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Sandhill crane
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Sandhill crane
Adult and chick
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Gruiformes
Family: Gruidae
Genus: Antigone
Species: A. canadensis
Binomial name
Antigone canadensis
(Linnaeus, 1758)
subspecies
Antigone canadensis canadensis
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Antigone canadensis pratensis
(F. A. A. Meyer, 1794)
Antigone canadensis nesiotes
Bangs & Zappey, 1905
Antigone canadensis tabida
(J. L. Peters, 1925)
Antigone canadensis rowani (disputed)
Walkinshaw, 1965
Antigone canadensis pulla
Aldrich, 1972
and see text
Synonyms
Ardea canadensis Linnaeus, 1758
Grus minor
Grus proavus
Grus canadensis
and see text
Antigone canadensis
USFWS Recording
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The sandhill crane (Antigone canadensis) is a species of large crane of North America and extreme northeastern Siberia. The common name of this bird refers to habitat like that at the Platte River, on the edge of Nebraska's Sandhills on the American Plains. This is the most important stopover area for the nominotypical subspecies, the lesser sandhill crane (Antigone canadensis canadensis), with up to 450,000 of these birds migrating through annually.
The sandhill crane was formerly placed in the genus Grus but a molecular phylogenetic study published in 2010 found that the genus, as then defined, was polyphyletic.[2] In the resulting rearrangement to create monophyletic genera, four species, including the sandhill crane, were placed in the resurrected genus Antigone that had originally been erected by the German naturalist Ludwig Reichenbach in 1853.[3][4] The specific epithet canadensis is the Modern Latin word for "Canadian".[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
1.1 Fossil record
1.2 Subspecies and evolution
2 Behavior
3 Status and conservation
3.1 Vagrancy
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Description[edit]
Adults are gray overall; during breeding, their plumage is usually much worn and stained, particularly in the migratory populations, and looks nearly ochre. The average weight of the larger males is 4.57 kg (10.1 lb), while the average weight of females is 4.02 kg (8.9 lb), with a range of 2.7 to 6.7 kg (6.0 to 14.8 lb) across the subspecies.[6][7] Sandhill cranes have red foreheads, white cheeks, and long, dark, pointed bills. In flight, their long, dark legs trail behind, and their long necks keep straight. Immature birds have reddish-brown upperparts and gray underparts.[8][9] The sexes look alike. Sizes vary among the different subspecies; the average height of these birds is around 80 to 122 cm (2 ft 7 in to 4 ft 0 in).[10][11] Their wing chords are typically 41.8–60 cm (16.5–23.6 in), tails are 10–26.4 cm (3.9–10.4 in), the exposed culmens are 6.9–16 cm (2.7–6.3 in) long, and the tarsi measure 15.5–26.6 cm (6.1–10.5 in).[12]
These cranes frequently give a loud, trumpeting call that suggests a rolled "r" in the throat, and they can be heard from a long distance. Mated pairs of cranes engage in "unison calling". The cranes stand close together, calling in a synchronized and complex duet. The female makes two calls for every one from the male.
Sandhill cranes' large wingspans, typically 1.65 to 2.30 m (5 ft 5 in to 7 ft 7 in), make them very skilled soaring birds, similar in style to hawks and eagles.[11] Using thermals to obtain lift, they can stay aloft for many hours, requiring only occasional flapping of their wings and consequently expending little energy. Migratory flocks contain hundreds of birds, and can create clear outlines of the normally invisible rising columns of air (thermals) they ride.
Sandhill cranes fly south for the winter. In their wintering areas, they form flocks over 10,000. One place this happens is at Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge, 100 mi (160 km) south of Albuquerque, New Mexico. An annual Sandhill Crane Festival is held there in November.
Fossil record[edit]
Sandhill cranes have one of the longest fossil histories of any extant bird.[13] A 10-million-year-old crane fossil from Nebraska is said to be of this species,[14] but this may be from a prehistoric relative or the direct ancestor of sandhill cranes and not belong in the genus Grus. The oldest unequivocal sandhill crane fossil is 2.5 million years old,[15] older by half than the earliest remains of most living species of birds, primarily found from after the Pliocene/Pleistocene boundary some 1.8 million years ago. As these ancient sandhill cranes varied as much in size as present-day birds, those Pliocene fossils are sometimes described as new species.[16] Grus haydeni may have been a prehistoric relative, or it may comprise material of a sandhill crane and its ancestor.[17][18]
Subspecies and evolution[edit]
Lesser sandhill crane (G. c. canadensis)
George C. Reifel Migratory Bird Sanctuary, Ladner, British Columbia
Sandhill cranes vary considerably in size (much of which is clinal) and in migratory habits. A female of G. c. canadensis averages 3.46 kg (7.6 lb), 37 in (94 cm) in length and has a wingspan of 1.6 m (5 ft 3 in). A male of G. c. tabida averages 5 kg (11 lb), 119 cm (47 in) in length and has a wingspan of 2.12 m (6 ft 11 in). The southern subspecies (along with G. c. rowani) are intermediate, roughly according to Bergmann's rule.
Three subspecies are resident: G. c. pulla of the Gulf Coast of the U.S., G. c. pratensis of Florida and Georgia and G. c. nesiotes of Cuba.[19] The northern populations exist as fragmented remains in the contiguous U.S. and a large and contiguous population from Canada to Beringia. These migrate to the southwestern United States and Mexico. These cranes are rare vagrants to China, South Korea, and Japan and very rare vagrants to western Europe.
