text:
Gun laws in West Virginia
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Gun laws in West Virginia regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the U.S. state of West Virginia.[1][2]
Subject/Law
Long Guns
Handguns
Relevant Statutes
Notes
Permit to purchase required? No No
Firearm registration? No No
Owner license required? No No
Carry permits required? No No §61-7-4
§61-7-7
As of May 24, 2016,[3] West Virginia became a constitutional carry state. Any person 21 years or older who is legally able to own a handgun may carry the weapon concealed without the need of obtaining a permit. A permit is required for individuals 18-20 years old who wish to carry a handgun concealed. Carry permits are still issued on a "shall issue" basis to anyone who would like one for reciprocity purposes. As of October 2016, there are 37 states that recognize WV permits for those 21 years or older, and of those 35 states, 16 recognize WV permits issued to persons 18 years or older. Note: 2 of the 37 states don't officially recognize the WV permit, but are constitutional carry states, so no permit is required.[4][5]
Open carry permitted? Yes Yes Open carry is generally allowed without a permit.
State preemption of local restrictions? Yes Yes §8-12-5a Pursuant to The Enrolled Public Act of Senate Bill 317 by The West Virginia Legislature, as Signed into Law by Governor Tomblin, The Amended Provisions of West Virginia Code Section 8-12-5a(a) Preempt and Preclude Municipalities from Regulating: '...The Carry[ing] of any Revolver, Pistol, Rifle, or Shotgun'. As a Result, a Municipality may no longer Prohibit Open Carry of a Firearm within its Jurisdictional Limits.
Assault weapon law? No No
NFA weapons restricted? No No
Shall Certify? Yes Yes §61-7-16 Shall certify within 30 days.
Background checks required for private sales? No No
Location of West Virginia in the United States
The Constitution of West Virginia protects the right of the people to keep and bear arms.[6] West Virginia preempts local regulation of several aspects of firearms, though local regulations which were in effect prior to 1999 were grandfathered.[1][2][7] Further, State agencies and institutions are not precluded from enacting laws which regulate firearms.[8] Charleston, Dunbar, and South Charleston are known to have grandfathered local ordinances which prohibit weapons on city property and in city buildings. The City of Martinsburg is known to have a local ordinance that was passed after 1999, which prohibits weapons in city buildings, that is not grandfathered.[9][10][11]
There are no firearms known to be prohibited by State law. Prohibited places include correctional facilities, primary and secondary school property (excluding firearms within a vehicle);[12] buses; and events, courthouses, the State Capitol Complex and grounds, private property where posted, certain areas in Charleston, Dunbar, and South Charleston.[13] There are age restrictions on the possession of firearms and some people are prohibited from possessing firearms due to certain criminal convictions or naturalization status. Private sales of firearms, including handguns, are legal and do not require the seller to perform a background check; however, it is unlawful to sell a firearm to a prohibited person.[1][2]
Open carry of a handgun without a permit is legal in West Virginia at age 18, withstanding other applicable laws. No permit is necessary for concealed carry of a handgun for any individual over the age of 21 who is legally allowed to own a handgun. A permit is required for individuals 18-20 to carry a concealed handgun assuming they are otherwise legally allowed to own the firearm.
West Virginia enacted the castle doctrine on April 10, 2008.[14]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "West Virginia State Law Summary", Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence. Retrieved January 2, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c "State Gun Laws: West Virginia", National Rifle Association – Institute for Legislative Action. Retrieved January 2, 2013.
Jump up ^ NRA-ILA. "NRA-ILA | West Virginia: Permitless Carry Went Into Effect on May 24!". NRA-ILA. Retrieved 2016-06-01.
Jump up ^ "States Recognizing West Virginia Concealed Handgun Licenses". www.ago.wv.gov. Retrieved 2016-10-07.
Jump up ^ NRA-ILA. "NRA-ILA | West Virginia: Attorney General Morrisey Announces Expanded Concealed Handgun Recognition". NRA-ILA. Retrieved 2016-10-07.
Jump up ^ West Virginia Constitution – Article III, §3–22. Right to keep and bear arms.
Jump up ^ "Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives – State Laws and Published Ordinances – Firearms" (PDF). Retrieved November 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ §8-12-5a. Limitations upon municipalities' power to restrict the purchase, possession, transfer, ownership, carrying, transport, sale and storage of certain weapons and ammunition.
Jump up ^ West Virginia Citizens Defense League – Proposed Legislation – 2. Strengthen the state preemption law
Jump up ^ West Virginia Citizens Defense League – Charleston City Council Presentation
Jump up ^ West Virginia Citizens Defense League – Martinsburg City Council Presentation
Jump up ^ NRA-ILA. "NRA-ILA | West Virginia: Governor Signs Pro-Gun Bills into Law". NRA-ILA. Retrieved 2017-04-27.
