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Skyline Drive
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This article is about the road in Shenandoah National Park. For other roads named "Skyline Drive", see Skyline Drive (disambiguation).
Skyline Drive
Road map of Skyline Drive showing nearby major roads and cities in west-central and northwestern Virginia
Route information
Maintained by National Park Service
Length
105.5 mi[1] (169.8 km)
Existed
1939 – present
Major junctions
North end
US 340 near Front Royal
US 211 in Thornton Gap
US 33 in Swift Run Gap
South end
US 250 in Rockfish Gap
Location
Counties
Warren, Rappahannock, Page, Madison, Greene, Rockingham, Albemarle, Augusta
Highway system
National Scenic Byways
Skyline Drive Historic District
U.S. National Register of Historic Places
U.S. National Historic Landmark District
Virginia Landmarks Register
View from Skyline Drive near Hawksbill
Show map of Virginia Show map of the US Show all
Nearest city
Front Royal, Virginia
Coordinates
38°32′54″N 78°27′38″W / 38.54833°N 78.46056°W / 38.54833; -78.46056
Built
1931
Architect
multiple
Architectural style
Other
MPS
Historic Park Landscapes in National and State Parks MPS
NRHP reference #
97000375[2]
VLR #
069-0234
Significant dates
Added to NRHP
April 28, 1997
Designated NHLD
October 6, 2008[4]
Designated VLR
December 4, 2006; July 2, 1997; June 18, 2003[3]
Skyline Drive is a 105-mile (169 km) road that runs the entire length of the National Park Service's Shenandoah National Park in the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia, generally along the ridge of the mountains. The drive's northern terminus is at an intersection with U.S. Route 340 (US 340) near Front Royal, and the southern terminus is at an interchange with US 250 near Interstate 64 (I-64) in Rockfish Gap, where the road continues south as the Blue Ridge Parkway. The road has intermediate interchanges with US 211 in Thornton Gap and US 33 in Swift Run Gap. Skyline Drive is part of Virginia State Route 48, which also includes the Virginia portion of the Blue Ridge Parkway, but this designation is not signed.
A park entrance fee is charged at the four access points to the drive. Skyline Drive is a two-lane road that has 75 overlooks providing views of the Shenandoah Valley to the west and the Piedmont to the east. The drive provides access to numerous trails, including the Appalachian Trail, and it is also used for biking and horseback riding. Skyline Drive is the main road through Shenandoah National Park and has access to campgrounds, visitor centers, and resorts such as Skyland Resort and Big Meadows. The scenic drive is particularly popular in the fall for leaf peeping when the leaves are changing colors. Skyline Drive is designated a National Scenic Byway and a National Historic Landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Plans for the road date back to 1924 when a national park was planned in the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia and the main feature was to be a "sky-line drive" providing views of the surrounding land. President Herbert Hoover, who had a summer home at Rapidan Camp, called for the construction of the road. Groundbreaking for Skyline Drive took place in 1931. The first section, which originally was to run from Rapidan Camp to Skyland, was extended between Swift Run Gap and Thornton Gap and opened in 1934. Skyline Drive was extended north to Front Royal in 1936 and south to Jarman Gap in 1939. The road between Jarman Gap and Rockfish Gap was built as part of the Blue Ridge Parkway in 1939 and was incorporated into Skyline Drive in 1961. The Civilian Conservation Corps played a large part in constructing Skyline Drive. Improvements have been made to the roadway since it was built. Skyline Drive was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1997, became a National Scenic Byway in 2005, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2008.
Contents
[hide]
1 Route description
1.1 Front Royal to Thornton Gap
1.2 Thornton Gap to Swift Run Gap
1.3 Swift Run Gap to Rockfish Gap
2 Entrance fees
3 History
4 Points of interest
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Route description[edit]
Skyline Drive takes a winding north–south path along the mountaintops of the Blue Ridge Mountains east of the Shenandoah River from Front Royal to Rockfish Gap, serving as the only public road through Shenandoah National Park. There are four entrance points to Skyline Drive located at US 340 near I-66 in Front Royal, US 211 in Thornton Gap, US 33 in Swift Run Gap and US 250 near I-64 in Rockfish Gap. At the south end in Rockfish Gap it connects to the northern terminus of the Blue Ridge Parkway, a free-access road that continues southward along the Blue Ridge Mountains. On the west side of the drive, mileposts are present. They are numbered from 0 to 105 (north to south) and serve as reference points to directions in the drive. There are 75 overlooks throughout the drive, providing views of the Shenandoah Valley to the west and the Piedmont to the east.
The speed limit is 35 miles per hour (56 km/h), due to curves, wildlife and tourists. Bicycles, motor vehicles, and pedestrians share the road. There are also deer, black bears, turkey, and other wildlife, which may appear and cross the road without warning. These all require extra precautions. The speed limit within the park is strictly enforced by park rangers.[5][6] Numerous trails can be accessed along the drive, including a portion of the Appalachian Trail, which follows the road's path.
Biking and horseback riding are other recreational activities that are allowed on the road.[7] The drive is popular in the fall months for leaf peeping to view fall foliage. Skyline Drive is closed from dusk to dawn from November to early January to ensure rangers can control illegal hunting. The drive can also close for a short time following snow or ice storms.[8] Skyline Drive is designated a National Scenic Byway.[9]
Front Royal to Thornton Gap[edit]
Skyline Drive northbound at the Indian Run Overlook
Skyline Drive begins at an intersection with US 340 south of Front Royal in Warren County, heading east into dense forests in Shenandoah National Park as a two-lane undivided road. The road curves south and passes through the Front Royal Entrance Station, where a ranger station is located. At this point, the drive winds south and ascends the Blue Ridge Mountains. The roadway heads southwest and comes to the Shenandoah Valley Overlook on the west side of the road.
