Gustavo A. (1994). Aventureiros e curiosos : relatos de viaxeiros estranxeiros por Galicia, séculos XV - XX. Vigo: Ed. Galaxia. pp. 35–37. ISBN 84-7154-909-3.
Jump up ^ Garrido Bugarín, Gustavo A. (1994). Aventureiros e curiosos : relatos de viaxeiros estranxeiros por Galicia, séculos XV - XX. Vigo: Ed. Galaxia. p. 40. ISBN 84-7154-909-3.
Jump up ^ "Spain train crash: Driver formally detained", BBC News, 26 July 2013. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Pesquisa de Legislação Municipal - No 14471" [Research Municipal Legislation - No 14471]. Prefeitura da Cidade de São Paulo [Municipality of the City of São Paulo] (in Portuguese). Archived from the original on 2011-10-18. Retrieved 2013-08-23.
Jump up ^ Lei Municipal de São Paulo 14471 de 2007 WikiSource (in Portuguese)
Jump up ^ Hispaniola was under the rule of the Dominican Order and Order of Alcántara, therefore, the name of Santiago as a city in the Dominican Republic could be applied later
Bibliography[edit]
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Santiago de Compostela". Encyclopædia Britannica. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 191–192.
Meakin, Annette M. B. (1909). Galicia. The Switzerland of Spain. London: Methuen & Co.
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Breech birth
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Breech (disambiguation).
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Breech birth
Frank breech, William Smellie, 1792
Classification and external resources
Specialty
Obstetrics, Midwifery
ICD-10
O32.1, O64.1, O80.1, O83.0, P03.0
ICD-9-CM
652.1
DiseasesDB
1631
MedlinePlus
002060
eMedicine
med/3272 emerg/868
MeSH
D001946
[edit on Wikidata]
A breech birth occurs when a baby is born bottom first instead of head first. Around 3-5% of pregnant women at term (37–40 weeks pregnant) will have a breech baby.[1]
Most babies in the breech position are born by a caesarean section because it is seen as safer than being born vaginally.[1]
As most breech babies are delivered by caesarean section in developed countries, doctors and midwives may lose the skills required to safely assist women giving birth to a breech baby vaginally.[1] Delivering all breech babies by caesarean section in developing countries may be very difficult to implement or even impossible as there are not always resources available to provide this service.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Cause
1.1 Rates in various medical conditions
2 Types
3 Risks
3.1 Factors influencing the safety
4 Management
4.1 Cesarean or vaginal delivery
5 Twin breech
5.1 Turning the baby
6 People born breech
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Cause[edit]
With regard to the fetal presentation during human gestation, three periods have been distinguished.
During the first period, which lasts until the 24th gestational week, the incidence of a longitudinal lie increases, with equal proportions of breech or cephalic presentations from this lie. This period is characterized by frequent changes of presentations. The fetuses in breech presentation during this period have the same probability for breech and cephalic presentation at delivery.
During the second period, lasting from the 25th to the 35th gestational week, the incidence of cephalic presentation increases, with a proportional decrease of breech presentation. The second period is characterized by a higher than random probability that the fetal presentation during this period will also be present at the time of delivery. The increase of this probability is gradual and identical for breech and cephalic presentations during this period.
In the third period, from the 36th gestational week onward, the incidence of cephalic and breech presentations remain stable, i.e. breech presentation around 3-4% and cephalic presentation approximately 95%. In the general population, incidence of breech presentation at preterm corresponds to the incidence of breech presentation when birth occurs.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9]
A breech presentation at delivery occurs when the fetus does not turn to a cephalic presentation. This failure to change presentation can result from endogenous and exogenous factors. Endogenous factors involve fetal inability to adequately move, whereas exogenous factors refer to insufficient intrauterine space available for fetal movements.[10]
Incidence of breech presentation among diseases and medical conditions with the incidence of breech presentation higher than occurs in the general population, shows that the probability of breech presentation is between 4% and 50%. These data are related to: 1. single series of medical entities; 2. collections of series for some particular medical entity; 3. data obtained from repeated observations under the same conditions; 4. series of two concomitant medical conditions.
