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North African Campaign
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For the campaign during the First World War, see Military operations in North Africa during World War I.
North African Campaign
Part of the Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II
A British Crusader tank passes a burning German Pz.Kpfw.IV tank during Operation Crusader, 27 November 1941.
Date
10 June 1940 – 13 May 1943
(2 years, 11 months and 3 days)
Location
Italian Libya
Kingdom of Egypt
French Algeria / Tunisia / Morocco
Result
Allied victory
Fall of Italian Libya
Surrender of all Axis forces in North Africa
Eventual Allied invasion of Sicily
Territorial
changes
Former Italian Libya placed under British military administration
Belligerents
Allies
British Commonwealth
United Kingdom
India
Southern Rhodesia
Australia
Canada
New Zealand
South Africa
United States[nb 1]
Free France
Algeria[nb 1]
Tunisia[nb 1]
Morocco[nb 1]
Poland
Czechoslovak Legions
Greece
Axis
Italy
Libya
Germany
Vichy France[nb 2]
Algeria[nb 1]
Tunisia[nb 1]
Morocco[nb 1]
Commanders and leaders
Harold Alexander
Claude Auchinleck
Archibald Wavell
Bernard Montgomery
Dwight D. Eisenhower
George S. Patton
François Darlan †[nb 3]
Władysław Anders
Italo Balbo †
Rodolfo Graziani
Italo Gariboldi
Ugo Cavallero
Ettore Bastico
Pietro Badoglio
Giovanni Messe
Erwin Rommel
Hans-J. von Arnim
Adolf Hitler
François Darlan †[nb 3]
Casualties and losses
British
Commonwealth
Estimated 220,000 dead,
wounded, missing and
captured,[1] including
35,478 confirmed dead.[2]
Free French
16,000 killed, wounded
and missing.[3]
United States
2,715 killed;
8,978 wounded;
6,528 missing.[4][5]
Principal material losses
1,400 aircraft destroyed;
2,000 tanks destroyed.
Italy
22,341 dead or missing;[6]
250,000–350,000 captured.[7][nb 4]
Germany[9][better source needed]
18,594 dead; 3,400 missing;
130,000 captured.
Vichy France[nb 5]
[citation needed]
1,346 dead; 1,997 wounded.
Principal material losses[10][11]
8,000 aircraft destroyed;
6,200 guns, 2,550 tanks and
70,000 trucks destroyed
or captured.
2,400,000 gross tons of supplies
[show]
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v
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North African Campaign
Western Desert Campaign
Invasion of Egypt
Compass
Fort Capuzzo
Nibeiwa
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Bardia
Mechili
Beda Fomm
Kufra
Giarabub
Sonnenblume
Tobruk
Bardia raid
Twin Pimples
Skorpion
Brevity
Battleaxe
Crusader
Flipper
1st Bir el Gubi
Point 175
2nd Bir el Gubi
Gazala
Bir Hakeim
Mersa Matruh
1st Alamein
Alam Halfa
Agreement
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Bertram
Braganza
2nd Alamein
Outpost Snipe
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Torch
Casablanca
Reservist
Terminal
Port Lyautey
Tunisia
Run for Tunis
Sidi Bou Zid
Kasserine Pass
Ochsenkopf
Medenine
Mareth Line
El Guettar
Wadi Akarit
Longstop Hill
Hill 609
Vulcan
Flax
Retribution
Strike
The North African Campaign of the Second World War took place in North Africa from 10 June 1940 to 13 May 1943. It included campaigns fought in the Libyan and Egyptian deserts (Western Desert Campaign, also known as the Desert War) and in Morocco and Algeria (Operation Torch), as well as Tunisia (Tunisia Campaign).
The campaign was fought between the Allies, many of whom had colonial interests in Africa dating from the late 19th century, and the Axis Powers.[12][13] The Allied war effort was dominated by the British Commonwealth and exiles from German-occupied Europe. The United States officially entered the war in December 1941 and began direct military assistance in North Africa on 11 May 1942.
Fighting in North Africa started with the Italian declaration of war on 10 June 1940. On 14 June, the British Army's 11th Hussars (assisted by elements of the 1st Royal Tank Regiment, 1st RTR) crossed the border from Egypt into Libya and captured the Italian Fort Capuzzo. This was followed by an Italian counter-offensive into Egypt and the capture of Sidi Barrani in September 1940 and again in December 1940 following a British Commonwealth counteroffensive, Operation Compass. During Operation Compass, the Italian 10th Army was destroyed and the German Afrika Korps—commanded by Erwin Rommel, who later became known as "The Desert Fox"—was dispatched to North Africa in February 1941 during Operation Sonnenblume to reinforce Italian forces in order to prevent a complete Axis defeat.
A fluctuating series of battles for control of Libya and regions of Egypt followed, reaching a climax in the Second Battle of El Alamein in October 1942 when British Commonwealth forces under the command of Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery inflicted a decisive defeat on Rommel's Afrika Korps and forced its remnants into Tunisia. After the Anglo-American landings (Operation Torch) in North-West Africa in November 1942, and subsequent battles against Vichy France forces (who then changed sides), the Allies encircled several thousand German and Italian personnel in northern Tunisia and finally forced their surrender in May 1943.
Operation Torch in November 1942 was a compromise operation that met the British objective of securing victory in North Africa while allowing American armed forces the opportunity to engage in the fight against Nazi Germany on a limited scale.[14] In addition, as Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, had long been pleading for a second front to be opened to engage the Wehrmacht and relieve pressure on the Red Army, it provided some degree of relief for the Red Army on the Eastern Front by diverting Axis forces to the North African theatre.
Information gleaned via British Ultra code-breaking intelligence proved critical to Allied success in North Africa. Victory for the Allies in this campaign immediately led to the Italian Campaign, which culminated in the downfall of the fascist government in Italy and the elimination of Germany's main European ally.
