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Chicana/o studies
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Chicano studies originated in the Chicano Movement of the late 1960s and 1970s.[1] Chicano Studies concerns itself with the study of Chicanos, Latinos, and Mexican Americans,[2] drawing upon a variety of fields, including, but not limited to, history, sociology, the arts, and Chicana/Chicano theory.
In many universities across the United States, Chicano Studies is linked with interdisciplinary ethnic studies and other Ethnic Studies fields such as Black Studies, Asian American Studies, and Native American Studies. Many students who have studied anthropology have also been involved in varying degrees in Chicano studies.[3] Today most major universities in areas of high Chicano concentration have a formal Chicano studies department or interdisciplinary program.[1] Providing classes in the ethnic studies area, like Chicano studies has been shown to help the "learning environment for students of color through limiting feelings of prejudice and experiences of discrimination in college."[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Schools of thought
3 Current Events
4 Scholars whose work is associated with Chicano studies
5 Programs and departments
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Many Chicano scholars agree that Chicano studies came about as a result of the Chicano student movements, whether they were in the form of protests, activism or just taking part in el movimiento.[5] Chicano studies was seen as a way to advance Mexican American perspectives on culture, history and literature.[4] The major push for universities and colleges to include Chicano studies came within the context of the African-American civil rights struggle.[6][7] During this period, Mexican American educators demanded that colleges and universities address the pedagogical needs of Mexican American students.[6] This was especially important because Mexican American student populations grew significantly in the 1960s.[8] In addition, many young people and students were becoming very politically aware and organized.[8] A very prominent student organization that grew out of the civil rights movements of the '60s was the Mexican American Youth Organization (MAYO), which began to work towards educational reform.[9] MAYO was very active in promoting student walkouts in Texas and California to highlight problems that Mexican American students faced.[9] As students became more organized, they began to develop "experimental colleges" where informal classes on topics important to the Chicano movement were taught.[9]
Manuel H. Guerra, professor at the University of Southern California and chair of the Mexican American Political Association's (MAPA) Education Committee, reported in 1963 on "serious discriminatory policies and practices" at his university in relation to hiring Mexican-Americans, especially considering that there had been an increase in the number of Mexican American students.[8] Serving Mexican-American students without providing Mexican American faculty was considered a sort of colonialism and cultural assimilation.[8] In addition, many Mexican American students were put at a disadvantage because speaking Spanish (even outside of class) was considered "degrading" or "un-American."[9] Opportunities such as the Educational Opportunity Program (EOP) helped increase the number of minorities entering colleges and universities.[9] Educators and students alike began to visualize "an academic program that could serve and transform the Mexican American community," a program that would become Chicano studies and which was built by and for Chicanos.[10]
In 1967, anthropologist Octavio Romano along with graduate students at the University of California, Berkeley began to publish a Chicano studies journal called El Grito: A Journal of Contemporary Mexican-American Thought.[11] His co-founder was Nick. C. Vaca.[9] Many of the ideas surrounding the formation of later Chicano studies programs stemmed from this publication.[11] One major idea that was put forth in El Grito by its editors was that Mexican Americans, in contrast to other ethnic groups, "have retained their distinct identity and refused to disappear into The Great American Melting Pot."[9] The consequence of this, felt the editors, was that Mexican Americans were kept in an economic and politically impoverished state.[9] Also in 1967, Ralph Guzmán, a political scientist was hired by Los Angeles State to conduct a study which would lay the foundation for the creation of a national center for Mexican American studies at California State College, Los Angeles (CSCLA).[9] Both Mexican American and Black Student Unions pressed CSCLA to have ethnic studies classes at this time.[9]
The Plan de Santa Barbara is generally considered to be the manifesto of Chicano Studies.[10] Drafted in 1969 at the University of California, Santa Barbara, the Plan emphasizes the need for education, and especially higher education to enact Chicano community empowerment.[12] The Plan helped to "establish Chicano studies as an entity incorporated into the structures of academia."[12] However, while the Plan articulated a need for education, it did not specify how to create a program of study.[10] The Plan did, however, lead to the creation of the Chicano Studies Institute in 1969.[13] Another important document in Chicano studies was also produced in 1969. In March of that year, the Chicano Youth Conference held in Denver produced a plan written by Chicano poet, Alurista.[9] It was called El Plan Espiritual de Aztlán (The Spiritual Plan of Aztlán) and it contains a concept of "ethnic nationalism and self-determination."[9] The idea of the mythic homeland of the Aztec people, Aztlán, is one that unifies the United States and Mexico and correspondingly, united Mexican Americans with a sense of nationalism.[14]
