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James Watson
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James Watson
James Watson
Born
James Dewey Watson
(1928-04-06) April 6, 1928 (age 89)[1]
Chicago, Illinois, United States
Nationality
United States
Alma mater
University of Chicago (B.S., 1947)
Indiana University (Ph.D., 1950)
Known for
DNA structure
Molecular biology
Spouse(s)
Elizabeth Watson (née Lewis) (m. 1968)
Awards
Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research (1960)
Nobel Prize (1962)
John J. Carty Award (1971)
ForMemRS (1981)[2]
EMBO Membership (1985)[3]
Copley Medal (1993)[2][4]
Lomonosov Gold Medal (1994)
Scientific career
Fields
Genetics
Institutions
Indiana University
Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
Laboratory of Molecular Biology
Harvard University
University of Cambridge
National Institutes of Health
Thesis
The Biological Properties of X-Ray Inactivated Bacteriophage (1951)
Doctoral advisor
Salvador Luria
Doctoral students
Mario Capecchi[5]
Bob Horvitz
Charles Kurland
Peter D. Moore
Joan Steitz[6]
Other notable students
Ewan Birney[7]
Ronald W. Davis (postdoc)
Phillip Allen Sharp (postdoc)
Richard J. Roberts (postdoc)[8]
John Tooze (postdoc)[9][10]
Signature
James Dewey Watson (born April 6, 1928) is an American molecular biologist, geneticist and zoologist, best known as one of the co-discoverers of the structure of DNA in 1953 with Francis Crick and Rosalind Franklin. Watson, Crick, and Maurice Wilkins were awarded the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material".
Watson earned degrees at the University of Chicago (BS, 1947) and Indiana University (PhD, 1950). Following a post-doctoral year at the University of Copenhagen with Herman Kalckar and Ole Maaloe, later Watson worked at the University of Cambridge's Cavendish Laboratory in England, where he first met his future collaborator and friend Francis Crick.
From 1956 to 1976, Watson was on the faculty of the Harvard University Biology Department, promoting research in molecular biology. From 1968 he served as director of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL), greatly expanding its level of funding and research. At CSHL, he shifted his research emphasis to the study of cancer, along with making it a world leading research center in molecular biology. In 1994, he started as president and served for 10 years. He was then appointed chancellor, serving until he resigned in 2007 after making controversial comments claiming a link between intelligence and race.[11][12][13] Between 1988 and 1992, Watson was associated with the National Institutes of Health, helping to establish the Human Genome Project.
Watson has written many science books, including the textbook Molecular Biology of the Gene (1965) and his bestselling book The Double Helix (1968).[14]
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life and education
2 Career and research
2.1 Luria, Delbrück, and the Phage Group
2.2 Identifying the double helix
2.3 Harvard University
2.4 Publishing The Double Helix
2.5 Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
2.6 Human Genome Project
2.7 Role of oxidants in disease
2.8 Notable former students
2.9 Selected books published
2.10 Other affiliations
3 Political activism
4 Controversies
4.1 Use of King's College results
4.2 Controversial comments
4.3 Avoid Boring People, UK book tour and resignation
4.4 Sale of Nobel Prize Medal
5 Personal life
5.1 Marriage and family
6 Awards and honors
6.1 Honorary degrees received
6.2 Professional and honorary affiliations
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Early life and education[edit]
James D. Watson was born in Chicago, Illinois, on April 6, 1928, as the only son of Jean (Mitchell) and James D. Watson, a businessman descended mostly from colonial English immigrants to America.[15][16] His mother's father, Lauchlin Mitchell, a tailor, was from Glasgow, Scotland, and her mother, Lizzie Gleason, was the child of Irish parents from Tipperary.[17] Raised Catholic, he later described himself as "an escapee from the Catholic religion."[18] Watson said, "The luckiest thing that ever happened to me was that my father didn't believe in God."[19]
Watson grew up on the south side of Chicago and attended public schools, including Horace Mann Grammar School and South Shore High School.[15][20] He was fascinated with bird watching, a hobby shared with his father,[21] so he considered majoring in ornithology.[22] Watson appeared on Quiz Kids, a popular radio show that challenged bright youngsters to answer questions.[23] Thanks to the liberal policy of University president Robert Hutchins, he enrolled at the University of Chicago, where he was awarded a tuition scholarship, at the age of 15.[15][22][24]
After reading Erwin Schrödinger's book What Is Life? in 1946, Watson changed his professional ambitions from the study of ornithology to genetics.[25] Watson earned his BS degree in Zoology from the University of Chicago in 1947.[22] In his autobiography, Avoid Boring People, Watson described the University of Chicago as an "idyllic academic institution where he was instilled with the capacity for critical thought and an ethical compulsion not to suffer fools who impeded his search for truth", in contrast to his description of later experiences. In 1947 Watson left the University of Chicago to become a graduate student at Indiana University, attracted by the presence at Bloomington of the 1946 Nobel Prize winner Hermann Joseph Muller, who in crucial papers published in 1922, 1929, and in the 1930s had laid out all the basic properties of the heredity molecule that Schrödinger presented in his 1944 book.[26] He received his PhD degree from Indiana University in 1950; Salvador Luria was his doctoral advisor.[22][27]
Career and research[edit]
Luria, Delbrück, and the Phage Group[edit]
Originally, Watson was drawn into molecular biology by the work of Salvador Luria. Luria eventually shared the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on the Luria–Delbrück experiment, which concerned the nature of genetic mutations. He was part of a distributed group of researchers who were making use of the viruses that infect bacteria, called bacteriophages. He and Max Delbrück were among the leaders of this new "Phage Group," an important movement of geneticists from experimental systems such as Drosophila towards microbial genetics. Early in 1948, Watson began his PhD research in Luria's laboratory at Indiana University.[27] That spring, he met Delbrück first in Luria's apartment and again that summer during Watson's first trip to the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL).[28][29]
The Phage Group was the intellectual medium where Watson became a working scientist. Importantly, the members of the Phage Group sensed that they were on the path to discovering the physical nature of the gene. In 1949, Watson took a course with Felix Haurowitz that included the conventional view of that time: that genes were proteins and able to replicate themselves.[30] The other major molecular component of chromosomes, DNA, was widely considered to be a "stupid tetranucleotide," serving only a structural role to support the proteins.[31] However, even at this early time, Watson, under the influence of the Phage Group, was aware of the Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment, which suggested that DNA was the genetic molecule. Watson's research project involved using X-rays to inactivate bacterial viruses.[32]
Watson then went to Copenhagen University in September 1950 for a year of postdoctoral research, first heading to the laboratory of biochemist Herman Kalckar.[15] Kalckar was interested in the enzymatic synthesis of nucleic acids, and he wanted to use phages as an experimental system. Watson, however, wanted to explore the structure of DNA, and his interests did not coincide with Kalckar's.[33] After working part of the year with Kalckar, Watson spent the remainder of his time in Copenhagen conducting experiments with microbial physiologist Ole Maaloe, then a member of the Phage Group.[34]
The experiments, which Watson had learned of during the previous summer's Cold Spring Harbor phage conference, included the use of radioactive phosphate as a tracer to determine which molecular components of phage particles actually infect the target bacteria during viral infection.[33] The intention was to determine whether protein or DNA was the genetic material, but upon consultation with Max Delbrück,[33] they determined that their results were inconclusive and could not specifically identify the newly labeled molecules as DNA.[35] Watson never developed a constructive interaction with Kalckar, but he did accompany Kalckar to a meeting in Italy, where Watson saw Maurice Wilkins talk about his X-ray diffraction data for DNA.[15] Watson was now certain that DNA had a definite molecular structure that could be elucidated.[36]
In 1951, the chemist Linus Pauling in California published his model of the amino acid alpha helix, a result that grew out of Pauling's efforts in X-ray crystallography and molecular model building. After obtaining some results from his phage and other experimental research[37] conducted at Indiana University, Statens Serum Institut (Denmark), CSHL, and the California Institute of Technology, Watson now had the desire to learn to perform X-ray diffraction experiments so he could work to determine the structure of DNA. That summer, Luria met John Kendrew,[38] and he arranged for a new postdoctoral research project for Watson in England.[15] In 1951 Watson visited the Stazione Zoologica 'Anton Dohrn' in Naples.[39]
Identifying the double helix[edit]
DNA model built by Crick and Watson in 1953, on display in the Science Museum, London.
In mid-March 1953, using, in part, experimental data collected mainly by Rosalind Franklin and also by Maurice Wilkins, Watson and Crick deduced the double helix structure of DNA.[15][40] Sir Lawrence Bragg,[41] the director of the Cavendish Laboratory (where Watson and Crick worked), made the original announcement of the discovery at a Solvay conference on proteins in Belgium on April 8, 1953; it went unreported by the press. Watson and Crick submitted a paper entitled Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid to the scientific journal Nature, which was published on April 25, 1953.[42] This has been described by some other biologists and Nobel laureates as the most important scientific discovery of the 20th century.[citation needed] Bragg gave a talk at the Guy's Hospital Medical School in London on Thursday, May 14, 1953, which resulted in a May 15, 1953, article by Ritchie Calder in the London newspaper News Chronicle, entitled "Why You Are You. Nearer Secret of Life."
Sydney Brenner, Jack Dunitz, Dorothy Hodgkin, Leslie Orgel, and Beryl M. Oughton were some of the first people in April 1953 to see the model of the structure of DNA, constructed by Crick and Watson; at the time, they were working at Oxford University's Chemistry Department. All were impressed by the new DNA model, especially Brenner, who subsequently worked with Crick at Cambridge in the Cavendish Laboratory and the new Laboratory of Molecular Biology. According to the late Beryl Oughton, later Rimmer, they all travelled together in two cars once Dorothy Hodgkin announced to them that they were off to Cambridge to see the model of the structure of DNA.[43]
The Cambridge University student newspaper Varsity also ran its own short article on the discovery on Saturday, May 30, 1953. Watson subsequently presented a paper on the double-helical structure of DNA at the 18th Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on Viruses in early June 1953, six weeks after the publication of the Watson and Crick paper in Nature. Many at the meeting had not yet heard of the discovery. The 1953 Cold Spring Harbor Symposium was the first opportunity for many to see the model of the DNA double helix.