Contents
[hide]
1 Western Desert Campaign
2 Operation Torch
3 Tunisian Campaign
4 Intelligence
4.1 Axis
4.2 Allies
5 Aftermath
6 See also
7 Notes
7.1 Footnotes
7.2 Citations
8 References
9 External links
Western Desert Campaign[edit]
Main article: Western Desert Campaign
The Italian Empire in November 1942.
On 10 May 1940, the Wehrmacht had started the Battle of France (or Westfeldzug). One month later, it was plain to see that France would have to surrender within two weeks (the Armistice at Compiègne took place on 22 June 1940).
On 10 June 1940, the Kingdom of Italy aligned itself with Nazi Germany and declared war upon France and the United Kingdom.[15] British forces (along with Indian and Rhodesian troop said under the empire) based in Egypt were ordered to undertake defensive measures, but to act as non-provocatively as possible.[16] However, on 11 June they began a series of raids against Italian positions in Libya.[17] Following the defeat of France on 25 June, Italian forces in Tripolitania—facing French troops based in Tunisia—redeployed to Cyrenaica to reinforce the Italian Tenth Army.[18] This, coupled with the steadily degrading equipment of the British forces led General Archibald Wavell to order an end to raiding and placed the defence of the Egyptian border on a small screening force.[19]
Italian dictator Benito Mussolini ordered the Tenth Army to invade Egypt by 8 August. Two days later, no invasion having been launched, Mussolini ordered Marshal Graziani that, the moment German forces launched Operation Sea Lion, he was to attack.[20] On 8 September, the Italians—hampered by the lack of transport and enfeebled by the low level of training among officers and weakened by the state of its supporting arms[18] – were ordered to invade Egypt the following day. The battle plan was to advance along the coastal road, while limited armoured forces operated on the desert flank.[19] To counter the Italian advance, Wavell ordered his screening forces to harass the advancing Italians, falling back towards Mersa Matruh, where the main British infantry force was based. Positioned on the desert flank was the 7th Armoured Division, which would strike the flank of the Italian force.[21][22]
By 16 September, the Italian force had advanced to Maktila, around 80 mi (130 km) west of Mersa Matruh, where they halted due to supply problems.[23] Despite Mussolini urging that the advance carry on, Graziani ordered his force to dig in around Sidi Barrani, and fortified camps were established in forward locations; additional troops were also positioned behind the main force.[24] In response to the dispersed Italian camps, the British planned a limited five-day attack, Operation Compass, to strike at these fortified camps one by one.[25][26] The British Commonwealth force, totalling 36,000 men,[27] attacked the forward elements of the 10-division-strong Italian army on 9 December.[28] Following their initial success, the forces of Operation Compass[29] pursued the retreating Italian forces.[30] In January, the small port at Bardia was taken,[31] soon followed by the seizure of the fortified port of Tobruk.[32] Some 40,000 Italians were captured in and around the two ports, with the remainder of the Tenth Army retreating along the coast road back to El Agheila. Richard O'Connor sent the 7th Armoured Division across the desert, with a small reconnaissance group reaching Beda Fomm some ninety minutes before the Italians, cutting off their retreat. Although desperate attempts were made to overcome the British force at the Battle of Beda Fomm, the Italians were unable to break through, and the remnants of the retreating army surrendered. Thus, over the course of 10 weeks Allied forces had destroyed the Italian Tenth Army and reached El Agheila, taking 130,000 prisoners of war in the process.[33][34][35]
A British Matilda Mk II during Operation Compass displaying a captured Italian flag, 24 January 1941
Mussolini requested help from his German ally while the Italian Commando Supremo speedily sent several large motorized and armoured forces to protect their colonies in North Africa.[36] This greatly expanded reinforcement included the soon to be renowned Ariete Armoured division under General Ettore Baldassarre.[37] Meanwhile, the Germans hastily assembled a motorized force, whose lead elements arrived in Tripoli in February. This relatively small expeditionary force, termed the Afrika Korps by Hitler, was placed under the command of Erwin Rommel. His orders were to reinforce the Italians and block Allied attempts to drive them out of the region.[38][39] However, the initial commitment of only one panzer division and subsequently, no more than two panzer and one motorized divisions, indicated the limited extent of German involvement and commitment in this theater of operations.[37] The bulk of the reinforcements were Italian and therefore it was up to the Italians to do the bulk of the fighting. The forward Allied force—now named XIII Corps—adopted a defensive posture and over the coming months was built up, before having most of its veteran forces redeployed to Greece. In addition, the 7th Armoured Division was withdrawn to the Nile delta.[40][41][42] The veteran forces were replaced by inexperienced forces, ill-equipped to face German armour.[43]
Italian generals Ugo Cavallero and Ettore Bastico discussing the war at an Italian air base in Libya 1942
British Crusader tanks moving to forward positions during Operation Crusader, 26 November 1941
Although Rommel had been ordered to simply hold the line, an armoured reconnaissance soon became a full-fledged offensive from El Agheila in March 1941.[38][39] In March–April, the Allied forces were forced back [44] and leading general officers captured. The Australian 9th Infantry Division fell back to the fortress port of Tobruk,[45] and the remaining British and Commonwealth forces withdrew a further 100 mi (160 km) east to the Libyan–Egyptian border.[46] With Tobruk under siege from the main Italian-German force, a small battlegroup continued to press eastwards. Capturing Fort Capuzzo and Bardia in passing, it then advanced into Egypt, and by the end of April had taken Sollum and the tactically important Halfaya Pass. Rommel garrisoned these positions, reinforcing the battle-group and ordering it onto the defensive.[47][48]
Though isolated by land, Tobruk's garrison continued to receive supplies and replacements, delivered by the Royal Navy at night. Rommel's forces did not have the strength or training to take the fortress. This created a supply problem for his forward units. His front-line positions at Sollum were at the end of an extended supply chain that stretched back to Tripoli and had to bypass the coast road at Tobruk. Further, he was constantly threatened by a breakout of the British forces at Tobruk.[49] Without Tobruk in Axis hands, further advances into Egypt were impractical.[50][51]
The Allies soon launched a small-scale counter-attack called Operation Brevity. This was an attempt to push the Axis forces off the key passes at the border, which gained some initial success, but the advanced position could not be held. Brevity was then followed up by a much larger-scale offensive, Operation Battleaxe. Intended to relieve the siege at Tobruk, this operation also failed.
