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Experimental film
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For the song by They Might Be Giants, see Experimental Film (song).
Experimental film, experimental cinema or avant-garde cinema is a mode of filmmaking that rigorously re-evaluates cinematic conventions and explores non-narrative forms and alternatives to traditional narratives or methods of working.[1] Many experimental films, particularly early ones, relate to arts in other disciplines: painting, dance, literature and poetry,[2] or arise from research and development of new technical resources.[3]
While some experimental films have been distributed through mainstream channels or even made within commercial studios, the vast majority have been produced on very low budgets with a minimal crew or a single person and are either self-financed or supported through small grants.[4]
Experimental filmmakers generally begin as amateurs, and some used experimental films as a springboard into commercial film making or transitioned into academic positions. The aim of experimental filmmaking is usually to render the personal vision of an artist, or to promote interest in new technology rather than to entertain or to generate revenue, as is the case with commercial films.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
2 History
2.1 The European avant-garde
2.2 Prewar and postwar American avant-garde: the birth of experimental cinema
2.3 The New American Cinema and Structural-Materialism
2.4 The 1960–70s and today. Time arts in the conceptual art landscape
2.5 Feminist avant-garde and other political offshoots
2.6 Experimental Film and the Academy
3 Exhibition and distribution
4 Influences on commercial media
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
Definition[edit]
The term describes a range of filmmaking styles that are generally quite different from, and often opposed to, the practices of mainstream commercial and documentary filmmaking. Avant-garde is also used, for the films shot in the twenties in the field of history’s avant-gardes currents in France, Germany or Russia, to describe this work, and "underground" was used in the sixties, though it has also had other connotations. Today the term "experimental cinema" prevails, because it’s possible to make experimental films without the presence of any avant-garde movement in the cultural field.
While "experimental" covers a wide range of practice, an experimental film is often characterized by the absence of linear narrative, the use of various abstracting techniques—out-of-focus, painting or scratching on film, rapid editing—the use of asynchronous (non-diegetic) sound or even the absence of any sound track. The goal is often to place the viewer in a more active and more thoughtful relationship to the film. At least through the 1960s, and to some extent after, many experimental films took an oppositional stance toward mainstream culture.
Most such films are made on very low budgets, self-financed or financed through small grants, with a minimal crew or, often a crew of only one person, the filmmaker. Some critics have argued that much experimental film is no longer in fact "experimental" but has in fact become a mainstream film genre.[5] Many of its more typical features—such as a non-narrative, impressionistic, or poetic approaches to the film's construction—define what is generally understood to be "experimental".[6]
History[edit]
The European avant-garde[edit]
Two conditions made Europe in the 1920s ready for the emergence of experimental film. First, the cinema matured as a medium, and highbrow resistance to the mass entertainment began to wane. Second, avant-garde movements in the visual arts flourished. The Dadaists and Surrealists in particular took to cinema. René Clair's Entr'acte (1924) featuring Francis Picabia, Marcel Duchamp, and Man Ray, and with music by Erik Satie, took madcap comedy into nonsequitur.
Artists Hans Richter, Jean Cocteau, Marcel Duchamp, Germaine Dulac, and Viking Eggeling all contributed Dadaist/Surrealist shorts. Fernand Léger, Dudley Murphy, and Man Ray created the film Ballet Mécanique (1924), sometimes described as Dadaist, Cubist, or Futurist. Duchamp created the abstract film Anémic Cinéma (1926).
Alberto Cavalcanti directed Rien que les heures (1926), Walter Ruttmann directed Berlin: Symphony of a Metropolis (1927), and Dziga Vertov filmed Man With a Movie Camera (1929), experimental "city symphonies" of Paris, Berlin, and Kiev, respectively.
The most famous experimental film is generally considered to be Luis Buñuel and Salvador Dalí's Un chien andalou (1929). Hans Richter's animated shorts, Oskar Fischinger's abstract films, and Len Lye's GPO films would be excellent examples of more abstract European avant-garde films.
Working in France, another group of filmmakers also financed films through patronage and distributed them through cine-clubs, yet they were narrative films not tied to an avant-garde school. Film scholar David Bordwell has dubbed these French Impressionists, and included Abel Gance, Jean Epstein, Marcel L'Herbier, and Dimitri Kirsanoff. These films combine narrative experimentation, rhythmic editing and camerawork, and an emphasis on character subjectivity.