Watson's accomplishment is displayed on the monument at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. Because the monument memorializes only American laureates, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins (who shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine) are omitted.
Watson, Crick, and Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962 for their research on the structure of nucleic acids.[15][15][44][45] Rosalind Franklin had died in 1958 and was therefore ineligible for nomination.[40]
The publication of the double helix structure of DNA can be regarded as a turning point in science: human understanding of life was fundamentally changed and the modern era of biology began.[46]
Harvard University[edit]
In 1956, Watson accepted a position in the Biology department at Harvard University. His work at Harvard focused on RNA and its role in the transfer of genetic information.[47] At Harvard University, Watson achieved a series of academic promotions from assistant professor to associate professor to full professor of biology. Watson claimed, however, that he was refused a $1,000 raise in salary after winning the Nobel Prize.
He championed a switch in focus for the school from classical biology to molecular biology, stating that disciplines such as ecology, developmental biology, taxonomy, physiology, etc. had stagnated and could progress only once the underlying disciplines of molecular biology and biochemistry had elucidated their underpinnings, going so far as to discourage their study by students.
Watson continued to be a member of the Harvard faculty until 1976, even though he took over the directorship of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in 1968.[47]
Views on Watson's scientific contributions while at Harvard are somewhat mixed. His most notable achievements in his two decades at Harvard may be what he wrote about science, rather than anything he discovered during that time.[48] Watson's first textbook, The Molecular Biology of the Gene, set a new standard for textbooks, particularly through the use of concept heads—brief declarative subheadings.[49] His next textbook was Molecular Biology of the Cell, in which he coordinated the work of a group of scientist-writers. His third textbook was Recombinant DNA, which described the ways in which genetic engineering has brought much new information about how organisms function. The textbooks are still in print.
Publishing The Double Helix[edit]
In 1968, Watson wrote The Double Helix,[50] listed by the Board of the Modern Library as number seven in their list of 100 Best Nonfiction books.[51] The book details the sometimes painful story of not only the discovery of the structure of DNA, but also the personalities, conflicts and controversy surrounding their work. Watson's original title was to have been "Honest Jim", in that the book recounts the discovery of the double helix from his point of view and included many of his private emotional impressions at the time. Some controversy surrounded the publication of the book. Watson's book was originally to be published by the Harvard University Press, but Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins objected, among others. Watson's home university dropped the project and the book was commercially published.[52]
Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory[edit]
External video
James Watson: Why society isn't ready for genomic-based medicine, 2012, Chemical Heritage Foundation
In 1968, Watson became the Director of the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL). Between 1970 and 1972, the Watsons' two sons were born, and by 1974, the young family made Cold Spring Harbor their permanent residence. Watson served as the laboratory's director and president for about 35 years, and later he assumed the role of chancellor and then Chancellor Emeritus.
In his roles as director, president, and chancellor, Watson led CSHL to articulate its present-day mission, "dedication to exploring molecular biology and genetics in order to advance the understanding and ability to diagnose and treat cancers, neurological diseases, and other causes of human suffering."[53] CSHL substantially expanded both its research and its science educational programs under Watson’s direction. He is credited with "transforming a small facility into one of the world’s great education and research institutions. Initiating a program to study the cause of human cancer, scientists under his direction have made major contributions to understanding the genetic basis of cancer."[54] In a retrospective summary of Watson's accomplishments there, Bruce Stillman, the laboratory's president, said, "Jim Watson created a research environment that is unparalleled in the world of science."[54]
In October 2007, Watson was suspended following criticism of his views on genetic factors relating to intelligence,[55][56] and a week later, on the 25th, he retired at the age of 79 from CSHL from what the lab called "nearly 40 years of distinguished service".[54][57] In a statement, Watson attributed his retirement to his age, and circumstances that he could never have anticipated or desired.[58]
Human Genome Project[edit]
Watson in 1992
In 1990, Watson was appointed as the Head of the Human Genome Project at the National Institutes of Health, a position he held until April 10, 1992.[59] Watson left the Genome Project after conflicts with the new NIH Director, Bernadine Healy. Watson was opposed to Healy's attempts to acquire patents on gene sequences, and any ownership of the "laws of nature." Two years before stepping down from the Genome Project, he had stated his own opinion on this long and ongoing controversy which he saw as an illogical barrier to research; he said, "The nations of the world must see that the human genome belongs to the world's people, as opposed to its nations." He left within weeks of the 1992 announcement that the NIH would be applying for patents on brain-specific cDNAs.[60] (The issue of the patentability of genes has since been resolved in the US by the US Supreme Court; see Association for Molecular Pathology v. U.S. Patent and Trademark Office)
In 1994, Watson became President of CSHL. Francis Collins took over the role as Director of the Human Genome Project.
In 2007, James Watson became the second person[61] to publish his fully sequenced genome online,[62] after it was presented to him on May 31, 2007, by 454 Life Sciences Corporation[63] in collaboration with scientists at the Human Genome Sequencing Center, Baylor College of Medicine. Watson was quoted as saying, "I am putting my genome sequence on line to encourage the development of an era of personalized medicine, in which information contained in our genomes can be used to identify and prevent disease and to create individualized medical therapies".[64][65][66]
Role of oxidants in disease[edit]
In 2014 Watson published a paper in The Lancet suggesting that biological oxidants may have a different role than is thought in diseases including diabetes, dementia, heart disease and cancer. For example, type 2 diabetes is usually thought to be caused by oxidation in the body that causes inflammation and kills off pancreatic cells. Watson thinks the root of that inflammation is different: "a lack of biological oxidants, not an excess", and discusses this in detail. One critical response was that the idea was neither new nor worthy of merit, and that The Lancet published Watson's paper only because of his name.[67] However, other scientists have expressed their support for his hypothesis and have proposed that it can also be expanded to why a lack of oxidants can result in cancer and its progression.[68]
Notable former students[edit]
Several of Watson's former doctoral students subsequently became notable in their own right including, Mario Capecchi,[5] Bob Horvitz, Charles Kurland, Peter D. Moore and Joan Steitz.[6] Besides numerous PhD students, Watson also supervised postdoctoral students and other interns including Ewan Birney,[7] Ronald W. Davis, Phillip Allen Sharp (postdoc), John Tooze, (postdoc)[9][10] and Richard J. Roberts (postdoc).[8]
Selected books published[edit]
Library resources about
James Watson
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
By James Watson
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
James D. Watson, The Annotated and Illustrated Double Helix, edited by Alexander Gann and Jan Witkowski (2012) Simon & Schuster, ISBN 978-1-4767-1549-0.
Watson, J. D. (1968). The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA. New York: Atheneum.
Watson, J. D. (1968). Gunther S. Stent, ed. The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-95075-1. (Norton Critical Editions, 1981).
Watson, J. D.; Baker, T. A.; Bell, S. P.; Gann, A.; Levine, M.; Losick, R. (2003). Molecular Biology of the Gene (5th ed.). New York: Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-4635-X.
Watson, J. D. (2002). Genes, Girls, and Gamow: After the Double Helix. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-375-41283-2. OCLC 47716375.
Watson, J. D.; Berry, A. (2003). DNA: The Secret of Life. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-375-41546-7.
Watson, J.D. (2007). Avoid Boring People and Other Lessons from a Life in Science. New York: Random House. p. 366. ISBN 978-0-375-41284-4.
Other affiliations[edit]
Watson is a former member of the Board of Directors of United Biomedical, Inc., founded by Chang Yi Wang. He held the position for six years and retired from the board in 1999.[69]
In January 2007, Watson accepted the invitation of Leonor Beleza, president of the Champalimaud Foundation, to become the head of the foundation's scientific council, an advisory organ.[70][71]
Watson has also been an institute adviser for the Allen Institute for Brain Science.[72][73]
Political activism[edit]
During his tenure as a professor at Harvard, Watson participated in several political protests:
Vietnam War: While a professor at Harvard University, Watson, along with "12 Faculty members of the department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology" including one other Nobel prize winner, spearheaded a resolution for "the immediate withdrawal of U.S. forces from Vietnam."[74]
Nuclear proliferation and environmentalism: In 1975, on the "thirtieth anniversary of the bombing of Hiroshima," Watson along with "over 2000 scientists and engineers" spoke out against nuclear proliferation to President Ford in part because of the "lack of a proven method for the ultimate disposal of radioactive waste" and because "The writers of the declaration see the proliferation of nuclear plants as a major threat to American liberties and international safety because they say safeguard procedures are inadequate to prevent terrorist theft of commercial reactor-produced plutonium."[75]
In 2007, Watson said, "I turned against the left wing because they don't like genetics, because genetics implies that sometimes in life we fail because we have bad genes. They want all failure in life to be due to the evil system."[76]
Controversies[edit]
Use of King's College results[edit]
An enduring controversy has been generated by Watson and Crick's unauthorized use of DNA X-ray diffraction data collected by Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling. The controversy arose from the fact that some of Franklin's unpublished data were used without her consent by Watson and Crick in their construction of the double helix model of DNA.[40][77] Franklin's experimental results provided estimates of the water content of DNA crystals and these results were consistent with the two sugar-phosphate backbones being on the outside of the molecule. Franklin personally told Crick and Watson that the backbones had to be on the outside, which was a crucial piece of information because before then Linus Pauling and Watson and Crick had generated erroneous models with the chains inside and the bases pointing outwards.[26] Her identification of the space group for DNA crystals revealed to Crick that the two DNA strands were antiparallel.
The X-ray diffraction images collected by Gosling and Franklin provided the best evidence for the helical nature of DNA. Franklin's experimental work thus proved crucial in Watson and Crick's discovery. Watson and Crick had three sources for Franklin's unpublished data:
her 1951 seminar, attended by Watson,[78]
discussions with Wilkins,[79] who worked in the same laboratory with Franklin,
a research progress report that was intended to promote coordination of Medical Research Council-supported laboratories.[80] Watson, Crick, Wilkins and Franklin all worked in MRC laboratories.
