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Ghaggar-Hakra River
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Not to be confused with Ghaghara River.
Ghaggar-Hakra River
Ghaggar river in Panchkula
Course of the Ghaggar-Hakra (Sarasvati) river in the fourth millennium BCE[1]
1 = Ancient river 2 = Today's river
3 = Today's Thar desert 4 = Ancient shore
5 = Today's town
Native name
घग्गर-हाकरा नदी
Country
India, Pakistan
Physical characteristics
Main source
Shivalik Hills, Himachal Pradesh
River mouth
Ottu, Haryana
Discharge
Location:
[2]
Basin features
Tributaries
Left:
Kaushalya river
Right:
Markanda river, Haryana, Sarsuti, Tangri river, Chautang
Waterbodies
Kaushalya Dam, Ottu barrage
The Ghaggar-Hakra River is an intermittent, endorheic river in India and Pakistan that flows only during the monsoon season. The river is known as Ghaggar before the Ottu barrage and as the Hakra downstream of the barrage.[3]
The basin is classified in two parts, Khadir and Bangar, the higher area that is not flooded in rainy season is called Bangar and the lower flood-prone area is called Khadar.[4]
Nineteenth and early 20th century scholars, but also more recent authors, have suggested that the Ghaggar-Hakra might be the defunct remains of the mythological Sarasvati of the Rig Veda. Recent geophysical research does not support this idea. It shows that the Ghaggar-Hakra system was not sourced by the glaciers and snows of the Himalayas, but rather by a system of perennial monsoon-fed rivers. Holocene aridification subsequently reduced the Ghaggar-Hakra to the seasonal river it is today.
Contents
[hide]
1 Ghaggar River
1.1 Tributaries
2 Hakra River
3 Palaeogeography
4 Ancient tributaries
4.1 Sutlej
4.2 Yamuna
5 Association with the Harappan civilization
6 Identification with the Rigvedic Sarasvati
6.1 Rig Veda
6.2 Identification with Vedic rivers in recent scholarship
7 See also
8 References
9 Bibliography
10 External links
Ghaggar River[edit]
Ghaggar in Haryana
Ghaggar river dry bed in February month near Naurangdesar village, Hanumangarh district, Rajasthan, India.
Ghaggar river, near Anoopgarh, Rajasthan in the month of September
The Ghaggar is an intermittent river in India, flowing during the monsoon rains. It originates in the village of Dagshai in the Shivalik Hills of Himachal Pradesh at an elevation of 1,927 metres (6,322 ft) above mean sea level[5] and flows through Punjab and Haryana states into Rajasthan;[6] just southwest of Sirsa, Haryana and by the side of Talwara Lake in Rajasthan.
Dammed at Ottu barrage near Sirsa, Ghaggar feeds two irrigation canals that extend into Rajasthan.
Tributaries[edit]
Main articles: Kaushalya river; Markanda river, Haryana; Sarsuti; Tangri river; and Chautang
The main tributaries of the Ghaggar are the Kaushalya river, Markanda, Sarsuti, Tangri and Chautang.[5]
The Kaushalya river is a tributary of Ghaggar river on the left side of Ghahhar-Hakra, it flows in the Panchkula district of Haryana state of India and confluences with Ghaggar river near Pinjore just downstream of Kaushalya Dam.[7][8]
The present-day Sarsuti (Saraswati) river originates in a submontane region in the Ambala district and joins the Ghaggar near Shatrana in Punjab.[9]
A dried out channel of the Sutlej known as the Naiwal channel joins it near Sadulgarh (Hanumangarh district).[9]
Finally, near Suratgarh, the Ghaggar is joined by the dried up Chautang river (identified with vedic Drishadvati).[9]
Hakra River[edit]
The Hakra is the dried-out channel of a river near Fort Abbas City in Pakistan that is the continuation of the Ghaggar River in India. Several times, but not continuously, it carried the water of the Sutlej and Ghaggar during the Bronze Age period.[10] Many early settlements of the Indus Valley Civilisation have been found in this area. Hakra Ware culture is believed to be the earliest pre-Harappan culture of India. Many early settlements are found along the river beds in this area.[11]
Hakra or Hakro Darya streamed through Sindh and its sign can be found in Sindh areas such as Khairpur, Nawabshah, Sanghar and Tharparkar.
Along the course of the Ghaggar-Hakra river, there are many early archaeological sites belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization; but not further south than the middle of Bahawalpur district. It has been assumed that the Sarasvati ended there in a series of terminal lakes, and some think that its water only reached the Indus or the sea in very wet rainy seasons. However, satellite images seem to contradict this: they do not show subterranean water in reservoirs in the dunes between the Indus and the end of the Hakra west of Fort Derawar/Marot.[12]
Palaeogeography[edit]
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The wide river bed (paleo-channel) of the Ghaggar river suggests that the river once flowed full of water during the great meltdown of the Himalayan Ice Age glaciers, some 10,000 years ago,[citation needed] and that it then continued through the entire region, in the presently dry channel of the Hakra River, possibly emptying into the Rann of Kutch.[13] It is supposed to have dried up due to the capture of its tributaries by the Indus system and the Yamuna river, and later on, additionally, the loss of water in much of its catchment area due to deforestation and overgrazing.[14][not in citation given] According to M. R. Mughal, this happened at the latest in 1900 BCE, but other scholars state that it took place much earlier[15][16]
Puri and Verma (1998) have argued that the present-day Tons River was the ancient upper-part of the Sarasvati River, which would then had been fed with Himalayan glaciers. The terrain of this river contains pebbles of quartzite and metamorphic rocks, while the lower terraces in these valleys do not contain such rocks.[17] However, recent studies show that Bronze Age sediments from the glaciers of the Himalayas are missing along the Ghaggar-Hakra, indicating that the river did not or no longer have its sources in the high mountains.[18]
According to some paleo-environmental scientists and Archaeologists, between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE some tectonic disturbances caused a tilt in topography of Northwest India resulting in the migration of river. The Sutlej moved westward and became a tributary of the Indus River while the Yamuna moved eastward and became a tributary of the Ganges. The Yamuna shifted its course eastwards, supposedly in the early 2nd millennium BCE, allegedly reaching its current bed by 1st millennium BCE, while the Drishadvati bed retained only a small seasonal flow. The Sutlej shifted its channel northwards repeatedly, and was eventually captured by the Indus system. The water loss due to these movements caused the Sarasvati river to dry up in the Thar Desert.[19][20]
However, Henri-Paul Francfort, utilizing images from the French satellite SPOT two decades ago, found that the large river Sarasvati is pre-Harappan altogether and started drying up already in the middle of the 4th millennium BC; during Harappan times only a complex irrigation-canal network was being used. The date should therefore be pushed back to c 3800 BC. R. Mughal (1997), summing up the evidence, concludes that the Bronze Age Ghaggar-Hakra sometimes carried more, sometimes less water (for example derived from the Sutlej). The latter point agrees with a recent isotope study.[21][22] Painted Grey Ware sites (ca. 1000 BCE) have been found in the river bed and not on the banks of the Ghaggar-Hakra river, which suggests that river was certainly dried up by this period.[23][24]
Analysis of sand grains using optically stimulated luminescence by Ajit Singh and others in 2017 indicated that the abandonment of this valley by the Sutlej started 15,000 years ago, and was complete by 8,000 years ago.[25] They suggest that the urban populations settled not along a perennial river, but a monsoon-fed seasonal river that was not subject to devastating floods.