Following the failure of Operation Battleaxe, Archibald Wavell was relieved of command and replaced by Claude Auchinleck. The Western Desert Force was reinforced with a second corps, XXX Corps, with the two corps forming the Eighth Army. Eighth Army was made up of army forces from the Commonwealth nations, including the British Army, the Australian Army, the British Indian Army, the New Zealand Army, the South African Army, and the Sudan Defence Force. There was also a brigade of Free French under Marie-Pierre Koenig. The new formation launched a new offensive, Operation Crusader, in November 1941. After a see-saw battle, the 70th Division garrisoning Tobruk was relieved and the Axis forces were forced to fall back. By January 1942, the front line was again at El Agheila.
German prisoners captured during the Second Battle of El Alamein, November 1942
After receiving supplies and reinforcements from Tripoli, the Axis attacked again, defeating the Allies at Gazala in June and capturing Tobruk. The Axis forces drove the Eighth Army back over the Egyptian border, but their advance was stopped in July only 90 mi (140 km) from Alexandria in the First Battle of El Alamein.
Of great significance, on 29 June US reports from Egypt of British military operations stopped using the compromised "Black Code" which the Axis were reading, so learning of British "strengths, positions, losses, reinforcements, supply, situation, plans, morale etc".
General Auchinleck, although he had checked Rommel's advance at the First Battle of El Alamein, was replaced by General Harold Alexander. Lieutenant-General William Gott was promoted from XIII Corps commander to take command of the entire Eighth Army, but he was killed when his aircraft was intercepted and shot down over Egypt. He was replaced by Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery.
At the end of June, the Axis forces made a second attempt to break through the Allied defences at El Alamein at Alam Halfa, but were unsuccessful. After a lengthy period of build-up and training, the Eighth Army launched a major offensive, decisively defeating the Italian-German army during the Second Battle of El Alamein in late October 1942, driving the Axis forces westward and capturing Tripoli in mid-January 1943. By February, the Eighth Army was facing the Italian-German Panzer Army near the Mareth Line and came under command of General Harold Alexander's 18th Army Group for the concluding phase of the war in North Africa, the Tunisia Campaign.
Operation Torch[edit]
American troops on board a Landing Craft Assault heading into Oran, November 1942
Main article: Operation Torch
Operation Torch started on 8 November 1942, and finished on 11 November. In an attempt to pincer German and Italian forces, Allied forces (American and British Commonwealth), landed in Vichy-held French North Africa under the assumption that there would be little to no resistance. Nevertheless, Vichy French forces put up a strong and bloody resistance to the Allies in Oran and Morocco, but not in Algiers, where a coup d'état by the French resistance on 8 November succeeded in neutralizing the French XIX Corps before the landing and arresting the Vichy commanders. Consequently, the landings met no practical opposition in Algiers, and the city was captured on the first day along with the entire Vichy African command. After three days of talks and threats, Generals Mark Clark and Dwight Eisenhower compelled the Vichy Admiral François Darlan (and General Alphonse Juin) to order the cessation of armed resistance in Oran and Morocco by French forces on 10–11 November with the provision that Darlan would be head of a Free French administration. During Operation Torch, American, Vichy French and German navy vessels fought the Naval Battle of Casablanca, ending in an American victory.
The Allied landings prompted the Axis occupation of Vichy France (Case Anton). In addition, the French fleet was captured at Toulon by the Italians, something which did them little good as the main portion of the fleet had been scuttled to prevent their use by the Axis. The Vichy army in North Africa joined the Allies (see Free French Forces).[52]
Tunisian Campaign[edit]
Main article: Tunisia Campaign
Following the Operation Torch landings, (from early November 1942), the Germans and Italians initiated a buildup of troops in Tunisia to fill the vacuum left by Vichy troops which had withdrawn. During this period of weakness, the Allies decided against a rapid advance into Tunisia while they wrestled with the Vichy authorities. Many of the Allied soldiers were tied up in garrison duties because of the uncertain status and intentions of the Vichy forces.
Tiger 712 of the 501st heavy tank battalion was surrendered to the US and subsequently transferred to the United States Army Armor & Cavalry Museum[53]
By mid-November, the Allies were able to advance into Tunisia but only in single division strength. By early December, the Eastern Task Force—which had been redesignated as the British First Army under Lieutenant-General Kenneth Anderson—was composed of the British 78th Infantry Division, British 6th Armoured Division, 1st Parachute Brigade, No. 6 Commando and elements of US 1st Armored Division. But by this time, one German and five Italian divisions had been shipped from Europe and the remoteness of Allied airfields from the front line gave the Axis clear air superiority over the battlefield. The Allies were halted and pushed back having advanced eastwards to within 30 kilometres (19 mi) of Tunis.
During the winter, there followed a period of stalemate during which time both sides continued to build up their forces. By the new year, the British First Army had one British, one US and one French Corps (a second British Corps headquarters was activated in April). In the second half of February, in eastern Tunisia, Rommel and von Arnim had some successes against the mainly inexperienced French and US troops, most notably in routing the US II Corps commanded by Major General Lloyd Fredendall at the Battle of Kasserine Pass.
By the beginning of March, the British Eighth Army—advancing westward along the North African coast—had reached the Tunisian border. Rommel and von Arnim found themselves in an Allied "two army" pincer. They were outflanked, outmanned and outgunned. The British Eighth Army bypassed the Axis defence on the Mareth Line in late March and First Army in central Tunisia launched their main offensive in mid-April to squeeze the Axis forces until their resistance in Africa collapsed. The Axis forces surrendered on 13 May 1943 yielding over 275,000 prisoners of war. The last Axis force to surrender in North Africa was the 1st Italian Army.[54] This huge loss of experienced troops greatly reduced the military capacity of the Axis powers, although the largest percentage of Axis troops escaped Tunisia. This defeat in Africa led to all Italian colonies in Africa being captured.