Rates in various medical conditions[edit]
Fetal entities: First twin 17-30%; Second twin 28-39%; Stillborn 26%; Prader-Willi syndrome 50%, Werdnig-Hoffman syndrome 10%; Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome 40%; Fetal alcohol syndrome 40%; Potter anomaly 36%; Zellweger syndrome 27%; Myotonic dystrophy 21%, 13 trisomy syndrome 12%; 18 trisomy syndrome 43%; 21 trisomy syndrome 5%; de Lange syndrome 10%; Anencephalus 6-18%, Spina bifida 20-30%; Congenital Hydrocephalus 24-37%; Osteogenesis imperfecta 33.3%; Amyoplasia 33.3%; Achondrogenesis 33.3%; Amelia 50%; Craniosynostosis 8%; Sacral agenesis 30.4%; Arthrogriposis multiplex congenita 33.3; Congenital dislocation of the hip 33.3%; Hereditary sensory neuropathy type III 25%; Centronuclear myoptathy 16.7%; Multiple pituitary hormone deficiency 50%; Isolated pituitary hormone deficiency 20%; Ectopic posterior pituitary gland 33.3%; Congenital bilateral perisilvian syndrome 33.3; Symmetric fetal growth restriction 40%; Asymmetric fetal growth restriction 40%; Nonimmune hydrops fetalis 15%; Atresio ani 18.2%; Microcephalus 15.4%; Omphalocele 12.5%; Prematurity 40%
Placental and amniotic fluid entities: Amniotic sheet perpendicular to the placenta 50%; Cornual-fundal implantation of the placenta 30%; Placenta previa 12.5%; Oligohydramnios 17%; Polyhydramnios 15.8%
Maternal entities: Uterus arcuatus 22.6%; Uterus unicornuatus 33.3%; Uterus bicornuatus 34.8%; Uterus didelphys 30-41%; Uterus septus 45.8%; Leimyoma uteri 9-20%; Spinal cord injury 10%; Carriers of Duchenne muscular dystrophy 17%
Combination of two medical entities: First twin in uterus with two bodies 14.29%; Second twin in uterus with two bodies 18.52%.[11][12]
Also, women with previous Caesarean deliveries have a risk of breech presentation at term twice that of women with previous vaginal deliveries.[13]
The highest possible probability of breech presentation of 50% indicates that breech presentation is a consequence of random filling of the intrauterine space, with the same probability of breech and cephalic presentation in a longitudinally elongated uterus.[14]
Types[edit]
Types of breech depend on how the baby’s legs are lying.
A frank breech (otherwise known as an extended breech) is where the baby’s legs are up next to its abdomen, with its knees straight and its feet next to its ears. This is the most common type of breech.
A complete breech (flexed) breech is when the baby appears as though it is sitting crossed-legged with its legs bent at the hips and knees.
A footling breech is when one or both of the baby’s feet are born first instead of the pelvis. This is more common in babies born prematurely or before their due date.[15]
In addition to the above, breech births in which the sacrum is the fetal denominator can be classified by the position of a fetus.[16] Thus sacro-anterior, sacro-transverse and sacro-posterior positions all exist, but left sacro-anterior is the most common presentation.[16] Sacro-anterior indicates an easier delivery compared to other forms.