Jump up ^ West Virginia Citizens Defense League – Places Off Limits While Carrying Archived 2017-01-29 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Porterfield, Mannix (2008-04-10). "Manchin signs 'Castle Doctrine' bill". The Register-Herald. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
[hide]
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The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas
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For the film, see The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas (film).
The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas
Author
John Boyne
Country
Ireland
Language
English
Genre
Historical / post modern
Publisher
David Fickling Books
Publication date
5 January 2006
Media type
Print (hard cover & paper back)
Pages
216
ISBN
0-385-60940-X
OCLC
62132588
Dewey Decimal
823.914 22
LC Class
CS 2006/45764
The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas is a 2006[1] Holocaust novel by Irish novelist John Boyne. Unlike the months of planning Boyne devoted to his other books, he said that he wrote the entire first draft of The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas in two and a half days, barely sleeping until he got to the end.[1] As of March 2010, the novel had sold more than five million copies around the world.[2] In both 2007 and 2008, it was the best selling book of the year in Spain, and it has also reached number one on the New York Times bestseller list,[3] as well as in the UK, Ireland, and Australia.[not verified in body] The book was adapted in 2008 as a film of the same name.
Plot[edit]
Bruno is a 9-year-old boy growing up during World War II in Berlin. He lives with his parents, his 12-year-old sister Gretel and maids, one of whom is called Maria. After a visit by Adolf Hitler, Bruno's father is promoted to Commandant, and the family has to move to "Out-With" because of the orders of "The Fury" (Bruno's naïve interpretation of the word 'Führer'). Bruno is initially upset about moving to Out-With (in actuality, Auschwitz)[4] and leaving his friends, Daniel, Karl, and Martin. From the house at Out-With, Bruno sees a camp in which the prisoners wear striped pyjamas. One day, Bruno decides to explore the strange wire fence. As he walks along the fence, he meets a Jewish boy named Shmuel, who he learns shares his birthday. Shmuel says that his father, grandfather, and brother are with him on this side of the fence, but he is separated from his mother. Bruno and Shmuel talk and become very good friends, although Bruno still does not understand very much about Shmuel and his side of the fence. Nearly every day, unless it's raining, Bruno goes to see Shmuel and sneaks him food. As the meetings go on, and Shmuel gets more and more skinny, Bruno's naïveté means he never realizes he is living beside a death camp.
When lice eggs are discovered in Bruno's hair he is forced to get all of his hair shaved off. Bruno comments that he looks like Shmuel, and Shmuel agrees, except that Bruno is fatter. Bruno's mother eventually persuades his father to take them back to Berlin and stay at Out-With without them.
The next day Bruno concocts a plan with Shmuel to sneak into the camp to look for Shmuel's father. Shmuel brings a set of prison clothes (which look to Bruno like striped pyjamas), and Bruno leaves his own clothes outside the fence. As they search the camp, both children are rounded up along with a group of prisoners on a "march".They are forced to remove their clothing and are lead into a gas chamber. In the gas chamber, Bruno apologizes to Shmuel for not finding his father and tells Shmuel that he is Bruno's best friend for life. Shmuel does not answer, as at that moment the door of the gas chamber is closed, it becomes dark, and all is chaos.
Critics' reviews[edit]
Some critics have called the premise of the book and subsequent film – that there would be a child of Shmuel's age in the camp – erroneous. Reviewing the original book, Rabbi Benjamin Blech wrote: "Note to the reader: There were no 9-year-old Jewish boys in Auschwitz – the Nazis immediately gassed those not old enough to work."[5] Rabbi Blech affirmed the opinion of a Holocaust survivor friend that the book is "not just a lie and not just a fairytale, but a profanation". Blech acknowledges the objection that a "fable" need not be factually accurate; he counters that the book trivializes the conditions in and around the death camps and perpetuates the "myth that those [...] not directly involved can claim innocence", and thus undermines its moral authority. Students who read it, he warns, may believe the camps "weren't that bad" if a boy could conduct a clandestine friendship with a Jewish captive of the same age, unaware of "the constant presence of death".[6]
Kathryn Hughes, whilst agreeing about the implausibility of the plot, argues that "Bruno's innocence comes to stand for the willful refusal of all adult Germans to see what was going on under their noses".[7]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Interview with Children's Author John Boyne (2006)". Archived from the original on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
Jump up ^ "BBC World Service - World Book Club - Downloads". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-03-15.
Jump up ^ "Biography". John Boyne. Retrieved 2016-03-15.
Jump up ^ Hughes, Kathryn (20 January 2006). "Educating Bruno". The Guardian. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Blech, Benjamin (October 23, 2008). "The Boy in the Striped Pajamas". Aish.com. Archived from the original on August 30, 2009. Retrieved August 30, 2009.
Jump up ^ Rabbi Benjamin Blech (October 23, 2008). "The Boy in the Striped Pajamas". aish.com. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
Jump up ^ Hughes, Kathryn (21 January 2006). "Educating Bruno". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 8 February 2012. Retrieved 8 February 2012.
