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Vikings (season 5)
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Vikings (season 5)
DVD cover art for the season's first half
Country of origin
Canada / Ireland
No. of episodes
10
Release
Original network
History
Original release
Part 1: November 29, 2017 (2017-11-29) – January 24, 2018 (2018-01-24)
Season chronology
← Previous
Season 4
List of Vikings episodes
The fifth season of the historical drama television series Vikings premiered on November 29, 2017 on History in Canada.[1] The series broadly follows the exploits of the legendary Viking chieftain Ragnar Lothbrok and his crew, and later those of his sons. The first season of the series begins at the start of the Viking Age, marked by the Lindisfarne raid in 793.
The fifth season consists of a double order of twenty episodes, split into two parts of ten episodes; the second half will premiere in 2018.[2] The premise of the fifth season differs from the previous four after the departure of Travis Fimmel as Ragnar, and it now follows the adventures of his sons. Jonathan Rhys Meyers is introduced as a major character, after his initial appearance in the fourth season's finale.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Cast
1.1 Main
1.2 Recurring
1.3 Guest
2 Episodes
3 Production
3.1 Development
3.2 Casting
3.3 Music
4 Reception
4.1 Critical response
5 Historical inaccuracies
6 References
7 External links
Cast[edit]
Main article: List of Vikings characters
Main[edit]
Katheryn Winnick as Queen Lagertha, a shieldmaiden and Ragnar's ex-wife; she is the queen of Kattegat.
Gustaf Skarsgård as Floki, a gifted shipbuilder
Alexander Ludwig as Bjorn Ironside, Ragnar and Lagertha's son and Torvi's husband
John Kavanagh as The Seer, the seiðrmann of Kattegat
Peter Franzén as King Harald Finehair, a Viking ambitious to become the first King of Norway
Jasper Pääkkönen as Halfdan the Black, Harald's violent younger brother
Moe Dunford as King Aethelwulf of Wessex
Alex Høgh as Ivar the Boneless, fourth son of Ragnar and Aslaug
Marco Ilsø as Hvitserk, second son of Ragnar and Aslaug
Jordan Patrick Smith as Ubbe, eldest son of Ragnar and Aslaug
Jonathan Rhys Meyers as Bishop Heahmund, a very religious warrior priest[4]
Main characters Sigurd, King Ecbert and Athelstan, who all died in previous seasons, briefly appear in "The Departed" played by body doubles.[5][6] Additionally, George Blagden's voice as Athelstan is heard in "Full Moon", although the actor is uncredited.
Recurring[edit]
Josefin Asplund as Queen Astrid, Lagertha's lover and, later, King Harald's wife
Ida Marie Nielsen as Margrethe, wife of Ubbe
Ferdia Walsh-Peelo as Prince/King Alfred, Queen Judith and Athelstan's son
Georgia Hirst as Torvi, wife of Bjorn and Lagertha's advisor
Jennie Jacques as Queen Judith of Northumbria, daughter of King Aelle, wedded to King Aethelwulf
Jonathan Delaney Tynan as Lord Cuthred, a nobleman in service of King Aethelwulf and Bishop Heahmund
Keith McErlean as Lord Denewulf, a nobleman in service of Bishop Heahmund
Darren Cahill as Prince Aethelred, Queen Judith and King Aethelwulf's son
Ben Roe as Guthrum, Jarl Borg and Torvi's son
Kieran O'Reilly as "White Hair", Ivar's bodyguard
Frankie McCafferty as Sindric, a polyglot drifter
Albano Jerónimo as Euphemius, a Byzantine commander
Karima McAdams as Kassia, a Byzantine abbess
Paul Reid as Mannel, Queen Judith's cousin
Khaled Abol Naga as Emir Ziyadat Allah, an Arab ruler
Adam Copeland as Kjetill Flatnose (/ʃjetil/), a violent and bold warrior who joins Floki's expedition to set up a colony
Kris Holden-Ried as Eyvind (/eɪvɪnd/), a Viking of Kattegat who also joins Floki's expedition
Leah McNamara as Aud the Deep-Minded (/eɪθ/), Kjetill Flatnose and Ingvild's daughter
Jack McEvoy as Helgi the Lean, Eyvind and Rafarta's son, who also joins Floki's expedition
Mei Bignall as Thorunn, Kjetill Flatnose and Ingvild's daughter and Helgi's wife, who also joins Floki's expedition
Kelly Campbell as Ingvild, Kjetill Flatnose's wife, who also joins Floki's expedition
James Craze as Bul, Eyvind and Rafarta's son, who also joins Floki's expedition
Elijah Rowen as Asbjorn, who also joins Floki's expedition
Donna Dent as Rafarta, Eyvind's wife, who also joins Floki's expedition
Rob Malone as Thorgrim, Kjetill Flatnose and Ingvild's son, who also joins Floki's expedition
Scott Graham as Frodi, who also joins Floki's expedition
Tallulah Belle Earley as Jorunn, Kjetill Flatnose and Ingvild's daughter, who also joins Floki's expedition
Ryan Henson as Hali, who also joins Floki's expedition
Svea Killoran as Asa, who also joins Floki's expedition
Anthony Brophy as King Svase, a Sami chief and an ally of Lagertha
Dagny Backer Johnsen as Princess Snaefrid, Svase's daughter
Guest[edit]
India Mullen as Aethegyth, a noblewoman from Wessex
Frank Prendergast as Bishop Cynebert of York
Laurence O'Fuarain as Hakon, a whale hunter of Vestfold
Bosco Hogan as Lord Abbot of Lindisfarne
Mabel Hurley as young Lagertha, appearing in a flashback
Ross Matthew Anderson as Lagertha's father, appearing in a flashback
Clive Standen as Duke Rollo, a warrior and Ragnar's brother; he was granted the title of Duke of Normandy by Emperor Charles.
Episodes[edit]
See also: List of Vikings episodes
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Part 1
50
51
1
2 "The Departed"[a] David Wellington Michael Hirst November 29, 2017 (2017-11-29)
After Sigurd's death, Ubbe, Ivar and Hvitserk rule jointly over their newly acquired land in East Anglia. Bjorn and Halfdan sail back to the Mediterranean Sea; Floki sets sail for the unknown; King Harald heads back to Kattegat. Meanwhile, Bishop Heahmund arrives at King Ecbert's villa, celebrates the late sovereign's funeral, and begins rebuilding the place. Aethelwulf and Judith are in exile with princes Aethelred and Alfred, the latter struck by sickness. Ivar persuades his brothers to go north and conquer the city of York. In Kattegat, Lagertha suggests that Harald was expecting to find Egil in her place, so he could take over the kingdom. Harald confesses and dares that she kill him.
After days at sea, Floki finally reaches land, which he believes to be Asgard, the land of the Gods. In Kattegat, Harald is held prisoner by Lagertha. He proposes an alliance with her through marriage, but she refuses and has sex with him while he remained tied up. Harald's men free him and capture Astrid; they leave Kattegat and Harald offers Astrid the same proposition that he had to Lagertha. Prince Alfred has a vision in which Athelstan tells him the Vikings are in York, so King Aethelwulf joins forces with Bishop Heahmund. In York, Ivar shows his brothers that he can now stand and walk on his own feet with the help of new leg braces and a crutch.
52
3 "Homeland" Steve Saint Leger Michael Hirst December 6, 2017 (2017-12-06)
Floki explores the new land he has encountered. In Norway, Astrid tempts Harald with the possibility of her alliance, whilst resisting his sexual advances. In the Mediterranean, Sindric advises Bjorn to arrive as a trader, with a few ships, and not as a warrior in command of an entire fleet. In England, the Saxons led by King Aethelwulf and Bishop Heahmund attack York, but are led into a trap. Aethelwulf's son Aethelred is wounded and the Saxons are forced to retreat. Ubbe and Hvitserk propose a peace, but Ivar wants to continue the war. Aethelwulf seemingly accepts their offer, but Heahmund arranges to have the brothers humiliated. With Ubbe having lost face, Ivar secures his position as the leader of the Great Army. Ubbe and Hvitserk prepare to leave for Kattegat with their few followers; however, at the last minute, Hvitserk defects to join Ivar.