Skyline Drive winds south and reaches the Dickey Ridge Visitor Center, which has a ranger station, picnic grounds, and restrooms. Farther south, the roadway reaches Dickey Hill. The road continues southerly to the Gooney Knob Overlook facing southwest, at which point it turns to the east and winds through Low Gap. The drive heads east to an overlook at Compton Gap, where it bends south along a winding path, straddling the border of Warren and Rappahannock counties, and runs parallel to the Appalachian Trail, which closely follows Skyline Drive for the remainder of its route. The road curves southwest and reaches the summit of North Marshall. Upon reaching the south-facing Range View Overlook, the roadway turns to the west along a winding path, bending southwest The drive passes the Mount Marshall Overlook on the east side, at which point it heads west.[5][10]
Skyline Drive reaches the Hogback Overlook on Hogback Mountain that faces northwest and turns southerly. The roadway heads west and straddles the boundary between Page and Rappahannock counties, coming to Mathews Arm, where a campground and ranger station are located. The drive turns to the south and comes to Elkwallow, which hosts restrooms, picnic grounds, a camp store, and food service. Skyline Drive continues along and comes to the Jeremys Run Overlook on the west side of the road before it winds to the east. The roadway comes to the east-facing Thornton Hollow Overlook and heads back to the south, coming to the Beahms Gap Parking on the west side of the road. The drive traverses Pass Mountain as it continues to the south. Skyline Drive comes to an interchange with US 211 at the Thornton Gap Entrance Station, which is located in Thornton Gap to the east of Luray and the west of Sperryville. A ranger station is present at the entrance station.[5][10]
Thornton Gap to Swift Run Gap[edit]
Marys Rock Tunnel
Past the US 211 interchange, Skyline Drive continues to the southeast past Panorama, which is site of restrooms. The road passes through the Marys Rock Tunnel under Mary's Rock and winds to the south. The roadway passes west of the Meadow Spring Parking before coming to the south-facing Pinnacles Overlook, where it winds to the west. Skyline Drive reaches the Jewell Hollow Overlook that faces to the west and heads southwest straddling the border of Page and Madison counties. The road passes Pinnacles, where restrooms and picnic grounds are located, and runs through the Hughes River Gap. The drive continues to the south and passes the Stony Man Overlook and the Little Stony Man Parking on the west side of the road, where a trail leads to Stony Man Mountain. Farther along, the roadway bends to the west along a winding stretch. Skyline Drive reaches its highest point at an elevation of 3,680 feet (1,120 m) and continues southwesterly. The road reaches Skyland, where the Skyland Resort is located offering food, lodging, and restrooms. Also located at this point is Whiteoak Canyon Parking on the east side of the road. The drive continues to the south and passes Limberlost Parking on the east side and the west-facing Timber Hollow Overlook. The roadway then winds south past Bettys Rock. Farther to the south, Skyline Drive reaches Hawksbill Gap Parking, where a trail leads to Hawksbill Mountain, the highest peak in Shenandoah National Park at 4,051 feet (1,235 m). The road continues along and comes to the east-facing Old Rag View Overlook, where it turns to the west and passes south of Upper Hawksbill Parking. The drive comes to the west-facing Spitler Knoll Overlook and curves south.[5][10] The roadway bends to the southwest and passes northwest of Dark Hollow Falls Parking, where a trail leads to the 70-foot (21 m) high Dark Hollow Falls, the closest waterfall to Skyline Drive.[5][7][10] Past here, the road reaches Big Meadows, where there is a ranger station, restrooms, a campground, picnic grounds, food, and lodging. Big Meadows is also site of the Byrd Visitor Center and a wayside with a restaurant, gas station, gift shop, and camp store.[5][10]
Past here, Skyline Drive continues along a southerly track.[5][10] At the Milam Gap Parking, a trail leads east to the Rapidan Camp, where President Herbert Hoover had a summer residence from 1929 to 1932.[7] The road passes Hazeltop before it passes through Bootens Gap, where it straddles the boundary of Page and Greene counties. The roadway traverses Bush Mountain before coming to Bearfence Mountain Parking at Bearfence Mountain. Skyline Drive continues to the south to Lewis Mountain, where a campground, picnic grounds, lodging, and restrooms are located. The road heads along the border between Rockingham and Greene counties as it runs southerly. The drive continues to the south-southwest and reaches South River, which is home to restrooms and picnic grounds. The roadway heads southwest and comes to an interchange with US 33 at the Swift Run Gap Entrance Station, which is situated in Swift Run Gap east of Elkton and west of Stanardsville.[5][10]
Swift Run Gap to Rockfish Gap[edit]
Skyline Drive in the fall
Following the US 33 interchange, Skyline Drive heads southwest. The roadway passes through Smith Roach Gap and comes to the Bacon Hollow Overlook to the south, where it curves to the west. The drive heads through Powell Gap and reaches the west-facing Eaton Hollow Overlook, where it turns to the southwest and winds along. The road bends south and comes to a ranger station at Simmonds Gap. Skyline Drive continues southerly to the Loft Mountain Overlook on the east side, where it turns westerly before heading northwest. The roadway then makes a hairpin turn to the southwest. The road straddles the border of Rockingham and Albemarle counties and continues to the south to the Loft Mountain Wayside, which is site of restrooms and food service. Skyline Drive heads southwest and comes to Loft Mountain, where a ranger station, restrooms, campground, and camp store are located. The drive heads past Browns Gap Parking before it comes to Dundo, where an overlook to the northwest, restrooms, picnic grounds, and Dundo Group Camp are located.[5][10]
Fall colors near Milepost 103
From here, the road continues southwesterly and passes to the west of Jones Run Parking, where a trail leads to Jones Run Falls, before heading east of Blackrock Summit Parking.[5][7][10] Skyline Drive winds south past Blackrock and turns to the west. The roadway heads north before a hairpin turn to the south at Blackrock Gap, where it closely follows the border between Augusta and Albemarle counties. Further south, Skyline Drive passes the Wildcat Ridge Parking Area before coming to the Crimora Lake Overlook that faces to the west. The roadway continues along past the Turk Mountain Overlook on the west side of the road prior to reaching the Turk Gap Parking to the east. The drive winding south through Jarman Gap before it curves southwest and continues to the west-facing Calf Mountain Overlook, where it turns to the southeast. Skyline Drive passes through Beagle Gap, winding to the south. The roadway heads to the southwest and west to the north-facing McCormick Gap Overlook, where it curves back to the southwest. The drive continues along and passes through the Rockfish Gap Entrance Station, where a ranger station is located. Past here, the road heads south and comes to a bridge over I-64 before it reaches an interchange with US 250 that provides access to I-64 in Rockfish Gap in Augusta County, which is located east of Waynesboro and west of Charlottesville. At this interchange, Skyline Drive ends and the road continues to the south as the Blue Ridge Parkway.[5][10]