Six subspecies have been recognized in recent times:
Lesser sandhill crane, G. c. canadensis
Cuban sandhill crane, G. c. nesiotes – ESA: endangered
Florida sandhill crane, G. c. pratensis – ESA: endangered
The Florida sandhill crane was listed as EC or easily confused to facilitate an attempted reintroduction of the whooping crane (Grus americana) into Florida. The attempt failed, but the listing remained. The current list of endangered subspecies includes only two birds, G. c. nesiotes and G. c. rowani, with G. c. pratensis no longer listed.[20]
Mississippi sandhill crane, G. c. pulla – ESA: endangered
Canadian sandhill crane, G. c. rowani
Greater sandhill crane, G. c. tabida
Florida sandhill crane, G. c. pratensis adult (behind) and juvenile
In British Columbia, Canada
The Canadian sandhill cranes are not distinct and were never accepted as a valid subspecies. The others can be somewhat more reliably distinguished in hand by measurements and plumage details, apart from the size differences already mentioned. Unequivocal identification often requires location information, which is often impossible in migrating birds.
Analysis of control region mtDNA haplotype data shows two major lineages. The Arctic and the subarctic migratory population includes the lesser sandhill cranes. The other lineages can be divided into a migratory and some indistinct clusters which can be matched to the resident subspecies. The lesser and greater sandhill cranes are quite distinct, their divergence dating to roughly 2.3–1.2 million years ago , some time during the Late Pliocene or Early Pleistocene. Glaciation seemingly fragmented off a founder population of lesser sandhill cranes, because during each major ice age, its present breeding range was frozen year-round. Still, sandhill cranes are amply documented from fossil and subfossil remains right to the modern era.[18] Conceivably, they might be considered distinct species already, a monotypic G. canadensis and the greater sandhill crane, G. pratensis, which would include the other populations.[19]
It appears as if the scant differences between southern Canadian and western U.S. populations result from genetic drift, due to the recent reduction in population and range fragmentation. Until the early 20th century, the southern migratory birds occupied a much larger and continuous range. Thus, the subspecies G. c. rowani may well be abandoned.[19]
The two southern U.S. resident populations are somewhat more distinct. The Cuban population has been comparatively little studied, but appears to have been established on the island for a long time. They and the migratory greater sandhill cranes proper may form a group of lineages that diverged much later from a range in the southern U.S. and maybe northern Mexico, where they were resident. The southern migratory population would then represent a later re-expansion, which (re-)evolved their migratory habits independent from the northernmost birds, the geographically separated populations expanding rapidly when more habitat was available as the last ice age ended.[19]
Behavior[edit]
Play media
A huge flock at Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge, New Mexico
Sandhill cranes are fairly social birds that usually live in pairs or family groups through the year. During migration and winter, unrelated cranes come together to form "survival groups" that forage and roost together. Such groups often congregate at migration and winter sites, sometimes in the thousands.
Sandhill cranes are mainly herbivorous, but eat various types of food, depending on availability. They often feed with their bills down to the ground as they root around for seeds and other foods, in shallow wetlands with vegetation or various upland habitats. Cranes readily eat cultivated foods such as corn, wheat, cottonseed, and sorghum. Waste corn is useful to cranes preparing for migration, providing them with nutrients for the long journey.[21] Among northern races of sandhill cranes, the diet is most varied, especially among breeding birds. They variously feed on berries, small mammals, insects, snails, reptiles, and amphibians.
Sandhill cranes raise one brood per year. In nonmigratory populations, laying begins between December and August. In migratory populations, laying usually begins in April or May. Both members of a breeding pair build the nest using plant material from the surrounding area. Nest sites are usually marshes, bogs, or swales, though occasionally on dry land. Females lay one to three (usually two) oval, dull brown eggs with reddish markings. Both parents incubate the eggs for about 30 days. The chicks are precocial; they hatch covered in down, with their eyes open, and able to leave the nest within a day. The parents brood the chicks for up to three weeks after hatching, feeding them intensively for the first few weeks, then gradually less frequently until they reach independence at 9 to 10 months old.
A baby Mississippi sandhill crane is weighed at White Oak Conservation.
The chicks remain with their parents until one to two months before the parents lay the next clutch of eggs the following year, remaining with them 10–12 months. After leaving their parents, the chicks form nomadic flocks with other juveniles and nonbreeders. They remain in these flocks until they form breeding pairs at between two and seven years old.