Prior to publication of the double helix structure, Watson and Crick had little interaction with Franklin. Crick and Watson felt that they had benefited from collaborating with Wilkins. They offered him a co-authorship on the article that first described the double helix structure of DNA. Wilkins turned down the offer, a fact that may have led to the terse character of the acknowledgment of experimental work done at King's College in the eventual published paper. Rather than make any of the DNA researchers at King's College co-authors on the Watson and Crick double helix article, the solution that was arrived at was to publish two additional papers from King's College along with the helix paper.
According to one critic, Watson's portrayal of Franklin in The Double Helix (written after Franklin's death when libel laws did not apply anymore) was negative and gave the appearance that she was Wilkins' assistant and was unable to interpret her own DNA data.[81] The latter accusation was indefensible since, e.g., Franklin herself told Crick and Watson that the helix backbones had to be on the outside, which was crucial to the elucidation of the helix since before this both Crick and Watson and Linus Pauling had independently generated flawed models with the chains inside and the bases pointing outwards.[26]
In his book The Double Helix, Watson described being intimidated by Franklin and that they were unable to establish constructive scientific interactions during the time period when Franklin was doing DNA research. In the book's epilogue, written after Franklin's death, Watson acknowledges his early impressions of Franklin were often wrong, that she faced enormous barriers as a woman in the field of science even though her work was superb, and that it took them years to overcome their bickering before he could appreciate Franklin's generosity and integrity.
A review of the handwritten correspondence from Franklin to Watson, located in the archives at CSHL, reveals that the two scientists later had exchanges of constructive scientific correspondence. In fact, Franklin consulted with Watson on her tobacco mosaic virus RNA research. Franklin's letters begin on friendly terms with "Dear Jim", and conclude with equally benevolent and respectful sentiments such as "Best Wishes, Yours, Rosalind". Each of the scientists published their own unique contributions to the discovery of the structure of DNA in separate articles, and all of the contributors published their findings in the same volume of Nature. These classic molecular biology papers are identified as: Watson J.D. and Crick F.H.C. "A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid" Nature 171, 737-738 (1953),[42] Wilkins M.H.F., Stokes A.R. & Wilson, H.R. "Molecular Structure of Deoxypentose Nucleic Acids" Nature 171, 738-740 (1953),[82] Franklin R. and Gosling R.G. "Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate" Nature 171, 740-741 (1953).[83]
The wording on the DNA sculpture (which was donated by Watson) outside Clare College's Memorial Court, Cambridge, England is:
On the base:
"These strands unravel during cell reproduction. Genes are encoded in the sequence of bases."
"The double helix model was supported by the work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins."
On the helices:
"The structure of DNA was discovered in 1953 by Francis Crick and James Watson while Watson lived here at Clare."
"The molecule of DNA has two helical strands that are linked by base pairs Adenine - Thymine or Guanine - Cytosine."
Controversial comments[edit]
James Watson (February 2003)
Watson has often expressed provocative concepts and disparaging opinions of others within the realm of genetic research.
He has been quoted in The Sunday Telegraph, 1997, as stating: "If you could find the gene which determines sexuality and a woman decides she doesn't want a homosexual child, well, let her."[84] The biologist Richard Dawkins wrote a letter to The Independent claiming that Watson's position was misrepresented by The Sunday Telegraph article, and that Watson would equally consider the possibility of having a heterosexual child to be just as valid as any other reason for abortion, to emphasise that Watson is in favor of allowing choice.[85]
On the issue of obesity, Watson has also been quoted as saying, 2000: "Whenever you interview fat people, you feel bad, because you know you're not going to hire them."[86]
While speaking at a conference in 2000, Watson had suggested a link between skin color and sex drive, hypothesizing that dark-skinned people have stronger libidos.[86][87] His lecture argued that extracts of melanin – which gives skin its color – had been found to boost subjects' sex drive. "That's why you have Latin lovers," he said, according to people who attended the lecture. "You've never heard of an English lover. Only an English Patient."[88]
Watson has repeatedly supported genetic screening and genetic engineering in public lectures and interviews, arguing that stupidity is a disease and the "really stupid" bottom 10% of people should be cured.[89] He has also suggested that beauty could be genetically engineered, saying in 2003, "People say it would be terrible if we made all girls pretty. I think it would be great."[89][90]
Watson has had quite a few disagreements with Craig Venter regarding his use of EST fragments while Venter worked at NIH. Venter went on to found Celera genomics and continued his feud with Watson. Watson was even quoted as calling Venter "Hitler".[91]
Avoid Boring People, UK book tour and resignation[edit]
Watson signing autographs after a speech at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory on April 30, 2007.
In his memoir, Avoid Boring People: Lessons from a Life in Science, Watson describes his academic colleagues as "dinosaurs", "deadbeats", "fossils", "has-beens", "mediocre", and "vapid". Steve Shapin in Harvard Magazine noted that Watson had written an unlikely "Book of Manners", telling about the skills needed at different times in a scientist's career; he wrote Watson was known for aggressively pursuing his own goals at the university. E. O. Wilson once described Watson as "the most unpleasant human being I had ever met", but in a later TV interview said that he considered them friends and their rivalry at Harvard old history (when they had competed for funding in their respective fields).[92][93]
In the epilogue to the memoir Avoid Boring People, Watson alternately attacks and defends former Harvard University president Lawrence Summers, who stepped down in 2006 due in part to his remarks about women and science. Watson also states in the epilogue, "Anyone sincerely interested in understanding the imbalance in the representation of men and women in science must reasonably be prepared at least to consider the extent to which nature may figure, even with the clear evidence that nurture is strongly implicated."[90]
In early October 2007, Watson was about to embark on a UK book tour to promote the memoir. He was interviewed by Charlotte Hunt-Grubbe at CSHL. In 1996, she had been a student there in a program in which Watson recruited students to live at his family home and work at CSHL for a year. Hunt-Grubbe had gone on to work for the Sunday Times Magazine; she was selected for the interview as she was one of the few women to have been mentored by him. Hunt-Grubbe broached the subject of whether race was a factor in his hypothesis of divergence of intellect between geographically isolated populations.[citation needed] The following is a transcript of that part of the interview:
He says that he is "inherently gloomy about the prospect of Africa" because "all our social policies are based on the fact that their intelligence is the same as ours – whereas all the testing says not really", and I know that this "hot potato" is going to be difficult to address. His hope is that everyone is equal, but he counters that "people who have to deal with black employees find this not true". He says that you should not discriminate on the basis of colour, because "there are many people of colour who are very talented, but don't promote them when they haven't succeeded at the lower level". He writes that "there is no firm reason to anticipate that the intellectual capacities of peoples geographically separated in their evolution should prove to have evolved identically. Our wanting to reserve equal powers of reason as some universal heritage of humanity will not be enough to make it so".[94]
Though other publications noted that the paper had "[kept] the profile sympathetic and place[d] the comments at the end of the piece",[95] the article was a public relations disaster for Watson. The Sunday Times Magazine editor Cathy Galvin noted, "It was important the reader understood Charlotte's relationship with Watson and her regard for him before exploring the explosive and unscientific territory of his opinions and history of statements about women, race, and abortion which have stirred so much controversy in the past."[95]
Watson's comments drew attention and criticism in the UK. Watson said his intention was to promote science not racism, but some of the UK venues canceled his appearances.[96] Watson canceled the rest of his tour.[97][98][99][100][101][102]
Because of the public controversy, on October 18, 2007, the Board of Trustees at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory suspended Watson's administrative responsibilities. On October 19, Watson issued an apology; on October 25, he resigned from his position as chancellor.[103][104][105][106][107][108][109] In 2008, Watson was appointed chancellor emeritus of CSHL.[110][111] As of 2009, he continues to advise and guide project work at the laboratory.[112] In a 2008 BBC documentary, Watson said: "I have never thought of myself as a racist. I don't see myself as a racist. I am mortified by it. It was the worst thing in my life."[113] An editorial in Nature at the time acknowledged that his remarks were "beyond the pale," but wished that the tour had not been cancelled so that Watson would be forced to face his critics in person, encouraging scientific discussion on the matter.[114][115]
Sale of Nobel Prize Medal[edit]
In 2014, he decided to auction off his Nobel prize medal in view of his diminished income after the 2007 incident[116] and to use part of the funds raised by the sale to support scientific research.[117] The medal sold at auction at Christie's in December 2014 for US$4.1 million. Watson intended to contribute the proceeds to conservation work in Long Island and to funding research at Trinity College, Dublin,[118] as well as the purchase of artwork.[119] Watson is the first living recipient of the honor to auction the medal.[120]
The medal was subsequently returned to Watson by the purchaser, Russian tycoon Alisher Usmanov, who stated that Watson deserved the medal and that "a situation in which an outstanding scientist has to sell a medal recognising his achievements is unacceptable."[121]
Personal life[edit]
Watson is an atheist.[19][122] In 2003, he was one of 22 Nobel Laureates who signed the Humanist Manifesto.[123]
Marriage and family[edit]
Watson married Elizabeth Lewis in 1968.[1] They have two sons, Rufus Robert Watson (b. 1970) and Duncan James Watson (b. 1972). Watson sometimes talks about his son Rufus, who suffers from schizophrenia. He wants to encourage progress in the understanding and treatment of mental illness by determining how genetics contribute to it.[112]
Awards and honors[edit]
Watson has won numerous awards including:
James D. Watson with the Othmer Gold Medal, 2005
Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research, 1960[124]
EMBO Membership in 1985[3]
Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences (2001)[125]
Charles A. Dana Award, 1994
Copley Medal of the Royal Society, 1993[2]
CSHL Double Helix Medal Honoree, 2008
Eli Lilly Award in Biological Chemistry, 1960
Fellow of the New York Academy of Sciences
Gairdner Foundation International Award, 2002
Heald Award
Honorary Fellow, the Hastings Center, an independent bioethics research institution[126]
Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE), 2002[127]
Hope Funds for Cancer Research: James D. Watson Award of Excellence for Scientific Achievement (2014)
Irish America Hall of Fame, inducted March 2011[128]
John Collins Warren Prize of the Massachusetts General Hospital
John J. Carty Award in molecular biology from the National Academy of Sciences[129]
Kaul Foundation Award for Excellence
Liberty Medal, 2000[130]
Lomonosov Gold Medal, 1994
Lotos Club Medal of Merit, 2004
Mendel Medal, 2008
National Biotechnology Venture Award
National Medal of Science, 1997[131]
New York Academy of Medicine Award, 1999
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1962[15]
Othmer Gold Medal (2005)[132][133]
Presidential Medal of Freedom, 1977[134]
Research Corporation Prize
University of Chicago Alumni Medal, 1998[24]
University College London Prize, 2000
University Medal at SUNY Stony Brook
Honorary degrees received[edit]
DSc, University of Chicago, US, 1961
DSc, Indiana University, US, 1963
LLD, University of Notre Dame, US, 1965
DSc, Long Island University (CW Post), US, 1970
DSc, Adelphi University, US, 1972
DSc, Brandeis University, US, 1973
DSc, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, US, 1974
DSc, Hofstra University, US, 1976
DSc, Harvard University, US, 1978
DSc, Rockefeller University, US, 1980
DSc, Clarkson College of Technology, US, 1981
DSc, SUNY at Farmingdale, US, 1983
MD, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1986
DSc, Rutgers University, US, 1988
DSc, Bard College, US, 1991
DSc, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, 1993
DSc, Fairfield University, US, 1993
DSc, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom, 1993
DrHC, Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic, 1998
ScD, University of Dublin, Ireland, 2001[135]
Professional and honorary affiliations[edit]
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
American Association for Cancer Research
American Philosophical Society
American Society of Biological Chemists
Member of the Athenaeum Club, London
Cambridge University (Honorary Fellow, Clare College, Cambridge)[1]
Danish Academy of Arts and Sciences
National Academy of Sciences
Oxford University (Newton-Abraham Visiting Professor)
Membership of the European Molecular Biology Organization in 1985[3]
Elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1981[2]
Russian Academy of Sciences
International Academy of Science, Munich
See also[edit]
Nucleic acid double helix
Whole genome sequencing
History of molecular biology
History of RNA biology
List of RNA biologists
Predictive medicine
Behavioral genetics
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c WATSON, Prof. James Dewey. ukwhoswho.com. Who's Who. 2015 (online Oxford University Press ed.). A & C Black, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing plc. (subscription required)
^ Jump up to: a b c d Anon (1981). "Dr James Watson ForMemRS". royalsociety.org. London: Royal Society. Archived from the original on November 17, 2015. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from the royalsociety.org website where:
“All text published under the heading 'Biography' on Fellow profile pages is available under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.” -- "Royal Society Terms, conditions and policies". Archived from the original on September 25, 2015. Retrieved March 9, 2016. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c Anon (1985). "James Watson EMBO profile". people.embo.org. Heidelberg: European Molecular Biology Organization.