53
4 "The Plan" Steve Saint Leger Michael Hirst December 13, 2017 (2017-12-13)
Bjorn reaches Sicily, and agrees to act as bodyguard to its commander Euphemius. However, Sindric discovers that Euphemius is merely a client of the Arab Emir Ziyadat Allah, and Bjorn asks to visit him. Euphemius refuses but is persuaded to agree by Kassia, a famous nun, and they set sail for Kairouan in Africa. Meanwhile, in Kattegat, Ubbe agrees to ally with Lagertha against both Ivar and Harald. In Vestfold, Astrid finally agrees to Harald's proposal, and they are married. Floki asks the gods for permission to bring settlers to his new land and prepares to sail. Outside York, the Saxons are joined by Judith's cousin Mannel and his men from Northumbria. Heahmund persuades Aethelwulf to lay siege, and attack only when the Vikings are starving. Inside York, the Vikings pretend to burn bodies, and Ivar humiliates Hvitserk by not sharing his plan. Aethelwulf and Heahmund see the smoke from the fires and enter the apparently deserted city; Heahmund is concerned that there are rats above ground.
54
5 "The Prisoner" Ciarán Donnelly Michael Hirst December 20, 2017 (2017-12-20)
In York, Saxon celebrations are cut short when Vikings appear from the sewers and engage in battle. Heahmund is surrounded, but spared by Ivar, and captured. The Vikings retake and garrison the city, as the Saxons retreat. Ivar and Hvitserk sail for Kattegat, taking Heahmund with them. In Africa, Bjorn travels by caravan across the desert to meet Emir Ziyadat Allah, who welcomes him and offers to trade. Euphemius disappears and, at a banquet, the Emir explains that he had defected to support the Emperor and has now been captured and executed. The Vikings realise that Euphemius is the meal they are eating and that Kassia is more powerful than she seems. Bjorn, Halfdan and Sindric are arrested and are about to be executed as a sandstorm approaches. Meanwhile, Floki returns to Kattegat with tales of his fabulous new land and recruits settlers to return, despite Lagertha forbidding him from taking her warriors away.
55
6 "The Message" Ciarán Donnelly Michael Hirst December 27, 2017 (2017-12-27)
Floki and the settlers prepare for their voyage but are betrayed to Lagertha, who is angry but lets them sail. On reaching the new land, the settlers discover that it is not as fertile as Floki had told them. Margrethe is vexed with Lagertha's poor leadership; the Queen threatens to enslave her again if she continues to plot against her. In England, the Saxons have retreated; Alfred swears at Ecbert's grave to pursue the former King's vision of uniting the country. After collapsing during mass, Alfred recovers and decides to make a pilgrimage to Lindisfarne. Ivar returns to meet Harald, and makes an alliance with him; they plan to attack Kattegat in two months' time. Ivar threatens and persuades Heahmund to fight with them. Astrid betrays Harald by bribing Hakon, a fisherman, to warn Lagertha. She is blackmailed and raped by the crew, spied by a young boy. Hakon delivers the warning. Meanwhile, in Africa, Bjorn manages to escape during the sandstorm. With Halfdan and Sindric, he sails back to Kattegat.
56
7 "Full Moon" Jeff Woolnough Michael Hirst January 3, 2018 (2018-01-03)
Alfred reaches Lindisfarne, in search of the memory of his father, and hears his voice as he prays. Floki and the settlers begin creating a settlement near hot springs in their new land. Floki proposes a co-operative, democratic approach, but Eyvind does not trust him and accuses Floki of wanting to be King. Astrid tells Harald that she is pregnant, while Ivar and Heahmund discuss their plan of attack. Bjorn returns to Kattegat, where Lagertha has allied with King Svase of the Sami. Bjorn rejects Torvi and proposes to marry Snaefrid, Svase's daughter. Lagertha and her allies discuss how to respond to Ivar's attack, and decide to meet him in battle on land, assuming that he will not attack the town from the sea. Margrethe continues to urge Ubbe to betray Lagertha, so that when she is defeated, he can become King.
57
8 "The Joke" Jeff Woolnough Michael Hirst January 10, 2018 (2018-01-10)
Alfred returns from Lindisfarne, and argues that the Saxons must build a navy as the only way to stop further Viking incursions. In the new land, Floki proposes building a temple to Thor, but is opposed by Eyvind who warns that they all will starve come winter. Meanwhile, the armies of Lagertha, Bjorn and Ubbe, and of Harald, Ivar and Hvitserk, meet above Kattegat. Lagertha proposes peace talks, but Harald, then Ivar, reject a settlement. Before battle, Ivar takes Astrid and a third of their army towards shore, to protect their fleet. Hvitserk and his group try to flank, but are ambushed in the forest by the Sami. Battle begins, and Bjorn and Lagertha gain the upper hand, as Harald's forces are outflanked. Ivar hears the fighting, but says it is too late to help. Heahmund is wounded, and Harald retreats. Lagertha refuses to kill Heahmund and orders that his life be saved.
58
9 "A Simple Story" Daniel Grou Michael Hirst January 17, 2018 (2018-01-17)
In the aftermath of the battle, Heahmund recovers, makes advances and pledges loyalty to Lagertha. Hvitserk secures reinforcements from Rollo, on condition that Bjorn's life is spared. Bjorn seeks peace with Ivar and Harald, but is rejected; Ivar moves to have him killed but is stopped by Harald. Ubbe, regretting marrying Margrethe, seeks solace with Torvi and the two have an affair. In Wessex, Aethelwulf dies and Judith persuades Aethelred to reject the throne and instead propose to the Witan that Alfred become king. In Floki's colony, Thor's temple is completed, but set afire and destroyed. Thorgrim, Kjetill's son, accuses Bul, Eyvind's son, of the arson. In the ensuing struggle, Thorgrim stabs Bul to death.
59
10 "Moments of Vision" Daniel Grou Michael Hirst January 24, 2018 (2018-01-24)
In Floki's colony, Floki urges Eyvind to not seek revenge for Bul's death, offering to make him lawgiver, in exchange for not starting a blood feud. When Thorgrim is found dead, Floki proposes that he be sacrificed to the gods. In Kattegat, Margrethe meets the Seer and reveals her ambitions to become queen. The Seer calls her mad and predicts that she will never be queen of Kattegat. The army of Lagertha faces those of Ivar and Harald. As they do battle, Hvitserk remembers Ivar accusing him of regret for his defection. Hvitserk faces Ubbe on the battlefield, but Ubbe is unable to hurt his brother. Hvitserk kills Guthrum, while Svase and Snaefrid are killed by Harald's warriors. Astrid finds Lagertha and asks her to kill her, fearing her pregnancy. Lagertha reluctantly complies. Harald kills his brother Halfdan. As Ivar orders the Frankish reserves onto the field, Lagertha and Bjorn retreat. As Bjorn prepares to leave Kattegat, he finds Lagertha broken with her hair turned white. Across the fjord, Rollo arrives.