Entrance fees[edit]
Sign at south entrance to Skyline Drive
Major entry points to Skyline Drive located in Front Royal, Thornton Gap, Swift Run Gap, and Rockfish Gap.[10] Fees are collected at the Skyline Drive's four access points. The fee is not a toll charged to drive on the road, but rather an entry fee for the park itself. Various passes allow for admission to the park. A $25.00 pass is valid for unlimited entrances within a seven-day period for a private non-commercial vehicle. A seven-day pass costs $15.00 for motorcycles and $10.00 for individuals 16 years of age or older entering by means other than a private non-commercial vehicle. Commercial tours pay between $25.00 and $200.00 for a seven-day pass, depending on the number of passengers.[11] An annual park pass costs $50.00 for a private non-commercial vehicle. Entrance can also be gained through the America the Beautiful: National Parks and Federal Recreational Lands Pass series. In this series, the Annual Pass costs $80.00, the lifetime Senior Pass costs $10.00, the lifetime Access Pass allows free admission for persons with disabilities, and the Volunteer Pass allows free admission for volunteers who work 250 service hours for the following year. A free Annual Pass is also available for members of the United States Armed Forces and fourth graders can get free admission for their whole family through the Every Kid in a Park Pass.[12]
History[edit]
Further information: Shenandoah National Park § History
In 1924, the Southern Appalachian National Park Committee was searching for a site for a national park in the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia that would be easily accessible from major cities on the East Coast of the United States such as Washington, D.C. and settled on the current site of Shenandoah National Park. As part of the recommendation for the park was the "greatest single feature" to be a "sky-line drive" that would provide views of the Shenandoah Valley to the west and the Piedmont to the east.[13] The idea for the roadway was suggested by committee member William C. Gregg to Board of Shenandoah Valley, Inc. member L. Ferdinand Zerkel during a visit to Skyland.[14] In 1929, President Herbert Hoover, who established a summer home in the area, called for the roadway to be built along the Blue Ridge Mountains.[15] The road was proposed to be named Hoover Highway, but would instead become known as Skyline Drive.[16]
Skyline Drive near milepost 12 in the fall
Field survey for the roadway began in January 1931. On July 18 of that year, an official groundbreaking for Skyline Drive took place. The first section of the road was to be built from the Rapidan Camp to the Skyland Resort, but would be extended from Swift Run Gap to Thornton Gap. The funds for the first stretch of the drive came from the Federal Drought Relief Administration and employed local farmers and apple pickers who suffered from a severe drought in 1930. In the later part of 1932, Congress approved $1 million (equivalent to $14.8 million in 2016,[17]) in funds to construct Skyline Drive, which would extend from Front Royal to Swift Run Gap. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) was formed in 1933 and would have a hand in the construction of Skyline Drive.[14] President Franklin D. Roosevelt was impressed with the scenery of the mountains and established the first CCC camps along Skyline Drive.[16] These camps were the first to be placed in a national park.[15] The CCC graded the slopes on both sides of the roadway, built guardrails and stone walls, constructed overlooks, and planted thousands of trees and shrubs along the parkway. Three different companies were awarded contracts for bituminous surfacing of the road. The section of Skyline Drive between Thornton Gap and Swift Run Gap opened in the middle part of 1934 and cost $1,570,479 (equivalent to $22.6 million in 2016,[17]). This section of the roadway included the Marys Rock Tunnel, a tunnel that was bored through Marys Rock. A tunnel was constructed at this location as opposed to a cut. The tunnel was justified as a money-saving measure but was also suggested to challenge Bureau of Public Roads and National Park Service landscape architects.[14] With the official establishment of Shenandoah National Park in 1935, the CCC hired 300 men, most of whom were not local to the area, to continue to build Skyline Drive.[18] On October 1, 1936, the drive was completed between Front Royal and Thornton Gap at a cost of $1,235,177 (equivalent to $17.2 million in 2016,[17]). The portion of Skyline Drive from Swift Run Gap to Jarman Gap was opened to traffic on August 29, 1939, costing $1,666,528 (equivalent to $23.1 million in 2016,[17]). The road between Jarman Gap and Rockfish Gap was built as part of the Blue Ridge Parkway and was completed on August 11, 1939, at a cost of $358,636 (equivalent to $4.97 million in 2016,[17]). This section of the Blue Ridge Parkway was given to Shenandoah National Park in 1961 and became the southernmost portion of Skyline Drive.[14] The creation of the park and the construction of Skyline Drive resulted in many people losing their homes either voluntarily or forcibly; several homes within the present-day park were razed.[18]
Highest point along the drive, at Skyland in Madison County
Skyline Drive was originally lined with miles of chestnut log guardrails. However, the guardrails rotted and were removed in the 1950s and not replaced. The Marys Rock Tunnel was partially lined with concrete in 1958 to prevent icicles in the winter and water seepage in the summer. In 1983, the Federal Highway Administration began work to replace several of the original stone walls on the drive with concrete walls that used the original stone as a veneer.[14] The road was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 28, 1997.[2] On September 22, 2005, Skyline Drive was designated a National Scenic Byway.[19] Skyline Drive was designated a National Historic Landmark in October 2008 for its pioneering place in the development of national parks in the eastern United States.[4][20]
Points of interest[edit]
County
Location
mi[1]
km
Destinations
Notes
Warren
0.0
0.0 US 340 to I-66 – Skyline Caverns, Luray, Front Royal