Intelligence[edit]
Axis[edit]
A German Signals reception unit in the desert
The Axis had considerable success in intelligence gathering through radio communication intercepts and monitoring unit radio traffic. The most important success came through intercepting the reports of Colonel Bonner Fellers, the US military attaché in Egypt. He had been tasked by General George Marshall with providing detailed reports on the military situation in Africa.[55] Fellers talked with British military and civilian headquarters personnel, read documents and visited the battlefront. Known to the Germans as "die gute Quelle" (the good source) or more jokingly as 'the little fellow', he transmitted his reports back to Washington using the "Black Code" of the US State Department. However, in September 1941, the Italians had stolen a code book containing the Black Code, photographed it and returned it to the US embassy in Rome.[56] The Italians shared parts of their intercepts with their German allies. In addition the "Chiffrierabteilung" (German military cipher branch) were soon able to break the code. Fellers' reports were very detailed and played a significant role in informing the Germans of allied strength and intentions between January and June 1942.
An Italian M13/40 tank belonging to the Ariete Armoured Division
In addition, the Italian Servizio Informazioni Segrete or SIS code-breakers were able to successfully intercept much radio encrypted signals intelligence (SIGINT) from British aircraft traffic as well as first-class ciphers from British vessels and land bases, providing Supermarina (Regia Marina) with timely warnings of Allied intentions in the Mediterranean.[57] Indeed, so successful was the Italian SIS in handling the bulk of Axis naval intelligence in the Mediterranean, that "Britain's offensive use of SIGINT was largely negated by Italy's defensive SIGINT."[58]
The Afrika Korps had the intelligence services of the 621st Signals Battalion mobile monitoring element which arrived in North Africa in late April 1941,[59] commanded by Hauptmann Alfred Seeböhm. The 621st Signals Battalion monitored radio communications among British units.[55] Unfortunately for the Allies, the British not only failed to change their codes with any frequency, they were also prone to poor radio discipline in combat. Their officers made frequent open, uncoded transmissions to their commands, allowing the Germans to more easily identify British units and deployments.[55] The situation changed after a counterattack during the Battle of Gazala resulted in the 621st Signals Battalion being overrun and destroyed, and a number of their documents captured, alerting British intelligence to the problem.[60] The British responded by instituting an improved call signal procedure, introducing radiotelephonic codes, imposing rigid wireless silence on reserve formations, padding out real messages with dummy traffic, tightening up on their radio discipline in combat and creating an entire fake signals network in the southern sector.[60]
Allies[edit]
Colossus Mark II computer at Bletchley Park
Allied codebreakers read much enciphered German message traffic, especially that encrypted with the Enigma machine. The Allies' Ultra programme was initially of limited value, as it took too long to get the information to the commanders in the field, and at times provided information that was less than helpful.[61] In terms of anticipating the next move the Germans would make, reliance on Ultra sometimes backfired. Part of the reason the initial German attacks in March 1941 were so successful was that Ultra intercepts had informed Wavell that OKW had clearly directed Rommel not to take any offensive action, but to wait until he was further reinforced with the 15th Panzer Division in May.[62] Rommel received this information, but placed more value on his own assessment of the situation. Trusting that the Germans had no intention of taking major action, the British command did not respond until it was too late.[63] Furthermore, Rommel did not generally provide OKW or the Italian Comando Supremo details of his planned operations, for he thought the Italians too prone to leak the information. Thus on 21 January 1942, when Rommel struck out on his second offensive from El Agheila, Commando Supremo was just as surprised to learn of it as the British were.[64] Ultra intercepts provided the British with such information as the name of the new German commander, his time of arrival, and the numbers and condition of the Axis forces, but they might not correctly reveal Rommel's intentions.
The primary benefit of Ultra intercepts to the effort in North Africa was to aid in cutting the Axis supply line to Tunisia. Ultra intercepts provided valuable information about the times and routes of Axis supply shipments across the Mediterranean. This was critical in providing the British with the opportunity to intercept and destroy them. During the time when Malta was under heavy air attack, the ability to act on this information was limited, but as Allied air and naval strength improved, the information became instrumental to Allied success. It is estimated that 40% to 60% of Axis supply shipping was located and destroyed due to decrypted information.[65][66] However, this claim is strongly disputed by the authors Vincent P. O'Hara and Enrico Cernuschi (2013) who claim that authors like F.H. Hinsley have greatly exaggerated the effects of ULTRA. For example, they claim that intelligence provided by ULTRA had little impact in stopping Italian convoys reaching North Africa. Of the 2.67 million tons of materiel, fuel, and munitions shipped to Africa — nearly all in Italian vessels and under Italian escort — 2.24 million tons managed to arrive despite the best efforts of ULTRA and the British Navy to prevent it.[67] In effect, "Ultra did not deny the Axis armies the supplies they needed to reach the Nile." [58]
Heavy losses of German paratroopers in Crete, made possible by Ultra warnings of the drop times and locations, meant that Hitler hesitated in attacking Malta,[68] which aided the British in gaining control of the Mediterranean, as did the losses of the Italian Navy at the Battle of Cape Matapan.[69] To conceal the fact that German coded messages were being read, a fact critical to the overall Allied war effort, British command required a flyover mission be carried out before a convoy could be attacked in order to give the appearance that a reconnaissance flight had discovered the target.
Aftermath[edit]
Wehrmacht fuel barrel in Tunisia, 2010
After victory by the Allies in the North African Campaign, the stage was set for the Italian Campaign to begin. The invasion of Sicily followed two months later. Nearly 400,000 Axis and Allied troops were either lost, injured, or died of disease by the end of the North African Campaign.
See also[edit]
World War II portal
List of World War II Battles
North African Campaign timeline
Timeline of World War II in 1940 / 1941 / 1942 / 1943
Notes[edit]
Footnotes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g 1942–43.