The many archeological sites along the bed of Sarasvati (variously given as 414 or even 600) dwarf the number of sites so far recorded along the Indus River, which number less (about three dozen). However, most of the Harappan sites along the Sarasvati are found in desert country, and have remained undisturbed since the end of the Indus Civilization. This contrasts with the heavy alluvium of the Indus and other large Panjab rivers that have obscured Harappan sites, including part of Mohenjo Daro. About 80 percent of the Sarasvati sites are datable to the fourth or third millennium BCE, suggesting that the river was flowing during (part of) this period, which is also indicated by the fact that some Indus sites are found inside the bed of the Ghaggar-Hakra.[citation needed]
Ancient tributaries[edit]
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Satellite photography has shown that the Ghaggar-Hakra was indeed a large river that dried up several times (see Mughal 1997). The dried out Hakra river bed is between three and ten kilometers wide. Recent research indicates that the Sutlej and possibly also the Yamuna once flowed into the Ghaggar-Hakra river bed. The Sutlej and Yamuna Rivers have changed their courses several times.[26]
Paleobotanical information also documents the aridity that developed after the drying up of the river. (Gadgil and Thapar 1990 and references therein). The disappearance of the river may additionally have been caused by earthquakes which may have led to the redirection of its tributaries.[27] It has also been suggested that the loss of rainfall in much of its catchment area as well as deforestation and overgrazing may have also contributed to the drying up of the river. However, a similar phenomenon, caused by climate change, is also seen at about the same period north of the Hindu Kush, in the area of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex.
Sutlej[edit]
There are no Harappan sites on the Sutlej in its present lower course, only in its upper course near the Siwaliks, and along the dried up channel of the ancient Sutlej,[28] which indicates the Sutlej did flow into the Ghaggar-Hakra at that time.
At Ropar the Sutlej river suddenly turns sharply away from the Ghaggar. The narrow Ghaggar river bed itself is becoming suddenly wider at the conjunction where the Sutlej should have met the Ghaggar river. There also is a major paleochannel between the turning point of the Sutlej and where the Ghaggar river bed widens.[29][30]
In later texts like the Mahabharata, the Rigvedic Sutudri (of unknown, non-Sanskrit etymology)[31] is called Shatudri (Shatadru/Shatadhara), which means a river with 100 flows. As mentioned, the Sutlej (and the Beas and Ravi) have frequently changed their courses. The Beas probably joined the Sutlej (as in Rgveda 3.33) further downstream from where it joins that river today. Before that time, the Sutlej is said to have flowed into Ghaggar.[10]
Yamuna[edit]
There are no Harappan sites on the present Yamuna river. There are however Painted Gray Ware (1000 - 600 BC) sites along the Yamuna channel, showing that the river must have then flowed in the present channel.[32] The sparse distribution of the Painted Gray Ware sites in the Ghaggar river valley indicates that during this period the Ghaggar river had already dried up.
Scholars like Raikes (1968) and Suraj Bhan (1972, 1973, 1975, 1977) have shown that based on archaeological, geomorphic and sedimentological research the Yamuna may have flowed into the Sarasvati during Harappan times.[33] There are several dried out river beds (paleochannels) between the Sutlej and the Yamuna, some of them two to ten kilometres wide. They are not always visible on the ground because of excessive silting and encroachment by sand of the dried out river channels.[34] The Yamuna may have flowed into the Sarasvati river through the Chautang or the Drishadvati channel, since many Harappan sites have been discovered on these dried out river beds.[35]
Association with the Harappan civilization[edit]
Some estimate that the period at which the river dried up range, very roughly, from 2500 to 2000 BC, with a further margin of error at either end of the date-range. This may be precise in geological terms, but for the mature Indus Valley Civilization (2600 to 1900 BC) it makes all the difference whether the river dried up in 2500 (its early phase) or 2000 (its late phase). By contact with remnants of the IVC like the Cemetery H culture, legendary knowledge of the event may have been acquired.[citation needed]
In a survey conducted by M.R. Mughal between 1974 and 1977, over 400 sites were mapped along 300 miles of the Hakra river.[36] The majority of these sites were dated to the fourth or third millennium BCE.[29]
S. P. Gupta however counts over 600 sites of the Indus civilization on the Ghaggar-Hakra river and its tributaries.[28][37] For ereason stated above, only 90 to 96 Indus Valley sites have been discovered on the Indus and its tributaries (about 36 sites on the Indus river itself.)[38][39][40] V.N. Misra[41] states that over 530 Harappan sites (of the more than 800 known sites, not including Late Harappan or OCP) are located on the Ghaggar-Hakra.[42] The other sites are mainly in Kutch-Saurashtra (nearly 200 sites), Yamuna Valley (nearly 70 Late Harappan sites) and in the Indus Valley, in Baluchistan, and in the NW Frontier Province (less than 100 sites).