Notes
Jump up ^ The first two episodes aired together on History as a two-hour premiere, "The Departed", but were released separately on streaming services and in digital stores, with the first part titled "The Fisher King" and the second "The Departed".[7][8]
Production[edit]
Development[edit]
An Irish-Canadian co-production presented by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, the fifth season of Vikings was developed and produced by TM Productions and Take 5 Productions. Morgan O'Sullivan, Sheila Hockin, Sherry Marsh, Alan Gasmer, James Flynn, John Weber, and Michael Hirst are credited as executive producers. This season was produced by Keith Thompson for the first four episodes, and Liz Gill for the fifth to tenth episodes. Bill Goddard and Séamus McInerney act as co-producers.[9]
The production team for this season includes casting directors Frank and Nuala Moiselle, costume designer Susan O'Connor Cave, visual effects supervisor Dominic Remane, stunt action designer Richard Ryan, composer Trevor Morris, production designer Mark Geraghty, editors Aaron Marshall for the first, third, fifth and tenth episodes, Tad Seaborn for the second, fourth, sixth and eighth episodes, and Michele Conroy for the seventh and ninth episodes, and cinematographers Pj Dillon for the first and second episodes, Peter Robertson for the third, fourth, seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth episodes, and Suzie Lavelle for the fifth and sixth episodes.[9]
Casting[edit]
At the same time that the series was renewed for a fifth season, it was announced that Irish actor Jonathan Rhys Meyers would be joining the cast, as Heahmund, a "warrior bishop". Vikings creator Michael Hirst, explained: "I was looking at the history books, and I came across these warrior bishops. The antecedents of the Knights Templar: these are people who were absolutely religious, yet they put on armor and they fought. Don't let their priestly status fool you, either. They were crazy! They believed totally in Christianity and the message, and yet, on the battlefield, they were totally berserk."[3]
Former WWE star Adam Copeland was cast in a recurring role for the fifth season, as Kjetill Flatnose, a violent and bold warrior. He is chosen by Floki to join an expedition to set up a colony in a new land.[10] Irish actor Darren Cahill will play the role of Aethelred in the fifth season.[11] Nigerian actor Stanley Amuzie told local media he had landed a small role in the fifth season.[12] The fifth season will also include Irish actor, musician and real-life police detective, Kieran O'Reilly, who will play the role of "White Hair".[13] In April 2017 it was announced that Danish actor Erik Madsen will join the cast for the fifth season, as King Hemmig.[14] He spent several months of 2016 on the set of The Last Kingdom, portraying a Viking.[15]
Music[edit]
The musical score for the fifth season was composed by Trevor Morris in collaboration with Einar Selvik. The opening sequence is again accompanied by the song "If I Had a Heart" by Fever Ray.
Additional non-original music by Norwegian music group Wardruna is featured in the episodes "The Plan" and "A Simple Story". The featured tracks are "MannaR - Drivande", "Løyndomsriss", and "Heimta Thurs". The episode "Homeland" also features an original song titled "Skidarima", written and performed by Einar Selvik.[9]
Reception[edit]
Critical response[edit]
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 100% approval rating, with an average rating of 8.12/10 based on nine reviews.[16] IGN awarded episode 10, Moments of Vision, with a rating of 9 out of 10.[17] Entertainent Weekly gave the episode an "A".[18]
Historical inaccuracies[edit]
In "A Simple Story", Aethelred is portrayed rejecting the throne in favour of his younger brother Alfred. In history, after the death of Aethelwulf three of Alfred's elder brothers ruled, for two, five and six years respectively, all dying before Alfred took the throne in 871. Writing in Forbes Magazine, Erik Kain described the storyline as "just a huge unforced error".[19]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Greg Evans (July 22, 2017). "'Vikings' Gets Trailer & Season Premiere Date – Comic-Con". Deadline. Retrieved July 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ "History(R) Orders 20 Episode Sixth Season of Hit Drama Series "Vikings"". The Futon Critic. September 12, 2017. Retrieved October 14, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "'Vikings' Creator Talks Jonathan Rhys Meyers' New Character". 26 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Tsoumbakos, Rachel (January 10, 2017). "'VIKINGS,' SEASON 5: JONATHAN RHYS MEYERS ROLE IS FINALLY REVEALED". Inquisitr.com. Retrieved January 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Departed (Part 1)". Vikings. Season 5. Episode 1. 29 November 2017. Event occurs at 1:05 and 8:05. History.
Jump up ^ "The Departed (Part 2)". Vikings. Season 5. Episode 2. 29 November 2017. Event occurs at 19:05. History.
Jump up ^ "Vikings: Season 5 - Part 1 on Amazon". Retrieved December 2, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Vikings, Season 5 on iTunes". Retrieved December 2, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Vikings. Season 5. November 2017. Event occurs at 2:00 approximately. History.
Jump up ^ "WWE Hall of Famer Adam Copeland on the Edge of TV Stardom".
Jump up ^ "'Red Rock' actor Darren Cahill joins 'Vikings' Season 5". The Irish Film & Television Network.
Jump up ^ Izuzu, Chidumga. "Stanley Aguzie: Nollywood actor lands role in "Vikings"". Pulse.ng.
Jump up ^ "How do we pitch Ireland as a movie location to Hollywood?". Irish Independent. 17 November 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Petski, Denise (12 April 2017). "'UnReal' Casts Tracie Thoms; Erik Madsen Joins 'Vikings'".
Jump up ^ NRK. "Erik Madsen i ny høvdingrolle i "Vikings"".
Jump up ^ "Vikings: Season 5". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved December 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ http://www.ign.com/articles/2018/01/25/vikings-moments-of-vision-review
Jump up ^ http://ew.com/recap/vikings-season-5-episode-10/
Jump up ^ Kain, Erik. "'Vikings' Season 5, Episode 9 Review: 'A Simple (Convoluted) Story'". Forbes Magazine. Retrieved 1 February 2018.
External links[edit]
Official website
Vikings on IMDb
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text:
Back to the Beach
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the software company, see Back To The Beach Software.
Back to the Beach
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Lyndall Hobbs
Produced by
Frank Mancuso, Jr.
Written by
Peter Krikes
Steve Meerson
Christopher Thompson
Story by
James Komack
Bruce Kirschbaum
Bill L. Norton
Starring
Frankie Avalon
Annette Funicello
Lori Loughlin
Tommy Hinkley
Connie Stevens
Don Adams
Bob Denver
Pee-wee Herman
Music by
Steve Dorff
Cinematography
Bruce Surtees
Edited by
David Finfer
Distributed by
Paramount Pictures
Release date
August 7, 1987 (1987-08-07) (U.S.)
Running time
92 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Box office
$13,110,903[1]
Back to the Beach is a 1987 American comedy film starring Frankie Avalon and Annette Funicello, directed by Lyndall Hobbs. The original music score is composed by Steve Dorff. The film generated a total domestic gross of $13,110,903. It received a "two thumbs up" rating from Siskel and Ebert.
The film is an open parody of the beach party films made popular in the 1960s, especially those in which Avalon and Funicello had appeared. The plot is merely the means of connecting the various sight gags, homages and in-jokes. All character names are taken from those earlier films.
The film's soundtrack included covers of several well-known beach tunes, along with new songs by such artists as Aimee Mann and Private Domain.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Soundtrack
3 Cast
4 Production
5 References
6 External links
Plot[edit]
Frankie Avalon and Annette Funicello are a husband and wife living in Ohio — far from the surf and sand of their earlier lives together. Frankie is a stressed out car salesman and former "Big Kahuna" of the surf scene in California while Annette bottles her own sense of angst up in a bevy of shopping. Together they are raising a son, Bobby, who is in the throes of rebellion against his seemingly square folks.
One day, the family decides to take a vacation to Hawaii. Deciding to stop in California to visit their daughter Sandi (Lori Loughlin), Frankie and Annette are appalled to learn that she has been making time with surfer Michael (Tommy Hinkley) throughout her time there. The family misses their flight to Hawaii, and ultimately end up staying in California, much to the chagrin of Frankie. Frankie and Annette get caught up with the lives of their old friends and their old beach, and thus their last beach adventure begins.
Along the way, Frankie must work together with a new generation of younger surfers while nearly ruining his marriage by dallying with Connie Stevens — one of several pop-culture icons appearing in the film, including Fishbone, Don Adams, Bob Denver, Alan Hale, Jr., Edd Byrnes, Jerry Mathers, Tony Dow, Barbara Billingsley, Dick Dale, Stevie Ray Vaughan, O. J. Simpson, and Pee-wee Herman. In the end The Big Kahuna overcomes his own fears and proves that he is still the king of the surfers, as he takes back his title and saves the beach from a gang of beach punks.