Risks[edit]
Umbilical cord prolapse may occur, particularly in the complete, footling, or kneeling breech.[17] This is caused by the lowermost parts of the baby not completely filling the space of the dilated cervix.[17] When the waters break the amniotic sac, it is possible for the umbilical cord to drop down and become compressed.[17] This complication severely diminishes oxygen flow to the baby and the baby must be delivered immediately (usually by Caesarean section[18]) so that he or she can breathe. If there is a delay in delivery, the brain can be damaged. Among full-term, head-down babies, cord prolapse is quite rare, occurring in 0.4 percent. Among frank breech babies the incidence is 0.5 percent,[17] among complete breeches 5 percent,[17] and among footling breeches 15 percent.[17]
Head entrapment is caused by the failure of the fetal head to negotiate the maternal midpelvis. At full term, the fetal bitrochanteric diameter (the distance between the outer points of the hips) is about the same as the biparietal diameter (the transverse diameter of the skull)—simply put the size of the hips are the same as the size of the head. The relatively larger buttocks dilate the cervix as effectively as the head does in the typical head-down presentation. In contrast, the relative head size of a preterm baby is greater than the fetal buttocks. If the baby is preterm, it may be possible for the baby’s body to emerge while the cervix has not dilated enough for the head to emerge.
Because the umbilical cord—the baby’s oxygen supply—is significantly compressed while the head is in the pelvis during a breech birth, it is important that the delivery of the aftercoming fetal head not be delayed. If the arm is extended alongside the head, delivery will not occur. If this occurs, the Løvset manoeuvre may be employed, or the arm may be manually brought to a position in front of the chest.[19] The Løvset manoeuvre involves rotating the fetal body by holding the fetal pelvis. Twisting the body such that an arm trails behind the shoulder, it will tend to cross down over the face to a position where it can be reached by the obstetrician's finger, and brought to a position below the head. A similar rotation in the opposite direction is made to deliver the other arm. In order to present the smallest diameter (9.5 cm) to the pelvis, the baby’s head must be flexed (chin to chest). If the head is in a deflexed position, the risk of entrapment is increased. Uterine contractions and maternal muscle tone encourage the head to flex.
Oxygen deprivation may occur from either cord prolapse or prolonged compression of the cord during birth, as in head entrapment. If oxygen deprivation is prolonged, it may cause permanent neurological damage (for instance, cerebral palsy) or death. It has been suggested that a fast vaginal delivery would mean the risk of stopping baby’s oxygen supply is reduced. However, there is not enough research to show this and a quick delivery might cause more harm to the baby than a conservative approach to the birth.[20]
Injury to the brain and skull may occur due to the rapid passage of the baby's head through the mother's pelvis. This causes rapid decompression of the baby's head. In contrast, a baby going through labor in the head-down position usually experiences gradual molding (temporary reshaping of the skull) over the course of a few hours. This sudden compression and decompression in breech birth may cause no problems at all, but it can injure the brain. This injury is more likely in preterm babies. The fetal head may be controlled by a special two-handed grip call the Mariceau-Smellie-Veit manoeuvre or the elective application of forceps. This will be of value in controlling the rate of delivery of the head and reduce decompression. Related to potential head trauma, researchers have identified a relationship between breech birth and autism.[21]
Squeezing the baby’s abdomen can damage internal organs. Positioning the baby incorrectly while using forceps to deliver the after coming head can damage the spine or spinal cord. It is important for the birth attendant to be knowledgeable, skilled, and experienced with all variations of breech birth.
Factors influencing the safety[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Birth attendant's skill (and experience with breech birth) – The skill of the doctor or midwife and the number of breech births previously assisted is of crucial importance. Many of the dangers in vaginal birth for breech babies come from mistakes made by birth attendants. With the majority of breech babies being delivered by cesarean section there is more risk that birth attendants will lose their skills in delivering breech babies and therefore increase the risk of harm to the baby during a vaginal delivery.[1][22]
Type of breech presentation – the frank breech has the most favorable outcomes in vaginal birth, with many studies suggesting no difference in outcome compared to head down babies.[23] (Some studies, however, find that planned caesarean sections for all breech babies improve outcome. The difference may rest in part on the skill of the doctors who delivered babies in different studies.) Complete breech presentation is the next most favorable position, but these babies sometimes shift and become footling breeches during labour. Footling and kneeling breeches have a higher risk of cord prolapse and head entrapment.[22]
Parity – Parity refers to the number of times a woman has given birth before. If a woman has given birth vaginally, her pelvis has "proven" it is big enough to allow a baby of that baby's size to pass through it. However, a head-down baby's head often molds (shifts its shape to fit the maternal pelvis) and so may present a smaller diameter than the same-size baby born breech. Research on the issue has been contradictory as far as whether vaginal breech birth is safer when the mother has given birth before, or not.