0.5
0.80 Front Royal Entrance Station

2.8
4.5 Shenandoah Valley Overlook

4.6
7.4 Dickey Ridge Visitor Center

5.4
8.7 No Name Overlook

5.7
9.2 Signal Knob Overlook

6.8
10.9 Gooney Run Overlook

7.3
11.7 Gooney Manor Overlook
Rappahannock
10.4
16.7 Compton Gap

10.8
17.4 Indian Run Overlook

12.4
20.0 Jenkins Gap Overlook

13.9
22.4 Hogwallow Flats Overlook
Warren
14.9
24.0 Browntown Valley Overlook
Rappahannock
17.1
27.5 Range View Overlook
Warren
18.4
29.6 Gimlet Ridge Overlook
Rappahannock
19.0
30.6 Mount Marshall Overlook
Warren
19.7
31.7 Little Hogback Overlook
Rappahannock
20.1
32.3 Little Devil Stairs Overlook
Warren
21.0
33.8 Hogback Overlook
Rappahannock
21.9
35.2 Rattlesnake Point Overlook

22.1
35.6 Piney River Ranger Station
Page
22.2
35.7 Mathews Arm Campground

24.0
38.6 Elkwallow Wayside

24.2
38.9 Elkwallow Picnic Grounds

26.4
42.5 Jeremys Run Overlook
Rappahannock
27.6
44.4 Thornton Hollow Overlook
Page
28.5
45.9 Beahms Gap Parking

30.1
48.4 Pass Mountain Overlook
Thornton Gap
31.5
50.7 US 211 – Washington, DC, Luray Thornton Gap Entrance Station, interchange

31.6
50.9 Panorama
Rappahannock
32.2
51.8 Marys Rock Tunnel

32.4
52.1 Marys Rock Tunnel Overlook

32.9
52.9 Buck Hollow Overlook

33.0
53.1 Hazel Mountain Overlook

35.1
56.5 Pinnacles Overlook
Page
36.4
58.6 Jewell Hollow Overlook
Madison
36.7
59.1 Pinnacles Picnic Grounds
Page
38.6
62.1 Stony Man Overlook
Madison
39.7
63.9 Hemlock Springs Overlook

40.5
65.2 Thorofare Mountain Overlook

41.7
67.1 Skyland Highest point along Skyline Drive
Page
43.3
69.7 Timber Hollow Overlook

44.4
71.5 Crescent Rock Overlook
Madison
46.5
74.8 Old Rag View Overlook
Page
48.1
77.4 Spitler Knoll Overlook

49.0
78.9 Franklin Cliffs Overlook
Madison
49.3
79.3 Fishers Gap Overlook

51.2
82.4 Big Meadows / Byrd Visitor Center
Page
51.5
82.9 Tanners Ridge Overlook

53.2
85.6 Naked Creek Overlook

54.4
87.5 Hazeltop Ridge Overlook

55.6
89.5 The Point Overlook

57.5
92.5 Lewis Mountain Campground
Rockingham
59.0
95.0 The Oaks Overlook

61.2
98.5 Baldface Mountain Overlook
Greene
62.7
100.9 South River Overlook

62.8
101.1 South River Picnic Grounds
Rockingham
64.4
103.6 Hensely Hollow Overlook

64.9
104.4 Hensely Ridge Overlook
Swift Run Gap
65.5
105.4 US 33 – Richmond, Harrisonburg Swift Run Gap Entrance Station, interchange

67.2
108.1 Swift Run Overlook

67.8
109.1 Sandy Bottom Overlook
Greene
69.3
111.5 Bacon Hollow Overlook
Rockingham
70.3
113.1 Eaton Hollow Overlook

71.2
114.6 Rocky Mount Overlook

72.2
116.2 Beldore Hollow Overlook
Greene
73.2
117.8 Simmonds Gap Ranger Station

74.4
119.7 Loft Mountain Overlook
Rockingham
76.2
122.6 Two Mile Run Overlook

76.9
123.8 Brown Mountain Overlook
Greene
77.5
124.7 Ivy Creek Overlook
Rockingham
78.1
125.7 Rocktop Overlook

79.5
127.9 Loft Mountain Wayside

81.2
130.7 Big Run Overlook

81.9
131.8 Doyles River Overlook
Albemarle
83.0
133.6 Browns Gap
Rockingham
83.7
134.7 Dundo Overlook

83.7
134.7 Dundo Group Campground
Albemarle
86.8
139.7 Trayfoot Mountain Overlook
Augusta
88.6
142.6 Horsehead Overlook

90.0
144.8 Calvary Rocks Overlook

91.4
147.1 Riprap Overlook
Albemarle
92.0
148.1 Moormans River Overlook
Augusta
92.6
149.0 Crimora Lake Overlook

93.7
150.8 Turk Mountain Overlook

95.3
153.4 Sawmill Run Overlook

95.9
154.3 Sawmill Ridge Overlook
Albemarle
96.8
155.8 Jarman Gap
Augusta
98.9
159.2 Calf Mountain Overlook
Albemarle
99.8
160.6 Beagle Gap Overlook
Augusta
102.4
164.8 McCormick Gap Overlook