Soundtrack[edit]
The soundtrack for this film was released in 1987 on CBS Records (CK-40892). Track listing (key performers in parentheses):
"Catch a Ride" (Eddie Money)
"Pipeline" (Stevie Ray Vaughan & Dick Dale) (This track also appears on the Stevie Ray Vaughan album Solos, Sessions & Encores, and on King of the Surf Guitar: The Best of Dick Dale & The Del-Tones (Rhino 1989).)
"Sign of Love" ('Til Tuesday & Aimee Mann)
"Absolute Perfection" (Private Domain)
"Surfin' Bird" (Pee-wee Herman)
"Sun, Sun, Sun, Sun, Sun" (Marti Jones)
"Jamaica Ska" (Funicello & Fishbone)
"Wipe Out" (Herbie Hancock With Special Appearances by Dweezil Zappa And Terry Bozzio)
"California Sun" (Avalon)
"Wooly Bully" (Dave Edmunds)
Another song, "We'll Go on Forever", sung by the cast, is not included on the album.
Cast[edit]
Frankie Avalon - Annette's Husband
Annette Funicello - Annette
Lori Loughlin - Sandi
Tommy Hinkley - Michael
Demian Slade - Bobby
Connie Stevens - Connie
Joe Holland - Zed
John Calvin - Troy
David Bowe - Mountain
Laura Urstein - Robin
Linda Carol - Bridgette
Dick Dale - Himself
Stevie Ray Vaughan - Himself
Fishbone - Themselves
Don Adams - Harbormaster
Barbara Billingsley - Announcer
Edd Byrnes - Valet
Bob Denver - Bartender
Tony Dow - Judge #1
Alan Hale Jr. - Bartender's Buddy
Jerry Mathers - Judge #2
Paul Reubens - Pee-wee Herman
Production[edit]
The film was the idea of Frankie Avalon and was in development for a number of years. He hired several screenwriters and shopped the screenplay around town. Paramount was attracted to the project but did not like the script. Because Orion Pictures owned the rights to the original AIP "beach party movies", Paramount wanted to make (in the words of one spokesperson) "an entirely original screenplay not based on any prior beach movies. It parodies all beach movies."[2]
Writer-director James Komack shared the same agent as Avalon; when he became attached Paramount agreed to finance. Komack stated:
I met with Ned Tanen (Paramount's production chief) and we agreed it would be about a middle-age marital life crisis which, through a series of happy events, allows the couple to recapture their youth and renew the relationship. Eventually, they wanted a picture I couldn't deliver. They wanted to camp it up and I felt it wasn't necessary.[2]
Eventually Paramount hired Lyndall Hobbs to direct; she had never made a feature before but had directed numerous music videos. Various writers were hired, seventeen in all, including Jeff Buhia & Steve Zacharias, Robert Kaufman, David Obst and Bill Norton Jr.. This cost an estimated $2 million in writer's fees.[2]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Back to the Beach". Box Office Mojo.
^ Jump up to: a b c WRITE THE WILD SURF Klady, Leonard. Los Angeles Times (1923-Current File) [Los Angeles, Calif 05 July 1987: K21.] accessed 18 December 2014
External links[edit]
Back to the Beach on IMDb
Back to the Beach at the TCM Movie Database
Back to the Beach at AllMovie
Back to the Beach at Rotten Tomatoes
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Related films
Ski Party (1965)
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Fireball 500 (1966)
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Spearman's rank correlation coefficient
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A Spearman correlation of 1 results when the two variables being compared are monotonically related, even if their relationship is not linear. This means that all data-points with greater x-values than that of a given data-point will have greater y-values as well. In contrast, this does not give a perfect Pearson correlation.
When the data are roughly elliptically distributed and there are no prominent outliers, the Spearman correlation and Pearson correlation give similar values.
The Spearman correlation is less sensitive than the Pearson correlation to strong outliers that are in the tails of both samples. That is because Spearman's rho limits the outlier to the value of its rank.
In statistics, Spearman's rank correlation coefficient or Spearman's rho, named after Charles Spearman and often denoted by the Greek letter ρ {\displaystyle \rho } (rho) or as r s {\displaystyle r_{s}} , is a nonparametric measure of rank correlation (statistical dependence between the ranking of two variables). It assesses how well the relationship between two variables can be described using a monotonic function.
The Spearman correlation between two variables is equal to the Pearson correlation between the rank values of those two variables; while Pearson's correlation assesses linear relationships, Spearman's correlation assesses monotonic relationships (whether linear or not). If there are no repeated data values, a perfect Spearman correlation of +1 or −1 occurs when each of the variables is a perfect monotone function of the other.
Intuitively, the Spearman correlation between two variables will be high when observations have a similar (or identical for a correlation of 1) rank (i.e. relative position label of the observations within the variable: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.) between the two variables, and low when observations have a dissimilar (or fully opposed for a correlation of −1) rank between the two variables.
Spearman's coefficient is appropriate for both continuous and discrete ordinal variables.[1][2] Both Spearman's ρ {\displaystyle \rho } and Kendall's τ {\displaystyle \tau } can be formulated as special cases of a more general correlation coefficient.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition and calculation
2 Related quantities
3 Interpretation
4 Example
5 Determining significance
6 Correspondence analysis based on Spearman's rho
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Definition and calculation[edit]
The Spearman correlation coefficient is defined as the Pearson correlation coefficient between the ranked variables.[3]
For a sample of size n, the n raw scores X i , Y i {\displaystyle X_{i},Y_{i}} are converted to ranks rg  X i , rg  Y i {\displaystyle \operatorname {rg} X_{i},\operatorname {rg} Y_{i}} , and r s {\displaystyle r_{s}} is computed from:
r s = ρ rg X , rg Y = cov  ( rg X , rg Y ) σ rg X σ rg Y {\displaystyle r_{s}=\rho _{\operatorname {rg} _{X},\operatorname {rg} _{Y}}={\frac {\operatorname {cov} (\operatorname {rg} _{X},\operatorname {rg} _{Y})}{\sigma _{\operatorname {rg} _{X}}\sigma _{\operatorname {rg} _{Y}}}}}
where
ρ {\displaystyle \rho } denotes the usual Pearson correlation coefficient, but applied to the rank variables.
cov  ( rg X , rg Y ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {cov} (\operatorname {rg} _{X},\operatorname {rg} _{Y})} is the covariance of the rank variables.
σ rg X {\displaystyle \sigma _{\operatorname {rg} _{X}}} and σ rg Y {\displaystyle \sigma _{\operatorname {rg} _{Y}}} are the standard deviations of the rank variables.
Only if all n ranks are distinct integers, it can be computed using the popular formula
r s = 1 − 6 ∑ d i 2 n ( n 2 − 1 ) . {\displaystyle r_{s}={1-{\frac {6\sum d_{i}^{2}}{n(n^{2}-1)}}}.}
where
d i = rg  ( X i ) − rg  ( Y i ) {\displaystyle d_{i}=\operatorname {rg} (X_{i})-\operatorname {rg} (Y_{i})} , is the difference between the two ranks of each observation.
n is the number of observations
Identical values are usually[4] each assigned fractional ranks equal to the average of their positions in the ascending order of the values, which is equivalent to averaging over all possible permutations.
If ties are present in the data set, this equation yields incorrect results: Only if in both variables all ranks are distinct, then σ rg X σ rg Y = Var  rg X = Var  rg Y = n ( n 2 − 1 ) / 6 {\displaystyle \sigma _{\operatorname {rg} _{X}}\sigma _{\operatorname {rg} _{Y}}=\operatorname {Var} {\operatorname {rg} _{X}}=\operatorname {Var} {\operatorname {rg} _{Y}}=n(n^{2}-1)/6} (cf. tetrahedral number T n − 1 {\displaystyle T_{n-1}} ). The first equation—normalizing by the standard deviation—may even be used even when ranks are normalized to [0;1] ("relative ranks") because it is insensitive both to translation and linear scaling.