Most of the Mature Harappan sites are located in the middle Ghaggar-Hakra river valley, and some on the Indus and in Kutch-Saurashtra. However, just as in other contemporary cultures, such as the BMAC, settlements move up-river due to climate changes around 2000 BCE. In the late Harappan period the number of late Harappan sites in the middle Ghaggar-Hakra channel and in the Indus valley diminishes, while it expands in the upper Ghaggar-Sutlej channels and in Saurashtra. The abandonment of many sites on the Ghaggar-Hakra between the Harappan and the Late Harappan phase was probably due to the drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra river.
Painted Grey Ware sites (ca. 1000 BCE) have been found in the bed and not on the banks of the Ghaggar-Hakra river.[23][24]
Because most of the Indus Valley sites known so far are actually located on the Ghaggar-Hakra river and its tributaries and not on the Indus river, some Indian archaeologists, such as S.P. Gupta, have proposed to use the term "Indus Sarasvati Civilization" to refer to the Harappan culture which is named, as is common in archaeology, after the first place where the culture was discovered.
Identification with the Rigvedic Sarasvati[edit]
Rig Veda[edit]
Main article: Sarasvati River
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The Rig Vedic hymn X 75, however, gives a list of names of rivers where Sarasvati is merely mentioned while Sindhu receives praise. It is commonly agreed that the tenth Book of the Rig Veda is later than the others. Some revisionists think, ahistorically, that this may indicate that the Rig Veda could be dated to a period after the first drying up of Sarasvati (c. 3500 BCE) when the river lost its preeminence.[43][44]
The identification with the Sarasvati River is based on the mentionings in Vedic texts (e.g. in the enumeration of the rivers in Rigveda 10.75.05 - the order is Ganges, Yamuna, Sarasvati, Sutudri Sutlej), Parusni, etc. - and other geological and paleobotanical findings. This however, is disputed. The Victorian era scholar C.F. Oldham (1886) was the first to suggest that geological events had redirected the river, and to connect it to the lost Sarasvati: "[it] was formerly the Sarasvati; that name is still known amongst the people, and the famous fortress of Sarsuti or Sarasvati was built upon its banks, nearly 100 miles below the present junction with the Ghaggar."[45]
Between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE, some tectonic disturbances caused tilt in topography of Northwest India resulting in the migration of rivers. The Sutlej moved westward and became a tributary of the Indus River while the Yamuna moved eastward and became a tributary of the Ganges. The water loss due to these movements caused the river to dry up in the Thar Desert, without reaching the sea.[19][20] Later Vedic texts record the river as disappearing at Vinasana (literally, "the disappearing") or Upamajjana, and in post-Vedic texts as joining both the Yamuna and Ganges as an invisible river at Prayaga (Allahabad). Some claim that the sanctity of the modern Ganges is directly related to its assumption of the holy, life-giving waters of the ancient Saraswati.
The identification is also justified by post-Vedic literature like Mahabharata. According to Adi Parvan of the Mahabharata(1.90.25-26), it is mentioned that "Many kings performed yajña (sacrifice) in Fire altars at the bank of Sarasvati river,[46][47] which is connected with the alleged Harappan fire altars at Kalibangan, a town located on the left or southern banks of the Ghaggar River.[48][49] They are even assumed by some to be Vedic[50][51][52] and that the structures may perhaps have been used for ritual purposes.[50][51]
The Mahabharata says that the Sarasvati dried up in a desert (at a place named Vinasana or Adarsana).[53] According to the Mahabharata, the river dried up in order that the Nishadas and Abhiras might not see her.[54] The Mahabharata also states that Vasishtha committed suicide by throwing himself into the Sutlej and that the Sutlej then broke up in a 100 channels (Yash Pal in S.P. Gupta 1995: 175).
The Sarasvati River is mentioned in all books of the Rigveda except the fourth. It is the only river with hymns entirely dedicated to it: RV 6.61, RV 7.95 and RV 7.96.It is mentioned as a divine and large river, which flows "from the mountains to the samudra," which some take as the Indian Ocean. Talageri states that "the references to the Sarasvati far outnumber the references to the Indus" and "The Sarasvati is so important in the whole of the Rigveda that it is worshipped as one of the Three Great Goddesses".[43] However, the reason for the predominance of the Sarasvati in the Rigveda is the late Harappan (1900-1300 BCE) population shift eastwards to Haryana;[55] the latter part of the period corresponds to the common scholarly opinion of the date of this text.
Another reference to the Sarasvati is in the geographical enumeration of the rivers in the late Rigvedic Nadistuti sukta (10.75.5, this verse enumerates all important rivers from the Ganges in the east up to the Indus in the west in a strict geographical order), as "Ganges, Yamuna, Sarasvati, Shutudri", the Sarasvati is placed between the Yamuna and the Sutlej, consistent with the Ghaggar identification. It is clear, therefore, that even if the river had unmistakably lost much of her former prominence, the Sarasvati remained characterized as a river goddess almost throughout the Rigveda.