Jump up ^ 8–11 November 1942. Vichy officially pursued a policy of armed neutrality and conducted military actions against armed incursions from Axis and Allied belligerents. The pledging of allegiance of the Vichy troops in French North Africa to the Allies convinced the Axis that Vichy could not be trusted to continue this policy, so they invaded and occupied the French rump state (Case Anton)
^ Jump up to: a b Darlan joined the Allies in November 1942, ordering the French Army of Africa to cease fire and unite with the Free French, and became High Civilian and Military Commissioner in French North Africa. He was assassinated on 24 December 1942.
Jump up ^ Historian Giorgio Rochat wrote:
Sono circa 400.000 i prigionieri fatti dagli inglesi in Etiopia e in Africa settentrionale, 125.000 presi dagli americani in Tunisia e in Sicilia, 40.000 lasciati ai francesi in Tunisia ("There were about 400,000 prisoners made by the British in North Africa and in Ethiopia, 125,000 taken by the Americans in Tunisia and Sicily, 40,000 by the French in Tunisia")[8]
Considering that about 100,000 Italian prisoners were taken in East Africa and that prisoners taken by the Americans were mainly in Sicily, the total is around 340,000–350,000.[citation needed]
Jump up ^ During Operation Torch only (8–16 November 1942).
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Zabecki, North Africa
Jump up ^ Carell, p. 597
Jump up ^ Cartier, Raymond. La Seconde Guerre Mondiale, vol4: 1943-Juin1944 [The Second World War, vol4: 1943-June1944]. Press Pocket. p. 40.
Jump up ^ Playfair, Volume IV, p. 460. United States losses from 12 November 1942
Jump up ^ Atkinson, p. 536
Jump up ^ Roma: Instituto Centrale Statistica' Morti E Dispersi Per Cause Belliche Negli Anni 1940–45 Roma 1957
Jump up ^ Colin F. Baxter. "The War in North Africa, 1940–1943: A Selected Bibliography". 1996. Page 38. 500,000 prisoners are listed as being taken in North Africa, East Africa, and Sicily; as 150,000 POWs were taken in the Allied invasion of Sicily, and about 100,000 in East Africa, this would leave ~250,000 to be taken in North Africa; 130,000 during Operation Compass, and 120,000 afterwards.
Jump up ^ Rochat, Giorgio. Le guerre italiane 1935–1943. Dall'impero d'Etiopia alla disfatta [The Italian Wars 1935–1943. From the Ethiopian Empire until defeat]. Einaudi. p. 446.
Jump up ^ Carell, p. 596
Jump up ^ Barclay, Mediterranean Operations
Jump up ^ Porch, Douglas: "The Path to Victory: The Mediterranean Theater in World War II", 2004, p. 415.
Jump up ^ "Military Operations in North Africa". www.ushmm.org. Retrieved 2017-05-25.
Jump up ^ Boundless (2017-01-12). "The North African Front". Boundless.
Jump up ^ Wilmott, H.P. p.
Jump up ^ Playfair, p. 109
Jump up ^ Playfair, p. 41
Jump up ^ Churchill, p. 371
^ Jump up to: a b Macksey, p. 25
^ Jump up to: a b Macksey, p. 38
Jump up ^ Macksey, p. 35
Jump up ^ Macksey, p. 40
Jump up ^ Playfair (2004), pp.209–210
Jump up ^ Macksey, p. 47
Jump up ^ Macksey, p. 68
Jump up ^ Wavell "No. 37628". The London Gazette (1st supplement). 25 June 1946. p. 3261.
Jump up ^ Playfair pp. 260–261, 264
Jump up ^ Bauer (2000), p.95
Jump up ^ Playfair p. 267
Jump up ^ Mead, p. 331
Jump up ^ Playfair p 271
Jump up ^ Playfair, pp. 286–287
Jump up ^ Dunn, Jimmy. "World War II's Opening Salvoes in North Africa". Tour Egypt.
Jump up ^ Playfair, p. 358
Jump up ^ "Fall of Bengasi". Time Magazine (17 February 1941). 17 February 1941. Retrieved 17 December 2007.
Jump up ^ Wavell in "No. 37628". The London Gazette (1st supplement). 25 June 1946. p. 3268.
Jump up ^ Bauer, p.121
^ Jump up to: a b Walker, Ian W. (2003). Iron Hulls Iron Hearts. Trowbridge: The Crowood Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-1-86126-646-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Jentz, p. 82
^ Jump up to: a b Rommel, p. 109
Jump up ^ Playfair (1954), p. 289
Jump up ^ Playfair (1956), p. 2
Jump up ^ Jentz, p. 85
Jump up ^ Playfair (1956), pp. 2–5
Jump up ^ Playfair (1956), pp. 19–40
Jump up ^ Latimer, pp. 43–45
Jump up ^ Playfair (1956), pp. 33–35
Jump up ^ Playfair (1956), p. 160
Jump up ^ Jentz, pp. 128–129, 131
Jump up ^ Latimer, pp. 48–64
Jump up ^ Playfair (1956), p. 41
Jump up ^ Jentz, p. 128
Jump up ^ See Operation Torch#Resistance and coup
Jump up ^ "AFTA Tiger I Page". armorfortheages.com. Retrieved 28 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Walker 2006, p. 193
^ Jump up to: a b c Wil Deac (12 June 2006). "Intercepted Communications for Field Marshal Erwin Rommel". World War II Magazine.
Jump up ^ Lewin p. 251
Jump up ^ Vincent P. O'Hara and Enrico Cernuschi, 2013, p.119.
^ Jump up to: a b Vincent P. O'Hara and Enrico Cernuschi, 2013, p.135
Jump up ^ Forty 1998, pp. 97 and 148.
^ Jump up to: a b Lewin p. 252
Jump up ^ "Intelligence in North Africa" Quote:Protection of the top secret Ultra source meant that the distribution of Ultra was extremely slow and by the time it had reached the relevant commander it was often out of date and therefore at best useless and at worst dangerously mis-leading.