This method should also not be used in cases where the data set is truncated; that is, when the Spearman correlation coefficient is desired for the top X records (whether by pre-change rank or post-change rank, or both), the user should use the Pearson correlation coefficient formula given above.[citation needed]
The standard error of the coefficient (σ) was determined by Pearson in 1907 and Gosset in 1920. It is
σ r s = 0.6325 n − 1 {\displaystyle \sigma _{r_{s}}={\frac {0.6325}{\sqrt {n-1}}}}
Related quantities[edit]
Main article: Correlation and dependence
There are several other numerical measures that quantify the extent of statistical dependence between pairs of observations. The most common of these is the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient, which is a similar correlation method to Spearman's rank, that measures the “linear” relationships between the raw numbers rather than between their ranks.
An alternative name for the Spearman rank correlation is the “grade correlation”;[5] in this, the “rank” of an observation is replaced by the “grade”. In continuous distributions, the grade of an observation is, by convention, always one half less than the rank, and hence the grade and rank correlations are the same in this case. More generally, the “grade” of an observation is proportional to an estimate of the fraction of a population less than a given value, with the half-observation adjustment at observed values. Thus this corresponds to one possible treatment of tied ranks. While unusual, the term “grade correlation” is still in use.[6]
Interpretation[edit]
Positive and negative Spearman rank correlations
A positive Spearman correlation coefficient corresponds to an increasing monotonic trend between X and Y.
A negative Spearman correlation coefficient corresponds to a decreasing monotonic trend between X and Y.
The sign of the Spearman correlation indicates the direction of association between X (the independent variable) and Y (the dependent variable). If Y tends to increase when X increases, the Spearman correlation coefficient is positive. If Y tends to decrease when X increases, the Spearman correlation coefficient is negative. A Spearman correlation of zero indicates that there is no tendency for Y to either increase or decrease when X increases. The Spearman correlation increases in magnitude as X and Y become closer to being perfect monotone functions of each other. When X and Y are perfectly monotonically related, the Spearman correlation coefficient becomes 1. A perfect monotone increasing relationship implies that for any two pairs of data values Xi, Yi and Xj, Yj, that Xi − Xj and Yi − Yj always have the same sign. A perfect monotone decreasing relationship implies that these differences always have opposite signs.
The Spearman correlation coefficient is often described as being "nonparametric". This can have two meanings: First, a perfect Spearman correlation results when X and Y are related by any monotonic function. Contrast this with the Pearson correlation, which only gives a perfect value when X and Y are related by a linear function. The other sense in which the Spearman correlation is nonparametric in that its exact sampling distribution can be obtained without requiring knowledge (i.e., knowing the parameters) of the joint probability distribution of X and Y.
Example[edit]
In this example, the raw data in the table below is used to calculate the correlation between the IQ of a person with the number of hours spent in front of TV per week.
IQ, X i {\displaystyle X_{i}}
Hours of TV per week, Y i {\displaystyle Y_{i}}
106 7
86 0
100 27
101 50
99 28
103 29
97 20
113 12
112 6
110 17
Firstly, evaluate d i 2 {\displaystyle d_{i}^{2}} . To do so use the following steps, reflected in the table below.
Sort the data by the first column ( X i {\displaystyle X_{i}} ). Create a new column x i {\displaystyle x_{i}} and assign it the ranked values 1,2,3,...n.
Next, sort the data by the second column ( Y i {\displaystyle Y_{i}} ). Create a fourth column y i {\displaystyle y_{i}} and similarly assign it the ranked values 1,2,3,...n.
Create a fifth column d i {\displaystyle d_{i}} to hold the differences between the two rank columns ( x i {\displaystyle x_{i}} and y i {\displaystyle y_{i}} ).
Create one final column d i 2 {\displaystyle d_{i}^{2}} to hold the value of column d i {\displaystyle d_{i}} squared.
IQ, X i {\displaystyle X_{i}}
Hours of TV per week, Y i {\displaystyle Y_{i}}
rank x i {\displaystyle x_{i}}
rank y i {\displaystyle y_{i}}
d i {\displaystyle d_{i}}
d i 2 {\displaystyle d_{i}^{2}}
86 0 1 1 0 0
97 20 2 6 −4 16
99 28 3 8 −5 25
100 27 4 7 −3 9
101 50 5 10 −5 25
103 29 6 9 −3 9
106 7 7 3 4 16
110 17 8 5 3 9
112 6 9 2 7 49
113 12 10 4 6 36
With d i 2 {\displaystyle d_{i}^{2}} found, add them to find ∑ d i 2 = 194 {\displaystyle \sum d_{i}^{2}=194} . The value of n is 10. These values can now be substituted back into the equation: ρ = 1 − 6 ∑ d i 2 n ( n 2 − 1 ) . {\displaystyle \rho =1-{\frac {6\sum d_{i}^{2}}{n(n^{2}-1)}}.} to give
ρ = 1 − 6 × 194 10 ( 10 2 − 1 ) {\displaystyle \rho =1-{\frac {6\times 194}{10(10^{2}-1)}}}
which evaluates to ρ = −29/165 = −0.175757575... with a P-value = 0.627188 (using the t distribution)
Chart of the data presented. It can be seen that there might be a negative correlation, but that the relationship does not appear definitive.
This low value shows that the correlation between IQ and hours spent watching TV is very low, although the negative value suggests that the longer the time spent watching television the lower the IQ. In the case of ties in the original values, this formula should not be used; instead, the Pearson correlation coefficient should be calculated on the ranks (where ties are given ranks, as described above).
Determining significance[edit]
One approach to test whether an observed value of ρ is significantly different from zero (r will always maintain −1 ≤ r ≤ 1) is to calculate the probability that it would be greater than or equal to the observed r, given the null hypothesis, by using a permutation test. An advantage of this approach is that it automatically takes into account the number of tied data values there are in the sample, and the way they are treated in computing the rank correlation.
Another approach parallels the use of the Fisher transformation in the case of the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient. That is, confidence intervals and hypothesis tests relating to the population value ρ can be carried out using the Fisher transformation:
F ( r ) = 1 2 ln  1 + r 1 − r = artanh  ( r ) . {\displaystyle F(r)={1 \over 2}\ln {1+r \over 1-r}=\operatorname {artanh} (r).}
If F(r) is the Fisher transformation of r, the sample Spearman rank correlation coefficient, and n is the sample size, then
z = n − 3 1.06 F ( r ) {\displaystyle z={\sqrt {\frac {n-3}{1.06}}}F(r)}
is a z-score for r which approximately follows a standard normal distribution under the null hypothesis of statistical independence (ρ = 0).[7][8]
One can also test for significance using
t = r n − 2 1 − r 2 {\displaystyle t=r{\sqrt {\frac {n-2}{1-r^{2}}}}}
which is distributed approximately as Student's t distribution with n − 2 degrees of freedom under the null hypothesis.[9] A justification for this result relies on a permutation argument.[10]
A generalization of the Spearman coefficient is useful in the situation where there are three or more conditions, a number of subjects are all observed in each of them, and it is predicted that the observations will have a particular order. For example, a number of subjects might each be given three trials at the same task, and it is predicted that performance will improve from trial to trial. A test of the significance of the trend between conditions in this situation was developed by E. B. Page[11] and is usually referred to as Page's trend test for ordered alternatives.
Correspondence analysis based on Spearman's rho[edit]
Classic correspondence analysis is a statistical method that gives a score to every value of two nominal variables. In this way the Pearson correlation coefficient between them is maximized.
There exists an equivalent of this method, called grade correspondence analysis, which maximizes Spearman's rho or Kendall's tau.[12]
See also[edit]
Statistics portal
Kendall tau rank correlation coefficient
Chebyshev's sum inequality, rearrangement inequality (These two articles may shed light on the mathematical properties of Spearman's ρ.)
Distance correlation
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Scale types
Jump up ^ Lehman, Ann (2005). Jmp For Basic Univariate And Multivariate Statistics: A Step-by-step Guide. Cary, NC: SAS Press. p. 123. ISBN 1-59047-576-3.