Fetal size in relation to maternal pelvic size – If the mother's pelvis is roomy and the baby is not large, this is favorable for vaginal breech delivery. However, prenatal estimates of the size of the baby and the size of the pelvis are unreliable.[22]
Hyperextension of the fetal head – this can be evaluated with ultrasound. Less than 5% of breech babies have their heads in the "star-gazing" position, face looking straight upwards and the back of the head resting against the back of the neck. Caesarean delivery is absolutely necessary, because vaginal birth with the baby's head in this position confers a high risk of spinal cord trauma and death.[22]
Maturity of the baby – Premature babies appear to be at higher risk of complications if delivered vaginally than if delivered by caesarean section.[22]
Progress of labor – A spontaneous, normally progressing, straightforward labor requiring no intervention is a favorable sign.[22]
Second twins – If a first twin is born head down and the second twin is breech, the chances are good that the second twin can have a safe breech birth.[24]
Management[edit]
Breech birth position seen at MRI.
As in labour with a baby in a normal head-down position, uterine contractions typically occur at regular intervals and gradually the cervix begins to thin and open.[25] In the more common breech presentations, the baby’s bottom (rather than feet or knees) is what is first to descend through the maternal pelvis and emerge from the vagina.[17]
At the beginning of labour, the baby is generally in an oblique position, facing either the right or left side of the mother's back. The baby's bottom is the same size in the term baby as the baby's head. Descent is thus as for the presenting fetal head and delay in descent is a cardinal sign of possible problems with the delivery of the head.
In order to begin the birth, descent of podalic pole along with compaction and internal rotation needs to occur. This happens when the mother's pelvic floor muscles cause the baby to turn so that it can be born with one hip directly in front of the other. At this point the baby is facing one of the mother's inner thighs. Then, the shoulders follow the same path as the hips did. At this time the baby usually turns to face the mother's back. Next occurs external rotation, which is when the shoulders emerge as the baby’s head enters the maternal pelvis. The combination of maternal muscle tone and uterine contractions cause the baby’s head to flex, chin to chest. Then the back of the baby's head emerges and finally the face.
Due to the increased pressure during labour and birth, it is normal for the baby's leading hip to be bruised and genitalia to be swollen. Babies who assumed the frank breech position in utero may continue to hold their legs in this position for some days after birth.[26]
Cesarean or vaginal delivery[edit]
When a baby is born bottom first there is more risk that the birth will not be straight forward and that the baby could be harmed.[27] For example, when the baby's head passes through the mother’s pelvis the umbilical cord can be compressed which prevents delivery of oxygenated blood to the baby. Due to this and other risks, babies in breech position are usually born by a planned caesarean section in developed countries.[1]
Caesarean section reduces the risk of harm or death for the baby but does increase risk of harm to the mother compared with a vaginal delivery.[1] It is best if the baby is in a head down position so that they can be born vaginally with less risk of harm to both mother and baby. The next section is looking at External cephalic version or ECV which is a method that can help the baby turn from a breech position to a head down position.