In 1970, a major Chicano journal began to be published at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA).[15] The journal was called Aztlán: A Journal of Chicano Studies and it was created at first by the students.[15] The journal, Aztlán, had a big influence on the discourse surrounding Chicano studies and helped "establish and legitimize" the subject in colleges and universities.[15] The name of the journal came directly from El Plan Espiritual de Aztlán and under the direction of the historian Juan Gomez-Quiñones, the journal supported and sustained a culture of activism.[14] Chicano scholars in 1970 also wrote papers for the Chicano Studies Institute which were later published in the journal, Epoca.[10] These papers addressed topics such as Chicano curriculum, goals of the educational program and how to achieve academic recognition.[10]
As Chicano studies programs began to be implemented at universities, it was necessary to provide infrastructure and support. In 1973, the University of California, Berkeley recognized the need to provide quality library materials to support the Chicano studies programs.[16] Chicano scholars also recognized the need to have a "Chicano-controlled academic" space.[17] Researchers began to study the impact that these new programs had on students, finding that Mexican-American students responded positively to Chicano studies and also to bilingual classes.[7][18] Many scholars felt that the philosophy of education in the United States at the time was "inconsistent with the values of the Chicano movement" and that Chicano studies needed to create tools for students to use in the real world and also a new type of research to solve problems.[10] It was also important to find ways to recruit Chicano teachers and administration within the schools to support students and research.[10] Further support for Chicano studies came in the form of the National Association for Chicana and Chicano Studies (NACCS) which was created in 1972 in San Antonio, Texas.[19] The NACCS allows scholars in Chicano studies to exchange ideas, share research, communicate and it also has an annual conference.[19] The conferences were important to help bring together scholars and legitimize Chicano studies, since other disciplines have similar annual conferences.[10]
By 1975, many Chicano studies programs were in place at major universities.[10]
The ten years between 1977 and 1987 saw "tremendous changes in the foundations of Chicano/a studies."[14] During this period, Chicano studies began to include more diverse voices that better represented women, homosexuality and other under-represented groups under the umbrella of "Chicano" while also acknowledging the many differences within the group.[14] In 1981, the Mexican American Studies and Research Center (MASRC) at the University of Arizona was established. MASRC focused on contemporary applied public policy research on Mexican Americans. MASRC became a department in 2009. As the Mexican American Studies Department, it continued public policy research and teaching to addressing issues of concern to Mexican American communities. It currently offers bachelor's degrees, master's degrees, and in 2011, began offering a Ph.D. degree in Mexican American Studies. The idea of the "borderland" or nepantla grew stronger than the idea of Aztlán by the 1980s and Chicanaos celebrated the many different (often conflicting) aspects of themselves.[14] Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (1987) by Gloria Anzaldúa both grew out of and signifies this change.[14] Chicano studies became less about nationalism, and more about belonging to a group and contributing to "something greater."[14] This shift helped reshape the mission of Chicano studies and gave it "new life" and "new authority."[14]
The 1980s saw more Chicano Studies programs integrated into institutions of higher learning while it also created a "canonical approach" to its studies and "gatekeeping procedures" to evaluate promotions and tenure.[12] In addition, Chicano studies programs helped universities and colleges fulfill Affirmative Action requirements.[6] During the mid 1990s, however, a study found that most Chicano studies programs were still very non-uniform.[20] Part of the reason that many Chicano studies programs were not consistent in what was studied is that a core curriculum had not yet been formally published.[3] The first primer of Chicano studies was published in 1980 by Diego Vigil, called From Indians to Chicanos: A Sociocultural History.[3] In addition, there was a lack of Chicano faculty with only 1.2% of faculty at U.S. colleges and universities having any "Hispanic" ethnicity at all in 1985.[6] Many of the faculty teaching Chicano studies didn't feel that their own programs were "qualitatively sound."[6]
Schools of thought[edit]
Chicano studies has two major threads, one is considered pragmatic and the other transformational.[12] The pragmatic method involves a more activist and "politicized" approach while the transformational method is more in line with working within the traditions of academia, rather than against it.[12]
Current Events[edit]
Protesters are seen in June 2011 in support of the Tucson Unified School District's Mexican-American studies program. A new state law effectively ended the program saying it was divisive.