In 1952, the Lettrists avant-garde movement in France, caused riots at the Cannes Film Festival, when Isidore Isou's Traité de bave et d'éternité (also known as Venom and Eternity) was screened. After their criticism of Charlie Chaplin at the 1952 press conference in Paris for Chaplin's Limelight, there was a split within the movement. The Ultra-Lettrists continued to cause disruptions when they announced the death of cinema and showed their new hypergraphical techniques; the most notorious example is Guy Debord's Howlings in favor of de Sade (Hurlements en Faveur de Sade) from 1952.
The Soviet filmmakers, too, found a counterpart to modernist painting and photography in their theories of montage. The films of Dziga Vertov, Sergei Eisenstein, Lev Kuleshov, Alexander Dovzhenko, and Vsevolod Pudovkin were instrumental in providing an alternate model from that offered by classical Hollywood. While not experimental films per se, they contributed to the film language of the avant-garde.
The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (April 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Prewar and postwar American avant-garde: the birth of experimental cinema[edit]
The U.S. had some avant-garde films before World War II, such as Manhatta (1921) by Charles Sheeler and Paul Strand, and The Life and Death of 9413: a Hollywood Extra (1928) by Slavko Vorkapich and Robert Florey. However, much pre-war experimental film culture consisted of artists working, often in isolation, on film projects. Painter Emlen Etting (1905–1993) directed dance films in the early 1930s that are considered experimental. Commercial artist (Saturday Evening Post) and illustrator Douglass Crockwell (1904–1968)[7] made animations with blobs of paint pressed between sheets of glass in his studio at Glens Falls, New York.[8]
In Rochester, New York, medical doctor and philanthropist James Sibley Watson and Melville Webber directed The Fall of the House of Usher (1928) and Lot in Sodom (1933). Harry Smith, Mary Ellen Bute, artist Joseph Cornell, and Christopher Young made several European-influenced experimental films. Smith and Bute were both influenced by Oskar Fischinger, as were many avant garde animators and filmmakers. In 1930 appears the magazine Experimental Cinema with, for the first time, the two words directly connected without any space between them.[9] The editors were Lewis Jacobs and David Platt. In October 2005, a large collection of films of that time were restored and re-released on DVD, titled Unseen Cinema: Early American Avant Garde Film 1894-1941.[10]
With Slavko Vorkapich, John Hoffman made two visual tone poems, Moods of the Sea (aka Fingal's Cave, 1941) and Forest Murmurs (1947). The former film is set to Felix Mendelssohn's Hebrides Overture and was restored in 2004 by film preservation expert David Shepard.
Meshes of the Afternoon (1943) by Maya Deren and Alexander Hammid is considered by some to be one of the first important American experimental films. It provided a model for self-financed 16 mm production and distribution, one that was soon picked up by Cinema 16 and other film societies. Just as importantly, it established an aesthetic model of what experimental cinema could do. Meshes had a dream-like feel that hearkened to Jean Cocteau and the Surrealists, but equally seemed personal, new and American. Early works by Kenneth Anger, Stan Brakhage, Shirley Clarke, Gregory Markopoulos, Jonas Mekas, Willard Maas, Marie Menken, Curtis Harrington, Sidney Peterson, Lionel Rogosin, and Earle M. Pilgrim followed in a similar vein. Significantly, many of these filmmakers were the first students from the pioneering university film programs established in Los Angeles and New York. In 1946, Frank Stauffacher started the "Art in Cinema" series of experimental films at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, where Oskar Fischinger's films were featured in several special programs, influencing artists such as Jordan Belson and Harry Smith to make experimental animation.
They set up "alternative film programs" at Black Mountain College (now defunct) and the San Francisco Art Institute. Arthur Penn taught at Black Mountain College, which points out the popular misconception in both the art world and Hollywood that the avant-garde and the commercial never meet. Another challenge to that misconception is the fact that late in life, after each's Hollywood careers had ended, both Nicholas Ray and King Vidor made avant-garde films.