Jump up ^ "Copley Medal". Royal Society website. The Royal Society. Retrieved April 19, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Capecchi, Mario (1967). On the Mechanism of Suppression and Polypeptide Chain Initiation (PhD thesis). Harvard University.
^ Jump up to: a b Steitz, J (2011). "Joan Steitz: RNA is a many-splendored thing. Interview by Caitlin Sedwick". The Journal of Cell Biology. 192 (5): 708–9. doi:10.1083/jcb.1925pi. PMC 3051824  . PMID 21383073.
^ Jump up to: a b Hopkin, Karen (June 2005). "Bring Me Your Genomes: The Ewan Birney Story". The Scientist. 19 (11): 60.
^ Jump up to: a b Anon (1993). "Richard J. Roberts - Biographical". nobelprize.org. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved February 28, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Ferry, Georgina (2014). EMBO in perspective: a half-century in the life sciences (PDF). Heidelberg: European Molecular Biology Organization. p. 145. ISBN 978-3-00-046271-9. OCLC 892947326. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 24, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Ferry, Georgina (2014). "History: Fifty years of EMBO". Nature. London. 511 (7508): 150–151. doi:10.1038/511150a.
Jump up ^ "He may have unravelled DNA, but James Watson deserves to be shunned". December 1, 2014 – via The Guardian.
Jump up ^ "Fury at DNA pioneer's theory: Africans are less intelligent than". October 17, 2007.
Jump up ^ Crawford, Hayley. "Short Sharp Science:James Watson menaced by hoodies shouting 'racist!'". New Scientist. Retrieved April 24, 2014. ... he was "inherently gloomy about the prospect of Africa" because "all our social policies are based on the fact that their intelligence is the same as ours, whereas all the testing says not really".
Jump up ^ Watson, James D. (2012). Witkowski, Jan; Gann, Alexander, eds. The annotated and illustrated double helix (1st Simon & Schuster hardcover ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-476715-49-0.
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Jump up ^ "James Dewey WATSON Nobel Laureate Pedigree Tree". ancestortree.net. 2013. Retrieved June 10, 2013.
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^ Jump up to: a b "Discover Dialogue: Geneticist James Watson". Discover. July 2003. The luckiest thing that ever happened to me was that my father didn't believe in God
Jump up ^ Cullen, Katherine E. (2006). Biology: the people behind the science. New York: Chelsea House. p. 133. ISBN 0-8160-5461-4.
Jump up ^ Watson, James. "James Watson (Oral History)". Web of Stories. Retrieved December 5, 2013.
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Jump up ^ Samuels, Rich. "The Quiz Kids". Broadcasting in Chicago, 1921-1989. Retrieved November 20, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b "Nobel laureate, Chicago native James Watson to receive University of Chicago. Alumni Medal June 2". The University of Chicago News Office. June 1, 2007. Retrieved November 20, 2007.
Jump up ^ Friedberg, Errol C. (2005). The Writing Life of James D. Watson. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. ISBN 978-0-87969-700-6. Reviewed by Lewis Wolpert, Nature, (2005) 433:686-687.
^ Jump up to: a b c Schwartz, James (2008). In pursuit of the gene : from Darwin to DNA. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
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Jump up ^ Watson, James D. (2012). "James D. Watson Chancellor Emeritus". Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. Archived from the original on December 11, 2013. Retrieved December 5, 2013.
Jump up ^ Putnum, Frank W. (1994). Biographical Memoirs – Felix Haurowitz (volume 64 ed.). Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. pp. 134–163. ISBN 0-309-06978-5. Among [Haurowitz's] students was Jim Watson, then a graduate student of Luria.
Jump up ^ Stewart, Ian (2011). "The structure of DNA". The Mathematics of Life. Basic Books. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-465-02238-0.
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Jump up ^ "100 Best Nonfiction: The Board's List". Modern Library. Retrieved December 6, 2013.
Jump up ^ Watson's 1968 autobiographical account, The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA. For an edition which contains critical responses, book reviews, and copies of the original scientific papers, see James D. Watson, The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA, Norton Critical Edition, Gunther Stent, ed. (New York: Norton, 1980).
Jump up ^ O'Sullivan, Gerald (September 8, 2010). "Honorary Doctorate awarded to Nobel Laureate: Text of the Introductory Address". University College, Cork, Ireland. Archived from the original on February 6, 2015. Retrieved December 5, 2013.
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Jump up ^ Milmo, Cahal (October 17, 2013). "Fury at DNA pioneer's theory: Africans are less intelligent than Westerners". The Independent. London. Retrieved July 9, 2013.
Jump up ^ Peck, Sally (October 17, 2007). "James Watson suspended over racism claims". The Telegraph. London. Retrieved December 5, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Announcement by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory". New York Times. October 25, 2007. Retrieved December 5, 2013.
Jump up ^ Controversial DNA Scientist James Watson Retires © 2007 Associated Press/AP Online. © 2007 Sci-Tech Today. October 25, 2007 11:29 am
Jump up ^ "National Human Genome Research Institute - Organization - The NIH Almanac - National Institutes of Health (NIH)". Retrieved June 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ Pollack, R.. 1994. Signs of Life: The Language and Meanings of DNA. Houghton Mifflin Company, p. 95. ISBN 0-395-73530-0.
Jump up ^ Genome of DNA Discoverer Is Deciphered NYT, June 1, 2007.
Jump up ^ James Watson genotypes, on NCBI B36 assembly Archived July 5, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Wheeler, D. A.; Srinivasan, M.; Egholm, M.; Shen, Y.; Chen, L.; McGuire, A.; He, W.; Chen, Y. J.; Makhijani, V.; Roth, G. T.; Gomes, X.; Tartaro, K.; Niazi, F.; Turcotte, C. L.; Irzyk, G. P.; Lupski, J. R.; Chinault, C.; Song, X.-Z.; Liu, Y.; Yuan, Y.; Nazareth, L.; Qin, X.; Muzny, D. M.; Margulies, M.; Weinstock, G. M.; Gibbs, R. A.; Rothberg, J. M. (2008). "The complete genome of an individual by massively parallel DNA sequencing". Nature. 452 (7189): 872–876. Bibcode:2008Natur.452..872W. doi:10.1038/nature06884. PMID 18421352.
Jump up ^ Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, June 28, 2003. Watson Genotype Viewer Now On Line Archived December 5, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.. Press release. Retrieved on September 16, 2007.
Jump up ^ James Watson's Personal Genome Sequence
Jump up ^ Watson's personal DNA sequence archive at the National Institutes of Health
Jump up ^ Ian Sample. "DNA pioneer James Watson sets out radical theory for range of diseases". the Guardian. Retrieved June 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ Molenaar, RJ; van Noorden, CJ (September 6, 2014). "Type 2 diabetes and cancer as redox diseases?". Lancet. 384 (9946): 853. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(14)61485-9. PMID 25209484.
Jump up ^ "Management Team". UBI. Retrieved August 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Teresa Firmino (March 20, 2007). "Nobel James Watson vai presidir ao conselho científico da Fundação Champalimaud" (in Portuguese). Público. Archived from the original on March 24, 2007. Retrieved March 22, 2007.
Jump up ^ Graeme, Chris (December 31, 2010). "Cutting-edge cancer research centre opens in Lisbon". Algarve Resident. Archived from the original on December 12, 2013. Retrieved December 6, 2013.
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Jump up ^ Costandi, Mo. "Researchers announce completion of the Allen Brain Atlas". Retrieved December 6, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Faculty Support Grows For Anti-War Proposal", The Harvard Crimson, October 3, 1969. November 4, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Three Harvard Scientists Lead Call to Stop Nuclear Reactors", The Harvard Crimson, August 5, 1975. November 4, 2007.