On May 11, 2010, the Governor of Arizona, Jan Brewer, signed House Bill 2281 (also known as HB 2281) which prohibits a school district or charter school from including in its curriculum courses that
Promote the overthrow of the United States Government
Promote resentment toward any race or class
Advocate ethnic solidarity instead of being individuals
Are designed for a certain ethnicity
while still allowing:
Native American classes to comply with federal law
Grouping of classes based on academic performance
Classes about the history of an ethnic group open to all students
Classes discussing controversial history
Another provision of the law stated that any school district or charter school breaching its stated provisions would be liable to lose state funding as a public institution.[21]
As a result, the Mexican-American studies program as taught by Tucson Unified School District (TUSD) came under scrutiny and was found to be in violation of the law by Tom Horne. However, an independent audit (paid for by the state of Arizona) was conducted, and found the program was not in breach of HB 2281.[22] With pressure from former Arizona Superintendent Tom Horne, who felt the courses were breaching HB 2281, and after TUSD issued an appeal stating otherwise, Superintendent John Huppenthal deemed that the course must be disbanded or TUSD would lose funding.[23] Thus, in January 2012, the TUSD school board came to a 4-1 decision that the program was to be disbanded in lieu of the district losing state funding.[24]
A further consequence of HB 2281 was opening the door to challenges and limiting classes teaching Chicano studies not just in Arizona, but across the United States.[4]
Scholars whose work is associated with Chicano studies[edit]
Rodolfo Acuña
Gloria Anzaldúa
Cecilia Preciado de Burciaga
Luis Leal
Amalia Mesa-Bains
Isidro Ortiz
Jacinto Quirarte
María Guillermina Valdes Villalva
Refugio I Rochin (Founder Smithsonian Latino Center)
Felipe de Ortego y Gasca (Founding Director Chicano Studies, University of Texas—El Paso, 1970)
Programs and departments[edit]
This is an abbreviated list of programs throughout the United States which can be associated with Chicano Studies.
Chicano/Latino Studies Program, University of California, Berkeley
Department of Chicano Studies, California State University, Los Angeles CSULA
Department of Chicana and Chicano Studies, California State University, Northridge CSUN
Department of Chicana & Chicano studies and César E. Chávez Center for Interdisciplinary Education and Chicano Studies Research Center, UCLA
Department of Chicano/Latino Studies, University of California, Irvine
Department of Chicana and Chicano Studies and Center for Chicano Studies, UCSB
Center for Mexican American Studies (CMAS), The University of Texas at Arlington
Department of Mexican American Studies, University of Arizona
Chicano Studies, California State University, Bakersfield
Transborder Chicano/a Latino/a Studies, Arizona State University
Department of Chicano/Chicana Studies, California State University, Dominguez Hills
Chicana and Chicano Studies Program, California State University, Fullerton
Chicano Studies, Claremont McKenna College
Department of Chicana and Chicano Studies, Loyola Marymount University
Department of Chicana/o Studies, Metropolitan State College of Denver
Department of Chicana & Chicano Studies, San Diego State University
Chicano Studies[dead link], Scripps College
Chicana and Chicano Studies major, Stanford University
Chicana/o Studies Program, University of California, Davis
Department of Chicano Studies, University of Minnesota
Chicano Hispano Mexicano Studies, University of New Mexico
Center for Mexican-American Studies, University of Texas at Austin
Mexican-American Studies Program, University of Texas at San Antonio
Chicana/o Studies, University of Texas at El Paso
Chicano Studies, University of Washington
Chican@ and Latin@ Studies, University of Wisconsin–Madison
Chicano Studies Program, University of Wyoming
Chicano/Latino Studies, PhD Program, Michigan State University
of Chicana/Chicano and Hemispheric Studies[dead link], Western New Mexico University
See also[edit]
Asian American studies
Black studies
Chicano movement
Gender studies
Latino studies
Mexican Studies (journal)
Native American studies