The New American Cinema and Structural-Materialism[edit]
Main article: Structural film
The film society and self-financing model continued over the next two decades, but by the early 1960s, a different outlook became perceptible in the work of American avant-garde filmmakers. Artist Bruce Conner created early examples such as A Movie (1958) and Cosmic Ray (1962). As P. Adams Sitney has pointed out, in the work of Stan Brakhage and other American experimentalists of early period, film is used to express the individual consciousness of the maker, a cinematic equivalent of the first person in literature. Brakhage's Dog Star Man (1961–64) exemplified a shift from personal confessional to abstraction, and also evidenced a rejection of American mass culture of the time. On the other hand, Kenneth Anger added a rock sound track to his Scorpio Rising (1963) in what is sometimes said to be an anticipation of music videos, and included some camp commentary on Hollywood mythology. Jack Smith and Andy Warhol incorporated camp elements into their work, and Sitney posited Warhol's connection to structural film.
Some avant-garde filmmakers moved further away from narrative. Whereas the New American Cinema was marked by an oblique take on narrative, one based on abstraction, camp and minimalism, Structural-Materialist filmmakers like Hollis Frampton and Michael Snow created a highly formalist cinema that foregrounded the medium itself: the frame, projection, and most importantly, time. It has been argued that by breaking film down into bare components, they sought to create an anti-illusionist cinema, although Frampton's late works owe a huge debt to the photography of Edward Weston, Paul Strand, and others, and in fact celebrate illusion. Further, while many filmmakers began making rather academic "structural films" following Film Culture's publication of an article by P. Adams Sitney in the late 1960s, many of the filmmakers named in the article objected to the term.
A critical review of the structuralists appeared in a 2000 edition of the art journal Art In America. It examined structural-formalism as a conservative philosophy of filmmaking.
The 1960–70s and today. Time arts in the conceptual art landscape[edit]
Conceptual art in the 1970s pushed even further. Robert Smithson, a California-based artist, made several films about his earthworks and attached projects. Yoko Ono made conceptual films, the most notorious of which is Rape, which finds a woman and invades her life with cameras following her back to her apartment as she flees from the invasion. Around this time a new generation was entering the field, many of whom were students of the early avant-gardists. Leslie Thornton, Peggy Ahwesh, and Su Friedrich expanded upon the work of the structuralists, incorporating a broader range of content while maintaining a self-reflexive form.
Andy Warhol, the man behind Pop Art and a variety of other oral and art forms, made over 60 films throughout the 1960s, most of them experimental. In more recent years, filmmakers such as Craig Baldwin and James O'Brien (Hyperfutura) have made use of stock footage married to live action narratives in a form of mash-up cinema that has strong socio-political undertones.
Feminist avant-garde and other political offshoots[edit]
Laura Mulvey's writing and filmmaking launched a flourishing of feminist filmmaking based on the idea that conventional Hollywood narrative reinforced gender norms and a patriarchal gaze. Their response was to resist narrative in a way to show its fissures and inconsistencies. Chantal Akerman and Sally Potter are just two of the leading feminist filmmakers working in this mode in the 1970s. Video art emerged as a medium in this period, and feminists like Martha Rosler and Cecelia Condit took full advantage of it.
In the 1980s feminist, gay and other political experimental work continued, with filmmakers like Barbara Hammer, Su Friedrich, Tracey Moffatt, Sadie Benning and Isaac Julien among others finding experimental format conducive to their questions about identity politics.
The queercore movement gave rise to a number experimental queer filmmakers such as G.B. Jones (a founder of the movement) in the 1990s and later Scott Treleaven, among others.
Experimental Film and the Academy[edit]
With very few exceptions, Curtis Harrington among them, the artists involved in these early movements remained outside the mainstream commercial cinema and entertainment industry. A few taught occasionally, and then, starting in 1966, many became professors at universities such as the State Universities of New York, Bard College, California Institute of the Arts, the Massachusetts College of Art, University of Colorado at Boulder, and the San Francisco Art Institute.
Many of the practitioners of experimental film do not in fact possess college degrees themselves, although their showings are prestigious. Some have questioned the status of the films made in the academy, but longtime film professors such as Stan Brakhage, Ken Jacobs, Ernie Gehr, and many others, continued to refine and expand their practice while teaching. The inclusion of experimental film in film courses and standard film histories, however, has made the work more widely known and more accessible.
Exhibition and distribution[edit]
Lithuanian artist Jonas Mekas, regarded as godfather of American avant-garde cinema
Beginning in 1946, Frank Stauffacher ran the "Art in Cinema" program of experimental and avant-garde films at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art.