Jump up ^ John H. Richardson. "James Watson - Discovery of DNA structure - James Watson on the Double Helix". Esquire. Retrieved June 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ Judson, H.F. 1996. The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, chapter 3. ISBN 0-87969-478-5.
Jump up ^ Cullen, Katherine E. (2006). Biology: the people behind the science. New York: Chelsea House. p. 136. ISBN 0-8160-5461-4.
Jump up ^ Cullen, Katherine E. (2006). Biology: the people behind the science. New York: Chelsea House. p. 140. ISBN 0-8160-5461-4.
Jump up ^ Stocklmayer, Susan M.; Gore, Michael M.; Brtyant, Chris (2001). Science Communication in Theory and Practice. Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 79. ISBN 1-4020-0131-2.
Jump up ^ Elkin, L.O. (2003). "Franklin and the Double Helix". Physics Today. 56 (3): 42.
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Jump up ^ Macdonald, V. "Abort babies with gay genes, says Nobel winner", The Telegraph, February 16, 1997. Retrieved on October 24, 2007.
Jump up ^ Dawkins, Richard (February 19, 1997). "Letter: Women to decide on gay abortion". London: The Independent. Retrieved October 24, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Abate, T. "Nobel Winner's Theories Raise Uproar in Berkeley Geneticist's views strike many as racist, sexist", San Francisco Chronicle, November 13, 2000. Retrieved on October 24, 2007.
Jump up ^ Thompson, C.; Berger, A. (2000). "Agent provocateur pursues happiness". British Medical Journal. 321 (7252): 12. doi:10.1136/bmj.321.7252.12. PMC 1127681  . PMID 10875824.
Jump up ^ "UK Museum Cancels Scientist's Lecture". ABC News. October 17, 2007. Archived from the original on June 28, 2011. Retrieved May 28, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b Bhattacharya, S. "Stupidity should be cured, says DNA discoverer", New Scientist News Service, February 28, 2003. Retrieved June 24, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Williams, Susan P. (November 8, 2007). "The Foot-in-Mouth Gene". The Washington Post.
Jump up ^ Shreeve. J. 2005. The Genome War: How Craig Venter Tried to Capture the Code of Life and Save the World. Ballantine Books, p. 48. ISBN 0-345-43374-2.
Jump up ^ "Chairman of the Bored", Steven Shapin, Harvard Magazine, January–February 2008
Jump up ^ Charlie Rose Interview, paired with E. O. Wilson Archived October 18, 2006, at the Wayback Machine. December 14, 2005
Jump up ^ Hunt-Grubbe, Charlotte (October 14, 2007). "The elementary DNA of Dr Watson". The Times. London.
^ Jump up to: a b "Gelf Magazine James Watson's Disastrous Interview". Retrieved June 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Museum drops race row scientist", BBC, October 18, 2007. Retrieved October 24, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Race remarks get Nobel winner in trouble", MSNBC and AP, October 18, 2007. Retrieved October 18, 2007.
Jump up ^ Syal, R. "Nobel scientist who sparked race row says sorry - I didn't mean it", Times Online, October 19, 2007. Retrieved October 24, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Watson Returns to USA after race row", International Herald Tribune, October 19, 2007. Retrieved on November 10, 2007
Jump up ^ Watson, James (September–October 2007). ""Blinded by Science". An exclusive excerpt from Watson's new memoir, Avoid Boring People: Lessons from a Life in Science". 02138 Magazine: 102. Archived from the original on October 24, 2007. Retrieved November 28, 2007. As we find the human genes whose malfunctioning gives rise to such devastating developmental failures, we may well discover that sequence differences within many of them also lead to much of the observable variation in human IQs. A priori, there is no firm reason to anticipate that the intellectual capacities of peoples geographically separated in their evolution should prove to have evolved identically. Our desire to reserve equal powers of reason as some universal heritage of humanity will not be enough to make it so.
Jump up ^ Jerry A. Coyne, "The complex James Watson", Times Literary Supplement, December 12, 2007
Jump up ^ "Interview with James Watson: 'How to Avoid Boring People: Lessons from a Life in Science'", The Science Network
Jump up ^ Watson, J.D. "James Watson: To question genetic intelligence is not racism", Independent, October 19, 2007. Retrieved October 24, 2007
Jump up ^ Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. October 18, 2007. Statement by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Board of Trustees and President Bruce Stillman, PhD Regarding Dr. Watson’s Comments in The Sunday Times on October 14, 2007. Press release. Retrieved October 24, 2007. Archived September 10, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Wigglesworth, K.DNA pioneer quits after race comments, L.A. Times, October 26, 2007. Retrieved December 5, 2007
Jump up ^ ""Nobel prize-winning biologist resigns."", CNN, October 25, 2007. Retrieved on October 25, 2007.
Jump up ^ van Marsh, A. "Nobel-winning biologist apologizes for remarks about blacks", CNN, October 19, 2007. Retrieved October 24, 2007.
Jump up ^ "DNA Pioneer Watson Resigns Amid Cloud of Scandal" by Malcolm Ritter AP 10/25/07 11:29 am PhT
Jump up ^ Watson, J.Statement by James D. Watson "Retirement", New York Times, October 25, 2007. Retrieved December 5, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory James D. Watson". cshl.edu. 2013. Archived from the original on May 24, 2013. Retrieved June 12, 2013.
Jump up ^ WebServices. "CSHLHistory - About Us". Retrieved June 29, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b DNA father James Watson's 'holy grail' request May 10, 2009
Jump up ^ Video: BBC 2 Horizon: The President's Guide to Science Archived May 31, 2010, at the Wayback Machine., September 16, 2008, see 28:00 to 34:00 mark
Jump up ^ " Watson's folly", Nature, October 24, 2007. Retrieved September 27, 2008.
Jump up ^ Rushton, J. Phillipe; Jensen, Arthur R. (November 2008). "James Watson's most inconvenient truth: Race realism and the moralistic fallacy". Medical Hypotheses. Elsevier. 71 (5): 629–640. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2008.05.031. PMID 18656315. Retrieved November 12, 2008.
Jump up ^ Crow, David (November 28, 2014). "James Watson to sell Nobel Prize medal". Financial Times. Retrieved December 1, 2014. 'Because I was an "unperson" I was fired from the boards of companies, so I have no income, apart from my academic income,' he said.
Jump up ^ Jones, Bryony (November 26, 2014). "DNA pioneer James Watson to sell Nobel Prize". CNN International World News. CNN. Retrieved November 30, 2014. Watson says he intends to use part of the money raised by the sale to fund projects at the universities and scientific research institutions he has worked at throughout his career.
Jump up ^ "[WATSON, JAMES DEWEY]. NOBEL PRIZE MEDAL". Christies.
Jump up ^ "James Watson selling Nobel prize 'because no-one wants to admit I exist'". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2017-08-21.
Jump up ^ Borrell, Brendan (December 5, 2014). "DNA Laureate James Watson's Nobel Medal Sells for $4.1M". Scientific American.
Jump up ^ "Russia's Usmanov to give back Watson's auctioned Nobel medal". BBC News. December 9, 2014. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
Jump up ^ Kitcher, Philip (1996). The Lives to Come: The Genetic Revolution and Human Possibilities.
Jump up ^ "Notable Signers". Humanism and Its Aspirations. American Humanist Association. Archived from the original on October 5, 2012. Retrieved October 4, 2012.
Jump up ^ The Lasker Foundation.1960 Winners Archived July 21, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.. Retrieved on November 4, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences Recipients". American Philosophical Society. Retrieved November 27, 2011.
Jump up ^ The Hastings Center Hastings Center Fellows. Accessed November 6, 2010
Jump up ^ Nobility News: Honorary Knights 2007
Jump up ^ O'Dowd, Niall. "He Helped Map the Structure of DNA. Up Next is a Cure For Cancer", Irish America magazine, March 10, 2011. Accessed March 22, 2011. "James Watson helped unravel the structure of DNA, a feat so stunning that it is considered the greatest scientific achievement of the 20th century. "
Jump up ^ "John J. Carty Award for the Advancement of Science". National Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on December 29, 2010. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
Jump up ^ National Constitution Center.2000 Liberty Medal Recipients. Retrieved on November 4, 2007.
Jump up ^ The National Science Foundation.The President's National Medal of Science: Recipient Details. February 14, 2006. Retrieved on November 4, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Othmer Gold Medal". Chemical Heritage Foundation.
Jump up ^ "James D. Watson to receive 2005 Othmer Gold Medal". Psych Central. February 23, 2005. Archived from the original on February 6, 2015. Retrieved June 12, 2014.
Jump up ^ Presidential Medal of Freedom, 2007. Retrieved on November 4, 2007.
Jump up ^ "University of Dublin, Trinity College".
Further reading[edit]
Chadarevian, S. (2002) Designs For Life: Molecular Biology After World War II. Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-57078-6
Chargaff, E. (1978) Heraclitean Fire. New York: Rockefeller Press.
Chomet, S., ed., (1994) D.N.A.: Genesis of a Discovery London: Newman-Hemisphere Press.
Collins, Francis. (2004) Coming to Peace With Science: Bridging the Worlds Between Faith and Biology. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-2742-8
Collins, Francis. (2007) The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief Free Press. ISBN 978-1-4165-4274-2
Crick, F.H.C. (1988) What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery (Basic Books reprint edition, 1990) ISBN 0-465-09138-5
John Finch; 'A Nobel Fellow On Every Floor', Medical Research Council 2008, 381 pp, ISBN 978-1-84046-940-0; this book is all about the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge.
Friedberg, E.C.; "Sydney Brenner: A Biography", CSHL Press October 2010, ISBN 0-87969-947-7.
Friedburg, E. C. (2005) "The Writing Life of James D. Watson". "Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press" ISBN 0-87969-700-8
Hunter, G. (2004) Light Is A Messenger: the life and science of William Lawrence Bragg. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-852921-X
Inglis, J., Sambrook, J. & Witkowski, J. A. (eds.) Inspiring Science: Jim Watson and the Age of DNA. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. 2003. ISBN 978-0-87969-698-6.