In 2012 hydrologists dug a number of bores holes to attempt to ascertain the ancient course of the Sarasvati River.[56]
According to proto-historian Michel Danino, in ancient times a mature river flowed into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley and into the Rann of Kutch, which he identifies as the Rig Vedic Sarasvati river.[57]
Identification with Vedic rivers in recent scholarship[edit]
Nineteenth and early 20th century scholars, such as orientalist Christian Lassen (1800–1876),[58] philologist and Indologist Max Müller (1823–1900),[59] archaeologist Aurel Stein (1862–1943), and geologist R. D. Oldham (1858–1936),[60] had considered that the Ghaggar-Hakra might be the defunct remains of a river, the Sarasvati, invoked in the orally transmitted collection of ancient Sanskrit hymns, the Rig Veda composed circa 1500 BCE to 1200 BCE. More recently, anthropologists Gregory Possehl (1942–2011),[61] J. M. Kenoyer,[62] and professional archaeological writer, Jane McIntosh, have suggested that many religious and literary invocations to Sarasvati in the Rig Veda were to a real Himalayan river, whose waters, on account of seismic events, were diverted, leaving only a seasonal river, the Ghaggar-Hakra, in the original river bed.[63]
Several modern scholars identify the old Ghaggar-Hakra river with the Vedic Sarasvati river and the Chautang with the Drishadvati river. Such scholars include Gregory Possehl,[61] J. M. Kenoyer,[62] Bridget and Raymond Allchin,[64] Michael Witzel,[65] Kenneth Kennedy,[66] Franklin Southworth,[67] and numerous Indian archaeologists. Gregory Possehl states:
"Linguistic, archaeological, and historical data show that the Sarasvati of the Vedas is the modern Ghaggar or Hakra."[68]
He and Jane McIntosh refer to the Ghaggar-Hakra river as "Sarasvati" throughout their respective 2002 and 2008 books on the Indus Civilisation.[63][68]
Geophysicist Rajesh Kocchar, after a thorough analysis of the Vedic texts and geological environments of the rivers, concludes that there are two Sarasvati rivers mentioned in the Rigveda. The older one described in the family books of the Rigveda, which he calls Naditama Sarasvati, drains into a samudra. The newer one described in the tenth book of Rigveda as well as later Vedic texts, which he calls Vinasana Sarasvati, disappears in the sands. The Vinasana Sarasvati has been "accepted by all" to be the same as the Ghaggar-Hakra river. On the other hand, the description of the Naditama Sarasvati in the Rigveda matches the physical features of the Helmand River in Afghanistan, more precisely its tributary the Harut River, whose older name was Haraxvatī in Avestan. Ganga and Yamuna, he takes to be small streams in its vicinity. When the Vedic people moved east into Punjab, they named the new rivers they encountered after the old rivers they knew from Helmand.[69][70]
These views, however, have been contradicted by recent geophysical research, which suggests that the Ghaggar-Hakra system, although having greater discharge in Harappan times which was enough to sustain human habitation, was not sourced by the glaciers and snows of the Himalayas—but rather by a system of perennial monsoon-fed rivers. Geologist Liviu Giosan of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and his team showed that in contrast to all Himalayan rivers in the region that dug out wide valleys in their own sediments as the monsoon declined, no such valley exists between the Sutlej and the Yamuna, demonstrating that neither the Ghaggar-Hakra nor any other Sarasvati candidate in that region had a Himalayan source.[71][72] Late Holocene aridification subsequently reduced the Ghaggar-Hakra to the seasonal river it is today.[73][74][75]
Other research using dating of zircon sand grains has shown that subsurface river channels near the Indus Valley Civilisation sites in Cholistan immediately below the dry Ghaggar-Hakra bed show sediment affinity not with the Ghagger-Hakra, but instead with the Beas River in the western sites and the Sutlej and the Yamuna in the eastern ones, further weakening the hypothesis that the Ghaggar-Hakra was once a large river, but suggesting that the Yamuna itself, or a channel of the Yamuna, along with a channel of the Sutlej may have flowed west some time between 47,000 BCE and 10,000 BCE, well before the beginnings of Indus civilization.[76]
See also[edit]
Sutlej
Ganges
Indus
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ V.N. Misra has noted that in the Indus Valley and the valleys of its main tributaries 50 Early and Mature IVC sites were found. And 40 Early and 174 Mature IVC sites were found at Cholistan (in Pakistan) in the Hakra valley. Parpola Asko (eds.); et al., eds. (1994). "Indus Civilization and the Rigvedic Sarasvati". South Asian Archaeology 1993. Helsinki. CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link) Cited from Lal 2002
Jump up ^ in Gupta 1995, p. 144
Jump up ^ An earlier survey ( Joshi; et al. (1984). "The Indus Civilization". In Lal, B. B.; et al. Frontiers of the Indus Civilization. ) found 137 Early and 109 Mature sites in the valleys of the GHR and its tributaries.
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.hindubooks.org/dynamic/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=1474&page=2
Jump up ^ http://www.dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enwiki/1343030[permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Oldham 1893, pp.51–52
Jump up ^ Mhb 1.90.26
Jump up ^ Section XCV Archived 16 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine.; English translation, page-203,1st paragraph
Jump up ^ Lal, BB (2002). [The Homeland of Indo-European Languages and Culture: Some Thoughts The Homeland of Indo-European Languages and Culture: Some Thoughts] Check |chapter-url= value (help) |chapter-url= missing title (help). Puratattva. Indian Archaeological Society. pp. 1–5.
Jump up ^ http://asi.nic.in/asi_exca_imp_rajasthan.asp; First paragraph
^ Jump up to: a b Lal, BB (1984). Frontiers of the Indus civilization. Sir Mortimer Wheeler commemoration volume. pp. 57–58.
^ Jump up to: a b http://asi.nic.in/asi_exca_imp_rajasthan.asp; Last paragraph
Jump up ^ http://www.archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/harappa-mohenjodaro.html; Second last paragraph
Jump up ^ Mhb. 3.80.118; 3.130.3-4; 6.7.47; 9.34.81; 9.36.1-2
Jump up ^ Mhb 3.130.3-4; 9.36.1-2
Jump up ^ J. Shaffer, in: J. Bronkhorst & M. Deshpande (eds.), Aryans and Non-Non-Aryans, Evidence, Interpretation and Ideology. Cambridge (Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora 3) 1999
Jump up ^ "Experts to trace roots of Saraswati River". Times of India. 23 May 2012. Archived from the original on 29 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Michel Danino: The Lost River - On the trail of the Sarasvati (Penguin Books, 2010). ISBN 978-0-14-306864-8.
Jump up ^ Indische Alterthumskunde Christian Lassen: Geographie und die älteste Geschichte, H. B. Koenig, 1847, p. 91
Jump up ^ Sacred Books of the East, 32, 60
Jump up ^ Oldham 1893 pp.51–52
^ Jump up to: a b Possehl, Gregory L. (December 1997), "The Transformation of the Indus Civilization", Journal of World Prehistory, 11 (4): 425–472, doi:10.1007/bf02220556, JSTOR 25801118
^ Jump up to: a b Kenoyer, J. M. (1997), "Early City-states in South Asia: Comparing the Harappan Phase and the Early Historic Period", in D. L. Nichols; T. H. Charlton, The Archaeology of City States: Cross Cultural Approaches, Washington: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 52–70, ISBN 1560987227
^ Jump up to: a b McIntosh, Jane (2008). The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2.
Jump up ^ Allchin, Bridget; Allchin, Raymond (1982), The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan, Cambridge University Press, p. 160, ISBN 978-0-521-28550-6
Jump up ^ Erdosy 1995, pp. 105, 318.
Jump up ^ Erdosy 1995, p. 44.
Jump up ^ Erdosy 1995, p. 266.