104.7
168.5 Rockfish Gap Entrance Station
Rockfish Gap
105.5
169.8 US 250 to I-64 – Charlottesville, Waynesboro
Blue Ridge Parkway south Interchange; I-64 exit 99
1.000 mi = 1.609 km; 1.000 km = 0.621 mi
Mountain view along Skyline Drive
See also[edit]
U.S. Roads portal
Virginia portal
List of National Historic Landmarks in Virginia
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Groe, Harlen D.; Lanning, Michael P. (1996). "Skyline Drive: North District" (Map). Historic American Engineering Record. 1:63,360. National Park Service. Retrieved September 7, 2016 – via Wikimedia Commons.
Groe, Harlen D.; Lanning, Michael P. (1996). "Skyline Drive: Central District" (Map). Historic American Engineering Record. 1:63,360. National Park Service. Retrieved September 7, 2016 – via Wikimedia Commons.
Groe, Harlen D.; Lanning, Michael P. (1996). "Skyline Drive: South District" (Map). Historic American Engineering Record. 1:63,360. National Park Service. Retrieved September 7, 2016 – via Wikimedia Commons.
^ Jump up to: a b National Park Service (July 9, 2010). "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. Retrieved September 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ Virginia Department of Historic Resources (n.d.). "Virginia Landmarks Register". Virginia Department of Historic Resources. Retrieved June 5, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b National Park Service (n.d.). "Skyline Drive Historic District". National Park Service. Retrieved May 31, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Google (September 6, 2016). "Skyline Drive" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved September 6, 2016.
Jump up ^ National Park Service. "Shenandoah National Park: Driving Skyline Drive". National Park Service. Retrieved September 11, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d White, Mel (2009). Complete National Parks of the United States: Featuring 400+ Parks. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic. pp. 97–101. Retrieved September 20, 2016 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Federal Highway Administration (n.d.). "Skyline Drive: Visitor Services". America's Byways. Federal Highway Administration. Archived from the original on April 28, 2012. Retrieved September 12, 2016.
Jump up ^ Federal Highway Administration (n.d.). "Skyline Drive". Federal Highway Administration. Retrieved September 11, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k National Park Service (n.d.). Shenandoah National Park (PDF) (Map). National Park Service. Retrieved September 6, 2016.
Jump up ^ National Park Service (n.d.). "Shenandoah National Park: Entrance Fees". National Park Service. Retrieved September 9, 2016.
Jump up ^ National Park Service (n.d.). "Shenandoah National Park: Annual and Lifetime Passes". National Park Service. Retrieved September 9, 2016.
Jump up ^ National Park Service (n.d.). "Shenandoah National Park: The Greatest Single Feature". National Park Service. Retrieved September 12, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Engle, Reed (n.d.). "Shenandoah National Park: Skyline Drive History". National Park Service. Retrieved September 12, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b National Park Service (July 1995). Shenandoah National Park, Facility Development Plan: Environmental Impact Statement. Denver, CO: National Park Service. pp. 54–55. Retrieved September 20, 2016 – via Google Books.
^ Jump up to: a b Lambert, Darwin (1989). The Undying Past of Shenandoah National Park. Lanham, MD: Roberts Rinehart Inc. Publishers. pp. 220–222. Retrieved September 20, 2016 – via Google Books.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Thomas, Ryland; Williamson, Samuel H. (2018). "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved January 5, 2018. United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the Measuring Worth series.
^ Jump up to: a b Powell, Katrina M. (2009). 'Answer at Once': Letters of Mountain Families in Shenandoah National Park, 1934–1938. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. p. 6. Retrieved September 20, 2016 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Federal Highway Administration (n.d.). "Skyline Drive: Official Designations". Federal Highway Administration. Archived from the original on April 28, 2012. Retrieved September 12, 2016.
Jump up ^ "NHL nomination for Skyline Drive Historic District" (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved 2017-03-13.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Skyline Drive (Shenandoah National Park).
KML file (edit • help)
Display on Google Maps
Template:Attached KML/Skyline Drive
KML is from Wikidata
Shenandoah National Park official website
Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) No. VA-119, "Skyline Drive, From Front Royal, VA to Rockfish Gap, VA, Luray, Page County, VA", 117 photos, 18 measured drawings, 11 photo caption pages
[hide]
v
t
e
National Register of Historic Places in Shenandoah National Park
National Historic Landmark District
Camp Hoover
Skyline Drive Historic District
NRHP properties
Archeological Site No. AU-154
Big Meadows Site
Big Run Quarry Site
Blackrock Springs Site
Cliff Kill Site
Compton Gap Site
George T. Corbin Cabin
Gentle Site
Jeremey's Run Site
Paine Run Rockshelter
Robertson Mountain Site
See also: National Register of Historic Places listings in Shenandoah National Park
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Skyline_Drive&oldid=836917501"
Categories:
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Roads on the National Register of Historic Places in Virginia
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Transportation in Albemarle County, Virginia
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Transportation in Greene County, Virginia
Transportation in Page County, Virginia
Transportation in Madison County, Virginia
Transportation in Rappahannock County, Virginia
Transportation in Warren County, Virginia
Tourist attractions in Augusta County, Virginia
Tourist attractions in Albemarle County, Virginia
Tourist attractions in Rockingham County, Virginia
Tourist attractions in Greene County, Virginia
Tourist attractions in Page County, Virginia
Tourist attractions in Madison County, Virginia
Tourist attractions in Rappahannock County, Virginia
Tourist attractions in Warren County, Virginia
National Register of Historic Places in Madison County, Virginia
National Register of Historic Places in Warren County, Virginia
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2017 United States Marine Corps KC-130 crash
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2017 United States Marine Corps KC-130 Crash
The Lockheed KC-130T involved in the crash, shown at Stuttgart, Germany, in 2012
summary
Date
July 10, 2017 (2017-07-10)
Summary
Possible inflight explosion, under investigation
Site
Soybean farm in Leflore County, Mississippi
33°28′23″N 90°26′56″W / 33.473°N 90.449°W / 33.473; -90.449Coordinates: 33°28′23″N 90°26′56″W / 33.473°N 90.449°W / 33.473; -90.449
Passengers
7
Crew
9
Fatalities
16 (all)
Survivors
0
Aircraft type
Lockheed KC-130T Hercules
Operator
United States Marine Corps
Registration
165000
Flight origin
Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point, North Carolina
Destination
Naval Air Facility El Centro, California
The 2017 United States Marine Corps KC-130 crash occurred around 4 P.M.[1][2] on Monday, July 10, 2017, when a Lockheed KC-130T Hercules aircraft of the United States Marine Corps (USMC) crashed, killing all 16 people on board.[3] The aircraft was from Marine Aerial Refueler Transport Squadron 452 (VMGR-452) based at Stewart Air National Guard Base, New York. Debris from the aircraft was found in Leflore County, Mississippi. It is currently under investigation.[4] The USMC released a statement calling the event a "mishap."[5]
The crash and the 2016 Lockhart hot air balloon crash (in which 16 people were also killed) are the deadliest aviation accidents in the United States since the crash of Colgan Air Flight 3407 in 2009, which killed 50 people.[6] It is also the deadliest aviation disaster in Mississippi since the National Transportation Safety Board began keeping records in 1962,[7] and the deadliest Marine Corps disaster since 2005, when a U.S. Marine Corps Sikorsky CH-53E Super Stallion helicopter crashed in Iraq, killing 31 people.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Aircraft