As a conspicuous ground-dwelling species, sandhill cranes are at risk from predators, which are probably the main nonanthropogenic source of mortality. Mammals such as foxes, raccoons, coyotes, wolves, cougars, bobcats, and lynx hunt them given any opportunity, the first three mainly hunting large numbers of young cranes, the latter four types more rarely taking full-grown cranes in ambush excepting the prolific bobcat. Corvids, such as ravens and crows, gulls, and smaller raptors such as hawks (largely northern harriers or red-tailed hawks) feed on young cranes and eggs. Cranes of all ages are hunted by both North American species of eagles. Mainly chicks and possibly a few adults may be preyed on by great horned owls and even the much smaller peregrine falcons has successfully killed a 3.1 kg (6.8 lb) adult sandhill crane in a stoop.[22][23] In Oregon and California, the most serious predators of flighted juveniles and adults has been cited as golden eagles and bobcats, the most serious predators of chicks are reportedly coyotes, ravens, raccoons, American mink, and great horned owls in rough descending order.[24][25] In Cuba and Florida, the American crocodile and alligator can take a surprisingly large number of sandhill cranes, especially recent fledglings.[22][23] Sandhill cranes defend themselves and their young from aerial predators by jumping and kicking. Actively brooding adults are more likely to react aggressively to potential predators to defend their chicks than wintering birds, which most often normally try to evade attacks on foot or in flight.[26] For land predators, they move forward, often hissing, with their wings open and bills pointed. If the predator persists, the crane stabs with its bill (which is powerful enough to pierce the skull of a small carnivore) and kicks.[27]
Status and conservation[edit]
Flying at Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge, New Mexico, United States
Florida sandhill crane, Ocala National Forest
Although sandhill cranes are not considered threatened as a species, the three southernmost subspecies are quite rare. Resident populations, not migratory birds, cannot choose secure breeding habitat. Many subpopulations were destroyed by hunting or habitat change. The greater sandhill crane proper initially suffered most; by 1940, probably fewer than 1,000 birds remained. Populations have since increased greatly again. At nearly 100,000, they are still fewer than the lesser sandhill crane, which, at about 400,000 individuals, is the most plentiful crane alive today.[19][28]
Some migratory populations of sandhill cranes face population threats due to interspecies competition with snow geese.[29] Since the 1990s, snow geese have eaten waste corn on which the cranes also rely prior to migration.[21] Despite this competition and other pressures, since the early 2000s the sandhill crane has expanded both its winter (non-breeding) and breeding ranges northward, including into upstate New York.[30][31] In the 21st century, parts of the Midwestern United States have seen an extensive rebound of the species.[32]
The Florida sandhill crane is far less common, with some 5,000 remaining. They are most threatened by habitat destruction. In Florida, they are protected by high monetary penalites for killing them, under state and federal law. The transplantation of wild birds and introduction of captive-reared birds into suitable low-population areas have been called a viable management technique.[33]
Sandhill crane at Jonathan Dickinson State Park, Florida
The Mississippi sandhill crane has lost the most range; it used to live along most of the northern Gulf of Mexico coast, and its range was once nearly parapatric with that of its eastern neighbor. As of 2013, about 25 breeding pairs exist in an intensively managed population. The Mississippi Sandhill Crane National Wildlife Refuge—established in 1975 when fewer than 35 of the birds existed—has the biggest release program for cranes on Earth, and 90% of the cranes there were raised in captivity.[34] The second viable egg from a two-egg nest was occasionally removed from the nests, starting in 1965, to become part of a captive flock. This breeding flock is divided between the Audubon Institute's Species Survival Center and White Oak Conservation in Yulee, Florida. These cranes have produced offspring for annual releases into the refuge.[35]
A Mississippi sandhill crane was the first bird to hatch from an egg fertilized by sperm that was thawed from a cryogenic state. This occurred at the Audubon Institute, as part of this subspecies' endangered species recovery plan.
About 300 Cuban sandhill cranes exist; this is the least known of the populations.[19][28]
Sandhill cranes have been tried as foster parents for whooping cranes in reintroduction schemes. This failed when the whooping cranes imprinted on their foster parents, later did not recognize other whooping cranes as their conspecifics, and unsuccessfully tried to pair with sandhill cranes instead.
Vagrancy[edit]
Sandhill cranes occasionally reach Europe as vagrants. The first British record was on Fair Isle in April 1981,[36] and the second was in Shetland in 1991.[37] Small groups of sandhill cranes have also been seen in parts of eastern China.[38]
See also[edit]
Cranes in Britain
Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge
Grulla National Wildlife Refuge
Muleshoe National Wildlife Refuge
References[edit]
Jump up ^ BirdLife International (2016). "Antigone canadensis". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN. 2016: e.T22692078A93336581. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22692078A93336581.en. Retrieved 15 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Krajewski, C.; Sipiorski, J.T.; Anderson, F.E. (2010). "Mitochondrial genome sequences and the phylogeny of cranes (Gruiformes: Gruidae)". Auk. 127 (2): 440–452. doi:10.1525/auk.2009.09045.
Jump up ^ Gill, Frank; Donsker, David, eds. (2017). "Rails, gallinules, trumpeters & cranes". World Bird List Version 7.2. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Reichenbach, Ludwig (1853). Reichenbach Handbuch der speciellen Ornithologie. Leipzig: Friedrich Hofmeister. p. xxiii.
Jump up ^ Jobling, James A (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
Jump up ^ Sandhill Crane. Appendix 2. The Birds of North America. bna.birds.cornell.edu
Jump up ^ CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses, John B. Dunning, Jr. (ed.). CRC Press (1992), ISBN 978-0-8493-4258-5.
Jump up ^ Sandhill Crane. Allaboutbirds.org. Retrieved on 2012-12-30.
Jump up ^ Sandhill Crane. Seattleaudubon.org. Retrieved on 2012-12-30.
Jump up ^ Sandhill Crane, International Crane Foundation
^ Jump up to: a b Dunn, J.L. & Alderfer, J., editors. Field Guide to the Birds of North America. National Geographic, Washington, D.C.