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 182554061
LCCN: no2009181923
GND: 7719172-9
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Boy_in_the_Striped_Pyjamas&oldid=838288447"
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text:
Primary motor cortex
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Primary motor cortex
Brodmann area 4 of human brain.
Primary motor cortex shown in green.
Details
Part of
Precentral gyrus
Artery
Anterior cerebral
Middle cerebral
Identifiers
Latin
cortex motorius primus
NeuroNames
1910
NeuroLex ID
nlx_143555
FMA
224854
Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
[edit on Wikidata]
Animation. Primary motor cortex (Brodmann area 4) of the left cerebral hemisphere shown in red.
The primary motor cortex (Brodmann area 4) is a brain region that in humans is located in the dorsal portion of the frontal lobe. It is the primary region of the motor system and works in association with other motor areas including premotor cortex, the supplementary motor area, posterior parietal cortex, and several subcortical brain regions, to plan and execute movements. Primary motor cortex is defined anatomically as the region of cortex that contains large neurons known as Betz cells. Betz cells, along with other cortical neurons, send long axons down the spinal cord to synapse onto the interneuron circuitry of the spinal cord and also directly onto the alpha motor neurons in the spinal cord which connect to the muscles.
At the primary motor cortex, motor representation is orderly arranged (in an inverted fashion) from the toe (at the top of the cerebral hemisphere) to mouth (at the bottom) along a fold in the cortex called the central sulcus. However, some body parts may be controlled by partially overlapping regions of cortex. Each cerebral hemisphere of the primary motor cortex only contains a motor representation of the opposite (contralateral) side of the body. The amount of primary motor cortex devoted to a body part is not proportional to the absolute size of the body surface, but, instead, to the relative density of cutaneous motor receptors on said body part. The density of cutaneous motor receptors on the body part is generally indicative of the necessary degree of precision of movement required at that body part. For this reason, the human hands and face have a much larger representation than the legs.
For the discovery of the primary motor cortex and its relationship to other motor cortical areas, see the main article on the motor cortex.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Pathway
1.2 Blood supply
2 Function
2.1 Homunculus
2.2 Neural input from the thalamus
2.3 Alternative maps
2.4 Common misconceptions
2.4.1 Segregated map of the body
2.4.2 M1 and primary motor cortex
2.4.3 Betz cells as the final common pathway
3 Clinical significance
4 Movement coding
5 Additional images
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Structure[edit]
The human primary motor cortex is located on the anterior wall of the central sulcus. It also extends anteriorly out of the sulcus partly onto the precentral gyrus. Anteriorly, the primary motor cortex is bordered by a set of areas that lie on the precentral gyrus and that are generally considered to compose the lateral premotor cortex. Posteriorly, the primary motor cortex is bordered by the primary somatosensory cortex, which lies on the posterior wall of the central sulcus. Ventrally the primary motor cortex is bordered by the insular cortex in the lateral sulcus. The primary motor cortex extends dorsally to the top of the hemisphere and then continues onto the medial wall of the hemisphere.
The location of the primary motor cortex is most obvious on histological examination due to the presence of the distinctive Betz cells. Layer V of the primary motor cortex contains giant (70-100 µm) pyramidal neurons which are the Betz cells. These neurons send long axons to the contralateral motor nuclei of the cranial nerves and to the lower motor neurons in the ventral horn of the spinal cord. These axons form a part of the corticospinal tract. The Betz cells account for only a small percentage of the corticospinal tract. By some measures they account for about 10% of the primary motor cortex neurons projecting to the spinal cord[1] or about 2-3% of the total cortical projection to the spinal cord.[2] Though the Betz cells do not compose the entire motor output of the cortex, they nonetheless provide a clear marker for the primary motor cortex. This region of cortex, characterized by the presence of Betz cells, was termed area 4 by Brodmann.
Pathway[edit]
As the motor axons travel down through the cerebral white matter, they move closer together and form part of the posterior limb of the internal capsule.
They continue down into the brainstem, where some of them, after crossing over to the contralateral side, distribute to the cranial nerve motor nuclei. (Note: a few motor fibers synapse with lower motor neurons on the same side of the brainstem).
After crossing over to the contralateral side in the medulla oblongata (pyramidal decussation), the axons travel down the spinal cord as the lateral corticospinal tract.
Fibers that do not cross over in the brainstem travel down the separate ventral corticospinal tract, and most of them cross over to the contralateral side in the spinal cord, shortly before reaching the lower motor neurons.
Blood supply[edit]
Branches of the middle cerebral artery provide most of the arterial blood supply for the primary motor cortex.
The medial aspect (leg areas) is supplied by branches of the anterior cerebral artery.