2 Accident
3 See also
4 References
Aircraft[edit]
The aircraft involved was a Lockheed KC-130T Hercules tanker/transport of the United States Marine Corps built in 1993, with Bureau Number (BuNo.) 165000.[9] The aircraft was nicknamed Triple Nuts because of the abbreviated number "000" on its nose.[9] The aircraft was initially delivered to the United States Air Force in 1993 and later was transferred to the United States Navy and then assigned to the U.S. Marine Corps. It was damaged on the ground during a storm on 1 June 2004 at Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth, Texas. As a result of the storm, it was flipped onto its port wingtip, damaging a refueling pod. It was quickly repaired and placed back into service.
Accident[edit]
The accident aircraft was reported to have suffered an in-flight explosion and mid-air break up at an altitude around 20,000 feet (6,100 m) while en-route from Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point in North Carolina to Naval Air Facility El Centro in California,[10][11] before it crashed 85 miles (137 km) north of Jackson, Mississippi, killing all sixteen occupants. Debris was spread in a 5-mile (8 km) radius from the crash site and firefighters attending the crash site used 4,000 US gallons (15,000 l) of foam to extinguish the post-crash fire.[12][13][14]
See also[edit]
Lists of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft
References[edit]
Jump up ^ DICKSTEIN, COREY (July 12, 2017). "General: Plane developed in air problems that led to fatal crash" (July 13, 2017). STARS AND STRIPES. Retrieved 13 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "KC-130 crash: Plane developed problems high in the air, general says". CBS/AP. July 12, 2017. Retrieved July 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ LeBlanc, Paul (2017-07-10). "Military plane crashes in Mississippi, 16 dead". CNN. Retrieved 10 July 2017.
Jump up ^ News, A. B. C. (2017-07-10). "Marine Corps plane crashes in Mississippi, fatalities confirmed". ABC News. Retrieved 2017-07-11.
Jump up ^ Marines, U. S. (2017-07-10). "A USMC KC-130 mishap occurred the evening of July 10. Further information will be released as available.". @USMC. Retrieved 2017-07-11.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Marine Corps plane crashes in Mississippi, killing 16 people". BNO News. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Aviation Results". National Transportation Safety Board. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
Jump up ^ Pettus, Emily; Solis, Rogelio. "16 dead in Mississippi in worst Marine crash since 2005". ABC News. The Associated Press. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Fentress, Ellen Ann, Richard Pérez-Peña and Dave Philipps (12 July 2017). "Marine Plane Had Emergency at High Altitude, General Says". The New York Times. Retrieved 2017-07-12. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Marine Corps cargo aircraft crashes in Mississippi killing at least 16 crew". Washington Post. Retrieved 2017-07-11.
Jump up ^ "Military plane crash kills 16 in rural Mississippi". The Guardian. 11 July 2017. Retrieved 2017-07-11.
Jump up ^ Hartley-Parkinson, Richard. "16 dead after military plane carrying weapons explodes mid-air then crashes". Metro. Associated Newspapers. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Mississippi crash: Sixteen dead in Marines Corps plane incident". BBC News Online. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Accident description". Aviation Safety Network. Retrieved 16 July 2017.
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Aluminum building wiring
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Aluminum building wiring is a type of electrical wiring for residential construction or houses that uses aluminum electrical conductors. Aluminum provides a better conductivity to weight ratio than copper, and therefore is also used for wiring power grids, including overhead power transmission lines and local power distribution lines, as well as for power wiring of some airplanes.[1][2] Utility companies have used aluminum wire for electrical transmission in power grids since around the late 1800s to the early 1900s. It has cost and weight advantages over copper wires. Aluminum wire in power transmission and distribution applications is still the preferred material today.[3]
In North American residential construction, aluminum wire was used for wiring entire houses for a short time from the 1960s to the mid-1970s during a period of high copper prices. Electrical devices (outlets, switches, lighting, fans, etc.) at the time were not designed with the particular properties of the aluminum wire being used in mind, and there were some issues related to the properties of the wire itself, making the installations with aluminum wire much more susceptible to problems. Revised manufacturing standards for both the wire and the devices were developed to reduce the problems. Existing homes with this older aluminum wiring used in branch circuits present a potential fire hazard.
Contents
[hide]
1 Aluminum wire materials
2 Aluminum wiring in modern building construction
3 Aluminum wiring in older homes
4 Problems with aluminum wiring
4.1 Improper installations
4.2 Coefficient of expansion and creep
4.3 Problems with electrical device ratings
4.4 Aluminum oxidation
4.5 Joining aluminum and copper wires
5 Aluminum wiring upgrades/repairs
6 See also
7 References
Aluminum wire materials[edit]
New York City utility lines in 1890.
Aluminum wire has been used as an electrical conductor for a considerable period of time, particularly by electrical utilities related to power transmission lines in use shortly after the beginning of modern power distribution systems being constructed starting in the late 1880s. In the early 1960s when there was a housing construction boom in North America and the price of copper spiked, aluminum building wire was manufactured using utility grade AA-1350 aluminum alloy in sizes small enough to be used for lower load branch circuits in homes.[4] Aluminum wire requires a larger wire gauge than copper wire to carry the same load or current, but was still less expensive than copper wire for a particular branch circuit.
In particular, aluminum alloys used for wiring are approximately 61% as conductive as copper of the same cross-section. But because aluminum's density is 30.5% that of copper, aluminum is almost exactly twice as conductive by weight.[3] Since copper costs three times as much as aluminum by weight (roughly USD $3/lb[5] vs. USD $1/lb[6] as of 2017[update]), equivalent aluminum wire is one-sixth the cost of copper.
In the late 1960s problems and failures related to branch circuit connections for the newer building wire made with the utility grade AA-1350 alloy aluminum began to surface, resulting in a re-evaluation of the use of that alloy for building wire and an identification of the need for newer alloys to produce aluminum building wire. The first 8000 series electric conductor alloy, still widely used in some applications, was developed and patented in 1972 by Aluminum Company of America (ALCOA).[7] This alloy, along with AA-8030 (patented by Olin in 1973) and AA-8176 (patented by Southwire in 1975 and 1980) perform mechanically like copper.
Unlike the older AA-1350 alloy previously used, these AA-8000 series alloys also retain their tensile strength after the standard current cycle test or the Current Cycle Submersion Test (CCST), as described in ANSI C119.4:2004. Depending on the annealing grade, AA-8176 may elongate up to 30% with less springback effect and possesses a higher yield strength (19.8 KSI for a cold worked AA-8076 wire).[citation needed]
A home with aluminum wiring installed prior to the mid-1970s (as the stock of pre-1972 aluminum wire was permitted to be used up) probably has wire made with the older AA-1350 alloy that was developed for power transmission. The AA-1350 aluminum alloy was more prone to problems related to branch circuit wiring in homes due to mechanical properties that made it more susceptible to failures resulting from the electrical devices being used at that time combined with poor workmanship.
Aluminum wiring in modern building construction[edit]
Larger electrical cable with stranded aluminum wires