Jump up ^ Verlauf März 1941. In: Der Feldzug in Afrika 1941–1943 (deutsches-afrikakorps.de). Abgerufen am 24. November 2009. Quote: Schuld an dieser Einschätzung sind die Enigma Berichte, aus denen Wavell ersehen kann, dass Rommel lediglich den Auftrag hat, die Syrte-Front zu stabilisieren, und dass sein wichtigster Verband, die 15. Panzerdivision, noch nicht in Afrika eingetroffen ist. Translated: The responsibility for this assessment are the Enigma reports, which can be seen from Wavell that Rommel only has a mandate to stabilize the Sirte front, and that his most important unit, the 15th Panzer Division, has not yet arrived in Africa.
Jump up ^ Lewin p. 33 Quote: On 30 March Wavell signalled, 'I do not believe he can make any big effort for another month.'
Jump up ^ Lewin pp. 99–101 Quote from Rommel's diary: I had maintained secrecy over the Panzer Group's forthcoming attack eastwards from Mersa el Brega and informed neither the Italian nor the German High Command. We knew from experience that Italian Headquarters cannot keep things to themselves and that everything they wireless to Rome gets round to British ears. However, I had arranged with the Quartermaster for the Panzer Group's order to be posted in every Cantoniera in Tripolitinia on 21 January ...
Jump up ^ Kingsly, Sir Harry "The Influence of ULTRA in the Second World War" Archived 22 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Hinsley, Francis Harry (1993), British intelligence in the Second World War, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-44304-3
Jump up ^ Vincent P. O'Hara and Enrico Cernuschi, 2013. p.118
Jump up ^ ""Intelligence in North Africa"". topedge.com. Retrieved 28 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Hinsley, F.H.; Stripp, Alan, eds. (1993), Codebreakers: The inside story of Bletchley Park (OU Press paperback ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-280132-6 p 3
References[edit]
Atkinson, Rick (2004) [2002]. An Army at Dawn: The War in North Africa, 1942–1943. Abacus. ISBN 0-349-11636-9.
Barclay, Brigadier C. N. "Mediterranean Operations". GI – World War II Commemoration. Archived from the original on 21 January 1997. Retrieved 8 September 2010.
Bauer, Eddy (2000) [1984]. The history of World War II (Revised and updated ed.). Great Britain: Silverdale. ISBN 978-1-85605-552-9.
Carell, Paul (1960). Le volpi del deserto. 1941–1943: le armate italo-tedesche in Africa settentrionale [The wolves of the desert. 1941 – 1943: the Italo-German armies in North Africa]. New York: Bantam.
Forty, George (1998). The Armies of Rommel. London: Arms and Armour Press. ISBN 978-1-85409-379-0.
Jentz, Thomas L. (1998). Tank Combat In North Africa: The Opening Rounds, Operations Sonnenblume, Brevity, Skorpion and Battleaxe, February 1941 – June 1941. Schiffer Publishing. ISBN 0-7643-0226-4.
Keegan, John (2001). Oxford Companion to World War II. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280666-1.
Lewin, Ronald (1998) [1968]. Rommel As Military Commander. New York: B&N Books. ISBN 978-0-7607-0861-3.
O'Hara, Vincent; Cernushi, Enrico (Summer 2013). "The Other Ultra: Signal Intelligence and the Battle to Supply Rommel's Attack toward Suez". Naval War College Review,. 66 (3): 117–138.
Playfair, Major-General I.S.O.; and Molony, Brigadier C.J.C.; with Flynn R.N., Captain F.C. & Gleave, Group Captain T.P. (2004) [1st. pub. HMSO 1966]. Butler, J.R.M, ed. The Mediterranean and Middle East, Volume IV: The Destruction of the Axis Forces in Africa. History of the Second World War United Kingdom Military Series. Uckfield, UK: Naval & Military Press. ISBN 1-84574-068-8.
Walker, Ian (2006). Iron Hulls, Iron Hearts: Mussolini's Elite Armoured Divisions in North Africa. Ramsbury: Crowood. ISBN 1-86126-839-4.
Willmott, H.P. (1984). June, 1944. Poole, Dorset: Blandford Press. ISBN 0-7137-1446-8.
Zabecki, David T. (2007). "North Africa (1940–1943)". The War. PBS. Retrieved 8 September 2010.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to North African campaign.
The Jews of North Africa and the Holocaust an e-Newsletter for Holocaust educators by Yad Vashem
BBC's flash video of the North African Campaign
Timeline of the North African Campaign
General sites on the North African Campaign
Spartacus Educational website: Desert War
John, Paul (1997). "World War II Study – Case Study North Africa".
Zabecki, David T. (2000). "Battlefield North Africa: Rommel's Rise And Fall". Military.com World War II.
Canadian World War 2 Online Newspaper Archives – The North African Campaigns, 1940–1943
North African Campaign Desert War.net
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Brooke Elliott
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Brooke Elliott
Brooke Elliott in 2013
Born
(1974-11-16) November 16, 1974 (age 43)
Fridley, Minnesota, U.S.