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Foster, David William (2005). "Recent Chicana/O Cultural Criticism". Latin American Research Review. 40 (2): 166–177. Retrieved 12 May 2015. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ National Association for Chicana and Chicano Studies, http://www.naccs.org/naccs/About_NACCS_EN.asp?SnID=1529216044[permanent dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b c Velez-Ibanez, Carlos G. (1998). "Chicano Drivers of Ideas in Anthropology across Space and Place: Pre-Postmodern Debts to Chicano Studies and Others". JSRI Occasional Paper No. 53 Latino Studies Series. Retrieved 12 May 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Nuñez, Anne-Marie (2011). "Counterspaces and Connections in College Transitions: First-Generation Latino Students' Perspectives on Chicano Studies". Journal of College Student Development. 52 (6): 639–655. Retrieved 12 May 2015. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ Soldatenko, Michael (2012). "The Genesis of Academic Chicano Studies, 1967-1970". Chicano Studies: The Genesis of a Discipline (PDF). Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona Press. pp. 12–37. ISBN 9780816599530. Retrieved 12 May 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Rochin, Refugio I.; de la Torre, Adela (April 1986). "The Current Status and Future of Chicano Studies Programs: Are They Academically Sound?". ERIC. U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved 12 May 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Hinrichsen, Keith A. (25 April 1975). "Administrative Reorganizational Needs in Chicano Studies at Cerritos College". ERIC. U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved 12 May 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Acuna, Rodolfo (2011). "The Sixties and the Bean Count". The Making of Chicano Studies: In the Trenches of Academe (PDF). New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. pp. 14–35. ISBN 9780813550015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Acuna, Rodolfo (2011). "From Student Power to Chicano Studies". The Making of Chicano Studies: In the Trenches of Academe (PDF). New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. pp. 36–58. ISBN 9780813550701. Retrieved 13 May 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Soldatenko, Michael (2012). "Empirics and Chicano Studies: The Formation of Empirical Chicano Studies, 1970-1975". Chicano Studies: The Genesis of a Discipline (PDF). Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona Press. pp. 38–66. ISBN 9780816599530. Retrieved 14 May 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Gonzalez, Phillip B. (2012). "Chicano Studies Examined". Journal of American Ethnic History. 31 (4): 69–74. ISSN 0278-5927. Retrieved 12 May 2015. (Subscription required (help)).
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Pérez-Torres, Rafael (2013). "Chicano Studies's Two Paths". American Literary History. 25 (3): 683–692. Retrieved 12 May 2015. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ "About the Institute". Chicano Studies Institute. Retrieved 14 May 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Aranda Jr., Jose F. (2002). "Making the Case for New Chicano/a Studies: Recovering Our Alienated Selves" (PDF). Arizona Quarterly. 58 (1): 127–158. doi:10.1353/arq.2002.0011. Retrieved 14 May 2015. (Subscription required (help)).
^ Jump up to: a b c Pulido, Alberto Lopez (2002). "In the Spirit of Ernesto Galarza: Recent Publications in Chicano Studies". American Quarterly. 54 (4): 719–729. Retrieved 14 May 2015. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ Padilla, Raymond V. (1973). "Providing Library Services for the Chicano Studies Program at the University of California, Berkeley". ERIC. U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved 12 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Soldatenko, Michael (2012). "Chicano Studies as an Academic Discipline, 1975-1982". Chicano Studies: The Genesis of a Discipline (PDF). Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona Press. pp. 94–129. ISBN 9780816599530. Retrieved 14 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Gonzalez, Jess (1975). "Chicano Studies and Self-Concept: Implications for the Community Colleges". ERIC. U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved 12 May 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "History of NACCS". National Association for Chicana and Chicano Studies. Retrieved 14 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Jaramillo, James A. (1995). "Current Mexican-American and Chicano Studies Undergraduate College Programs in the United States". ERIC. U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved 12 May 2015.