Jump up ^ Johnsgard, Paul A. (1983). Cranes of the World: Sandhill Crane (Grus canadensis). University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Jump up ^ Quantic, Diane Dufva; Hafen, P. Jane (2003): A Great Plains Reader. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-3802-9 p. 84
Jump up ^ The Nature Conservancy: Sandhill Crane. Retrieved 2008-JAN-16.
Jump up ^ Volz, Becky Lauren (2003): The Biogeography of the Sandhill Crane (Grus canadensis). Version of 2003-DEC-31.
Jump up ^ Miller, Loye H. (1944). "Some Pliocene birds from Oregon and Idaho" (PDF). Condor. 46 (1): 25–32. doi:10.2307/1364248.
Jump up ^ Miller, Alden H. & Sibley, Charles Gald (1942). "A New Species of Crane from the Pliocene of California" (PDF). Condor. 44 (3): 126–127. doi:10.2307/1364260.
^ Jump up to: a b Brodkorb, Pierce (1967). "Catalogue of Fossil Birds: Part 3 (Ralliformes, Ichthyornithiformes, Charadriiformes)". Bulletin of the Florida State Museum. 11 (3): 99–220.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Rhymer, Judith M.; Fain, Matthew G.; Austin, Jane E.; Johnson, Douglas H. & Krajewski, Carey (2001). "Mitochondrial phylogeography, subspecific taxonomy, and conservation genetics of sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis; Aves: Gruidae)" (PDF). Conservation Genetics. 2 (3): 203–218. doi:10.1023/A:1012203532300.
Jump up ^ Species Report. fws.gov
^ Jump up to: a b Johnsgard PA. (2011) Sandhill and Whooping Cranes: Ancient Voices over America's Wetlands, University of Nebraska Press: Lincoln, ISBN 0803234961.
^ Jump up to: a b Walkinshaw, L. H. 1949. The Sandhill Cranes. Cranbrook Inst. Sci. Bull. 29. Bloomfield Hills, MI.
^ Jump up to: a b Walkinshaw, L. H. 1973. Cranes of the world. Winchester Press, New York.
Jump up ^ Littlefield, C. D. (1995). Sandhill crane nesting habitat, egg predators, and predator history on Malheur National Wildlife Refuge, Oregon. Northwestern Naturalist, 137–143.
Jump up ^ Littlefield, C. D., & Lindstedt, S. M. (1992). Survival of juvenile greater sandhill cranes at Malheur National Wildlife Refuge, Oregon.
Jump up ^ Drewien, R. C. (1973). Ecology of Rocky Mountain greater sandhill cranes.
Jump up ^ Harris, M. (2000). "Grus canadensis". Animal Diversity Web. Animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu.
^ Jump up to: a b Archibald, George W. & Meine, Curt (1996): 7. Sandhill Crane. In: Del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew & Sargatal, Jordi (eds.): Handbook of Birds of the World (Volume 3: Hoatzin to Auks): 85, plate 5. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. ISBN 84-87334-20-2
Jump up ^ Pearse AT; Krapu GL; Brandt DA; Kinzel PJ (2010). "Changes in Agriculture and Abundance of Snow Geese Affect Carrying Capacity of Sandhill Cranes in Nebraska". Journal of Wildlife Management. 74 (3): 479–488. doi:10.2193/2008-539.
Jump up ^ "113th CBC New York Regional Summary". National Audubon Society. Retrieved 2017-02-22.
Jump up ^ "Sandhill Cranes Successfully Nest in the Adirondacks". Tupper Lake. Retrieved 2017-02-22.
Jump up ^ O'Connell, Patrick M. "Sandhill cranes bounce back from brink as migration over Illinois to peak next week". chicagotribune.com. Retrieved 2017-11-21.
Jump up ^ Stys, B. (1994): Ecology and habitat protection needs of Florida sandhill cranes on areas proposed for land conversion activities. Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission. Nongame Wildlife Program Technical Report No. 14. Tallahassee, FL.
Jump up ^ "Mississippi Sandhill Crane". Retrieved 21 June 2013.
Jump up ^ "Crane Population Management". Mississippi Sandhill Crane National Wildlife Refuge. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Riddiford, Nick (1983). "Sandhill Crane: new to Britain". British Birds. 76 (3): 105–109.
Jump up ^ Ellis, Pete (1991). "The Sandhill Crane in Shetland". Birding World. 4 (9): 322–323.
Jump up ^ "Sandhill cranes seen in E China's Jiangsu". Xinhuanet. 12 February 2012. Retrieved 2013-05-18.
Further reading[edit]
Meine, Curt D. & Archibald, George W. (eds.) (1996). Sandhill Crane (Grus canadensis). In: The cranes: – Status survey and conservation action plan. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, U.K.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sandhill crane.
Wikispecies has information related to Grus canadensis
Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article Sand-hill Crane.
International Crane Foundation's Sandhill Crane page
Audio file of cranes "unison calling" at savingcranes.org
Sandhill Crane Bird Sound at Florida Museum of Natural History
Sandhill Crane Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Sandhill Crane – Grus canadensis – USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
The Nature Conservancy's Species Profile: Sandhill Crane
National Audubon Society, Rowe Sanctuary, Nebraska
Sandhill Crane Migration on Nebraska Platte River – Viewing Sites Info & Maps, Photos, Video
Alamosa/Monte Vista/Baca National Wildlife Refuge Complex
Mississippi Sandhill Crane National Wildlife Refuge
"Sandhill crane media". Internet Bird Collection.