Nationality
American
Education
Bachelor of Fine Arts in Musical Theatre Performance
Alma mater
Western Michigan University
Occupation
Actress
Years active
2000–present
Known for
Drop Dead Diva
Brooke Elliott (born November 16, 1974) is an American actress and singer. She has previously appeared in musical theatre, including the US tours of Beauty and the Beast and Wicked, and the Broadway productions of Taboo and The Pirate Queen. She is best known for her roles in the 2000 Mel Gibson film What Women Want, her big-screen debut, and as Jane Bingum on the Lifetime series Drop Dead Diva.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Career
3 Personal life
4 Credits
4.1 Filmography
4.2 Discography
4.2.1 Cast recordings
4.2.2 Compilation albums
5 Awards
6 References
7 External links
Early life[edit]
Elliott was born in Fridley, Minnesota, to Robert, a city manager, and Kathleen Elliott, on November 16, 1974.[1] Elliott has one sister, Jamie Alexander, and one brother, Adam Elliott.[2] Her parents have said that she began to sing when she was three years old, and footage exists of her at that age singing You Light Up My Life.[3][4] Her family moved on several occasions, first to Blaine, Minnesota, and then out of state to Missouri, Oklahoma, and Illinois.[5] The family settled in Riverview, Michigan, when Elliott was a junior in high school. She graduated from Gabriel Richard Catholic High School in 1993; she appeared in high school productions while there, including in Richard III and Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat. Elliott went on to Western Michigan University, and graduated with a Bachelor of Fine Arts in Musical Theatre Performance in 1998.[3][6]
Elliott worked as a temp and a waitress, including working at a 1950s-themed restaurant where she had to dance on the tables every hour.[7]
Career[edit]
For ten weeks in 1999, she was a member of Chicago-based stage combat theatre company Babes With Blades.[8] As part of that role, she performed a scene from Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves, The Miracle Worker and Heathers.[9] She left for her first professional theatre role as the Sugar Bowl in the US touring version of Beauty and the Beast.[7][10] She also appeared as part of the cast in the North American tour of Wicked alongside Adam Lambert, whom she later supported when he appeared on American Idol.[9][11]
She credits Rosie O'Donnell with getting her first Broadway role alongside Boy George in Taboo.[12] Rosie later described her as "fresh off a Disney Cruise", but allowed her to come back for a second attempt. Elliott spent $117 to change her outfit and make-up in order to be better suited to the role; O'Donnell reimbursed Elliott when she was awarded a part in the show.[13] The show closed after only a hundred performances, but O'Donnell subsequently praised Elliott's passion for the show.[14] Elliott went on to play Majella in The Pirate Queen, which opened in Chicago in 2006 and moved to Broadway in 2007.[15]
Her first film role was in the Mel Gibson film What Women Want in 2000.[1] Her first television role was in an episode of Law & Order: Trial by Jury.[16] In 2009, Elliott was cast as main character Jane Bingum on Lifetime's Drop Dead Diva.[12] Producer Craig Zadan said of Elliott's casting, "We had to find somebody who's a beautiful leading lady, who can do the comedy and drama, and with Brooke, she nailed it".[17] After the pilot, the New York Times described Elliott as "convincing, and even affecting, at every turn",[18] and the Los Angeles Times said she was "a stage actress with fabulous comic timing and enormous dramatic flexibility".[13] Elliott also sings on the soundtrack to the series.[19] The show ended after its sixth season in 2014.
In 2016, Elliott starred opposite Katey Sagal in the CBS comedy pilot Upper Middle Bogen inspired by the Australian series.[20] It was not ordered to series. In 2018, she went to star in the ABC comedy pilot created by Bobby Bowman about a dysfunctional family struggling with mental illness.[21][22]
Personal life[edit]
Elliott has discussed the perception of plus-size actresses on television,[12] and describes her body type as normal sized, stating "The majority of women in America look like me. It's one of the things I love about the show."[23]
Credits[edit]
Filmography[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Other notes
2000 What Women Want Woman in Park
2003 Taboo Big Sue Broadway musical
2005 Law & Order: Trial by Jury Denise Bell 1 episode: "Vigilante"
2005, 2007 Wicked Madame Morrible (Understudy) + Ensemble Broadway musical, US Tour + Los Angeles
2007 The Pirate Queen Majella Broadway musical
2009–2014 Drop Dead Diva Jane Bingum Lead role, 78 episodes
2016 Upper Middle Bogen Amber CBS pilot[24]
2017 Trew Calling Kendra
2018 Nesting Doll Kat
2018 Untitled Bobby Bowman Project Keri-Ann ABC pilot
Discography[edit]
Cast recordings[edit]
Taboo - Original Broadway Cast (2003) - as Big Sue
The Pirate Queen - Original Broadway Cast (2007) - as Majella
Compilation albums[edit]
Drop Dead Diva - Music from the Original Television Series (2010)
Awards[edit]
While Elliott has been suggested as a potential Emmy Award nominee by Variety magazine,[25] she has not yet been nominated for the award.[26]
Year
Award
Nominated work
Result
2009 Satellite Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy Drop Dead Diva Nominated
2010 Gracie Award for Female Rising Star in a Comedy Series[10] Drop Dead Diva Won
2011 Prism Award for Best Actress in a Comedy Series[10] Drop Dead Diva Nominated
2011 Women's Image Network Awards for Best Actress Comedy Series[10] Drop Dead Diva Won
2014 Prism Award for Best Actress in a Comedy Series[10] Drop Dead Diva Nominated
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Cast Profile: Brooke Elliott". Sky Living. Retrieved 24 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "Robert C. Elliott". FloralHavan.com. Archived from the original on 24 March 2012. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Blum, Andrea (29 December 2009). "Drop dead diva: Former high school thespian earns starring role". The News-Herald. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Sheridan, Patricia (25 July 2011). "Patricia Sheridan's Breakfast With ... Brooke Elliott". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved 24 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Justin, Neal (27 June 2010). "Brooke Knows Best". Star Tribune. Retrieved 24 May 2012. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ "Alumni". Western Michigan University Department of Theatre. Archived from the original on 20 June 2012. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Middleton, Paul (30 March 2010). "Brooke Elliott: People want to see a normal-sized person on TV". Metro. Retrieved 24 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Thomas, Mike (8 October 2009). "'Diva' puts body and soul in work". Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved 24 May 2012. (Subscription required (help)).
^ Jump up to: a b Bierly, Mandi (12 July 2009). "'Drop Dead Diva' star Brooke Elliott: Three reasons we're loving her". Popwatch. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Brooke Elliott". My Lifetime. Retrieved 24 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Ouzounian, Richard (4 April 2005). "Wicked (Theatre review)". Daily Variety. Retrieved 24 May 2012. (Subscription required (help)).