Judson, H. F. (1996). The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology, Expanded edition. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. ISBN 0-87969-478-5
Maddox, B. (2003). Rosalind Franklin: The Dark Lady of DNA. Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-06-098508-9
McEleheny, Victor K. (2003) Watson and DNA: Making a scientific revolution, Perseus. ISBN 0-7382-0341-6
Robert Olby; 1974) The Path to The Double Helix: Discovery of DNA. London: MacMillan. ISBN 0-486-68117-3; Definitive DNA textbook, with foreword by Francis Crick, revised in 1994 with a 9-page postscript.
Robert Olby; (2003) "Quiet debut for the double helix" Nature 421 (January 23): 402-405.
Robert Olby; "Francis Crick: Hunter of Life's Secrets", Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, ISBN 978-0-87969-798-3, August 2009.
Ridley, M. (2006) Francis Crick: Discoverer of the Genetic Code (Eminent Lives) New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 0-06-082333-X.
James D. Watson, "The Annotated and Illustrated Double Helix, edited by Alexander Gann and Jan Witkowski" (2012) Simon & Schuster, ISBN 978-1-4767-1549-0.
Wilkins, M. (2003) The Third Man of the Double Helix: The Autobiography of Maurice Wilkins. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860665-6.
The History of the University of Cambridge: Volume 4 (1870 to 1990), Cambridge University Press, 1992.
External links[edit]
Find more aboutJames D. Watsonat Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Learning resources from Wikiversity
James D. Watson Collection at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Library
DNA – The Double Helix Game from Nobelprize.org
MSN Encarta biography (Archived 2009-10-31)
DNA Interactive – This site from the Dolan DNA Learning Center (part of CSHL) commemorates the discovery of the structure of DNA and includes dozens of animations, as well as interviews with James Watson and others.
DNA from the Beginning – another DNA Learning Center site on the basics of DNA, genes, and heredity, from Mendel to the Human Genome Project.
Appearances on C-SPAN
James Watson on Charlie Rose
James Watson at TED
James Watson on IMDb
Works by or about James Watson in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
"James Watson collected news and commentary". The New York Times.
A Revolution at 50, February 25, 2003
Articles and interviews
BBC Four Interviews – Watson and Crick speaking on the BBC in 1962, 1972, and 1974.
NPR Science Friday: "A Conversation with Genetics Pioneer James Watson" – Ira Flatow interviews Watson on the history of DNA and his recent book A Passion for DNA: Genes, Genomes, and Society. 2002-06-02
NPR Science Friday "DNA: The Secret of Life" – Ira Flatow interviews Watson on his new book. 2003-05-02
Discover "Reversing Bad Truths" – David Duncan interviews Watson. 2003-07-01
Two remembrances of James Watson by one of the founders of molecular genetics, Esther Lederberg, can be found at http://www.estherlederberg.com/Anecdotes.html#WATSON1 and http://www.estherlederberg.com/Anecdotes.html#WATSON2
James Watson telling his life story at Web of Stories
[show]
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Laureates of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
1901–1925
1901 Emil Behring
1902 Ronald Ross
1903 Niels Finsen
1904 Ivan Pavlov
1905 Robert Koch
1906 Camillo Golgi / Santiago Ramón y Cajal
1907 Alphonse Laveran
1908 Élie Metchnikoff / Paul Ehrlich
1909 Emil Kocher
1910 Albrecht Kossel
1911 Allvar Gullstrand
1912 Alexis Carrel
1913 Charles Richet
1914 Róbert Bárány
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919 Jules Bordet
1920 August Krogh
1921
1922 Archibald Hill / Otto Meyerhof
1923 Frederick Banting / John Macleod
1924 Willem Einthoven
1925
1926–1950
1926 Johannes Fibiger
1927 Julius Wagner-Jauregg
1928 Charles Nicolle
1929 Christiaan Eijkman / Frederick Gowland Hopkins
1930 Karl Landsteiner
1931 Otto Warburg
1932 Charles Scott Sherrington / Edgar Adrian
1933 Thomas Morgan
1934 George Whipple / George Minot / William Murphy
1935 Hans Spemann
1936 Henry Dale / Otto Loewi
1937 Albert Szent-Györgyi
1938 Corneille Heymans
1939 Gerhard Domagk
1940
1941
1942
1943 Henrik Dam / Edward Doisy
1944 Joseph Erlanger / Herbert Gasser
1945 Alexander Fleming / Ernst Chain / Howard Florey
1946 Hermann Muller
1947 Carl Cori / Gerty Cori / Bernardo Houssay
1948 Paul Müller
1949 Walter Hess / António Egas Moniz
1950 Edward Kendall / Tadeusz Reichstein / Philip Hench
1951–1975
1951 Max Theiler
1952 Selman Waksman
1953 Hans Krebs / Fritz Lipmann
1954 John Enders / Thomas Weller / Frederick Robbins
1955 Hugo Theorell
1956 André Cournand / Werner Forssmann / Dickinson W. Richards
1957 Daniel Bovet
1958 George Beadle / Edward Tatum / Joshua Lederberg
1959 Severo Ochoa / Arthur Kornberg
1960 Frank Burnet / Peter Medawar
1961 Georg von Békésy
1962 Francis Crick / James Watson / Maurice Wilkins
1963 John Eccles / Alan Hodgkin / Andrew Huxley
1964 Konrad Bloch / Feodor Lynen
1965 François Jacob / André Lwoff / Jacques Monod
1966 Francis Rous / Charles B. Huggins
1967 Ragnar Granit / Haldan Hartline / George Wald
1968 Robert W. Holley / Har Khorana / Marshall Nirenberg
1969 Max Delbrück / Alfred Hershey / Salvador Luria
1970 Bernard Katz / Ulf von Euler / Julius Axelrod
1971 Earl Sutherland Jr.
1972 Gerald Edelman / Rodney Porter
1973 Karl von Frisch / Konrad Lorenz / Nikolaas Tinbergen
1974 Albert Claude / Christian de Duve / George Palade
1975 David Baltimore / Renato Dulbecco / Howard Temin
1976–2000
1976 Baruch Blumberg / Daniel Gajdusek
1977 Roger Guillemin / Andrew Schally / Rosalyn Yalow
1978 Werner Arber / Daniel Nathans / Hamilton O. Smith
1979 Allan Cormack / Godfrey Hounsfield
1980 Baruj Benacerraf / Jean Dausset / George Snell
1981 Roger Sperry / David H. Hubel / Torsten Wiesel
1982 Sune Bergström / Bengt I. Samuelsson / John Vane
1983 Barbara McClintock
1984 Niels Jerne / Georges Köhler / César Milstein
1985 Michael Brown / Joseph L. Goldstein
1986 Stanley Cohen / Rita Levi-Montalcini
1987 Susumu Tonegawa
1988 James W. Black / Gertrude B. Elion / George H. Hitchings
1989 J. Michael Bishop / Harold E. Varmus
1990 Joseph Murray / E. Donnall Thomas
1991 Erwin Neher / Bert Sakmann
1992 Edmond Fischer / Edwin G. Krebs
1993 Richard J. Roberts / Phillip Sharp
1994 Alfred G. Gilman / Martin Rodbell
1995 Edward B. Lewis / Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard / Eric F. Wieschaus
1996 Peter C. Doherty / Rolf M. Zinkernagel
1997 Stanley B. Prusiner
1998 Robert F. Furchgott / Louis Ignarro / Ferid Murad
1999 Günter Blobel
2000 Arvid Carlsson / Paul Greengard / Eric Kandel
2001–present
2001 Leland H. Hartwell / Tim Hunt / Paul Nurse
2002 Sydney Brenner / H. Robert Horvitz / John E. Sulston
2003 Paul Lauterbur / Peter Mansfield
2004 Richard Axel / Linda B. Buck
2005 Barry Marshall / Robin Warren
2006 Andrew Fire / Craig Mello
2007 Mario Capecchi / Martin Evans / Oliver Smithies
2008 Harald zur Hausen / Luc Montagnier / Françoise Barré-Sinoussi
2009 Elizabeth Blackburn / Carol W. Greider / Jack W. Szostak
2010 Robert G. Edwards
2011 Bruce Beutler / Jules A. Hoffmann / Ralph M. Steinman (posthumously)
2012 John B. Gurdon / Shinya Yamanaka
2013 James Rothman / Randy Schekman / Thomas C. Südhof
2014 John O'Keefe / May-Britt Moser / Edvard Moser
2015 William C. Campbell / Satoshi Ōmura / Tu Youyou
2016 Yoshinori Ohsumi
2017 Jeffrey C. Hall, Michael Rosbash, Michael W. Young
[show]
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United States National Medal of Science laureates
[show]
Behavioral and social science
1960s
1964: Roger Adams
Othmar H. Ammann
Theodosius Dobzhansky
Neal Elgar Miller
1980s
1986: Herbert A. Simon
1987: Anne Anastasi
George J. Stigler
1988: Milton Friedman
1990s
1990: Leonid Hurwicz
Patrick Suppes
1991: Robert W. Kates
George A. Miller
1992: Eleanor J. Gibson
1994: Robert K. Merton
1995: Roger N. Shepard
1996: Paul Samuelson
1997: William K. Estes
1998: William Julius Wilson
1999: Robert M. Solow
2000s
2000: Gary Becker
2001: George Bass
2003: R. Duncan Luce
2004: Kenneth Arrow
2005: Gordon H. Bower
2008: Michael I. Posner
2009: Mortimer Mishkin
2010s
2011: Anne Treisman
2014: Robert Axelrod
2015: Albert Bandura
[hide]
Biological sciences
1960s
1963: C. B. van Niel
1964: Marshall W. Nirenberg
1965: Francis P. Rous
George G. Simpson
Donald D. Van Slyke
1966: Edward F. Knipling
Fritz Albert Lipmann
William C. Rose
Sewall Wright
1967: Kenneth S. Cole
Harry F. Harlow
Michael Heidelberger
Alfred H. Sturtevant
1968: Horace Barker
Bernard B. Brodie
Detlev W. Bronk
Jay Lush
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
1969: Robert Huebner
Ernst Mayr
1970s
1970: Barbara McClintock
Albert B. Sabin
1973: Daniel I. Arnon
Earl W. Sutherland Jr.