Vaginal birth of a breech baby has its risks but caesarean sections are not always available or possible, a mother might arrive in hospital at a late stage of her labour or may choose not to have a caesarean section. In these cases, it is important that the clinical skills needed to deliver breech babies are not lost so that mothers and babies are as safe as possible.[1] Compared with developed countries, planned caesarean sections have not produced as good results in developing countries - it is suggested that this is due to more breech vaginal deliveries being performed by experienced, skilled practitioners in these settings.[2]
Twin breech[edit]
Twin Breech (vertex and non-vertex twins) [28]
In twin pregnancies, it is very common for one or both babies to be in the breech position. Most often twin babies do not have the chance to turn around because they are born prematurely. If both babies are in the breech position and the mother has gone into labour early, a cesarean section may be the best option. About 30-40% of twin pregnancies result in only one baby being in the breech position. If this is the case, the babies can be born vaginally.[29] After the first baby who is not in the breech position is delivered, the baby who is presented in the breech position may turn itself around, if this does not happen another procedure may performed called the breech extraction. The breech extraction is the procedure that involves the obstetrician grabbing the second twin's feet and pulling him/her into the birth canal. This will help with delivering the second twin vaginally.[29] However, if the second twin is larger than the first, complications with delivering the second twin vaginally may arise and a cesarean section should be performed. At times, the first twin (the twin closest to the birth canal) can be in the breech position with the second twin being in the cephalic position (vertical). When this occurs, risks of complications are higher than normal. In particular, a serious complication known as Locked twins. This is when both babies interlock their chins during labour. When this happens a cesarean section should be performed immediately.
Turning the baby[edit]
Turning the baby, technically known as external cephalic version (ECV), is when the baby is turned by gently pressing the mother’s abdomen to push the baby from a bottom first position, to a head first position.[27] ECV does not always work, but it does improve the mother’s chances of giving birth to her baby vaginally and avoiding a cesarean section. The World Health Organisation recommends that women should have a planned cesarean section only if an ECV has been tried and did not work.[2]
Women who have an ECV when they are 36–40 weeks pregnant are more likely to have a vaginal delivery and less likely to have a cesarean section than those who do not have an ECV.[20] Turning the baby before this time makes a head first birth more likely but ECV before the due date can increase the risk of early or premature birth which can cause problems to the baby.[27]
There are treatments that can be used which might affect the success of an ECV. Drugs called beta-stimulant tocolytics help the woman’s muscles to relax so that the pressure during the ECV does not have to be so great. Giving the woman these drugs before the ECV improves the chances of her having a vaginal delivery because the baby is more likely to turn and stay head down.[30] Other treatments such as using sound, pain relief drugs such as epidural, increasing the fluid around the baby and increasing the amount of fluids to the woman before the ECV could all effect its success but there is not enough research to make this clear.[31]
Turning techniques mothers can do at home are referred to Spontaneous Cephalic Version (SCV), this is when the baby can turn without any medical assistance.[32] Some of these techniques include; a knee to chest position, the breech tilt and moxibustion, these can be performed after the mother is 34 weeks pregnant. Although there is not a lot of evidence to support how well these techniques work, it has worked for some mothers.[32]
People born breech[edit]
Chesa Boudin[33]
Jordan Brady[34]
Becky Garrison[35]
Billy Joel[36]
Jerry Lee Lewis[37]
Bret Michaels[38]
Nero[39]
Tatum O'Neal[40]
David Shields[41]
Frank Sinatra[42]
Wilhelm II, German Emperor[43]
Pedro Zamora[44]
Frank Zappa[45]
See also[edit]
Asynclitic birth, another abnormal birth position
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Hofmeyr, GJ; Hannah, M; Lawrie, TA (21 July 2015). "Planned caesarean section for term breech delivery". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 7: CD000166. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000166.pub2. PMID 26196961.
^ Jump up to: a b c Conde-Agudelo, A. "Planned caesarean section for term breech delivery: RHL commentary (last revised: 8 September 2003)". The WHO Reproductive Health Library. Geneva: World Health Organization. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
Jump up ^ Miller EC, Kouam L (1981). "Frequency of breech presentation during pregnancy and on full term". Zentralbl Gynakol. 103: 105–109.
Jump up ^ Hill L (2008). "Prevalence of Breech Presentation by Gestational Age". American Journal of Perinatology. 7: 92–93. doi:10.1055/s-2007-999455. PMID 2403797.