Jump up ^ "Arizona House Bill 2281 (2010)" (PDF). Retrieved October 17, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Racial Lens Used to Cull Curriculum in Arizona" (article). nytimes.com. Retrieved April 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ Rodriguez, Tito (May 13, 2010). "Arizona Bans Chicano Studies in Public Schools". Mexican-American.org. Archived from the original on April 27, 2011.
Jump up ^ Castellanos, Dalina (April 4, 2012). "Mexican American studies: 'Daily Show' Segment Strikes a Nerve". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved April 10, 2012.
Refugio I. Rochin, The Short and Turbulent Life of Chicano Studies: A Preliminary Study of Emerging Programs and Problems, Social Science Quarterly, Vol. 53, No. 4, THE CHICANO EXPERIENCE IN THE UNITED STATES (MARCH, 1973), pp. 884–894 (Wiley URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/42859068).
External links[edit]
National Association for Chicana and Chicano studies
Tomás Rivera Policy Institute
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Ball-and-stick model
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A plastic ball-and-stick model of proline
In chemistry, the ball-and-stick model is a molecular model of a chemical substance which is to display both the three-dimensional position of the atoms and the bonds between them.[1] The atoms are typically represented by spheres, connected by rods which represent the bonds. Double and triple bonds are usually represented by two or three curved rods, respectively, or alternately by correctly positioned sticks for the sigma and pi bonds. In a good model, the angles between the rods should be the same as the angles between the bonds, and the distances between the centers of the spheres should be proportional to the distances between the corresponding atomic nuclei. The chemical element of each atom is often indicated by the sphere's color.[2]
In a ball-and-stick model, the radius of the spheres is usually much smaller than the rod lengths, in order to provide a clearer view of the atoms and bonds throughout the model. As a consequence, the model does not provide a clear insight about the space occupied by the model. In this aspect, ball-and-stick models are distinct from space-filling (calotte) models, where the sphere radii are proportional to the Van der Waals atomic radii in the same scale as the atom distances, and therefore show the occupied space but not the bonds.
Computer ball-and-stick model of cyclohexane.
Ball-and-stick models can be physical artifacts or virtual computer models. The former are usually built from molecular modeling kits, consisting of a number of coil springs or plastic or wood sticks, and a number of plastic balls with pre-drilled holes. The sphere colors commonly follow the CPK coloring. Some university courses on chemistry require students to buy such models as learning material.
History[edit]
Hofmann's 1865 stick-and-ball model of methane (CH4).
In 1865, German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann was the first to make stick-and-ball molecular models. He used such models in lecture at the Royal Institution of Great Britain.
Specialist companies manufacture kits and models to order. One of the earlier companies was Woosters at Bottisham, Cambridgeshire, UK. Besides tetrahedral, trigonal and octahedral holes, there were all-purpose balls with 24 holes. These models allowed rotation about the single rod bonds, which could be both an advantage (showing molecular flexibility) and a disadvantage (models are floppy). The approximate scale was 5 cm per ångström (0.5 m/nm or 500,000,000:1), but was not consistent over all elements.
A Beevers ball-and-stick model of ruby (chromium-doped corundum).
The Beevers Miniature Models company in Edinburgh (now operating as Miramodus) produced small models beginning in 1961[3] using PMMA balls and stainless steel rods. In these models, the use of individually drilled balls with precise bond angles and bond lengths enabled large crystal structures to be accurately created in a light and rigid form.
See also[edit]
VSEPR theory
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Turner M (1971). "Ball and stick models for organic chemistry". Journal of Chemical Education. 48 (6): 407. doi:10.1021/ed048p407.
Jump up ^ Olmsted J, Williams GM (1997). Chemistry: The Molecular Science. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-8151-8450-8.
Jump up ^ "(Cecil) Arnold Beevers". Gazetteer for Scotland. Retrieved 29 November 2017.
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This page was last edited on 1 December 2017, at 18:55.
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