Stamps (for Canada, Cuba) with Range Map at bird-stamps.com
Sandhill Crane Migrations Revealed by Satellites Documentary produced by Oregon Field Guide
Sandhill cranes breeding and biology in Alaska at christyyuncker.com
Sandhill crane photo gallery at VIREO (Drexel University)
Música de las Grullas: Una historia natural de las grullas de América (2014) by Paul Johnsgard, Enrique Weir, & Karine Gil-Weir
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Cranes (order: Gruiformes · family: Gruidae)
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Black crowned crane (B. pavonina)
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Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q503804
ADW: Grus_canadensis
ARKive: grus-canadensis
eBird: sancra
EoL: 1049272
Fauna Europaea: 96754
Fossilworks: 105730
GBIF: 2474953
IBC: sandhill-crane-grus-canadensis
iNaturalist: 27
ITIS: 176177
NCBI: 40820
Species+: 7937
WoRMS: 422601
Xeno-canto: Grus-canadensis
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sandhill_crane&oldid=820625120"
Categories:
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True Grit (2010 film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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True Grit
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Joel Coen
Ethan Coen
Produced by
Joel Coen
Ethan Coen
Scott Rudin
Screenplay by
Joel Coen
Ethan Coen
Based on
True Grit
by Charles Portis
Starring
Jeff Bridges
Matt Damon
Josh Brolin
Barry Pepper
Hailee Steinfeld
Narrated by
Elizabeth Marvel
Music by
Carter Burwell
Cinematography
Roger Deakins
Edited by
Roderick Jaynes
Production
company
Skydance Productions
Mike Zoss Productions
Scott Rudin Productions
Distributed by
Paramount Pictures
Release date
December 22, 2010 (2010-12-22)
Running time
110 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$38 million[1]
Box office
$252.3 million[2]
True Grit is a 2010 American Revisionist Western film directed, written, produced, and edited by the Coen brothers and executive produced by Steven Spielberg. It is the second adaptation of Charles Portis' 1968 novel of the same name, which was previously filmed in 1969 starring John Wayne and Glen Campbell. This version stars Hailee Steinfeld as Mattie Ross and Jeff Bridges as Deputy U.S. Marshal Reuben J. "Rooster" Cogburn, along with Matt Damon, Josh Brolin, and Barry Pepper.
Feisty 14 year-old farm girl Mattie Ross (Steinfeld) hires Cogburn, a boozy, trigger-happy lawman (Bridges) after an outlaw named Tom Chaney (Brolin) murders her father. The bickering duo are accompanied on their quest by a Texas Ranger named LaBoeuf (Damon) who has been tracking Chaney for killing a State Senator. As they embark on a dangerous adventure, each character has his or her "grit" tested in different ways.
Filming began in March 2010, and the film was officially released in the U.S. on December 22, 2010. after advance screenings earlier that month.[3] The film opened the 61st Berlin International Film Festival on February 10, 2011.[4] It was well received by critics, garnering a 96% Rotten Tomatoes score. It was nominated for ten Academy Awards: Best Picture, Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Actor in a Leading Role (Bridges), Best Actress in a Supporting Role (Steinfeld), Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, Best Costume Design, Best Sound Mixing, and Best Sound Editing. However, it won none. The film was released on Blu-ray and DVD on June 7, 2011.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Adaptation and production
4 Soundtrack
5 Release
5.1 Box office
5.2 Critical reception
5.3 Accolades
5.4 Home media
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
Mattie Ross's father was murdered by Tom Chaney when she was 14 years old. While collecting her father's body in Fort Smith, Arkansas, Mattie asks the local sheriff about the search for Chaney. He tells her that Chaney has fled with "Lucky" Ned Pepper and his gang into Indian Territory, where the sheriff has no authority, so she inquires about hiring a Deputy U.S. Marshal. The sheriff gives three recommendations, and Mattie chooses Rooster Cogburn. Cogburn initially rebuffs her offer, not believing she has the money to hire him, but she raises the money by aggressively horse-trading with Colonel Stonehill.
Texas Ranger LaBoeuf arrives in town, pursuing Chaney for the murder of a Texas State Senator. LaBoeuf proposes joining Cogburn, but Mattie refuses his offer. She wishes Chaney to be hanged in Arkansas for her father's murder, not in Texas for killing the senator. Mattie also insists on traveling with Cogburn but he leaves without her, having gone with LaBoeuf to apprehend Chaney and split the reward.
After being refused passage on the ferry that conveyed Cogburn and LaBoeuf, Mattie crosses the river on horseback. LaBoeuf expresses his displeasure by birching Mattie with a stick, but Cogburn eventually allows Mattie to accompany them. After a dispute over their respective service with the Confederate Army, Cogburn ends their arrangement and LaBoeuf leaves to pursue Chaney on his own. Cogburn and Mattie meet a trail doctor who directs them to an empty dugout for shelter. They find two outlaws, Quincy and Moon, and interrogate them. Quincy insists they have no information about the Pepper gang, but eventually Moon divulges what he knows; Quincy fatally stabs Moon, and Cogburn shoots Quincy dead. Before dying, Moon says Pepper and his gang will be returning for fresh horses that night.
LaBoeuf arrives at the dugout and is confronted by the Pepper gang. Cogburn, hiding on the hillside with Mattie, shoots two gang members and accidentally hits LaBoeuf, but Pepper escapes. However, Cogburn and LaBoeuf argue the next day, and the latter departs again. While retrieving water from a stream, Mattie encounters Chaney. She shoots him, but he survives and drags her back to Pepper, who forces Cogburn to leave by threatening to kill her. Pepper leaves Mattie alone with Chaney, ordering him not to harm her or he will not get paid after his remount arrives.