Function[edit]
Homunculus[edit]
There is a broadly somatotopic representation of the different body parts in the primary motor cortex in an arrangement called a motor homunculus (Latin: little person).[3] The leg area is located close to the midline, in interior sections of the motor area folding into the medial longitudinal fissure. The lateral, convex side of the primary motor cortex is arranged from top to bottom in areas that correspond to the buttocks, torso, shoulder, elbow, wrist, fingers, thumb, eyelids, lips, and jaw. The arm and hand motor area is the largest, and occupies the part of precentral gyrus between the leg and face area.
These areas are not proportional to their size in the body with the lips, face parts, and hands represented by particularly large areas. Following amputation or paralysis, motor areas can shift to adopt new parts of the body.
Neural input from the thalamus[edit]
The primary motor cortex receives thalamic inputs from different thalamic nuclei. Among others:
- Ventral lateral nucleus for cerebellar afferents
- Ventral anterior nucleus for basal ganglia afferents
Alternative maps[edit]
Map of the body in the human brain
At least two modifications to the classical somatotopic ordering of body parts have been reported in the primary motor cortex of primates.
First, the arm representation may be organized in a core and surround manner. In the monkey cortex, the digits of the hand are represented in a core area at the posterior edge of the primary motor cortex. This core area is surrounded on three sides (on the dorsal, anterior, and ventral sides) by a representation of the more proximal parts of the arm including the elbow and shoulder.[4][5] In humans, the digit representation is surrounded dorsally, anteriorly, and ventrally, by a representation of the wrist.[6]
A second modification of the classical somatotopic ordering of body parts is a double representation of the digits and wrist studied mainly in the human motor cortex. One representation lies in a posterior region called area 4p, and the other lies in an anterior region called area 4a. The posterior area can be activated by attention without any sensory feedback and has been suggested to be important for initiation of movements, while the anterior area is dependent on sensory feedback.[7] It can also be activated by imaginary finger movements[8] and listening to speech while making no actual movements. This anterior representation area has been suggested to be important in executing movements involving complex sensoriomotor interactions.[9] It is possible that area 4a in humans corresponds to some parts of the caudal premotor cortex as described in the monkey cortex.
In 2009, it was reported, that there are two evolutionary distinct regions, an older one on the outer surface, and a new one found in the cleft. The older one connects to the spinal motorneurons through interneurons in the spinal cord. The newer one, found only in monkeys and apes, connects directly to the spinal motorneurons.[10] The direct connections form after birth, are dominant over the indirect connections, and are more flexible in the circuits they can develop which allows the post-natal learning of complex fine motor skills. "The emergence of the 'new' M1 region during evolution of the primate lineage is therefore likely to have been important for the enhanced manual dexterity of the human hand."[11]
Common misconceptions[edit]
Certain misconceptions about the primary motor cortex are common in secondary reviews, textbooks, and popular material. Three of the more common misconceptions are listed here.
Segregated map of the body[edit]
One of the most common misconceptions about the primary motor cortex is that the map of the body is cleanly segregated. Yet it is not a map of individuated muscles or even individuated body parts. The map contains considerable overlap. This overlap increases in more anterior regions of the primary motor cortex. One of the main goals in the history of work on the motor cortex was to determine just how much the different body parts are overlapped or segregated in the motor cortex. Researchers who addressed this issue found that the map of the hand, arm, and shoulder contained extensive overlap.[3][5][6][12][13][14][15][16] Studies that map the precise functional connectivity from cortical neurons to muscles show that even a single neuron in the primary motor cortex can influence the activity of many muscles related to many joints.[12] In experiments on cats and monkeys, as animals learn complex, coordinated movements, the map in the primary motor cortex becomes more overlapping, evidently learning to integrate the control of many muscles.[17][18] In monkeys, when electrical stimulation is applied to the motor cortex on a behavioral timescale, it evokes complex, highly integrated movements such as reaching with the hand shaped to grasp, or bringing the hand to the mouth and opening the mouth.[19][20] This type of evidence suggests that the primary motor cortex, while containing a rough map of the body, may participate in integrating muscles in meaningful ways rather than in segregating the control of individual muscle groups. It has been suggested that a deeper principle of organization may be a map of the statistical correlations in the behavioral repertoire, rather than a map of body parts.[20][21] To the extent that the movement repertoire breaks down partly into the actions of separate body parts, the map contains a rough and overlapping body arrangement.
M1 and primary motor cortex[edit]
The term "M1" and the term "primary motor cortex" are often used interchangeably. However, they come from different historical traditions and refer to different divisions of cortex. Some scientists suggested that the motor cortex could be divided into a primary motor strip that was more posterior and a lateral premotor strip that was more anterior. Early researchers who originally proposed this view included Campbell,[22] Vogt and Vogt[23] Foerster,[24] and Fulton.[25] Others suggested that the motor cortex could not be divided in that manner. Instead, in this second view, the so-called primary motor and lateral premotor strips together composed a single cortical area termed M1. A second motor area on the medial wall of the hemisphere was termed M2 or the supplementary motor area. Proponents of this view included Penfield[3] and Woolsey.[26] Today the distinction between the primary motor cortex and the lateral premotor cortex is generally accepted. However, the term M1 is sometimes mistakenly used to refer to the primary motor cortex. Strictly speaking M1 refers to the single map that, according to some previous researchers, encompassed both the primary motor and the lateral premotor cortex.