^ Jump up to: a b Gregory L. Possehl (2002). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Rowman Altamira. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-7591-0172-2.
Jump up ^ Kochhar, Rajesh (1999), "On the identity and chronology of the Ṛgvedic river Sarasvatī", in Roger Blench; Matthew Spriggs, Archaeology and Language III; Artefacts, languages and texts, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-10054-2
Jump up ^ Rajesh Kocchar, The rivers Sarasvati: Reconciling the sacred texts, blog post based on The Vedic People: Their History and Geography.
Jump up ^ Giosan, L.; et al. (2012). "Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan Civilization". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA. 109 (26). Quote: "Numerous speculations have advanced the idea that the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system, at times identified with the lost mythical river of Sarasvati (e.g., 4, 5, 7, 19), was a large glacier fed Himalayan river. Potential sources for this river include the Yamuna River, the Sutlej River, or both rivers. However, the lack of large-scale incision on the interfluve demonstrates that large, glacier-fed rivers did not flow across the Ghaggar-Hakra region during the Holocene. .... The present Ghaggar-Hakra valley and its tributary rivers are currently dry or have seasonal flows. Yet rivers were undoubtedly active in this region during the Urban Harappan Phase. We recovered sandy fluvial deposits approximately 5;400 y old at Fort Abbas in Pakistan (SI Text), and recent work (33) on the upper Ghaggar-Hakra interfluve in India also documented Holocene channel sands that are approximately 4;300 y old. On the upper interfluve, fine-grained floodplain deposition continued until the end of the Late Harappan Phase, as recent as 2,900 y ago (33) (Fig. 2B). This widespread fluvial redistribution of sediment suggests that reliable monsoon rains were able to sustain perennial rivers earlier during the Holocene and explains why Harappan settlements flourished along the entire Ghaggar-Hakra system without access to a glacier-fed river."
Jump up ^ Maemoku, Hideaki; Shitaoka, Yorinao; Nagatomo, Tsuneto; Yagi, Hiroshi (2013), "Geomorphological Constraints on the Ghaggar River Regime During the Mature Harappan Period", in Giosan, Liviu; Fuller, Dorian Q.; Nicoll, Kathleen, Climates, Landscapes, and Civilizations, American Geophysical Union Monograph Series 198, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-1-118-70443-1
Jump up ^ Madella, Marco; Fuller, Dorian (2006). "Palaeoecology and the Harappan Civilisation of South Asia: a reconsideration". Quaternary Science Reviews. 25 (11–12): 1283–1301. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.10.012.
Jump up ^ MacDonald, Glen (2011). "Potential influence of the Pacific Ocean on the Indian summer monsoon and Harappan decline". Quaternary International. 229: 140–148. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2009.11.012.
Jump up ^ Brooke, John L. (2014), Climate Change and the Course of Global History: A Rough Journey, Cambridge University Press, p. 296, ISBN 978-0-521-87164-8 Quote: "The story in Harappan India was somewhat different (see Figure 111.3). The Bronze Age village and urban societies of the Indus Valley are some-thing of an anomaly, in that archaeologists have found little indication of local defense and regional warfare. It would seem that the bountiful mon-soon rainfall of the Early to Mid-Holocene had forged a condition of plenty for all, and that competitive energies were channeled into commerce rather than conflict. Scholars have long argued that these rains shaped the origins of the urban Harappan societies, which emerged from Neolithic villages around 2600 BC. It now appears that this rainfall began to slowly taper off in the third millennium, at just the point that the Harappan cities began to develop. Thus it seems that this "first urbanization" in South Asia was the initial response of the Indus Valley peoples to the beginning of Late Holocene aridification. These cities were maintained for 30o to 400 years and then gradually abandoned as the Harappan peoples resettled in scat-tered villages in the eastern range of their territories, into the Punjab and the Ganges Valley....' 17 (footnote) a)Liviu Giosan et al., "Fluvial Landscapes of the Harappan Civilization," PNAS, 102 (2012), E1688—E1694; (b) Camilo Ponton, "Holocene Aridification of India," GRL 39 (2012), L03704; (c) Harunur Rashid et al., "Late Glacial to Holocene Indian Summer Monsoon Variability Based upon Sediment Records Taken from the Bay of Bengal," Terrestrial, Atmospheric, and Oceanic Sciences 22 (2011), 215-28; (d) Marco Madella and Dorian Q. Fuller, "Paleoecology and the Harappan Civilization of South Asia: A Reconsideration," Quaternary Science Reviews 25 (2006), 1283-301. Compare with the very different interpretations in Gregory L. Possehl Possehl, Gregory L. (2002), The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective, Rowman Altamira, pp. 237–245, ISBN 978-0-7591-0172-2 , and Michael Staubwasser et al., "Climate Change at the 4.2 ka BP Termination of the Indus Valley Civilization and Holocene South Asian Monsoon Variability," GRL 30 (2003), 1425. Bar-Matthews and Avner Ayalon, "Mid-Holocene Climate Variations."
Jump up ^ Clift, Peter D.; Carter, Andrew; Giosan, Liviu; Durcan, Julie (2012). "U-Pb zircon dating evidence for a Pleistocene Sarasvati River and capture of the Yamuna River" (PDF). Geology. 40 (3): 211–214. doi:10.1130/g32840.1.
Bibliography[edit]
Bryant, Edwin (2001), The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-513777-9
Erdosy, George, ed. (1995), The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-014447-5
Gupta, S. P. (ed.) (1995), The lost Sarasvati and the Indus Civilisation, Jodhpur: Kusumanjali Prakashan CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Kalyanaraman, S. (10–12 January 1997), "A project to revive the Sarasvati river: Role of GIS", National Seminar on Geographic Information Systems for Development Planning, Chennai: Renganathan Centre for Information Studies.
Macdonell, Arthur Anthony; Keith, Arthur Berriedale (1912), Vedic Index of Names and Subjects
Mughal, Mohammed Rafique (1997), Ancient Cholistan: Archaeology and architecture, Rawalpini
Lal, B. B. (2002), The Sarasvati flows on: the Continuity of Indian Culture, New Delhi: Aryan Books International
Oldham, R. D. (1893). "The Saraswati and the Lost River of the Indian Desert". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society: 49–76.