1974: Britton Chance
Erwin Chargaff
James V. Neel
James Augustine Shannon
1975: Hallowell Davis
Paul Gyorgy
Sterling B. Hendricks
Orville Alvin Vogel
1976: Roger Guillemin
Keith Roberts Porter
Efraim Racker
E. O. Wilson
1979: Robert H. Burris
Elizabeth C. Crosby
Arthur Kornberg
Severo Ochoa
Earl Reece Stadtman
George Ledyard Stebbins
Paul Alfred Weiss
1980s
1981: Philip Handler
1982: Seymour Benzer
Glenn W. Burton
Mildred Cohn
1983: Howard L. Bachrach
Paul Berg
Wendell L. Roelofs
Berta Scharrer
1986: Stanley Cohen
Donald A. Henderson
Vernon B. Mountcastle
George Emil Palade
Joan A. Steitz
1987: Michael E. DeBakey
Theodor O. Diener
Harry Eagle
Har Gobind Khorana
Rita Levi-Montalcini
1988: Michael S. Brown
Stanley Norman Cohen
Joseph L. Goldstein
Maurice R. Hilleman
Eric R. Kandel
Rosalyn Sussman Yalow
1989: Katherine Esau
Viktor Hamburger
Philip Leder
Joshua Lederberg
Roger W. Sperry
Harland G. Wood
1990s
1990: Baruj Benacerraf
Herbert W. Boyer
Daniel E. Koshland Jr.
Edward B. Lewis
David G. Nathan
E. Donnall Thomas
1991: Mary Ellen Avery
G. Evelyn Hutchinson
Elvin A. Kabat
Salvador Luria
Paul A. Marks
Folke K. Skoog
Paul C. Zamecnik
1992: Maxine Singer
Howard Martin Temin
1993: Daniel Nathans
Salome G. Waelsch
1994: Thomas Eisner
Elizabeth F. Neufeld
1995: Alexander Rich
1996: Ruth Patrick
1997: James Watson
Robert A. Weinberg
1998: Bruce Ames
Janet Rowley
1999: David Baltimore
Jared Diamond
Lynn Margulis
2000s
2000: Nancy C. Andreasen
Peter H. Raven
Carl Woese
2001: Francisco J. Ayala
Mario R. Capecchi
Ann Graybiel
Gene E. Likens
Victor A. McKusick
Harold Varmus
2002: James E. Darnell
Evelyn M. Witkin
2003: J. Michael Bishop
Solomon H. Snyder
Charles Yanofsky
2004: Norman E. Borlaug
Phillip A. Sharp
Thomas E. Starzl
2005: Anthony S. Fauci
Torsten N. Wiesel
2006: Rita R. Colwell
Nina Fedoroff
Lubert Stryer
2007: Robert J. Lefkowitz
Bert W. O'Malley
2008: Francis S. Collins
Elaine Fuchs
J. Craig Venter
2009: Susan L. Lindquist
Stanley B. Prusiner
2010s
2010: Ralph L. Brinster
Shu Chien
Rudolf Jaenisch
2011: Lucy Shapiro
Leroy Hood
Sallie Chisholm
2014: May Berenbaum
Bruce Alberts
2015: Stanley Falkow
Rakesh K. Jain
Mary-Claire King
Simon Levin
[show]
Chemistry
1980s
1982: F. Albert Cotton
Gilbert Stork
1983: Roald Hoffmann
George C. Pimentel
Richard N. Zare
1986: Harry B. Gray
Yuan Tseh Lee
Carl S. Marvel
Frank H. Westheimer
1987: William S. Johnson
Walter H. Stockmayer
Max Tishler
1988: William O. Baker
Konrad E. Bloch
Elias J. Corey
1989: Richard B. Bernstein
Melvin Calvin
Rudolph A. Marcus
Harden M. McConnell
1990s
1990: Elkan Blout
Karl Folkers
John D. Roberts
1991: Ronald Breslow
Gertrude B. Elion
Dudley R. Herschbach
Glenn T. Seaborg
1992: Howard E. Simmons Jr.
1993: Donald J. Cram
Norman Hackerman
1994: George S. Hammond
1995: Thomas Cech
Isabella L. Karle
1996: Norman Davidson
1997: Darleane C. Hoffman
Harold S. Johnston
1998: John W. Cahn
George M. Whitesides
1999: Stuart A. Rice
John Ross
Susan Solomon
2000s
2000: John D. Baldeschwieler
Ralph F. Hirschmann
2001: Ernest R. Davidson
Gábor A. Somorjai
2002: John I. Brauman
2004: Stephen J. Lippard
2006: Marvin H. Caruthers
Peter B. Dervan
2007: Mostafa A. El-Sayed
2008: Joanna Fowler
JoAnne Stubbe
2009: Stephen J. Benkovic
Marye Anne Fox
2010s
2010: Jacqueline K. Barton
Peter J. Stang
2011: Allen J. Bard
M. Frederick Hawthorne
2014: Judith P. Klinman
Jerrold Meinwald
2015: A. Paul Alivisatos
Geraldine L. Richmond
[show]
Engineering sciences
1960s
1962: Theodore von Kármán
1963: Vannevar Bush
John Robinson Pierce
1964: Charles S. Draper
1965: Hugh L. Dryden
Clarence L. Johnson
Warren K. Lewis
1966: Claude E. Shannon
1967: Edwin H. Land
Igor I. Sikorsky
1968: J. Presper Eckert
Nathan M. Newmark
1969: Jack St. Clair Kilby
1970s
1970: George E. Mueller
1973: Harold E. Edgerton
Richard T. Whitcomb
1974: Rudolf Kompfner
Ralph Brazelton Peck
Abel Wolman
1975: Manson Benedict
William Hayward Pickering
Frederick E. Terman
Wernher von Braun
1976: Morris Cohen
Peter C. Goldmark
Erwin Wilhelm Müller
1979: Emmett N. Leith
Raymond D. Mindlin
Robert N. Noyce
Earl R. Parker
Simon Ramo
1980s
1982: Edward H. Heinemann
Donald L. Katz
1983: William Redington Hewlett
George M. Low
John G. Trump
1986: Hans Wolfgang Liepmann
T. Y. Lin
Bernard M. Oliver
1987: R. Byron Bird
H. Bolton Seed
Ernst Weber
1988: Daniel C. Drucker
Willis M. Hawkins
George W. Housner
1989: Harry George Drickamer
Herbert E. Grier
1990s
1990: Mildred Dresselhaus
Nick Holonyak Jr.
1991: George H. Heilmeier
Luna B. Leopold
H. Guyford Stever
1992: Calvin F. Quate
John Roy Whinnery
1993: Alfred Y. Cho
1994: Ray W. Clough
1995: Hermann A. Haus
1996: James L. Flanagan
C. Kumar N. Patel
1998: Eli Ruckenstein
1999: Kenneth N. Stevens
2000s
2000: Yuan-Cheng B. Fung
2001: Andreas Acrivos
2002: Leo Beranek
2003: John M. Prausnitz
2004: Edwin N. Lightfoot
2005: Jan D. Achenbach
Tobin J. Marks
2006: Robert S. Langer
2007: David J. Wineland
2008: Rudolf E. Kálmán
2009: Amnon Yariv
2010s
2010: Shu Chien
2011: John B. Goodenough
2014: Thomas Kailath
[show]
Mathematical, statistical, and computer sciences
1960s
1963: Norbert Wiener
1964: Solomon Lefschetz
H. Marston Morse
1965: Oscar Zariski
1966: John Milnor
1967: Paul Cohen
1968: Jerzy Neyman
1969: William Feller
1970s
1970: Richard Brauer
1973: John Tukey
1974: Kurt Gödel
1975: John W. Backus
Shiing-Shen Chern
George Dantzig
1976: Kurt Otto Friedrichs
Hassler Whitney
1979: Joseph L. Doob
Donald E. Knuth
1980s
1982: Marshall Harvey Stone
1983: Herman Goldstine
Isadore Singer
1986: Peter Lax
Antoni Zygmund
1987: Raoul Bott
Michael Freedman
1988: Ralph E. Gomory
Joseph B. Keller
1989: Samuel Karlin
Saunders Mac Lane
Donald C. Spencer
1990s
1990: George F. Carrier
Stephen Cole Kleene
John McCarthy
1991: Alberto Calderón
1992: Allen Newell
1993: Martin David Kruskal
1994: John Cocke
1995: Louis Nirenberg
1996: Richard Karp
Stephen Smale
1997: Shing-Tung Yau
1998: Cathleen Synge Morawetz
1999: Felix Browder
Ronald R. Coifman
2000s
2000: John Griggs Thompson
Karen K. Uhlenbeck
2001: Calyampudi R. Rao
Elias M. Stein
2002: James G. Glimm
2003: Carl R. de Boor
2004: Dennis P. Sullivan
2005: Bradley Efron
2006: Hyman Bass
2007: Leonard Kleinrock
Andrew J. Viterbi
2009: David B. Mumford
2010s
2010: Richard A. Tapia
S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan
2011: Solomon W. Golomb
Barry Mazur
2014: Alexandre Chorin
David Blackwell
2015: Michael Artin
[show]
Physical sciences
1960s
1963: Luis W. Alvarez
1964: Julian Schwinger
Harold Clayton Urey
Robert Burns Woodward
1965: John Bardeen
Peter Debye
Leon M. Lederman
William Rubey
1966: Jacob Bjerknes
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
Henry Eyring
John H. Van Vleck
Vladimir K. Zworykin
1967: Jesse Beams
Francis Birch
Gregory Breit
Louis Hammett
George Kistiakowsky
1968: Paul Bartlett
Herbert Friedman
Lars Onsager
Eugene Wigner
1969: Herbert C. Brown
Wolfgang Panofsky
1970s
1970: Robert H. Dicke
Allan R. Sandage
John C. Slater
John A. Wheeler
Saul Winstein
1973: Carl Djerassi
Maurice Ewing
Arie Jan Haagen-Smit
Vladimir Haensel
Frederick Seitz
Robert Rathbun Wilson
1974: Nicolaas Bloembergen
Paul Flory
William Alfred Fowler
Linus Carl Pauling
Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer
1975: Hans A. Bethe
Joseph O. Hirschfelder
Lewis Sarett
Edgar Bright Wilson
Chien-Shiung Wu
1976: Samuel Goudsmit
Herbert S. Gutowsky
Frederick Rossini
Verner Suomi
Henry Taube
George Uhlenbeck
1979: Richard P. Feynman
Herman Mark
Edward M. Purcell
John Sinfelt
Lyman Spitzer
Victor F. Weisskopf
1980s
1982: Philip W. Anderson
Yoichiro Nambu
Edward Teller
Charles H. Townes
1983: E. Margaret Burbidge
Maurice Goldhaber
Helmut Landsberg
Walter Munk
Frederick Reines
Bruno B. Rossi
J. Robert Schrieffer
1986: Solomon J. Buchsbaum
H. Richard Crane
Herman Feshbach
Robert Hofstadter
Chen-Ning Yang
1987: Philip Abelson
Walter Elsasser
Paul C. Lauterbur
George Pake
James A. Van Allen
1988: D. Allan Bromley
Paul Ching-Wu Chu
Walter Kohn
Norman F. Ramsey
Jack Steinberger
1989: Arnold O. Beckman
Eugene Parker
Robert Sharp
Henry Stommel
1990s
1990: Allan M. Cormack
Edwin M. McMillan
Robert Pound
Roger Revelle
1991: Arthur L. Schawlow
Ed Stone
Steven Weinberg
1992: Eugene M. Shoemaker
1993: Val Fitch
Vera Rubin
1994: Albert Overhauser
Frank Press
1995: Hans Dehmelt
Peter Goldreich
1996: Wallace S. Broecker
1997: Marshall Rosenbluth
Martin Schwarzschild
George Wetherill
1998: Don L. Anderson
John N. Bahcall
1999: James Cronin
Leo Kadanoff
2000s
2000: Willis E. Lamb
Jeremiah P. Ostriker
Gilbert F. White
2001: Marvin L. Cohen
Raymond Davis Jr.