From 1949 to 1975, the Festival international du cinéma expérimental de Knokke-le-Zoute—located in Knokke-Heist, Belgium—was the most proeminant festival of experimental cinema in the World. It permits the discovery of American avant-garde in 1958 with Brakhage's films and many others European and American filmmakers.
From 1947 to 1963, the New York-based Cinema 16 functioned as the primary exhibitor and distributor of experimental film in the United States. Under the leadership of Amos Vogel and Marcia Vogel, Cinema 16 flourished as a nonprofit membership society committed to the exhibition of documentary, avant-garde, scientific, educational, and performance films to ever-increasing audiences.
In 1962, Jonas Mekas and about 20 other film makers founded The Film-Makers' Cooperative in New York City. Soon similar artists cooperatives were formed in other places: Canyon Cinema in San Francisco, the London Film-Makers' Co-op, and Canadian Filmmakers Distribution Center.
Following the model of Cinema 16, experimental films have been exhibited mainly outside of commercial theaters in small film societies, microcinemas, museums, art galleries, archives and film festivals.
Several other organizations in both Europe and North America helped develop experimental film. These included Anthology Film Archives in New York City, The Millennium Film Workshop, the British Film Institute in London, the National Film Board of Canada and the Collective for Living Cinema.
Some of the more popular film festivals, such as Ann Arbor Film Festival, the New York Film Festival's "Views from the Avant-Garde" Side Bar and the International Film Festival Rotterdam prominently feature experimental works.
The New York Underground Film Festival, Chicago Underground Film Festival, the LA Freewaves Experimental Media Arts Festival, MIX NYC the New York Experimental Lesbian and Gay Film Festival, and Toronto's Images Festival also support this work and provide venues for films which would not otherwise be seen. There is some dispute about whether "underground" and "avant-garde" truly mean the same thing and if challenging non-traditional cinema and fine arts cinema are actually fundamentally related.[citation needed]
Venues such as Anthology Film Archives, San Francisco Cinematheque, Pacific Film Archive in Berkeley, California, Tate Modern, London and the Centre Pompidou in Paris often include historically significant experimental films and contemporary works. Screening series no longer in New York that featured experimental work include the Robert Beck Memorial Cinema, Ocularis and the Collective for Living Cinema.
Recently Pacific Film Archive eliminated their experimental Tuesday night program. A new curator (since 2000) of the Whitney Museum stated in a 2001 interview on Charlie Rose that he believed it was the responsibility of the Anthology Film Archives to show the work because the work is essentially unsellable and the Whitney was not interested in "renting" video art and films. He went on to intimate that it would fall out of favor in coming biennials. (PBS/Charlie Rose).[citation needed] However this statement appears irrelevant, as The Whitney has exhibited experimental film in exhibitions, installations, and screenings since then, e.g. screening series for the Summer of Love exhibition, films in biennials, and the installation of Oskar Fischinger's Raumlichtkunst in 2012.
Some distributors of experimental film today include Le Collectif Jeune Cinema,[11] Cinédoc, and Light Cone [12] in Paris, Canyon Cinema in San Francisco, Canadian Filmmaker's Distribution Centre, The Film-Makers' Cooperative in New York, and Lux in London. Sixteen mm prints are still available through these organisations, and some archives. Center for Visual Music distributes curated film programs of experimental animation, including that of Oskar Fischinger, Jordan Belson, Mary Ellen Bute and others.
All these associations and movements have permitted the birth and development of national experimental films and schools like “body cinema” ("Écoles du corps" or "Cinéma corporel") and “post-structural” movements in France, and “structural/materialism" in England for example.[13]
Influences on commercial media[edit]
Though experimental film is known to a relatively small number of practitioners, academics and connoisseurs, it has influenced and continues to influence cinematography, visual effects and editing.
The genre of music video can be seen as a commercialization of many techniques of experimental film. Title design and television advertising have also been influenced by experimental film.