Shaffer, Jim G. (1995), "Cultural tradition and Palaeoethnicity in South Asian Archaeology", in Erdosy George (ed.), Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia, Berlin u.a.: de Gruyter, ISBN 3-11-014447-6 CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link)
Scharfe, Hartmut (1996). "Bartholomae's Law Revisited". Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik. XX (Festschrift Paul Thieme): 351–377.
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Coordinates: 29°35′46″N 75°01′03″E / 29.5961°N 75.0176°E / 29.5961; 75.0176
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text:
List of Silent Hill media
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Silent Hill is a survival horror video game franchise created by Team Silent and published by Konami and Konami Digital Entertainment. As well as the main video game series, numerous types of accompanying merchandise have been released.
Contents
[hide]
1 Video games
1.1 Main series
1.2 Spin-offs and compilations
2 Films
3 Other media
3.1 Soundtracks
4 References
Video games[edit]
Main series[edit]
Title
Details
Silent Hill
Original release date(s):[1]
NA: January 31, 1999
JP: March 4, 1999
EU: August 1, 1999
Release years by system:
1999 – PlayStation[1]
Silent Hill 2
Original release date(s):[2]
NA: September 24, 2001
JP: September 27, 2001
EU: November 23, 2001
Release years by system:
2001 – PlayStation 2[2] and Xbox[3]
2002 – Microsoft Windows[4]
Silent Hill 3
Original release date(s):[5]
PAL: May 23, 2003
JP: July 3, 2003
NA: August 6, 2003
Release years by system:
2003 – PlayStation 2,[5] Microsoft Windows[6]
Silent Hill 4: The Room
Original release date(s):[7]
JP: June 17, 2004
NA: September 7, 2004
EU: September 17, 2004
Release years by system:
2004 – PlayStation 2,[7] Xbox,[8] Microsoft Windows[9]
Silent Hill: Origins
Original release date(s):[10]
NA: November 6, 2007
EU: November 16, 2007
AU: December 6, 2007
JP: December 6, 2007
Release years by system:
2007 – PlayStation Portable[10]
2008 – PlayStation 2[11]
Silent Hill: Homecoming
Original release date(s):[12][13]
NA: September 30, 2008
EU: February 27, 2009
AU: March 19, 2009
JP: Canceled
Release years by system:
2008 – PlayStation 3,[12] Xbox 360,[13] Microsoft Windows[14]
Silent Hill: Shattered Memories
Original release date(s):[15][16][17]
NA: December 8, 2009 (Wii)
NA: January 19, 2010 (PS2)
EU: February 26, 2010
JP: March 25, 2010
AU: May 6, 2010
Release years by system:
2009 – Wii[15][16][17]
2010 – PlayStation 2[18] and PSP[19]
Silent Hill: Downpour
Original release date(s):[20]
NA: March 13, 2012
EU: March 30, 2012
JP: November 8, 2012 (PS3)
Release years by system:
2012 – PlayStation 3, Xbox 360[20]
Spin-offs and compilations[edit]
Title
Details
Play Novel: Silent Hill
2001 – Game Boy Advance
Notes:
A play novel version of first game, it also includes full motion video.[21]
The Silent Hill Collection
Original release date(s):[22]
EU: April 21, 2006
JP: July 7, 2006
Release years by system:
2006 – PlayStation 2
Notes:
European release contains Silent Hill 2, Silent Hill 3, and Silent Hill 4: The Room. Japanese release also includes the first Silent Hill.[23]
Known in Japan as Silent Hill Complete Set
Silent Hill: Mobile
Original release date(s):[24]
JP: July 5, 2006
Release years by system:
2006 – FOMA
Notes:
Mobile phone game
Also known as Silent Hill DX
Not to be confused with Silent Hill: Orphan, which is called Silent Hill: Mobile in Europe
Silent Hill: The Arcade
Original release date(s):
JP: July 25, 2007
EU: 2008
Release years by system:
2007 – Arcade
Notes:
Arcade cabinet rail shooter similar in gameplay to the House of the Dead series
Silent Hill: The Escape
Original release date(s):[25][26]
JP: December 19, 2007
WW: January 22, 2009
Release years by system:
2007 – FOMA
2009 – iOS
Notes:
Mobile phone game
Silent Hill: Orphan
November 2007 – Mobile phone[27]
Notes:
Known as Silent Hill: Mobile in Europe
Silent Hill: Orphan 2
September 2008 – Mobile phone[28]
Notes:
Known as Silent Hill: Mobile 2 in Europe
Silent Hill: Mobile 3
March 2010 – Mobile phone
Notes:
Sequel to Silent Hill: Orphan and Silent Hill: Orphan 2
Silent Hill HD Collection
Original release date(s):[29]
EU: March 16, 2012
NA: March 20, 2012
JP: March 29, 2012
Release years by system:
2012 – PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360
Notes:
HD compilation of Silent Hill 2 and Silent Hill 3
Only released for PlayStation 3 in Japan
Silent Hill: Book of Memories
Original release date(s):
NA: October 16, 2012
EU: November 2, 2012
JP: February 14, 2013
Release years by system:
2012 – PlayStation Vita
Silent Hill
October 2015 – Pachislot
Notes:
A Silent Hill 2 themed slot machine game
Films[edit]
Title
Details
Silent Hill
April 2006 – film
Notes:
Directed by Christophe Gans and released through TriStar Pictures in the United States, and Pathé in Europe.
Although panned by most professional critics, the film was successful among the fans and considered to be financial success, opening at #1 in the U.S. with $20.1 million dollars, on its way to a total of $47 million domestically.[30]
Silent Hill: Revelation
October 26, 2012 – film[31]
Notes:
Sequel to the 2006 film.[32]
Other media[edit]
Title
Details
Book of Lost Memories
2003 – guidebook
Notes:
Details various aspects of the first three games such as symbolism and ideas behind games or development process
Drawing Block: Silent Hill 3 Program
2003 – artbook
Notes:
Added to limited editions of Silent Hill 3 together with Lost Memories DVD and two posters
Lost Memories: The Art and Music of Silent Hill
2003 – DVD
Notes:
Divided into seven sections, it contains full soundtracks, trailer collections, artworks, renders and creature galleries from the first three games and additional music videos.