Jump up ^ Hughey MJ (1985). "Fetal position during pregnancy". Am J Obstet Gynecol. 153: 885–886. doi:10.1016/s0002-9378(85)80276-3.
Jump up ^ Sørensen, T; Hasch, E; Lange, AP (1979). "Fetal presentation during pregnancy". Lancet. 2: 477. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(79)91536-8.
Jump up ^ Tadmor OP, Rabinowitz R, Alon L, Mostoslavky V, Aboulafia Y. Can breech presentation at birth be predicted from ultrasound examination during the second or third trimester?" Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1994;46:11–14.
Jump up ^ Boos, R; Hendrik, HJ; Schmidt, W (1987). "Behavior of fetal position in the second half of pregnancy in labor with breech and vertex presentations". Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd. 47: 341–345.
Jump up ^ Witkop, CT; Zhang, J; Sun, W; Troendle, J (2008). "Natural history of fetal position during pregnancy and risk of nonvertex delivery". Obstet Gynecol. 111: 875–880. doi:10.1097/aog.0b013e318168576d. PMID 18378746.
Jump up ^ Sekulić S, Zarkov M, Slankamenac P, Bozić K, Vejnović T, Novakov-Mikić A (2009). "Decreased expression of the righting reflex and locomotor movements in breech-presenting newborns in the first days of life". Early Hum Dev. 85: 263–6. doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2008.11.001.
Jump up ^ Braun FH, Jones KL, Smith DW (1975). "Breech presentation as an indicator of fetal abnormality". J Pediatr. 86: 419–21. doi:10.1016/s0022-3476(75)80977-2.
Jump up ^ Sekulić SR, Mikov A, Petrović DS (2010). "Probability of breech presentation and its significance". J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 23 (10): 1160–4. doi:10.3109/14767051003677996.
Jump up ^ Vendittelli, F., Rivière, O., Crenn-Hébert, C., Rozan, M. A., Maria, B., Jacquetin, B. (May 2008) "Is a breech presentation at term more frequent in women with a history of cesarean delivery?" American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 198 (5): 521.e1–6. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2007.11.009. PMID 18241817
Jump up ^ Sekulić SR, Petrović DS, Runić R, Williams M, Vejnović TR. Does a probability of breech presentation of more than 50% exist among diseases and medical conditions? Twin Res Hum Genet. 2007; 10:649-54.
Jump up ^ Tidy, C. "Breech Presentations (last revised 11/03/2013)". Retrieved 2 March 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Konar, Hiralal (2014). Dc dutta's textbook of obstetrics (7th ed.). [S.l.]: Mcgraw-Hill. p. 376. ISBN 978-93-5152-067-2.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Payne, J. "Prolapsed Cord. Pregnancy complications from prolapsed cord". Patient info. Retrieved 22 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Umbilical Cord Prolapse" (PDF). Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. November 2014. Retrieved 22 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Tidy, C. "Breech Presentations". Patient. Retrieved 22 April 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Hofmeyr, GJ; Kulier, R; West, HM (21 July 2015). "Expedited versus conservative approaches for vaginal delivery in breech presentation". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 7: CD000082. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000082.pub3. PMID 26197303.
Jump up ^ Deborah Bilder, MD, Judith Pinborough-Zimmerman, PhD, Judith Miller, PhD and William McMahon, MD. "Prenatal, Perinatal, and Neonatal Factors Associated With Autism Spectrum Disorders." Pediatrics 123(5), May 2009, pp. 1293–1300
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Kotaska, A; Menticoglou, S; Gagnon, R; Farine, D; Basso, M; Bos, H; Delisle, MF; Grabowska, K; Hudon, L; Mundle, W; Murphy-Kaulbeck, L; Ouellet, A; Pressey, T; Roggensack, A; Maternal Fetal Medicine, Committee; Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of, Canada (June 2009). "Vaginal delivery of breech presentation". Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada. 31 (6): 557–66, 567–78. PMID 19646324.