Many experimental filmmakers have also made feature films, and vice versa. Notable examples include Lars von Trier, Jørgen Leth, Alejandro Jodorowsky, Nikos Nikolaidis, Jean-Luc Godard, Steven Soderbergh, Kathryn Bigelow, Curtis Harrington, Richard Williams, Andy Warhol, Peter Greenaway, Derek Jarman, Harmony Korine, Jean Cocteau, Isaac Julien, Steve McQueen (director), Sally Potter, David Lynch, James O'Brien, Vassilis Mazomenos, Thierry Zéno, Patrick Bokanowski, Gus Van Sant, Shaun Wilson, Pier Paolo Pasolini, Simone Rapisarda Casanova and Luis Buñuel, although the degree to which their feature filmmaking takes on mainstream commercial aesthetics differs widely.
See also[edit]
Abstract animation
Abstract art
Art film
Cinéma pur
List of film formats
Lists of avant-garde films
Filmbank
Microcinema
New media art
Non-narrative film
Performance art
Remodernist film
Underground film
Video art
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Maria Pramaggiore and Tom Wallis, Film: A Critical Introduction, Laurence King Publishing, London, 2005, pg. 247
Jump up ^ Laura Marcus, The Tenth Muse: Writing about Cinema in the Modernist Period, Oxford University Press, New York 2007
Jump up ^ * Gene Youngblood, Expanded Cinema (Dutton, 1970) available as pdf at Ubuweb
Jump up ^ "Top 10 Experimental Films - Toptenz.net". 19 January 2011.
Jump up ^ GreenCine | Experimental/Avant-Garde Archived 2005-12-10 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Experimental Film - married, show, name, cinema, scene, book, story, documentary".
Jump up ^ "Douglass Crockwell, Alphabet of Illustrators, Chris Mullen Collection".
Jump up ^ "Hollywood Quarterly".
Jump up ^ Cinema, Experimental; America, Cinema Crafters of; Amberg, George (1 January 1969). Platt, David; Jacobs, Lewis; Stern, Seymour; Braver-Mann, B. G., eds. "Experimental Cinema 1930-1934 Periodical". Arno – via Amazon.
Jump up ^ "Interview with Bruce Posner, the curator". Archived from the original on 2010-03-05.
Jump up ^ "Collectif Jeune Cinéma".
Jump up ^ "Light Cone - Distribution, diffusion et sauvegarde du cinéma expérimental".
Jump up ^ Dominique Noguez, « Qu’est-ce que le cinéma expérimental ? », Éloge du cinéma expérimental, Paris, Centre Georges-Pompidou, 1979, p. 15.
References[edit]
A. L. Rees, A History of Experimental Film and Video (British Film Institute, 1999).
Malcolm Le Grice, Abstract Film and Beyond (MIT Press, 1977).
Scott MacDonald, A Critical Cinema, Volumes 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988, 1992, 1998, 2005, and 2006).
Scott MacDonald, Avant-Garde Film: Motion Studies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
Holly Rogers, Sounding the Gallery: Video and the Rise of Art-Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).
Holly Rogers and Jeremy Barham, the Music and Sound of Experimental Film (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017).
James Peterson, Dreams of Chaos, Visions of Order: Understanding the American Avant-Garde Cinema (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1994).
Jack Sargeant, Naked Lens: Beat Cinema (Creation, 1997).
P. Adams Sitney, Visionary Film: The American Avant-Garde (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974).
Michael O’Pray, Avant-Garde Film: Forms, Themes and Passions (London: Wallflower Press, 2003).
David Curtis (ed.), A Directory of British Film and Video Artists (Arts Council, 1999).
David Curtis, Experimental Cinema - A Fifty Year Evolution (London. Studio Vista. 1971)
Wheeler Winston Dixon, The Exploding Eye: A Re-Visionary History of 1960s American Experimental Cinema (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1997)
Wheeler Winston Dixon and Gwendolyn Audrey Foster (eds.) Experimental Cinema - The Film Reader (London: Routledge, 2002)
Stan Brakhage, Film at Wit's End - Essays on American Independent Filmmakers (Edinburgh: Polygon. 1989)
Stan Brakhage, Essential Brakhage - Selected Writings on Filmmaking (New York: McPherson. 2001)
Parker Tyler, Underground Film: A Critical History (New York: Grove Press, 1969)
Jeffrey Skoller Shadows, Specters, Shards: Making History in Avant-Garde Film (Minneapolis: Minnesota UP, 2005)
Jackie Hatfield, Experimental Film and Video (John Libbey Publishing, 2006; distributed in North America by Indiana University Press)
Gene Youngblood, Expanded Cinema (Dutton, 1970) available as pdf at Ubuweb
Dominique Noguez, Éloge du cinéma expérimental (Paris Expérimental, 2010, 384 p. ISBN 978-2-912539-41-0, in French) Paris Expérimental
Al Rees, David Curtis, Duncan White, Stephen Ball, Editors,Expanded Cinema: Art, Performance and Film, (Tate Publishing, 2011)
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Authority
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about authority as a concept. For other uses, see Authority (disambiguation).