Silent Hill
2004–2008 – comic books
Notes:
Written by Scott Ciencin with artwork by Ben Templesmith (Dying Inside #1 and 2), Aadi Salman (Dying Inside #3, 4, 5), Shaun Thomas (Paint It Black, Among The Damned) and Nick Stakal (Grinning Man, Dead/Alive #1 to 5) and published by IDW Publishing. An earlier standalone graphic novel from British publisher Com.X was completed in 2000 but never released.
Silent Hill: The Novel
2006 – light novel
Notes:
Novelization of the first game by Sadamu Yamashita only released in Japanese
Silent Hill 2: The Novel
2006 – light novel
Notes:
Novelization of the second game written by Sadamu Yamashita and illustrated by Masahiro Ito
Silent Hill 3: The Novel
2006 – light novel
Notes:
Novelization of the third game written by Sadamu Yamashita and illustrated by Masahiro Ito
Silent Hill: The Novel (film)
2006 – light novel
Notes:
Novelization of the 2006 film written by Paula Edgewood also only released in Japanese
Silent Hill: Cage of Cradle
2006 – cellphone manga
Notes:
Written by Hiroyuki Owaku and illustrated by Masahiro Ito
The Silent Hill Experience
April 6, 2006 – PSP
Notes:
Designed as a promotional item for the 2006 film, it contained six comics and twenty songs from the first four games.[33]
Silent Hill: Double Under Dusk
2007 – cellphone manga
Silent Hill: White Hunter
2008 – mini comic book
Notes:
Short 6-page comic packaged with the Japanese Silent Hill: Origins soundtrack
Silent Hill: Revelation
2013 – light novel
Notes:
Novelization of the 2012 film; released only in Japanese
Silent Hill: Betrayal
31 October 2016 – Ebook Horror novel
Notes:
Original story set in Silent Hill, written by author Shaun M Jooste and published by Celenic Earth Publications[34]
Soundtracks[edit]
Title
Release date
Length
Label
Ref.
SILENT HILL ORIGINAL SOUNDTRACKS
000000001999-03-05-0000March 5, 1999 7206 !1:12:06 King Records [citation needed]
SILENT HILL 2 ORIGINAL SOUNDTRACKS
000000002001-10-03-0000October 3, 2001 7300 !1:13:00 Konami Music Entertainment [citation needed]
SILENT HILL 3 original soundtracs
000000002003-03-25-0000March 25, 2003 7118 !1:11:18 Konami Music Entertainment [citation needed]
SILENT HILL 4 –THE ROOM– ORIGINAL SOUNDTRACKS
000000002004-06-17-0000June 17, 2004 13010 !2:10:10 Konami Media Entertainment [citation needed]
SILENT HILL ZERO ORIGINAL SOUNDTRACKS
000000002008-01-25-0000January 25, 2008 6617 !1:06:17 Konami Digital Entertainment [citation needed]
Silent Hill Downpour Original Soundtrack
000000002012-03-13-0000March 13, 2012 5843 !58:43 Milan Records [citation needed]
Silent Hill: Homecoming Original Soundtrack
000000002012-04-17-0000April 17, 2012 6942 !1:09:42 Milan Records [citation needed]
Silent Hill Shattered Memories Original Soundtrack
000000002012-04-17-0000April 17, 2012 4931 !49:31 Milan Records [citation needed]
Silent Hill Book of Memories Original Soundtrack
000000002012-04-17-0000April 17, 2012 6243 !1:02:43 Milan Records [citation needed]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Silent Hill 1 for PlayStation". GameSpot. Retrieved 2010-09-16.
^ Jump up to: a b "Silent Hill 2 for PlayStation 2". GameSpot. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
Jump up ^ "Silent Hill 2 for Xbox". GameSpot. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
Jump up ^ "Silent Hill 2". GameSpy. Retrieved August 5, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b "Silent Hill 3 for PlayStation 2". GameSpot. Retrieved 2010-09-16.
Jump up ^ "Silent Hill 3 for PC". GameSpot. Retrieved 2010-09-16.
^ Jump up to: a b "Silent Hill 4: The Room for PlayStation 2". GameSpot. Retrieved 2010-09-19.
Jump up ^ "Silent Hill 4: The Room for Xbox". GameSpot. Retrieved 2010-09-19.
Jump up ^ "Silent Hill 4: The Room for PC". GameSpot. Retrieved 2010-09-19.
^ Jump up to: a b "Silent Hill: Origins, Release Summary". GameSpot. Retrieved 2007-10-26.
Jump up ^ Geddes, Ryan (2008-01-22). "Silent Hill Origins Coming to PS2". IGN. Retrieved 2008-11-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "Silent Hill: Homecoming for PlayStation 3". GameSpot. Retrieved 2008-11-25.
^ Jump up to: a b "Silent Hill: Homecoming for Xbox 360". GameSpot. Retrieved 2008-11-25.
Jump up ^ "Silent Hill Homecoming Now Available on Steam" (Press release). Steam. 2008-11-06. Retrieved 2008-11-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "Silent Hill: Shattered Memories for Wii". GameSpot. Retrieved 2010-09-19.
^ Jump up to: a b "IGN: Silent Hill: Shattered Memories". IGN. Retrieved 2010-12-06.
^ Jump up to: a b "Silent Hill: Shattered Memories Video Game". GameTrailers. Retrieved 2010-12-06.
Jump up ^ "Silent Hill: Shattered Memories for PlayStation 2". GameSpot. Retrieved 2010-09-19.
Jump up ^ "Silent Hill: Shattered Memories for PSP". GameSpot. Retrieved 2010-09-19.
^ Jump up to: a b "Silent Hill: Downpour". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Retrieved 2011-07-07.
Jump up ^ IGN staff (2001-01-19). "Silent Hill Play Novel". IGN. Retrieved 2010-09-16.
Jump up ^ "The Silent Hill Collection for PS2". GameSpot. Retrieved 2010-06-16.
Jump up ^ http://www.siliconera.com/2006/08/03/a-look-inside-the-silent-hill-complete-set/
Jump up ^ "コナミネットDX:SILENT HILL". Konami. Retrieved 2017-04-07.
Jump up ^ "Silent Hill: The Escape for Cell Phones". GameSpot. Retrieved 2010-09-19.
Jump up ^ "Silent Hill and DanceDanceRevolution Now Available on the Apple App Store" (Press release). IGN. January 22, 2009. Retrieved 2010-10-22.