Chaney tries to knife Mattie, but LaBoeuf appears and knocks Chaney out. They watch from a distance as Cogburn fights the remaining members of Pepper's gang, killing two and wounding Ned before his horse is shot and falls, trapping his leg, whereupon LaBoeuf snipes Pepper. Chaney regains consciousness and knocks out LaBoeuf, but Mattie seizes LaBoeuf's rifle and shoots Chaney in the chest. The recoil knocks her into a deep pit, where she is bitten by a rattlesnake. Cogburn cuts into her hand to suck out as much of the venom as he can, then rides day and night to reach a doctor, carrying her on foot after her horse collapses from exhaustion.
Mattie's left forearm is amputated due to gangrene from the snakebite. Cogburn stays until she is out of danger, but leaves before she regains consciousness. She never sees Cogburn or LaBoeuf again, despite writing a letter inviting Cogburn to collect the money she owed him. Twenty-five years later, she receives a note from Cogburn inviting her to a travelling Wild West show where he now performs. She arrives, only to learn that he died three days earlier. She has his body moved to her family cemetery. Standing over Cogburn's grave, she reflects on her decision to move his remains, and about never having married, as well as the possibility of seeing LaBoeuf again.
Cast[edit]
After competing with 15,000 other applicants for the role of Mattie Ross, Hailee Steinfeld was cast.
Jeff Bridges as Deputy U.S. Marshal Reuben J. "Rooster" Cogburn
Matt Damon as Texas Ranger LaBoeuf
Josh Brolin as Tom Chaney
Barry Pepper as Ned "Lucky" Pepper
Hailee Steinfeld as Mattie Ross
Domhnall Gleeson as Moon (the Kid)
Bruce Green as Harold Parmalee
Ed Lee Corbin as Bear Man (Dr. Forrester)
Roy Lee Jones as Yarnell Poindexter
Paul Rae as Emmett Quincy
Nicholas Sadler as Sullivan
Dakin Matthews as Colonel Stonehill
Elizabeth Marvel and Ruth Morris as 40-year-old Mattie
Leon Russom as Sheriff
Jake Walker as Judge Isaac Parker
Don Pirl as Cole Younger
Jarlath Conroy as the Undertaker
Adaptation and production[edit]
The project was rumored as far back as February 2008;[5] however it was not confirmed until March 2009.[6]
Ahead of shooting, Ethan Coen said that the film would be a more faithful adaptation of the novel than the 1969 version.
It's partly a question of point-of-view. The book is entirely in the voice of the 14-year-old girl. That sort of tips the feeling of it over a certain way. I think [the book is] much funnier than the movie was so I think, unfortunately, they lost a lot of humor in both the situations and in her voice. It also ends differently than the movie did. You see the main character – the little girl – 25 years later when she's an adult. Another way in which it's a little bit different from the movie – and maybe this is just because of the time the movie was made – is that it's a lot tougher and more violent than the movie reflects. Which is part of what's interesting about it.[7]
Mattie Ross "is a pill", said Ethan Coen in a December 2010 interview, "but there is something deeply admirable about her in the book that we were drawn to", including the Presbyterian-Protestant ethic so strongly imbued in a 14-year-old girl. Joel Coen said that the brothers did not want to "mess around with what we thought was a very compelling story and character". The film's producer, Scott Rudin, said that the Coens had taken a "formal, reverent approach" to the Western genre, with its emphasis on adventure and quest. "The patois of the characters, the love of language that permeates the whole film, makes it very much of a piece with their other films, but it is the least ironic in many regards".[8]
Nevertheless, there are subtle ways in which the film adaptation differs from the original novel. This is particularly evident in the negotiation scene between Mattie and her father's undertaker. In the film, Mattie bargains over her father's casket and proceeds to spend the night among the corpses to avoid paying for the boardinghouse. This scene is, in fact, nonexistent in the novel, where Mattie is depicted as refusing to bargain over her father's body, and never entertains the thought of sleeping among the corpses.[9]
Open casting sessions were held in Texas in November 2009 for the role of Mattie Ross. The following month, Paramount Pictures announced a casting search for a 12- to 16-year-old girl, describing the character as a "simple, tough as nails young woman" whose "unusually steely nerves and straightforward manner are often surprising".[10] Steinfeld, then age 13, was selected for the role from a pool of 15,000 applicants. "It was, as you can probably imagine, the source of a lot of anxiety", Ethan Coen told The New York Times. "We were aware if the kid doesn't work, there's no movie".[8]
The film was shot in the Santa Fe, New Mexico, area in March and April 2010, as well as in Granger and Austin, Texas.[11][12] The first trailer was released in September; a second trailer premiered with The Social Network.