Authority (derived from the Latin word auctoritas), as a concept, can be used to mean the right to exercise power given by the State (in the form of government, judges, police officers, etc.), or by academic knowledge of an area (someone that can be an authority on a subject) or, in some societies, by higher spiritual powers or deities.
When the word authority is used in the name of an organization, this name usually refers to the governing body upon which such authority is vested; for example, the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority or the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority. It can also mean the right to do something or execute an order.
Contents
[hide]
1 In various settings
1.1 Political philosophy
1.2 Other social sciences
2 Max Weber
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
6 External links
In various settings[edit]
In government, the term authority is often used interchangeably with power. However, their meanings differ: while power is defined as "the ability to influence somebody to do something that he/she would not have done", authority refers to a claim of legitimacy, the justification and right to exercise that power. For example, while a mob has the power to punish a criminal, for example by lynching, people who believe in the rule of law consider that only a court of law has the authority to punish a criminal legally as the law says.
Political philosophy[edit]
There have been several contributions to the debate of political authority. Among others, Max Weber, Hannah Arendt, Alexandre Kojève and Giorgio Agamben have provided some of the most remarkable texts.
In political philosophy, the jurisdiction of political authority, the location of sovereignty, the balancing of freedom and authority (cf. Cristi 2005), and the requirements of political obligations have been core questions from Plato and Aristotle to the present. Most democratic societies are engaged in an ongoing discussion regarding the legitimate extent of the exercise of governmental authority. In the United States, for instance, there is an apparent prevailing belief that the political system as instituted by the Founding Fathers should accord the populace as much freedom as reasonable, and that government should limit its authority accordingly.
In the discussion regarding the legitimacy of political authority, the ends of the spectrum of views could be described as either a belief in the absolute freedom of the individual (i.e. Political anarchism), or the belief that there must be a central authority (in the form of a sovereign) that claims ownership and control over the masses (i.e. statism). The argument for political anarchy and anti-statism is made by Michael Huemer PhD, in his 2013 book, The Problem of Political Authority. In that book, he delves into the various justifications used by political theorists throughout history to justify the legitimacy of political authority via the State. On the other hand, one of the main arguments for the legitimacy of the state, the “social contract theory”, is made by Thomas Hobbes in his 1668 book, Leviathan.
Other social sciences[edit]
Since the emergence of social sciences, authority has become a subject of research in a variety of empirical settings: the family (parental authority), small groups (informal authority of leadership), intermediate organizations such as schools, churches, armies, industries and bureaucracies (organizational and bureaucratic authorities), and society-wide or inclusive organizations, ranging from the most primitive tribal society to the modern nation-state and intermediate organization (political authority).
The definition of authority in contemporary social science remains a matter of debate. According to Michaels in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, authority is the capacity, innate or acquired for exercising ascendancy over a group.[citation needed] Other scientists argue that. It is power that is sanctioned and institutionalized.
Howard Bloom hints at a parallel between authority and respect/reverence for ancestors.[1]
Max Weber[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main article: Authority (sociology)
Max Weber, in his sociological and philosophical work, identified and distinguished three types of legitimate domination (Herrschaft in German, which generally means 'domination' or 'rule'), that have sometimes been rendered in English translation as types of authority, because domination isn't seen as a political concept in the first place.[citation needed] Weber defined domination (authority) as the chance of commands being obeyed by a specifiable group of people. Legitimate authority is that which is recognized as legitimate and justified by both the ruler and the ruled.
Weber divided legitimate authority into three types:
The first type discussed by Weber is Rational-legal authority. It is that form of authority which depends for its legitimacy on formal rules and established laws of the state, which are usually written down and are often very complex. The power of the rational legal authority is mentioned in the constitution. Modern societies depend on legal-rational authority. Government officials are the best example of this form of authority, which is prevalent all over the world.