Jump up ^ "Silent Hill: Orphan". GameSpot. Retrieved 2017-04-08.
Jump up ^ "Silent Hill: Orphan 2". GameSpot. Retrieved 2017-04-08.
Jump up ^ "Silent Hill Collection". IGN. Retrieved 2011-06-19.
Jump up ^ Silent Hill. Box Office Mojo. Retrieved on 2007-06-04.
Jump up ^ Miska, Brad (April 18, 2012). "Open Road To Distribute ‘Silent Hill: Revelation 3D’ This Halloween!!!!". Bloody Disgusting. Retrieved April 22, 2012.
Jump up ^ Boyes, Emma (December 29, 2007). "Silent Hill 2 movie confirmed". GameSpot UK. Retrieved 2007-11-10.
Jump up ^ Castro, Juan (2006-01-25). "Silent Hill Experience". IGN. Retrieved 2010-09-16.
Jump up ^ Celenic Earth Publications (2016-10-31). "'Silent Hill: Betrayal' horror novel released today!". PRLog. Retrieved 2016-11-22.
[hide]
v
t
e
Silent Hill
Main series
Silent Hill
2
3
4: The Room
Origins
Homecoming
Shattered Memories
Downpour
Other games
The Arcade
Orphan
The Escape
HD Collection
Book of Memories
Silent Hills
P.T.
Characters
Heather Mason
Pyramid Head
Media
Comics
Novel
Silent Hill (film)
Silent Hill: Revelation
Team Silent
Book:Silent Hill series
Category:Silent Hill
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The Last of the Mohicans (soundtrack)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the 1992 soundtrack album. For other uses, see The Last of the Mohicans (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Last of the Mohicans
Soundtrack album by Trevor Jones & Randy Edelman
Released
1992 (Reissued 2000)
Genre
Film score
Label
Morgan Creek (1992)
Varèse Sarabande (2000)
2000 Reissue
Re-recording by the Royal Scottish National Orchestra
Professional ratings
Review scores
Source
Rating
AllMusic [1]
The Last of the Mohicans is the soundtrack album of the film of the same name.
Contents
[hide]
1 Credits
2 Background
3 Rerecording in 2000
4 Commercial usage
5 Track listing
5.1 1992
5.2 2000
6 References
7 External links
Credits[edit]
Composers: Trevor Jones and Randy Edelman
Conductor: Daniel A. Carlin and Randy Edelman
Manufacturer: Morgan Creek
Background[edit]
Director Michael Mann initially asked Trevor Jones to provide an electronic score for the film, but late in the game, it was decided an orchestral score would be more appropriate for this historic epic. Jones hurried to re-fashion the score for orchestra in the limited time left, while the constant re-cutting of the film meant music cues sometimes had to be rewritten several times to keep up with the new timings.
Finally, with the release date looming, composer Randy Edelman was called in to score some minor scenes which Jones did not have time to do. Jones and Edelman received co-credit on the film (thus making the score ineligible for Oscar consideration).
The main theme of the movie is the tune "The Gael" by Scottish singer-songwriter Dougie MacLean from his 1990 album The Search.
Rerecording in 2000[edit]
The score was re-recorded and re-released in 2000 to address some perceived problems with its original incarnation. The tracks were reordered into their onscreen chronology (the original album separated the Jones material from that composed by Edelman), some additional cues were added, and Clannad's "I Will Find You" was no longer included.
Commercial usage[edit]
Music from the track "Promontory" was used for a fall 2007 Nike television commercial featuring NFL players Shawne Merriman and Steven Jackson, also directed by Michael Mann.
Track listing[edit]
1992[edit]
Tracks 1–9 are composed by Trevor Jones except for the main theme which is composed by Dougie MacLean; tracks 10–15 are by Randy Edelman.
"Main Title" – 1:44
"Elk Hunt" – 1:49
"The Kiss" – 2:47
"The Glade Part II" – 2:34
"Fort Battle" – 4:22
"Promentory" – 6:15
"Munro's Office/Stockade" – 2:30
"Massacre/Canoes" – 6:52
"Top of the World" – 2:43
"The Courier" – 2:27
"Cora" – 2:30
"River Walk and Discovery" – 5:30
"Parlay" – 3:46
"The British Arrival" – 2:00
"Pieces of a Story" – 4:58
"I Will Find You" (performed by Clannad) – 1:42
Note: Clannad did a full version of ¨I Will Find You¨ on their album ¨Banba¨
2000[edit]
"Main Title" – 1:52
"Elk Hunt" – 1:50
"Bridge at Lacrosse" – 1:23
"Garden Scene" – 3:20
"Ambush" – 2:35
"The Glade" – 3:16
"Fort Battle" – 4:18
"The Courier" – 2:30
"The Kiss" – 2:49
"Stockade" – 2:47
"Massacre" – 6:54
"Ascent / Pursuit" – 3:06
"Promontory" – 5:38
"Top of the World" – 3:01
References[edit]
Jump up ^ The Last of the Mohicans at AllMusic
External links[edit]
The Last of the Mohicans at MusicBrainz
[hide]
v
t
e
James Fenimore Cooper's The Last of the Mohicans
Fictional characters
Magua
Chingachgook
Natty Bumppo
Historical characters
Colonel Munro
Daniel Webb
Marquis de Montcalm
Tamenund
Films
Leather Stocking (1909 American)
The Last of the Mohicans (1920 American)
The Last of the Mohicans (1920 German)
The Last of the Mohicans (1932)
The Last of the Mohicans (1936)
The Last of the Mohicans (1968)
Last of the Redmen (1947)
The Last of the Mohicans (1971)
The Last of the Mohicans (1992)
Related
Hawkeye and the Last of the Mohicans
Leatherstocking Tales
The Last of the Mohicans (soundtrack)
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/wiki/Morgan_Creek_Productions
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Morgan Creek Productions

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/wiki/Michael_Mann_(film_director)
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Michael Mann (film director)

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/wiki/Clannad_(musical_group)
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Clannad (musical group)

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https://www.allmusic.com/album/r87616

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value: The Last of the Mohicans (1920 American film)

value: The Last of the Mohicans (1920 German film)

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value: Category:Articles needing additional references from December 2009

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value: Ostatni Mohikanin (ścieżka dźwiękowa) – Polish

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