Betz cells as the final common pathway[edit]
The Betz cells, or giant pyramidal cells in the primary motor cortex, are sometimes mistaken to be the only or main output from the cortex to the spinal cord. This mistake is old, dating back at least to Campbell in 1905.[22] Yet the Betz cells compose only about 2-3% of the neurons that project from the cortex to the spinal cord,[2] and only about 10% of the neurons that project specifically from the primary motor cortex to the spinal cord.[1] A range of cortical areas including the premotor cortex, the supplementary motor area, and even the primary somatosensory cortex, project to the spinal cord. Even when the Betz cells are damaged, the cortex can still communicate to subcortical motor structures and control movement. If the primary motor cortex with its Betz cells is damaged, a temporary paralysis results and other cortical areas can evidently take over some of the lost function.
Clinical significance[edit]
Lesions of the precentral gyrus result in paralysis of the contralateral side of the body (facial palsy, arm-/leg monoparesis, hemiparesis) - see upper motor neuron.
Movement coding[edit]
Evarts[27] suggested that each neuron in the motor cortex contributes to the force in a muscle. As the neuron becomes active, it sends a signal to the spinal cord, the signal is relayed to a motorneuron, the motorneuron sends a signal to a muscle, and the muscle contracts. The more activity in the motor cortex neuron, the more muscle force.
Georgopoulos and colleagues[28][29][30] suggested that muscle force alone was too simple a description. They trained monkeys to reach in various directions and monitored the activity of neurons in the motor cortex. They found that each neuron in the motor cortex was maximally active during a specific direction of reach, and responded less well to neighboring directions of reach. On this basis they suggested that neurons in motor cortex, by "voting" or pooling their influences into a "population code", could precisely specify a direction of reach.
The proposal that motor cortex neurons encode the direction of a reach became controversial. Scott and Kalaska[31] showed that each motor cortex neuron was better correlated with the details of joint movement and muscle force than with the direction of the reach. Schwartz and colleagues[32] showed that motor cortex neurons were well correlated with the speed of the hand. Strick and colleagues[33] found that some neurons in motor cortex were active in association with muscle force and some with the spatial direction of movement. Todorov[34] proposed that the many different correlations are the result of a muscle controller in which many movement parameters happen to be correlated with muscle force.
The code by which neurons in the primate motor cortex control the spinal cord, and thus movement, remains debated.
Some specific progress in understanding how motor cortex causes movement has also been made in the rodent model. The rodent motor cortex, like the monkey motor cortex, may contain subregions that emphasize different common types of actions.[35][36] For example, one region appears to emphasize the rhythmic control of whisking.[35][37][38] Neurons in this region project to a specific subcortical nucleus in which a pattern generator coordinates the cyclic rhythm of the whiskers. This nucleus then projects to the muscles that control the whiskers.
Additional images[edit]
Precentral sulcus
Central sulcus
The motor tract.
See also[edit]
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology.
Corticospinal tract
Motor cortex
Cortical homunculus
Upper motor neuron
Brodmann area
List of regions in the human brain
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Rivara CB, Sherwood CC, Bouras C, Hof PR (2003). "Stereologic characterization and spatial distribution patterns of Betz cells in the human primary motor cortex". The Anatomical Record Part A: Discoveries in Molecular, Cellular, and Evolutionary Biology. 270 (2): 137–151. doi:10.1002/ar.a.10015. PMID 12524689.
^ Jump up to: a b Lassek, A.M. (1941). "The pyramidal tract of the monkey". J. Comp. Neurol. 74: 193–202. doi:10.1002/cne.900740202.
^ Jump up to: a b c Penfield, W. and Boldrey, E. (1937). "Somatic motor and sensory representation in the cerebral cortex of man as studied by electrical stimulation". Brain. 60: 389–443. doi:10.1093/brain/60.4.389. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Kwan HC, MacKay WA, Murphy JT, Wong YC (1978). "Spatial organization of precentral cortex in awake primates. II. Motor outputs". J. Neurophysiol. 41: 1120–1131.
^ Jump up to: a b Park, M.C., Belhaj-Saif, A., Gordon, M. and Cheney, P.D. (2001). "Consistent features in the forelimb representation of primary motor cortex in rhesus macaques". J. Neurosci. 21: 2784–2792. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Meier, J.D., Aflalo, T.N., Kastner, S. and Graziano, M.S.A. (2008). "Complex organization of human primary motor cortex: A high-resolution fMRI study". J. Neurophysiol. 100: 1800–1812. doi:10.1152/jn.90531.2008. PMC 2576195  . PMID 18684903. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Binkofski F, Fink GR, Geyer S, Buccino G, Gruber O, Shah NJ, Taylor JG, Seitz RJ, Zilles K, Freund HJ (2002). "Neural activity in human primary motor cortex areas 4a and 4b is modulated differentially by attention to action". J. Neurophysiol. 88 (1): 514–519. PMID 12091573.