Charles Keeling
2002: Richard Garwin
W. Jason Morgan
Edward Witten
2003: G. Brent Dalrymple
Riccardo Giacconi
2004: Robert N. Clayton
2005: Ralph A. Alpher
Lonnie Thompson
2006: Daniel Kleppner
2007: Fay Ajzenberg-Selove
Charles P. Slichter
2008: Berni Alder
James E. Gunn
2009: Yakir Aharonov
Esther M. Conwell
Warren M. Washington
2010s
2011: Sidney Drell
Sandra Faber
Sylvester James Gates
2014: Burton Richter
Sean C. Solomon
2015: Shirley Ann Jackson
[show]
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Copley Medallists of 1951–2000
David Keilin (1951)
Paul Dirac (1952)
Albert Kluyver (1953)
E. T. Whittaker (1954)
Ronald Fisher (1955)
Patrick Blackett (1956)
Howard Florey (1957)
John Edensor Littlewood (1958)
Frank Macfarlane Burnet (1959)
Harold Jeffreys (1960)
Hans Adolf Krebs (1961)
Cyril Norman Hinshelwood (1962)
Paul Fildes (1963)
Sydney Chapman (1964)
Alan Lloyd Hodgkin (1965)
William Lawrence Bragg (1966)
Bernard Katz (1967)
Tadeusz Reichstein (1968)
Peter Medawar (1969)
Alexander R. Todd (1970)
Norman Pirie (1971)
Nevill Francis Mott (1972)
Andrew Huxley (1973)
W. V. D. Hodge (1974)
Francis Crick (1975)
Dorothy Hodgkin (1976)
Frederick Sanger (1977)
Robert Burns Woodward (1978)
Max Perutz (1979)
Derek Barton (1980)
Peter D. Mitchell (1981)
John Cornforth (1982)
Rodney Robert Porter (1983)
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1984)
Aaron Klug (1985)
Rudolf Peierls (1986)
Robin Hill (1987)
Michael Atiyah (1988)
César Milstein (1989)
Abdus Salam (1990)
Sydney Brenner (1991)
George Porter (1992)
James D. Watson (1993)
Frederick Charles Frank (1994)
Frank Fenner (1995)
Alan Cottrell (1996)
Hugh Huxley (1997)
James Lighthill (1998)
John Maynard Smith (1999)
Alan Battersby (2000)
[show]
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Eli Lilly Award in Biological Chemistry
William M. Allen (1935)
Harold S. Alcott (1937)
Abraham White (1938)
George Wald (1939)
Eric G. Ball (1940)
David Rittenberg (1941)
Earl A. Evans, Jr. (1942)
Herbert E. Carter (1943)
Joseph S. Fruton (1944)
Max A. Lauffer (1945)
John D. Ferry (1946)
Sidney Colowick (1947)
Dilworth Woodley (1948)
Irving M. Klotz (1949)
William Shive (1950)
John M. Buchanan (1951)
David M. Bonner (1952)
Nathan O. Kaplan (1953)
Harvey Itano (1954)
William F. Neuman (1955)
Robert A. Alberty (1956)
Harold A. Scheraga (1957)
Lester J. Reed (1958)
Paul Berg (1959)
James Watson (1960)
Frederick Crane (1961)
Jerard Hurwitz (1962)
William P. Jencks (1963)
Bruce Ames (1964)
Gerald M. Edelman (1965)
Phillips W. Robbins (1966)
Gordon G. Hammes (1967)
Charles C. Richardson (1968)
Mario R. Capecchi (1969)
Lubert Stryer (1970)
David F. Wilson (1971)
Bruce M. Alberts (1972)
C. Fred Fox (1973)
James E. Dahlberg (1974)
Mark Ptashne (1975)
Joan A. Steitz (1976)
Robert G. Roeder (1977)
Charles R. Cantor (1978)
Christopher T. Walsh (1979)
Phillip A. Sharp (1980)
Roger D. Kornberg (1981)
Harold M. Weintraub (1982)
Richard Axel (1983)
David V. Goeddel (1984)
Gerald M. Rubin (1985)
James E. Rothman (1986)
Jacqueline K. Barton (1987)
Peter Walter (1988)
Michael M. Cox (1989)
George L. McLendon (1990)
Peter G. Schultz (1991)
William DeGrado (1992)
Stuart L. Schreiber (1993)
Peter S. Kim (1994)
Jeremy M. Berg (1995)
Gregory L. Verdine (1996)
Alanna Schepartz (1997)
John Kuriyan (1998)
Chaitan Khosla (1999)
Xiaodong Wang (2000)
Jennifer Doudna (2001)
Kevan M. Shokat (2002)
Andreas Matouschek (2003)
Benjamin Cravatt III (2004)
Dewey G. McCafferty (2005)
Linda Hsieh-Wilson (2006)
Anna K. Mapp (2007)
Paul J. Hergenrother (2008)
Scott K. Silverman (2009)
Alice Y. Ting (2010)
Nathanael Gray (2011)
Christopher J. Chang (2012)
Matthew D. Disney (2013)
Yi Tang (2014)
Minkui Luo (2015)
Elizabeth Nolan (2016)
Howard Hang (2017)
Bradley Pentelute (2018)
[show]
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History of biology
Fields,
disciplines
Agricultural science
Anatomy
Biochemistry
Biotechnology
Botany
Ecology
Evolutionary thought
Genetics
Geology
Immunology
Medicine
Model organisms
Molecular biology
Molecular evoluton
Paleontology
Phycology
Plant systematics
RNA biology
Zoology (since 1859)
Zoology (through 1859)
Institutions
Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
Laboratory of Molecular Biology
Marine Biological Laboratory
Max Planck Society
Pasteur Institute
Rockefeller University
Rothamsted Experimental Station
Stazione Zoologica
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
Theories,
concepts
Germ theory of disease
Central dogma of molecular biology
Darwinism
Great chain of being
Hierarchy of life
Lamarckism
One gene–one enzyme hypothesis
Protocell
RNA world hypothesis
Sequence hypothesis
Spontaneous generation
History
Classical
antiquity
Aristotle
Aristotle's biology
On Generation and Corruption
History of Animals
Theophrastus
Historia Plantarum
Dioscorides
De Materia Medica
Galen
Renaissance,
Early Modern
Conrad Gessner
Historia animalium
Andreas Vesalius
De humani corporis fabrica
William Harvey
De Motu Cordis
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
Micrographia
Francesco Redi
Evolution
19th
century
Linnaeus
Systema Naturae
Buffon
Histoire Naturelle
Lamarck
Philosophie Zoologique
Humboldt
Charles Lyell
Principles of Geology
Charles Darwin
On the Origin of Species
The Descent of Man
Gregor Mendel
Alfred Russel Wallace
Henry Walter Bates
Modern
synthesis
William Bateson
Theodosius Dobzhansky
Genetics and the Origin of Species
R. A. Fisher
E. B. Ford
J. B. S. Haldane
Ernst Mayr
Thomas Hunt Morgan
George Gaylord Simpson
Hugo de Vries
Sewall Wright
Recent
Stephen Jay Gould
W. D. Hamilton
Lynn Margulis
Aleksandr Oparin
George C. Williams
Carl Woese
Microbiology
Ferdinand Cohn
Alexander Fleming
Felix d'Herelle
Robert Koch
Louis Pasteur
Lazzaro Spallanzani
Sergei Winogradsky
Develop. biol.,
Evo-devo
Karl Ernst von Baer
Gavin de Beer
Sean B. Carroll
Scott F. Gilbert
Walter Gehring
Ernst Haeckel
François Jacob
Edward B. Lewis
Jacques Monod
Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard
Eric Wieschaus
E. B. Wilson
Genetics,
Molecular
biology
Experiments
Griffith's (1928)
Luria–Delbrück (1943)
Avery–MacLeod–McCarty (1944)
Miller–Urey (1952)
Hershey–Chase (1952)
Meselson–Stahl (1958)
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VIAF: 90069089
LCCN: n80015458
ISNI: 0000 0001 1451 4801
GND: 118629468
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SUDOC: 027193454
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ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\066511
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