For the final segment of the film, a one-armed body double was needed for Elizabeth Marvel (who played the adult Mattie). After a nationwide call, the Coen brothers cast Ruth Morris – a 29-year-old social worker and student who was born without a left forearm.[13] Morris has more screen time in the film than Marvel.[14]
Soundtrack[edit]
Main article: True Grit: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack
Release[edit]
Box office[edit]
Film
Release date
Box office revenue
Box office ranking
Budget
Reference
North America
North America
Other territories
Worldwide
All time United States
All time worldwide
True Grit December 22, 2010 $171,050,328 $79,880,786 $250,931,114 No. 168 No. 327 $38,000,000 [15]
In the holiday weekend following its December 22 North American debut, True Grit took in $25.6 million at the box office, twice its pre-release projections.[1] By its second weekend ending January 2, the film had earned $87.1 million domestically, becoming the Coen brothers' highest-grossing film, surpassing No Country for Old Men, which earned $74.3 million. True Grit was the only mainstream movie of the 2010 holiday season to exceed the revenue expectations of its producers. Based on that performance, The Los Angeles Times predicted that the film would likely become the second-highest grossing western of all time when inflation is discounted, exceeded only by Dances with Wolves.[16] On Thursday, December 23, 2010, it opened to No. 3 behind Little Fockers and Tron: Legacy. On Friday, December 24, 2010, it went up to No. 2 behind Little Fockers. On Friday, December 31, 2010, it went up to No. 1 and then on January 1, 2011, it went back to No. 2 until January 3, 2011. It stayed No. 1 until January 14 and then went down to No. 3 behind The Green Hornet and The Dilemma. On February 11, 2011, it went down to No. 9 behind Justin Bieber: Never Say Never, Just Go With It, Gnomeo and Juliet, The Eagle, The Roommate, The King's Speech, No Strings Attached, and Sanctum. It closed in theaters on April 28, 2011. True Grit took in an additional $15 million in what is usually a slow month for movie attendance, reaching $110 million.[17] According to Box Office Mojo, True Grit has grossed over $170 million domestically and $250 million worldwide as of July 2011.
Both the brothers and Paramount Vice Chairman Rob Moore attributed the film's success partly to its "soft" PG-13 rating, atypical for a Coen brothers film, which helped broaden audience appeal. Paramount anticipated that the film would be popular with the adults who often constitute the Coen brothers' core audience, as well as fans of the Western genre. But True Grit also drew extended families: parents, grandparents, and teenagers. Geographically, the film played strongest in Los Angeles and New York, but its top 20 markets also included Oklahoma City; Plano, Texas; and Olathe, Kansas.[16][18]
Critical reception[edit]
True Grit received critical acclaim. Roger Ebert awarded 3.5 stars out of 4, writing, "What strikes me is that I'm describing the story and the film as if it were simply, if admirably, a good Western. That's a surprise to me, because this is a film by the Coen Brothers, and this is the first straight genre exercise in their career. It's a loving one. Their craftsmanship is a wonder", and also remarking, "The cinematography by Roger Deakins reminds us of the glory that was, and can still be, the Western."[19]
The Los Angeles Times critic Kenneth Turan gave the film 4 out of 5 stars, writing, "The Coens, not known for softening anything, have restored the original's bleak, elegiac conclusion and as writer-directors have come up with a version that shares events with the first film but is much closer in tone to the book ... Clearly recognizing a kindred spirit in Portis, sharing his love for eccentric characters and odd language, they worked hard, and successfully, at serving the buoyant novel as well as being true to their own black comic brio."[20]
In his review for the Minneapolis Star Tribune Colin Covert wrote: "the Coens dial down the eccentricity and deliver their first classically made, audience-pleasing genre picture. The results are masterful."[21] Richard Corliss of Time named Hailee Steinfeld's performance one of the Top 10 Movie Performances of 2010, saying "She delivers the orotund dialogue as if it were the easiest vernacular, stares down bad guys, wins hearts. That's a true gift".[22]
Rex Reed of the New York Observer criticized the film's pacing, referring to plot points as "mere distractions ... to divert attention from the fact that nothing is going on elsewhere". Reed considers Damon "hopelessly miscast" and finds Bridges' performance mumbly, lumbering, and self-indulgent.[23] Entertainment Weekly gave the movie a B+: "Truer than the John Wayne showpiece and less gritty than the book, this True Grit is just tasty enough to leave movie lovers hungry for a missing spice."[24]
The US Conference of Catholic Bishops review called the film "exceptionally fine" and said "[a]mid its archetypical characters, mythic atmosphere and amusingly idiosyncratic dialogue, writer-directors Joel and Ethan Coen's captivating drama uses its heroine's sensitive perspective – as well as a fair number of biblical and religious references – to reflect seriously on the violent undertow of frontier life".[25]
Rotten Tomatoes reported that 96% of critics gave the film a positive review based on 263 reviews, with an average score of 8.4/10 and with its consensus stating: "Girded by strong performances from Jeff Bridges, Matt Damon, and newcomer Hailee Steinfeld, and lifted by some of the Coens' most finely tuned, unaffected work, True Grit is a worthy companion to the Charles Portis book."[26] Metacritic gave the film an average score of 80/100 based on 41 reviews from mainstream critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[27] Total Film gave the film a five-star review (denoting 'outstanding'): "This isn't so much a remake as a masterly re-creation. Not only does it have the drop on the 1969 version, it's the first great movie of 2011".[28]
Accolades[edit]
Main article: List of accolades received by True Grit
The film won the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Young Performer (Hailee Steinfeld) and received ten additional nominations in the following categories: Best Film, Best Actor (Jeff Bridges), Best Supporting Actress (Steinfeld), Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Cinematography, Best Art Direction, Best Costume Design, Best Makeup, and Best Score. The ceremony took place on January 14, 2011.[29]
It was nominated for two Screen Actors Guild Awards: Best Actor in a Leading Role (Bridges) and Best Actress in a Supporting Role (Steinfeld). The ceremony took place on January 30, 2011.[30]
It was nominated for eight British Academy Film Awards: Best Film, Best Actor in a Leading Role (Bridges), Best Actress in a Leading Role (Steinfeld), Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Cinematography, Best Production Design, Best Costume Design. Roger Deakins won the award for Best Cinematography.