Jump up ^ Nikhil Sharma; P.S. Jones; T.A. Carpenter; Jean-Claude Baron (2008). "Mapping the involvement of BA 4a and 4p during Motor Imagery". NeuroImage. 41: 92–99. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.02.009. PMID 18358742.
Jump up ^ Terumitsu M, Ikeda K, Kwee IL, and Nakada, T (2009). "Participation of primary motor cortex area 4a in complex sensory processing: 3.0T fMRI study". NeuroReport. 20 (7): 679–683. doi:10.1097/WNR.0b013e32832a1820. PMID 19339906. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Rathelot, J.-A.; strick, P. L. (Jan 20, 2009). "Subdivisions of primary motor cortex based on cortico-motoneuronal cells". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 106 (3): 918–923. doi:10.1073/pnas.0808362106. PMC 2621250  . PMID 19139417.
Jump up ^ Costandi, Mo. "The evolution of manual dexterity". ScienceBlogs. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Cheney, P.D. & Fetz, E.E. (1985). "Comparable patterns of muscle facilitation evoked by individual corticomotoneuronal (CM) cells and by single intracortical microstimuli in primates: evidence for functional groups of CM cells". J. Neurophysiol. 53: 786–804.
Jump up ^ Schieber, M.H. & Hibbard, L.S. (1993). "How somatotopic is the motor cortex hand area?". Science. 261 (5120): 489–492. doi:10.1126/science.8332915. PMID 8332915.
Jump up ^ Rathelot, J.A. & Strick, P.L. (2006). "Muscle representation in the macaque motor cortex: an anatomical perspective". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 103: 8257–8262. doi:10.1073/pnas.0602933103. PMC 1461407  . PMID 16702556.
Jump up ^ Sanes, J.N., Donoghue, J.P., Thangaraj, V., Edelman, R.R. and Warach, S. (1995). "Shared neural substrates controlling hand movements in human motor cortex". Science. 268 (5218): 1775–1777. doi:10.1126/science.7792606. PMID 7792606. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Donoghue, J.P., Leibovic, S. and Sanes, J.N. (1992). "Organization of the forelimb area in squirrel monkey motor cortex: representation of digit, wrist and elbow muscles". Exp. Brain Res. 89: 1–10. doi:10.1007/bf00228996. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Nudo, R.J., Milliken, G.W., Jenkins, W.M. and Merzenich, M.M. (1996). "Use-dependent alterations of movement representations in primary motor cortex of adult squirrel monkeys". J. Neurosci. 16: 785–807. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Martin, J.H., Engber, D. and Meng, Z. (2005). "Effect of forelimb use on postnatal development of the forelimb motor representation in primary motor cortex of the cat". J. Neurophysiol. 93 (5): 2822–2831. doi:10.1152/jn.01060.2004. PMID 15574795. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Graziano, M.S.A., Taylor, C.S.R. and Moore, T. (2002). "Complex movements evoked by microstimulation of precentral cortex". Neuron. 34 (5): 841–851. doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(02)00698-0. PMID 12062029. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Graziano, M.S.A. (2008). The Intelligent Movement Machine. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ Graziano, M.S.A. and Aflalo, T.N. (2007). "Mapping behavioral repertoire onto the cortex". Neuron. 56 (2): 239–251. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2007.09.013. PMID 17964243. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Campbell, A. W. (1905). Histological Studies on the Localization of Cerebral Function. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ Vogt, C. and Vogt, O. (1919). "Ergebnisse unserer Hirnforschung". Journal für Psychologie und Neurologie. 25: 277–462. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Foerster, O (1936). "The motor cortex of man in the light of Hughlings Jackson's doctrines". Brain. 59: 135–159. doi:10.1093/brain/59.2.135.
Jump up ^ Fulton, J (1935). "A note on the definition of the "motor" and "premotor" areas". Brain. 58: 311–316. doi:10.1093/brain/58.2.311.
Jump up ^ Woolsey, C.N., Settlage, P.H., Meyer, D.R., Sencer, W., Hamuy, T.P. and Travis, A.M. (1952). "Pattern of localization in precentral and "supplementary" motor areas and their relation to the concept of a premotor area". Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Disease. New York, NY: Raven Press. 30: 238–264. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Evarts, E.V. (1968). "Relation of pyramidal tract activity to force exerted during voluntary movement". J. Neurophysiol. 31 (1): 14–27. PMID 4966614.