Jump up ^ Myers, Jerome L.; Well, Arnold D. (2003). Research Design and Statistical Analysis (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum. p. 508. ISBN 0-8058-4037-0.
Jump up ^ Dodge, Yadolah (2010). The Concise Encyclopedia of Statistics. Springer-Verlag New York. p. 502. ISBN 978-0-387-31742-7.
Jump up ^ Yule, G. U.; Kendall, M. G. (1968) [1950]. An Introduction to the Theory of Statistics (14th ed.). Charles Griffin & Co. p. 268.
Jump up ^ Piantadosi, J.; Howlett, P.; Boland, J. (2007). "Matching the grade correlation coefficient using a copula with maximum disorder". Journal of Industrial and Management Optimization. 3 (2): 305–312.
Jump up ^ Choi, S. C. (1977). "Tests of Equality of Dependent Correlation Coefficients". Biometrika. 64 (3): 645–647. doi:10.1093/biomet/64.3.645.
Jump up ^ Fieller, E. C.; Hartley, H. O.; Pearson, E. S. (1957). "Tests for rank correlation coefficients. I". Biometrika. 44: 470–481. doi:10.1093/biomet/44.3-4.470.
Jump up ^ Press; Vettering; Teukolsky; Flannery (1992). Numerical Recipes in C: The Art of Scientific Computing (2nd ed.). p. 640.
Jump up ^ Kendall, M. G.; Stuart, A. (1973). The Advanced Theory of Statistics, Volume 2: Inference and Relationship. Griffin. ISBN 0-85264-215-6. (Sections 31.19, 31.21)
Jump up ^ Page, E. B. (1963). "Ordered hypotheses for multiple treatments: A significance test for linear ranks". Journal of the American Statistical Association. 58 (301): 216–230. doi:10.2307/2282965.
Jump up ^ Kowalczyk, T.; Pleszczyńska, E.; Ruland, F., eds. (2004). Grade Models and Methods for Data Analysis with Applications for the Analysis of Data Populations. Studies in Fuzziness and Soft Computing. 151. Berlin Heidelberg New York: Springer Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-21120-4.
Further reading[edit]
Corder, G.W. & Foreman, D.I. (2014). Nonparametric Statistics: A Step-by-Step Approach, Wiley. ISBN 978-1118840313.
Daniel, Wayne W. (1990). "Spearman rank correlation coefficient". Applied Nonparametric Statistics (2nd ed.). Boston: PWS-Kent. pp. 358–365. ISBN 0-534-91976-6.
Spearman C (1904). "The proof and measurement of association between two things". American Journal of Psychology. 15: 72–101. doi:10.2307/1412159.
Bonett DG, Wright, TA (2000). "Sample size requirements for Pearson, Kendall, and Spearman correlations". Psychometrika. 65: 23–28. doi:10.1007/bf02294183. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Kendall MG (1970). Rank correlation methods (4th ed.). London: Griffin. ISBN 978-0-852-6419-96. OCLC 136868.
Hollander M, Wolfe DA (1973). Nonparametric statistical methods. New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-40635-8. OCLC 520735.
Caruso JC, Cliff N (1997). "Empirical size, coverage, and power of confidence intervals for Spearman's Rho". Educational and Psychological Measurement. 57: 637–654. doi:10.1177/0013164497057004009.
External links[edit]
Wikiversity has learning resources about Spearman's rank correlation coefficient
"Understanding Correlation vs. Copulas in Excel" by Eric Torkia, Technology Partnerz 2011
Table of critical values of ρ for significance with small samples
Chapter 3 part 1 shows the formula to be used when there are ties
An example of how to calculate Spearman's Rho along with basic R code.
Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient – Excel Guide: sample data and formulae for Excel, developed by the Royal Geographical Society.
Spearman's rank correlation: Simple notes for students with an example of usage by biologists and a spreadsheet for Microsoft Excel for calculating it (a part of materials for a Research Methods in Biology course).
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Travel in Classical antiquity
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Travel in Classical antiquity over long distances was a specialized undertaking. Most travel was done in the interest of warfare, diplomacy, general state building, or trade. Social motivations for travel included visiting religious sites, festivals such as the Olympics, and health-related reasons. Most travel was difficult and expensive, both due to danger of violence, as well as the scarcity of well-maintained roads, and the variability of travel times over water, as ancient ships were subject to the vagaries of both the wind and the tides.
Much of ancient literature is concerned with travel. The Odyssey, for example, relates the tale of Odysseus’ travel home to Ithaca over a ten-year period; later, the Aeneid tells the story of Aeneas' flight from Troy. Elsewhere, travel narratives from authors such as Herodotus and Caesar form more grounded examples of how individuals moved throughout the ancient world. Both Greek and Roman society had mores surrounding travel and the treatment of guests.
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical context
2 Maritime and river travel
3 Land travel
3.1 Greece
3.2 Rome
4 Mapmaking and itineraria
4.1 Greek maps
4.2 Roman maps
5 Travel narratives
5.1 Paradoxography
6 Hospitality and lodgings
6.1 Greek hospitality and lodgings
6.2 Roman hospitality and lodgings
7 Motivations
7.1 Trade
7.2 Postal services
7.3 Religion and health
7.3.1 Festivals
7.4 Tourism
7.5 Warfare and settlements
7.6 Immigration
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
Historical context[edit]
The Standard of Ur depicts both chariots and wagons
The first instances of long-distance travel in the broader Mediterranean world occurred in what are today Egypt and Iraq. In Egypt the Nile served as a conduit for trade and transportation, while in the Near East, river travel on the Tigris and Euphrates was supplemented by long distance travel over land in wagon-like vehicles pulled by oxen.[1] Later, the chariot developed, which was originally reserved for royalty, although it later became integrated into warfare. In the Near East, large but not particularly sophisticated systems of roads evolved; later these would be connected and developed by the Persians.
The primary motivation for the development of travel and infrastructure to support it in both Egypt and the Near East was conquest and subsequent rule, a trend that continued in Greece and Rome. There is evidence, however, of travel motivated by tourism in Egypt, with visitors and scribes coming to view and record the pyramids and other religious monuments.[2]
Maritime and river travel[edit]
The earliest maritime travel occurred on the Nile and other rivers in the Near East. Due to the lack of roads in ancient Greece, the most efficient way of shipping large amounts of goods, such as olive oil, was over the sea. Greek ships were built in varying sizes, with the largest accommodating as much as 500 tons of goods. Despite reliance on favorable weather, relatively little effort went into short sea voyages beyond the packing and management of the ship, although there was the danger of pirates and kidnapping for ransom.
For Romans, the seas were more or less clear of pirates due to the Roman military, although the fear of shipwreck by storm was greater, and often referenced in poetry and song.[3] Passage by ship was considerably more pleasant than passage by land, but was not available throughout the year due to changes in tides and other weather conditions.
Land travel[edit]
The earliest notable road system in the ancient Mediterranean world was the Royal Road. The most extensive incarnation of the system was unified and organized under Darius I, ruler of the Achaemenid Empire in the 5th century BCE. It was built from connecting and upgrading older systems, and was used to enable rapid communication and transportation throughout the empire, as well as the collection of taxes. Generally, other contemporary roads were not paved or well maintained, making land travel both on foot and horseback arduous and time-consuming.
Greece[edit]
Greek roads were poorly developed due to the fragmentation of Greek society at the state level, and due to the extreme cost of constructing roads in Greece's mountainous terrain.[4] At least in Athens, when built, roads were funded through special taxes on wealthy. Some roads were difficult to traverse even on foot, and most could not be traversed with the heavy wagons built to haul goods. Notable exceptions were the roads between major cities and nearby sanctuaries and holy sites, which were built to endure all weather. However, no portion of the Greek highway system included state-sponsored way stations or milestones, as found later in Rome.