It was nominated for ten Academy Awards,[31][32] but won none: Best Picture, Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Actor (Bridges), Best Supporting Actress (Steinfeld), Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, Best Costume Design, Best Sound Mixing, and Best Sound Editing.[33] When told of all the nominations, the Coen brothers stated, "Ten seems like an awful lot. We don't want to take anyone else's."[34]
Home media[edit]
The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray on June 7, 2011.[35]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Barnes, Brooks (December 26, 2010). "Strong Start for Coen Brothers' 'True Grit'". New York Times. Retrieved 27 December 2010.
Jump up ^ "True Grit". Boxoffice Mojo. 7 May 2011. Retrieved 20 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "DC Film Society: Screenings". www.dcfilmsociety.org.
Jump up ^ "Coen Brothers' True Grit to Open the 61st Berlinale". berlinale.de. Retrieved 2010-12-15.
Jump up ^ "Joel and Ethan Coen saddle up for truly gritty remake of Western classic". London: Daily Mail. February 29, 2008. Retrieved 2010-02-16.
Jump up ^ Fleming, Michael (March 22, 2009). "Coen brothers to adapt 'True Grit'". Variety. Retrieved 2010-02-16.
Jump up ^ "True Grit Exclusive – Movies News at IGN". IGN. Retrieved February 16, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Carr, David (December 10, 2010). "The Coen Brothers, Shooting Straight". The New York Times. Retrieved 22 December 2010.
Jump up ^ Turner, Ralph Lamar (22 April 2015). ""Why Do You Think I am Paying You if Not to Have My Way?" Genre Complications in the Free-Market Critiques of Fictional and Filmed Versions of True Grit". The Journal of Popular Culture Vol. 48 No. 4.
Jump up ^ "True Grit Film – casting Call". Truegritcasting.com. Retrieved February 16, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Coen Brothers to film 'True Grit' remake in NM". Boston Herald. Retrieved February 16, 2010.
Jump up ^ ""True Grit" filming in downtown Austin". Austin American-Statesman. May 30, 2010.
Jump up ^ Ward, Alyson (December 21, 2010). "Chance led Ruth Morris to 'True Grit,' but her role isn't a new one". Fort Worth Star-Telegram.
Jump up ^ Ackerman, Todd. "Social worker shows true grit in movie role". (Mobile story) Houston Chronicle. February 27, 2011. Retrieved on February 27, 2011.
Jump up ^ "True Grit (2011)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 2011-08-18.
^ Jump up to: a b Fritz, Ben (January 3, 1011). "Company Town: True Grit rides tall in the saddle". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 3 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Tourtellotte, Bob (January 9, 1011). ""True Grit" wrangles top spot at box offices". Reuters. Retrieved 12 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Cieply, Michael; Brooks, Barnes (January 5, 1011). "As a Hot Ticket, Will True Grit Sway the Oscars?". New York Times. Retrieved 6 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "True Grit". rogerebert. suntimes.com. December 21, 2010. Retrieved December 22, 2010.
Jump up ^ Turan, Kenneth (December 23, 2010). "Movie review: True Grit". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved December 23, 2010.
Jump up ^ Covert, Colin (December 23, 2010). "Classic Coens". Star Tribune. Retrieved December 23, 2010.
Jump up ^ Corliss, Richard (December 9, 2010). "The Top 10 Everything of 2010 - Hailee Steinfeld as Mattie Ross in True Grit". Time. Retrieved December 13, 2011.
Jump up ^ Reed, Rex (December 14, 2010). "Year-End Roundup: What to See (and Skip) Before the Ball Drops". The New York Observer. Archived from the original on January 28, 2011. Retrieved February 6, 2011.
Jump up ^ Schwarzbaum, Lisa (January 13, 2011). "True Grit (2010)". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 2011-08-18.
Jump up ^ "Services - Movies - Catholic News Service". www.usccb.org.
Jump up ^ "True Grit Movie Reviews, Pictures". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 2010-12-22.
Jump up ^ "True Grit Reviews, Ratings, Credits, and More at Metacritic". Metacritic. Retrieved December 22, 2010.
Jump up ^ "True Grit Review". Total Film. Retrieved December 22, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Broadcast Film Critics Awards Nominees". Retrieved 2011-01-25.
Jump up ^ "17th Annual Screen Actors Guild Awards® Nominations Announcement". Retrieved 2011-01-25.
Jump up ^ "Oscar nominations 2011 in full". BBC News. 2011-01-25. Retrieved 2011-01-25.
Jump up ^ "Oscar nominees 2011". MSN Movies UK. 2011-01-25. Retrieved 2011-01-25.
Jump up ^ "The 83rd Academy Awards (2011) Nominees and Winners". oscars.org. Retrieved 2011-11-23.
Jump up ^ French, Doug (2011-02-08) True Grit and True Commerce, Mises Institute
Jump up ^ "Amazon.com pre-release page". Amazon. Retrieved 25 May 2011.
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