Jump up ^ Georgopoulos, A.P., Kalaska, J.F., Caminiti, R. and Massey, J.T. (1982). "On the relations between the direction of two-dimensional arm movements and cell discharge in primate motor cortex". J. Neurosci. 2 (11): 1527–1537. PMID 7143039. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Georgopoulos A.P., Kettner, R.E. and Schwartz, A.B. (1988). "Primate motor cortex and free arm movements to visual targets in three-dimensional space. II. Coding of the direction of movement by a neuronal population". J. Neurosci. 8 (8): 2928–2937. PMID 3411362. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Georgopoulos A.P., Schwartz, A.B. and Kettner, R.E. (1986). "Neuronal population coding of movement direction". Science. 233 (4771): 1416–1419. doi:10.1126/science.3749885. PMID 3749885. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Scott, S.H. & Kalaska, J.F. (1995). "Changes in motor cortex activity during reaching movements with similar hand paths but different arm postures". J. Neurophysiol. 73 (6): 2563–2567. PMID 7666162.
Jump up ^ Moran, D.W. & Schwartz, A.B. (1999). "Motor cortical representation of speed and direction during reaching". J. Neurophysiol. 82 (5): 2676–2692. PMID 10561437.
Jump up ^ Kakei, S., Hoffman, D. and Strick, P (1999). "Muscle and movement representations in the primary motor cortex". Science. 285 (5436): 2136–2139. doi:10.1126/science.285.5436.2136. PMID 10497133. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Todorov, E (2000). "Direct cortical control of muscle activation in voluntary arm movements: a model". Nat Neurosci. 3 (4): 391–398. doi:10.1038/73964. PMID 10725930.
^ Jump up to: a b Haiss, F. & Schwarz, C (2005). "Spatial segregation of different modes of movement control in the whisker representation of rat primary motor cortex". J. Neurosci. 25 (6): 1579–1587. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3760-04.2005. PMID 15703412.
Jump up ^ Ramanathan, D., Conner, J.M. and Tuszynski, M.H. (2006). "A form of motor cortical plasticity that correlates with recovery of function after brain injury". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103 (30): 11370–11375. doi:10.1073/pnas.0601065103. PMC 1544093  . PMID 16837575. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Brecht, M., Schneider, M., Sakmann, B. and Margrie, T.W. (2004). "Whisker movements evoked by stimulation of single pyramidal cells in rat motor cortex". Nature. 427 (6976): 704–710. doi:10.1038/nature02266. PMID 14973477. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Cramer, N.P. & Keller, A (2006). "Cortical control of a whisking central pattern generator". J. Neurophysiol. 96 (1): 209–217. doi:10.1152/jn.00071.2006. PMC 1764853  . PMID 16641387.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Primary motor cortex.
Overview at mcgill.ca
[show]
v
t
e
Anatomy of the cerebral cortex of the human brain
Frontal lobe
Superolateral
Prefrontal
Superior frontal gyrus
4
6
8
Middle frontal gyrus
9
10
46
Inferior frontal gyrus: 11
47-Pars orbitalis
Broca's area
44-Pars opercularis
45-Pars triangularis
Superior frontal sulcus
Inferior frontal sulcus
Precentral
Precentral gyrus
Precentral sulcus
Medial/inferior
Prefrontal
Superior frontal gyrus
4
6
Medial frontal gyrus
8
9
Paraterminal gyrus/Paraolfactory area
12
Straight gyrus
11
Orbital gyri/Orbitofrontal cortex
10
11
12
Ventromedial prefrontal cortex
10
Subcallosal area
25
Olfactory sulcus
Orbital sulcus
Precentral
Paracentral lobule
4
Paracentral sulcus
Both
Primary motor cortex
4
Premotor cortex
6
Supplementary motor area
6
Supplementary eye field
6
Frontal eye fields
8
Parietal lobe
Superolateral
Superior parietal lobule
5
7
Inferior parietal lobule
40-Supramarginal gyrus
39-Angular gyrus
Parietal operculum
43
Intraparietal sulcus
Medial/inferior
Paracentral lobule
1
2
3
5
Precuneus
7
Marginal sulcus
Both
Postcentral gyrus/Primary somatosensory cortex
1
2
3
Secondary somatosensory cortex
5
Posterior parietal cortex
7
Occipital lobe
Superolateral
Occipital pole of cerebrum
Lateral occipital gyrus
18
19
Lunate sulcus
Transverse occipital sulcus
Medial/inferior
Visual cortex
17
Cuneus
Lingual gyrus
Calcarine sulcus
Temporal lobe
Superolateral
Transverse temporal gyrus/Auditory cortex
41
42
Superior temporal gyrus
38
22/Wernicke's area
Middle temporal gyrus
21
Superior temporal sulcus
Medial/inferior
Fusiform gyrus
37
Medial temporal lobe
27
28
34
35
36
Inferior temporal gyrus
20
Inferior temporal sulcus
Interlobar
sulci/fissures
Superolateral
Central (frontal+parietal)
Lateral (frontal+parietal+temporal)
Parieto-occipital
Preoccipital notch
Medial/inferior
Longitudinal fissure
Cingulate (frontal+cingulate)
Collateral (temporal+occipital)
Callosal sulcus
Limbic lobe
Parahippocampal gyrus
anterior
Entorhinal cortex
Perirhinal cortex
Postrhinal cortex
Posterior parahippocampal gyrus
Prepyriform area
Cingulate cortex/gyrus
Subgenual area
25
Anterior cingulate
24
32
33
Posterior cingulate
23
31
Isthmus of cingulate gyrus: Retrosplenial cortex
26
29
30
Hippocampal formation
Hippocampal sulcus
Fimbria of hippocampus
Dentate gyrus
Rhinal sulcus
Other
Supracallosal gyrus
Uncus
Amygdala
Insular cortex
Insular cortex
General
Operculum
Poles of cerebral hemispheres
Some categorizations are approximations, and some Brodmann areas span gyri.