There was danger of violence on Greek roads. For the same reasons that roads in Greece were poorly and rarely constructed, there was essentially no oversight by official forces, and as such travelers were prone to being accosted by highwaymen. As such, having a large entourage was useful for protection, and the transportation of valuables was risky.[5]
Rome[edit]
Roman roads were extensive, largely to facilitate the transportation of the military. They suffered from lack of maintenance, at least during the Roman Republic due to the fact that more visible projects (new city-centric construction, such as aqueducts, and arena games) took precedence.[6] The roads were built with few resources, and had to be built to function in a variety of geographical and seasonal conditions.[7] As Roman roads radiated away from towns, they became less elaborate, and were sometimes paved with gravel, or markers were used to illustrate the proper path. This lack of attention to detail is contrasted with the uniform stone highways that generally existed near major urban centers, typically built by soldiers overseen by army engineers. Romans tended to build their roads without curves as often as possible. The danger of violence was much less pronounced on Roman roads, due to the strong central military that did not attend the limited Greek highway network.
Due to the difficulty and stress of travel by land, few civilians chose to conduct long-distance travel or trade over Rome's roads. Instead, tax collectors, couriers, soldiers and other government officials would have been the primary users of the highway network.
Mapmaking and itineraria[edit]
There is debate as to whether or not the Greeks and Romans produced representative maps to serve as guides, and, if so, the level of their sophistication. Those who argue that there was no formal practice of cartography in the ancient world cite the lack of evidence, and the lack of materials that would have formed viable maps. Chinese contemporaries of the Romans did produce durable maps through their access to durable silk. Papyrus, the most likely Mediterranean candidate that could have been produced cheaply, was too sensitive, and would not have withstood long-term use.[8] Other materials that might have been used (wood or vellum) have not survived; the only records that exist to this day are in the form of text, either as travelogues or descriptions of maps.[9]
Without ready access to maps, both Greeks and Romans relied on itineraria to conduct sea travel, and the Romans used the documents for land travel as well.[10] These documents were lists of cities or ports and the distances between them. Itineraria may have sometimes included crude illustrations, never to scale, to orient travelers as they moved through Roman or Greek territory. Extant examples, both saved by monastic copying traditions, include the Antonine Itinerary (which included roads in Britain) and the Tabula Peutingeriana (which may have been a guide for couriers, or a decoration).
Greek maps[edit]
A 19th-century reconstruction of Eratosthenes' map of the oikoumene
Greek maps were often either localized, intended to demonstrate the shapes of specific cities, or to represent abstract concepts, such as the realm of the oikoumene, or known world.[11] There are no extant Greek maps, but descriptions of one by Anaximander and others indicate that of they split the oikoumene into continents—Europe, Asia, and Libya—within which there were further classifications. Divisions between continents and nations were often determined by bodies of water. Greek maps further separated the world into habitable and inhospitable zones, and some maps included the concept of the antipodes, an oikoumene in another habitable zone of the Earth not accessible with Greek transportation technologies.
Later Greek scientists determined that the Earth was round, although there was some debate as to the veracity of this claim.[12] During the conquests by Alexander the Great, Hellenistic knowledge of the world was expanded, resulting in an improved map of the world by Eratosthenes. He also calculated the circumference of the Earth, and published two treatises about geography, titled Geographica and On the Measurement of the Earth.[13] Contemporaries of Eratosthenes questioned the validity of his methods, although his calculation of the Earth's circumference was quite accurate.
Roman maps[edit]
Like the Greeks, the Romans did not possess the materials or technology to produce useful maps. Several examples of what may have been Roman maps have been introduced through archaeology, although both their validity as maps and even their authenticity have been debated.[14] Romans used itineraria in warfare, to guide government postal workers, and for civilian travel. Those that contained illustrations to underscore the text would not have been to scale, and would have born more similarity to transit maps than contemporary to-scale maps.[15] Although not used for travel, there is evidence of maps created after surveys by the Roman government, in a process known as centuriation in which the land was reduced to grids for cultivation.[16]
Travel narratives[edit]
A fragment from the Histories VIII
Writings in Greek that could be qualified as travel narratives included Histories by Herodotus. Sections of the work are devoted to geographic and ethnographic descriptions of the territories encountered during his travels, which ranged from Egypt to the Persian Empire. Strabo also compiled his travels into a major work, Geographica, which outlined his conceptions of the world and the geographies of regions such as what are today Spain and India.[17]
Narratives from Rome that include travel include Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico, which describes Caesar's conquest of Gaul. Tacitus' Germania relies on information he gained from those who had journeyed to Germany, although he never did.[18]
Paradoxography[edit]
Paradoxography is a genre of classical travel writing that recounts encounters with foreign or supernatural peoples, animals, and events. There were whole works devoted to such descriptions such as works by Palaephatus, and an otherwise anonymous Apollonius. Portions of other texts also include paradoxography in certain sections, including Commentarii de Bello Gallico, Histories, and certain versions of the Alexander romance.
Hospitality and lodgings[edit]
Greek hospitality and lodgings[edit]
Jupiter and Mercurius in the House of Philemon and Baucis (1630–33)
Greek hospitality demanded the fair treatment of guests and the reciprocal treatment of hosts, outlined in the concept of xenia. Xenia demanded both abstract respect as well as the exchange of material goods, such as gifts and food. Much of The Odyssey deals with Odysseus' treatment by guests, and his own violations of xenia. Xenia also appears in other Greek myths, such as that of Baucis and Philemon, in which a disguised Zeus and Hermes are given shelter and food by an elderly couple after their neighbors refused to accommodate the deities; the couple is subsequently rewarded.
In a non-mythological context, xenia provided for the equitable treatment of foreign dignitaries, traders, and guests while visiting alien city-states through the office of the proxenos. A proxenos was a city-appointed official, either a native or a resident alien, who would look over the citizens of a specific foreign city when they visited the city he represented. That is, for example, a native citizen of Athens or a resident Corinthian would be appointed proxenos for visitors of Corinth in Athens, and was therefore responsible for both diplomacy between the two cities and the interests of Corinthian citizens in Athens. Looking after another city's citizens meant arranging for favors as mundane as obtaining theater tickets, to more complicated procedures, such as ensuring access to capital or an audience with city officials.[19] In addition to cities, trade groups or other organizations might appoint a proxenos to ensure their clients were treated fairly during visits.[20]
The office of proxenos was honorary, and came only with a title and the prestige associated with the appointment. Some scholarship suggests that although the proxenos was tasked with diplomacy, they also may have occasionally engaged in subterfuge or intelligence gathering in order to grant their native city the upper hand in conflicts.[21]
There is little evidence of a formalized system of inns in Greek cities, although some have been found that served tourists during festivals. These were organized around a central courtyard, and would have provided stables as well as beds.
Roman hospitality and lodgings[edit]
Roman hospitality mores were less formalized than in Greek civilization, although it was informed by both xenia and the concept of hospitium, essentially a Romanized version of the earlier term. Rome and Roman cities had systems of inns within their walls, individually known as hospitium or deversorium. These were available to all, and offered services ranging from simple access to a place to sleep to restaurants and stables. Cheaper alternatives, known as caupona, catered to sailors and soldiers, and offered alcohol in a less formal restaurant setting, as well as prostitution. Generally, lining the roads outside major cities were other inns, known as stabulum, which appealed to travelers.
Motivations[edit]
Ancient travel was motivated by reasons as diverse as trade (including postal communications), religious pilgrimages, warfare, and tourism.[22][23]
Trade[edit]
Main article: Roman commerce
Trade between different nations was an integral reason for travel. During the Roman Empire, trade was conducted with nations as disparate as China, India, and Tanzania.[24] Generally, Roman and Chinese traders exchanged statues and other processed goods in exchange for Chinese silk. Trade in the city of Rome was focused around providing food for the city's massive population; as such, the trade of grain and other foods was subsidized by the government.[25] Grain was brought into the city from all around empire: Egypt, Spain, Sardinia, and Sicily were all sources for the city.