^ Jump up to: a b c Kinon, Cristina (18 June 2009). "'Drop Dead Diva' actress Brooke Elliott says plus size isn't a minus". NY Daily News. Retrieved 24 May 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Rising Star: Brooke Elliott". Access Holywood. 22 July 2009. Retrieved 24 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "For Brooke Elliott, a $117 outfit was pivotal". AP Online. 31 July 2009. Retrieved 24 May 2012. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ Oxman, Steven (31 October 2006). "The Pirate Queen (Theatre review)". Daily Variety. Retrieved 24 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "Brooke Elliot stars as Jane Bingum". TVNZ. Retrieved 26 May 2012. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Schneider, Michael (19 June 2008). "Brooke Elliott to be Lifetime's 'Diva'". Variety. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Stanley, Alexandra (9 July 2009). "Chubby Legal Beagle, Meet Your Inner Skinny Siren". New York Times. Retrieved 24 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "Drop Dead Diva Original Television Soundtrack Available Now on iTunes and Amazon.com". Telecommunications Weekly. 16 June 2010. Retrieved 24 May 2012. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ "'Drop Dead Diva' Star Brooke Elliott Boards CBS Family Comedy (Exclusive)". Retrieved 15 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "'Drop Dead Diva' Star Set as Female Lead in ABC Family Comedy". Retrieved 15 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Brockington, Ariana (7 March 2018). "'Drop Dead Diva' Alum Brooke Elliott to Star in Bobby Bowman ABC Comedy Pilot". Retrieved 15 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Cooney Fitzpatrick, Beth (4 June 2010). "'Drop Dead Diva' Star Brooke Elliott on Her Madonna Shoes, Victoria Principal Products, and Being a Real Diva!". StyleList. Retrieved 26 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "'Drop Dead Diva' Star Brooke Elliott Boards CBS Family Comedy (Exclusive)". Retrieved 15 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Levine, Stuart (9 June 2010). "Actresses in Emmy contention". Variety. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "2010 Nominations". Emmys.com. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
External links[edit]
Brooke Elliott on IMDb
Brooke Elliott at the Internet Broadway Database
Brooke Elliott at TVGuide.com
[hide]
v
t
e
Drop Dead Diva
Episodes
Season 1
Season 2
Season 3
Season 4
Season 5
Season 6
Related
Official soundtrack
List of characters
Korean remake
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 160708175
LCCN: no2010200132
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brooke_Elliott&oldid=836423030"
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van 't Hoff factor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The van 't Hoff factor i (named after Dutch chemist Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff) is a measure of the effect of a solute upon colligative properties such as osmotic pressure, relative lowering in vapor pressure, boiling-point elevation and freezing-point depression. The van 't Hoff factor is the ratio between the actual concentration of particles produced when the substance is dissolved and the concentration of a substance as calculated from its mass....... For most non-electrolytes dissolved in water, the van 't Hoff factor is essentially 1. For most ionic compounds dissolved in water, the van 't Hoff factor is equal to the number of discrete ions in a formula unit of the substance. This is true for ideal solutions only, as occasionally ion pairing occurs in solution. At a given instant a small percentage of the ions are paired and count as a single particle. Ion pairing occurs to some extent in all electrolyte solutions. This causes the measured van 't Hoff factor to be less than that predicted in an ideal solution. The deviation for the van 't Hoff factor tends to be greatest where the ions have multiple charges.
Contents
[hide]
1 Dissociated solutes
2 Associated solutes
3 Physical significance of i
4 See also
Dissociated solutes[edit]
The degree of dissociation is the fraction of the original solute molecules that have dissociated. It is usually indicated by the Greek symbol α {\displaystyle \alpha } . There is a simple relationship between this parameter and the van 't Hoff factor. If a fraction α {\displaystyle \alpha } of the solute dissociates into n {\displaystyle n} ions, then
i = α n + ( 1 − α ) = 1 + α ( n − 1 ) . {\displaystyle i=\alpha n+(1-\alpha )=1+\alpha (n-1).}
For example, the dissociation
KCl ⇌ K+ + Cl−
yields n = 2 {\displaystyle n=2} ions, so that i = 1 + α {\displaystyle i=1+\alpha }
For dissociation, the van 't Hoff factor is:
i > 1 {\displaystyle i>1}
Associated solutes[edit]
Similarly, if a fraction α {\displaystyle \alpha } of n {\displaystyle n} moles of solute associate to form one mole of an n-mer (dimer, trimer, etc.), then
i = 1 − ( 1 − 1 n ) α . {\displaystyle i=1-\left(1-{\frac {1}{n}}\right)\alpha .}
For the dimerisation of acetic acid in benzene
2CH3COOH ⇌ (CH3COOH)2
2 moles of acetic acid associate to form 1 mole of dimer, so that
i = 1 − ( 1 − 1 2 ) α = 1 − α 2 . {\displaystyle i=1-\left(1-{\frac {1}{2}}\right)\alpha =1-{\frac {\alpha }{2}}.}
For association, the van 't Hoff factor is:
i < 1 {\displaystyle i<1}
Physical significance of i[edit]
Dimerization of a carboxylic acid by formation of hydrogen bonds (shown as dotted lines)
When solute particles associate in solution, i is less than 1. For example, carboxylic acids such as acetic acid (ethanoic acid) or benzoic acid form dimers in benzene, so that the number of solute particles is half the number of acid molecules.
When solute particles dissociate in solution, i is greater than 1 (e.g. sodium chloride in water, potassium chloride in water, magnesium chloride in water).
When solute particles neither dissociate nor associate in solution, i equals 1 (e.g. glucose in water).
The value of i is the actual number of particles in solution after dissociation divided by the number of formula units initially dissolved in solution and means the number of particles per formula unit of the solute when a solution is dilute.
Association of molecules (i < 1):
i = 1 − n − 1 n α {\displaystyle i=1-{\frac {n-1}{n}}\alpha } .
See also[edit]
Colligative properties
Thermodynamic activity
Solutions
Raoult's law
van 't Hoff equation
Dissociation (chemistry)
Osmosis
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Van_%27t_Hoff_factor&oldid=838105007"
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Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff
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