The second type of authority is Traditional authority, which derives from long-established customs, habits and social structures. When power passes from one generation to another, then it is known as traditional authority. The right of hereditary monarchs to rule furnishes an obvious example. The Tudor dynasty in England and the ruling families of Mewar, in Rajasthan (India) are some examples of traditional authority.
The third form of authority is Charismatic authority. Here, the charisma of the individual or the leader plays an important role. Charismatic authority is that authority which is derived from "the gift of grace" or when the leader claims that his authority is derived from a "higher power" (e.g. God or natural law or rights) or "inspiration", that is superior to both the validity of traditional and rational-legal authority and followers accept this and are willing to follow this higher or inspired authority, in the place of the authority that they have hitherto been following. Examples in this regard can be NT Rama Rao, a matinee idol, who went on to become one of the most powerful Chief Ministers of Andhra Pradesh.
History has witnessed several social movements or revolutions, against a system of traditional or legal-rational authority, which are usually started by Charismatic authorities. Weber states that what distinguishes authority from coercion, force and power on the one hand, and leadership, persuasion and influence on the other hand, is legitimacy. Superiors, he states, feel that they have a right to issue commands; subordinates perceive an obligation to obey. Social scientists[who?] agree that authority is but one of several resources available to incumbents in formal positions.[citation needed] For example, a Head of State is dependent upon a similar nesting of authority. His legitimacy must be acknowledged, not just by citizens, but by those who control other valued resources: his immediate staff, his cabinet, military leaders and in the long run, the administration and political apparatus of the entire society.
Authority can be created either expressly or by implication; (2) public entities act publicly, using the same means to communicate the grant of authority to their agents that they use to communicate this to third parties; (3) apparent authority describes the situation when a principal has placed restrictions on an agent that are not known to a third party; (4) restrictions on government agents are accomplished in the open, through laws and regulations; (5) everyone, including contractors, are supposed to know the laws and regulations of our government; and thus (6) the concept of "apparent authority" is often inapt when dealing with the government, insofar as the only cognizable restrictions on the agent's authority are deemed known to third parties, shattering any appearance of authority.
See also[edit]
Authority bias
Authority (management)
Anti-authoritarianism
Appeal to authority
Auctoritas
Authoritarianism
Cognitive authority
Cratology, the art and science of (social) power
Dominance (ethology)
Milgram experiment
Petty authority
Religious authority
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Bloom, Howard (2010). The Genius of the Beast: a radical re-vision of capitalism. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books. p. 186. ISBN 978-1-59102-754-6. To validate an argument, we refer back to our ancestors - or to someone who, while still alive, has already garnered the sort of authority only ancestors normally have.
Further reading[edit]
Giorgio Agamben, State of Exception (2005)
Józef Maria Bocheński, Was ist Autorität? (1974)
Renato Cristi, Hegel on Freedom and Authority (2005)
Alexandre Kojève, "The notion of authority" (2014)
Stuart Lachs, Means of Authorization: Establishing Hierarchy in Ch'an/Zen Buddhism in America (1999)
Rafael Domingo Osle, Auctoritas (1999)
Karl Popper, On the Sources of Knowledge and of Ignorance (1960)
Max Weber, Economy and Society (1922)
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Authority
Look up authority in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
""Political Obligation"". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Appeal to Authority Breakdown
Christiano, Tom. "Authority". In Zalta, Edward N. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Qualitionary - Legal Definitions - Authority
Four essays published in the International Journal of Philosophical Studies from the Robert Papazian Essay Prize Competition on Authority
Authority control
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Marriage officiant
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A marriage officiant, solemniser, or "vow master" is a person who officiates at a wedding ceremony.
Contents
[hide]
1 Civil
2 By country
2.1 United States
2.2 Scotland
2.3 Australia
3 By faith
3.1 Judaism
3.2 Quaker
3.3 Catholicism
3.4 Nonreligious
4 See also
5 References
Civil[edit]
Marriage officiant is a civil officer such as a justice of the peace who performs acts of marriage or civil union. Their main responsibility is to witness the consent of the intended spouses for the wedding license and hence validate the marriage or civil union for legal purposes.
Officiant's duties and responsibilities, as well as who may be an officiant vary among jurisdictions[1][2][3]
By country[edit]
United States[edit]
Further information: Officiant and Humanist officiant
In the United States, Canada and many other countries around the world, a celebrant is a person who performs religious or secular celebrancy services for weddings, funerals, child namings, coming of age ceremonies, and other rituals.