Trade was sophisticated enough in Rome that a system similar to that of the proxenos emerged, with offices backed by different governments representing the interests of their private citizens in cities throughout the Mediterranean. These offices, like way stations along the Roman roads, were known as stationes.
Postal services[edit]
There were at least two postal services during the history of Rome—the cursus publicus and the agentes in rebus.[26] Both were created during the Roman Empire, and both survived its dissolution, at least for a time. The established routes of the cursus publicus are sometimes argued to be outlined in the Tabula Peutingeriana, a surviving illustrated itineraria from the 4th century, although this claim is disputed.[27] Both services existed to deliver messages (including military orders) and to collect taxes. Occasionally they also acted as spies and couriers for the military, collecting intelligence and delivering orders. Couriers relied on stationes (publicly funded way-stations) and mansiones (private residences) for shelter and food, and had the ability to compel private citizens to provide for them.[28]
The cursus publicus differed from a conventional, modern postal service in that it was not universal (it was only available in more developed provinces) and in that deliveries were made at the government's discretion, rather than on a regular schedule.[29] Usage of the system of lodgings and animals used by the service required official permission from the provincial governor, or the emperor. Governors acted as overseers for the system, and some public officials were also entitled to use it as a form of personal transportation.
Religion and health[edit]
Lycurgus Consulting the Pythia (1835/1845), as imagined by Eugène Delacroix.
Pilgrimage to one of the major oracles was one of the central reasons for religious travel in the ancient world, particularly in Rome. These pilgrimages were generally made to oracles, such as that at Delphi, who was known as Pythia or simply the Oracle of Delphi, a title that passed to different women. Romans would have visited these oracles in the hopes of gaining some insight about their future. Generally, oracles were associated with a god. Pythia, for example, was associated with Apollo.[30]
Health also played a role in motivating travel, both in Roman and Greek culture. Travelers visited sanctuaries associated with deities or gods and specific phys, such as the Greek one at Epidaurus, in the hopes of curing illness and disease. These sanctuaries would have sometimes been associated with specific physicians, as well as deities. Galen, for example, was famously associated with the sanctuary of Asclepius. Sanctuary sites were often isolated, and included springs, as well as diversions, such as works of art and stadiums for athletic events.[31] Other forms of travel in the name of health, such as journeys by ship, also existed.
Festivals[edit]
In Greco-Roman culture, festivals occurred either annually or every few years, and were held for religious reasons. Generally, they were held in fixed locations, and individuals traveled from city to city in order to attend. However, there were also universal festivals, occurring throughout Greece and Rome, and both universal and local festivals could be celebrated by citizens while abroad.[32] The most popular of these festivals were the originally Greek games: the Pythian Games, the Isthmian Games, the Nemean Games, and, most famously, the Olympic Games.[33] These revolved around the performance of artistic and athletic feats to honor individual deities, and continued to be celebrated after Rome's conquest of Greece.
Festivals served deliberately to motivate travel, with the purpose of not only asserting communal identity at the imperial or societal level, rather than the local level, but also promoting Greek and Roman culture as opposed to foreign or "barbaric" practices.[34] The length of festivals rarely exceeded five days, while travel times could be measured in weeks or months.
Lodgings available to the general public at festivals ranged from crude huts or tents to elaborate inns reserved for the Greek and Roman elite.[35][36] Traders and those with connections in other cities often stayed in private homes. The influxes of tourists, particularly in Athens, created temporary economies, with vendors, prostitutes, and guides providing goods and services to the visitors.[37]
Tourism[edit]
In Rome, tourists traveled to beach and mountain side resorts for different periods of the year. It was not uncommon for even middle-class Romans to own multiple villas.
Warfare and settlements[edit]
Warfare and state building were the two most common reasons for travel by non-elite residents of Roman and Greek society. The pinnacle of travel in name of warfare in Hellenistic society was under Alexander, but his efforts to conquer the world were preceded by a general Greek and specifically Athenian colonial process that led to the foundation of cities throughout the Mediterranean.[38] Warfare by Alexander led to the movement of Hellenistic peoples and culture as far east as India, with settlements in Afghanistan, Egypt, and elsewhere, and led to the establishment of several descendant kingdoms: the Seleucid Empire and Ptolemaic Egypt.[39][40]
Immigration[edit]
Immigration was also a motivation for travel, particularly to large urban centers, including Rome itself. There were few restrictions (except in wartime) on the ability of individuals and families to migrate and subsequently settle in cities, and despite stratification, there was still some level of upward mobility in Roman society.[41]
Archaeological evidence suggests that construction increased during times of heavy immigration, and that immigration increased during periods of conquest, and that it was at its lowest after the Sack of Rome by Alaric I.
See also[edit]
Appian Way
Roman navy
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Casson, p. 23
Jump up ^ Casson, 31-33
Jump up ^ Casson, 149-150
Jump up ^ Casson, 68
Jump up ^ Casson, 71-75
Jump up ^ Erdkamp (Dumser), 136
Jump up ^ Casson, 166-167
Jump up ^ Talbert, 217
Jump up ^ Gagarin, 335
Jump up ^ Adams, et al., 2
Jump up ^ Gagarin, 335
Jump up ^ Gagarin, 336
Jump up ^ Gagarin, 336-337
Jump up ^ Adams, et al. (Broderson), 10-11
Jump up ^ Adams, et al. (Broderson), 16-19
Jump up ^ Talbert
Jump up ^ Kennedy, et al., 288
Jump up ^ Gudeman
Jump up ^ Casson, 93-94
Jump up ^ Herman, 131-132
Jump up ^ Gerolymatos
Jump up ^ Casson
Jump up ^ Ramsay
Jump up ^ Casson, 125-128
Jump up ^ Erdkamp, 272
Jump up ^ Kelly, 23
Jump up ^ Talbert (Perspectives), 184
Jump up ^ Adams, Colin; et al.
Jump up ^ Adams; et al.
Jump up ^ Casson, 134-135
Jump up ^ Casson, 82-85
Jump up ^ Brandt, et al., 17
Jump up ^ Casson, 76
Jump up ^ Brandt, et al., 29
Jump up ^ Brandt, et al., 43
Jump up ^ Casson, 202
Jump up ^ Casson, 78
Jump up ^ Cohen, 16
Jump up ^ Cohen
Jump up ^ Gagarin (Quinn), 7:212-213
Jump up ^ Erdkamp (Moatti), 77-92
References[edit]
Adams, Colin; et al. (2011). Travel and Geography in the Roman Empire. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415620185.
Casson, Lionel (1994). Travel in the Ancient World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0801848087.
Brandt, J. Rasmus; et al. (2012). Greek and Roman Festivals: Content, Meaning, and Practice. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199696093.
Michael Gagarin, ed. (31 December 2009). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford University Press.
Gerolymatos, André (1986). Espionage and Treason: A Study of the Proxeny in Political and Military Intelligence Gathering in Classical Greece. Amsterdam: J.C. Gieben.
Herman, Gabriel (1987). Ritualised Friendship and the Greek City. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521522106.
Kelly, Christopher (2004). Ruling the Later Roman Empire. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01564-7.
Talbert, R.J.A. "Gouvernants and Gouvernes Dans L'Imperium Roman". Cahier des Etudes Anciennes. Universite de Quebec a Trois Rivieres.
Ramsay, A.M. "The Speed of the Roman Imperial Post". The Journal of Roman Studies. Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. 15: 60–74.
Paul Erdkamp, ed. (2013). The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Rome. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521720786.
Kennedy, Rebecca F.; Roy, C. Syndor; Goldman, Max L. Race and Ethnicity in the Classical World. Hackett. ISBN 978-1603849944.
Gudeman, Alfred. "The Sources of the Germania of Tacitus". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Cohen, Getzel M. (1996). The Hellenistic Settlements in Europe, the Islands, and Asia Minor. University of California Press.
Richard J. A. Talbert, ed. (2012). Ancient Perspectives: Maps and Their Place in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. University of Chicago Press.
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