Jump up ^ Datta, Sanjay (2004-01-09). Anesthetic and Obstetric Management of High-Risk Pregnancy. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9780387004433.
Jump up ^ Kotaska A, Menticoglou S,Farine D, et al. "Vaginal delivery of breech presentation" J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2009 Jun;31(6):557-66, 567-78. (Ref is for entire section)
Jump up ^ "First stage". StratOG. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. 2016. Retrieved 22 April 2016.
Jump up ^ McClain, L (2016). "Will my newborn be different? - Better Birth Blog". Better Birth Blog. Retrieved 18 March 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hutton, EK; Hofmeyr, GJ; Dowswell, T (29 July 2015). "External cephalic version for breech presentation before term". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 7: CD000084. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000084.pub3. PMID 26222245.
Jump up ^ "Twin Breech".
^ Jump up to: a b "Delivery of Breech Second Twin". Healthline. Retrieved 2016-05-17.
Jump up ^ Cluver, C; Gyte, GM; Sinclair, M; Dowswell, T; Hofmeyr, GJ (9 February 2015). "Interventions for helping to turn term breech babies to head first presentation when using external cephalic version". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2: CD000184. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000184.pub4. PMID 25674710.
Jump up ^ Cluver, C; Gyte, GM; Sinclair, M; Dowswell, T; Hofmeyr, GJ (9 February 2015). "Interventions for helping to turn term breech babies to head first presentation when using external cephalic version". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2: CD000184. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000184.pub4. PMID 25674710.
^ Jump up to: a b "How can I turn my breech baby naturally?". BabyCentre. Retrieved 2016-05-16.
Jump up ^ Wilgoren, Jodi (9 December 2002). "From a Radical Background, A Rhodes Scholar Emerges". New York Times. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
Jump up ^ "'I Am Comic' Director Jordan Brady on Spit Takes and the Downside of Supportive Audiences". Interview. The Humor Code. Retrieved 2 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Garrison, Becky (1 Jan 2008). The New Atheist Crusaders and Their Unholy Grail: The Misguided Quest to Destroy Your Faith. Thomas Nelson Inc. p. 133.
Jump up ^ Andrew Goldman (26 May 2013). "Billy Joel on not working, not giving up drinking and not caring what Elton John says about any of it". New York Times Magazine. p. 34. Retrieved 2 February 2015. Joel attributes the need for double hip replacement surgery to "probably being born with dysplasia." He explains that he was a breech baby and that forceps may have displaced his hips.
Jump up ^ McKennain, Mike (26 February 2010). "Great balls of wax". Retrieved 3 February 2015. Allegedly said, "I was born feet first, and I've been jumpin' ever since."
Jump up ^ Ellis, Christine (15 April 2012). "Music for your soul". His website. Bret Michaels. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Geffcken, Katherine A.; Dickison, Sheila Kathryn; Hallett, Judith P. (2000). Rome and Her Monuments: Essays on the City and Literature of Rome in Honor of Katherine A. Geffcken. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. p. 496.
Jump up ^ O'Neal, Tatum (4 Oct 2005). A Paper Life. HarperCollins. p. 14.
Jump up ^ Shields, David (2009). The Thing about Life Is That One Day You'll Be Dead. Random House LLC. p. 4.
Jump up ^ Santopietro, Tom (10 Nov 2009). Sinatra in Hollywood. Macmillan. p. 12.
Jump up ^ Putnam, William L. (2001). The Kaiser's merchant ships in World War I. p. 33.
Jump up ^ Winick, Judd (2000). Pedro and Me: Friendship, Loss, and What I Learned. Henry Holt & Co. pp. 33-36.
Jump up ^ Miles, Barry (2004). Zappa. Grove Press. p. 5.
External links[edit]
Breech birth controversies in Great Britain
GLOWM video demonstrating vaginal breech delivery techniques
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