Aluminum building wiring for modern building construction used for electrical service and distribution wiring is manufactured with the newer AA-8000 series aluminum alloy wire as specified by the National Electrical Code (NEC). Aluminum has roughly twice the resistance of copper for a given wire cross-section. This causes heating of the conductor along its length proportional to the square of the current (P = I squared R, Ohm's Law). It should never be used for branch circuits subject to high current loads such as receptacles supplying high-current devices. Size #12 AWG from "old work" wiring is acceptable in residential circuits supplying standard lighting fixtures as it has roughly the same conductivity as #14 AWG copper and is thus sufficient for up to 15 Amps per National Electrical Code (NEC).
For modern residential construction the use of larger gauge stranded aluminum wire is fairly common in much of North America. Larger aluminum wire is used in residential applications for lower voltage service feeders from the utility to the building. Also, larger aluminum building wire made with the newer AA-8000 series alloy of aluminum is commonly used for electrical services (e.g. service entrance conductors from the utility connection to the service breaker panel) and for larger branch circuits with higher loads such as those for sub-panels, ranges, clothes dryers and air-conditioning units.
Aluminum wire sizes smaller than #8 AWG have been banned in more recent revisions of the National Electrical Code (NEC) for "new work".
Aluminum wiring in older homes[edit]
When utility grade AA-1350 alloy aluminum wire was first used in branch circuit wiring in the early 1960s, solid aluminum wire was installed the same way as copper wire with the same electrical devices.
For smaller branch circuits with solid wires (15A/20A circuits) typical connections of an electrical wire to an electrical device are usually made by wrapping the wire around a screw on the device, also called a terminal, and then tightening the screw. At around the same time the use of steel screws became more common than brass screws for electrical devices.
Over time, many of these terminations with solid aluminum wire began to fail due to improper connection techniques and the dissimilar metals having different resistances and significantly different coefficients of thermal expansion, as well as problems with properties of the solid wires. These connection failures generated heat under electrical load and caused overheated connections.
The larger size stranded aluminum wires don't have the same historical problems as solid aluminum wires, and the common terminations for larger size wires are dual-rated terminations called lugs. These lugs are typically made with a coated aluminum alloy, which can accommodate either an aluminum wire or a copper wire. Larger stranded aluminum wiring with proper terminations is generally considered safe, since long-term installations have proven its reliability.
Problems with aluminum wiring[edit]
The use of older solid aluminum wiring in residential construction has resulted in failures of connections at electrical devices, has been implicated in house fires according to the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), and in some areas it may be difficult to obtain homeowners insurance for a house with older aluminum wiring.[8][9] There are several possible reasons why these connections failed. The two main reasons were improper installations (poor workmanship) and the differences in the coefficient of expansion between aluminum wire used in the 1960s to mid-1970s and the terminations, particularly when the termination was a steel screw on an electrical device.[10][11] The reported hazards are associated with older solid aluminum branch circuit wiring (smaller than No. 8 AWG)
Improper installations[edit]
Many terminations of aluminum wire installed in the 1960s and 1970s that were properly installed continue to operate with no problems. However, problems can develop in the future, particularly if connections were not properly installed initially.
Improper installation, or poor workmanship, includes: not abrading the wires and applying a corrosion inhibitor; not wrapping wires around terminal screws; wrapping wires around terminal screws the wrong way; and inadequate torque on the connection screws. There can also be problems with connections made with too much torque on the connection screw as it causes damage to the wire, particularly with the softer aluminum wire.
Coefficient of expansion and creep[edit]
Thermal expansion rates of wiring metals: Aluminum (highest), brass, copper and steel (lowest)
Most of the problems related to aluminum wire are typically associated with older (pre-1972) AA-1350 alloy solid aluminum wire, sometimes referred to as "old technology" aluminum wiring, as the properties of that wire result in significantly more expansion and contraction than copper wire or modern day AA-8000 series aluminum wire. Older solid aluminum wire also had some problems with a property called creep, which results in the wire permanently deforming or relaxing over time under load.
Aluminum wire used before the mid-1970s had a somewhat higher rate of creep, but a more significant issue was that aluminum wire critically had a coefficient of expansion that varied significantly from steel screws commonly used in lieu of brass screws around this time for terminations at devices such as outlets and switches. Aluminum and steel expand and contract at significantly different rates under thermal load, so a connection can become loose, particularly for older terminations initially installed with inadequate torque of the screws combined with creep of the aluminum over time. Loose connections get progressively worse over time.
This cycle results from the connection loosening slightly, with a reduced contact area at the connection leading to overheating, and allowing intermetallic steel/aluminum compounds to be formed between the conductor and the terminal screw. This resulted in a higher resistance junction, leading to additional overheating. Although many believe that oxidation was the issue, studies have shown that oxidation was not significant in these cases.[12]
Problems with electrical device ratings[edit]
Many electrical devices used in the 1960s had smaller plain steel terminal screws, which made the attachment of the aluminum wires being used at that time to these devices much more vulnerable to problems. In the late 1960s, a device specification known as CU/AL (meaning copper-aluminum) was created that specified standards for devices intended for use with aluminum wire. Some of these devices used larger undercut screw terminals to more securely hold the wire.
Unfortunately, CU/AL switches and receptacles failed to work well enough with aluminum wire, and a new specification called CO/ALR (meaning copper-aluminum, revised) was created. These devices employ brass screw terminals that are designed to act as a similar metal to aluminum and to expand at a similar rate, and the screws have even deeper undercuts. The CO/ALR rating is only available for standard light switches and receptacles; Cu/Al is the standard connection marking for circuit breakers and larger equipment.
Aluminum oxidation[edit]
Most metals (with a few exceptions, such as gold) oxidize freely when exposed to air. Aluminium oxide is not an electrical conductor, but rather an electrical insulator. Consequently, the flow of electrons through the oxide layer can be greatly impeded. However, since the oxide layer is only a few nanometers thick, the added resistance is not noticeable under most conditions. When aluminum wire is terminated properly, the mechanical connection breaks the thin, brittle layer of oxide to form an excellent electrical connection. Unless this connection is loosened, there is no way for oxygen to penetrate the connection point to form further oxide.
Result improperly joined aluminum and copper wires in old apartment, done by qualified electrician
If inadequate torque is applied to the electrical device termination screw or if the devices are not CO/ALR rated (or at least CU/AL rated for breakers and larger equipment) this can result in an inadequate connection of the aluminum wire. Also, due to the significant difference in thermal expansion rates of older aluminum wire and steel termination screws connections can loosen over time allowing the formation of some additional oxide on the wire. However oxidation was found not to be a substantial factor in failures of aluminum wire terminations.[12]