[show]
v
t
e
Brain and spinal cord: neural tracts and fasciculi
Sensory/
ascending
PCML
1°:
Pacinian corpuscle/Meissner's corpuscle → Posterior column (Gracile fasciculus/Cuneate fasciculus) → Gracile nucleus/Cuneate nucleus
2°:
→ sensory decussation/arcuate fibers (Posterior external arcuate fibers, Internal arcuate fibers) → Medial lemniscus/Trigeminal lemniscus → Thalamus (VPL, VPM)
3°:
→ Posterior limb of internal capsule → Postcentral gyrus
Anterolateral/
pain
Fast/lateral
1° (Free nerve ending → A delta fiber) → 2° (Anterior white commissure → Lateral and Anterior Spinothalamic tract → Spinal lemniscus → VPL of Thalamus) → 3° (Postcentral gyrus) → 4° (Posterior parietal cortex)
2° (Spinomesencephalic tract → Superior colliculus of Midbrain tectum)
Slow/medial
1° (Group C nerve fiber → Spinoreticular tract → Reticular formation) → 2° (MD of Thalamus) → 3° (Cingulate cortex)
Motor/
descending
Pyramidal
flexion: Primary motor cortex → Posterior limb of internal capsule → Decussation of pyramids → Corticospinal tract (Lateral, Anterior) → Neuromuscular junction
Extrapyramidal
flexion:
Primary motor cortex → Genu of internal capsule → Corticobulbar tract → Facial motor nucleus → Facial muscles
flexion:
Red nucleus → Rubrospinal tract
extension:
Vestibulocerebellum → Vestibular nuclei → Vestibulospinal tract
extension:
Vestibulocerebellum → Reticular formation → Reticulospinal tract
Midbrain tectum → Tectospinal tract → muscles of neck
Basal ganglia
direct:
1° (Motor cortex → Striatum) → 2° (GPi) → 3° (Lenticular fasciculus/Ansa lenticularis → Thalamic fasciculus → VL of Thalamus) → 4° (Thalamocortical radiations → Supplementary motor area) → 5° (Motor cortex)
indirect:
1° (Motor cortex → Striatum) → 2° (GPe) → 3° (Subthalamic fasciculus → Subthalamic nucleus) → 4° (Subthalamic fasciculus → GPi) → 5° (Lenticular fasciculus/Ansa lenticularis → Thalamic fasciculus → VL of Thalamus) → 6° (Thalamocortical radiations → Supplementary motor area) → 7° (Motor cortex)
nigrostriatal pathway:
Pars compacta → Striatum
Cerebellar
Afferent
Vestibular nuclei → Vestibulocerebellar tract → ICP → Cerebellum → Granule cell
Pontine nuclei → Pontocerebellar fibers → MCP → Deep cerebellar nuclei → Granule cell
Inferior olivary nucleus → Olivocerebellar tract → ICP → Hemisphere → Purkinje cell → Deep cerebellar nuclei
Efferent
Dentate nucleus in Lateral hemisphere/pontocerebellum → SCP → Dentatothalamic tract → Thalamus (VL) → Motor cortex
Interposed nucleus in Intermediate hemisphere/spinocerebellum → SCP → Reticular formation, or → Cerebellothalamic tract → Red nucleus → Thalamus (VL) → Motor cortex
Fastigial nucleus in Flocculonodular lobe/vestibulocerebellum → Vestibulocerebellar tract → Vestibular nuclei
Bidirectional:
Spinocerebellar
Unconscious
proprioception
lower limb → 1° (muscle spindles → DRG) → 2° (Posterior thoracic nucleus → Dorsal/posterior spinocerebellar tract → ICP → Cerebellar vermis)
upper limb → 1° (muscle spindles → DRG) → 2° (Accessory cuneate nucleus → Cuneocerebellar tract → ICP → Anterior lobe of cerebellum)
Reflex arc
lower limb → 1° (Golgi tendon organ) → 2° (Ventral/anterior spinocerebellar tract→ SCP → Cerebellar vermis)
upper limb → 1° (Golgi tendon organ) → 2° (Rostral spinocerebellar tract → ICP → Cerebellum)
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