Joining aluminum and copper wires[edit]
Another issue is the joining of aluminum wire to copper wire. In addition to the oxidation that occurs on the surface of aluminum wires which can cause a poor connection, aluminum and copper are dissimilar metals. As a result, galvanic corrosion can occur in the presence of an electrolyte, and these connections can become unstable over time.
Aluminum wiring upgrades/repairs[edit]
Several upgrades or repairs are available for homes with older pre-1970s aluminum branch circuit wiring:
Completely rewiring the house with copper wires (usually cost prohibitive)
"Pig-tailing" which involves splicing a short length of copper wire (pigtail) to the original aluminum wire, and then attaching the copper wire to the existing electrical device. The splice of the copper pigtail to the existing aluminum wire can be accomplished with special crimp connectors, special miniature lug-type connectors, or approved twist-on connectors (with special installation procedures).
However, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) currently only recommends two alternatives for a permanent repair using the pig-tailing method. The more extensively tested method uses special crimp-on connectors called COPALUM connectors. As of April 2011, the CPSC has also recognized miniature lug-type connectors called AlumiConn connectors.[8][13] The CPSC considers the use of pigtails with wire nuts a temporary repair, and even as a temporary repair recommends special installation procedures, and notes that there can still be hazards with attempting the repairs.
COPALUM connectors use a special crimping system that creates a cold weld between the copper and aluminum wire, and is considered a permanent, maintenance-free repair. However, there may not be sufficient length of wires in enclosures to permit a special crimping tool to be used, and the resulting connections are sometimes too large to install in existing enclosures due to limited space (or "box fill"). Installing an enclosure extender for un-finished surfaces, replacing the enclosure with a larger one or installing an additional adjacent enclosure can be done to increase the available space. Also COPALUM connectors are costly to install, require special tools that cannot simply be purchased and electricians certified to use them by the manufacturer, and it can sometimes be very difficult to find local electricians certified to install these connectors.
The AlumiConn miniature lug connector can also be used for a permanent repair.[8] The only special tool required for an electrician installing them is a special torque screwdriver that should be readily available to qualified electrical contractors. Proper torque on the connectors set screws is critical to having an acceptable repair. However, use of the Alumiconn connectors is a relatively newer repair option for older aluminum wiring compared to other methods, and use of these connectors can have some of the same or similar problems with limited enclosure space as the COPALUM connectors.
Special twist-on connectors (or "wire nuts") are available for joining aluminum to copper wire, which are pre-filled with an antioxidant compound made of zinc dust in polybutene base[14] with silicon dioxide added to the compound to abrade the wires. As of 2014 there was only one twist-on connector rated or "UL Listed" for connecting aluminum and copper branch circuit wires in the U.S., which is the Ideal No. 65 "Twister Al/Cu wire connector". These special twist-on connectors have a distinctive purple color, have been UL Listed for aluminum to copper branch circuit wire connections since 1995, and according to the manufacturer's current literature are "perfect for pig-tailing a copper conductor onto aluminum branch circuit wiring in retrofit applications".[15] The CPSC still considers the use of twist-on connectors, including the Ideal No. 65 "Twister Al/Cu wire connector", to be a temporary repair.
According to the CPSC, even using (listed) twist-on connectors to attach copper pigtails to older aluminum wires as a temporary repair requires special installation procedures, including abrading and pre-twisting the wires. However, the manufacturer's instructions for the Ideal No. 65 Twister[16] only recommends pre-twisting the wires, and does not state it's required. Also the instructions do not mention physically abrading the wires as recommended by the CPSC, although the manufacturer current literature states the pre-filled "compound cuts aluminum oxide". Some researchers have criticized the UL listing/tests for this wire connector, and there have been reported problems with tests (without pre-twisting) and installations.[17] However, it is unknown if the reported installation problems were associated with unqualified persons attempting these repairs, or not using recommended special installation procedures (such as abrading and pre-twisting the wires as recommended by the CPSC for older aluminum wire, or at least pre-twisting the wires as recommended by Ideal for their connectors).
The use of newer CO/ALR rated devices (switches and receptacles) can be used to replace older devices that did not have the proper rating in homes with aluminum branch circuit wiring to reduce the hazards.[17] These devices are reportedly tested and listed for both AA-1350 and AA-8000 series aluminum wire, and are acceptable according to the National Electrical Code.[4][18]
However, some manufacturers of CO/ALR devices recommend periodically checking/tightening the terminal screws on these devices which can be hazardous for unqualified individuals to attempt, and there is criticism of their use as a permanent repair as some CO/ALR devices have failed in tests when connected to "old technology" aluminum wire.[8] Furthermore, just installing CO/ALR devices (switches and receptacles) doesn't address potential hazards associated with other connections such as those at ceiling fans, lights and equipment.
See also[edit]
Copper-clad aluminium wire
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Telecommunications and networks, Khateeb M. Hussain, Donna Hussain
Jump up ^ Aircraft Wire. mechanicsupport.com
^ Jump up to: a b "Anaheim Aluminum Wiring Facts and Fallacies". Accurateelectricalservices.com. 2011-02-04. Archived from the original on 2013-12-07. Retrieved 2012-03-07. Electricity is transmitted from the utility generating stations to individual meters using almost exclusively aluminum wiring. In the U.S., utilities have used aluminum wire for over 100 years.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Evolution of Aluminum Conductors Used for Building Wire and Cable" (PDF). NEMA. 2012.
Jump up ^ Copper prices and copper price charts
Jump up ^ Aluminum Prices and Aluminum Price Charts
Jump up ^ Patent application filed in 1969
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Repairing Aluminum Wiring" (PDF). CPSC Publication 516, June 2011 www.cpsc.gov.
Jump up ^ "What Owners Need to Know About Wiring Dangers". Washington Post Article, Real Estate, July 3, 2004.
Jump up ^ "Aluminum Building Wire Installation & Terminations" (PDF). Christel Hunter, IAEI News (January/February 2006).
Jump up ^ "Aluminum Building Wire 40 Years Later". Southwire Article.
^ Jump up to: a b Newbury, Dale; Greenwald, S. (19 June 1980). "Observations on the Mechanisms of High Resistance Junction Formation in Aluminum Wire Connections" (PDF). Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards. 85 (6): 429–440.
Jump up ^ "CPSC Approval Letter for AlumiConn Connectors" (PDF). CPSC.
Jump up ^ "Ideal Noalox Antioxidant Material Safety Data Sheet" (PDF). Retrieved 2017-09-14.
Jump up ^ "Twister Al/Cu Wire Connector" (PDF). Ideal Twister Brochure. 2014.
Jump up ^ "Ideal Twister Al/Cu Plus Wire Connector Instruction Sheet" (PDF). LA-2669-3, Ideal Industries.
^ Jump up to: a b "Reducing the Fire Hazard in Aluminum-Wired Homes" (PDF). Report by Jesse Aronstein, PE Updated 11/25/2011.
Jump up ^ "2014 National Electrical Code".
"Installing Aluminum Building Wire", Christel Hunter, EC&M Article, 2007.
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