Most Celebrants are ordained clergy, while some are legal officials (usually judges), and others are Officiants empowered by the Humanist Associations around the world.
Celebrants may perform alternative and nontraditional ceremonies in places, and under circumstances where mainstream religious clergy will not. Some celebrants perform same-sex weddings and commitment ceremonies. Celebrants, also called Officiants, often perform ceremonies in parks, on beaches, on mountains, on boats, on hiking trails, in hotels, in banquet halls, in private homes, and many other places.
Laws in each state of the United States vary about who has the ability to perform wedding ceremonies, but Celebrants or Officiants are usually categorized as "clergy" and have the same rights and responsibilities as ordained clergy. In the United States, celebrants are professional ceremony officiants who believe in the power and effectiveness of ceremony and ritual to serve basic needs of society and the individual. They collaborate with their clients to create and perform personalised ceremonies that reflect the client’s beliefs, philosophy of life, and personality, not the celebrant’s. See Celebrant (United States) for more information.
Scotland[edit]
In Scotland, since a June 2005 ruling by the Registrar General, humanist weddings are now legal, thanks to a campaign by the Humanist Society Scotland. Scotland is the only part of the United Kingdom where Humanist weddings are recognised as legal by the state and is only one of eight countries in the world where Humanist weddings are legally recognised, the others as of 2017 are: Australia, Canada, Iceland, Ireland, New Zealand, Norway and some states of the United States of America.
Celebrants differ from Chaplains in that Celebrants serve the unaffiliated public at large, while Chaplains are usually employed by an institution such as a hospital or other health care facility, the military, etc. However some celebrants of Humanist Society Scotland perform Chaplain duties at Scottish education establishments. [4]
Australia[edit]
Main article: Celebrant (Australia)
In Australia, Celebrants have a slightly different role, as regulated by local and national laws.
By faith[edit]
Judaism[edit]
Main article: Jewish wedding
In Judaism a Rabbi traditionally officiates over the wedding, however the two people marry each other. They are not married by the Rabbi.
Quaker[edit]
In Quaker weddings the couple marry each other with no third party officiating.
Catholicism[edit]
In the Catholic Church, it is the bride and bridegroom who perform the Sacrament of Matrimony (marriage), but a marriage can only be valid if the Church has a witness at the wedding ceremony whose function is to question the couple to ensure that they have no obstacle to marriage (such as an un-annulled previous marriage or certain undisclosed facts between the couple) and that they are freely choosing to wed each other.
All ordained clergy (i.e. a deacon, priest, or bishop) may witness the wedding ceremony itself, though usually the wedding ceremony occurs during a Mass, which deacons lack the authority or ability to celebrate; however, in weddings that take place inside Mass, the deacon may still serve as the witness to the wedding, provided that a priest or bishop celebrates the Mass; and in weddings that take place outside Mass (which usually occurs in a marriage between a Catholic and a non-Christian or, less often, non-Catholic), the ceremony is the same for deacons, priests, and bishops (with few or no changes).
Nonreligious[edit]
See also: Humanist celebrant
A number of secular humanist organizations provide credentials to individuals who may solemnize marriages in whatever manner they choose. Some organizations have limited or no requirements for ordination, like the Universal Life Church. Such organizations may be known as ordination mills.
See also[edit]
Officiant
Celebrant, the title of a marriage officiant in Australia
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Officiant's regulations in Quebec Archived 2007-01-02 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Officiant's FAQ in California Archived 2006-12-01 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ FAQ Officiating Weddings throughout the United States, with links to State Code Sections
Jump up ^ "Humanist Chaplain". Glasgow Caledonian University. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
[hide]
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Excretory system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Excretory system
Identifiers
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The excretory system is a passive biological system that removes excess, unnecessary materials from the body fluids of an organism, so as to help maintain internal chemical homeostasis and prevent damage to the body. The dual function of excretory systems is the elimination of the waste products of metabolism and to drain the body of used up and broken down components in a liquid and gaseous state. In humans and other amniotes (mammals, birds and reptiles) most of these substances leave the body as urine and to some degree exhalation, mammals also expel them through sweating.
Only the organs specifically used for the excretion are considered a part of the excretory system. In the narrow sense, the term refer to the urinary system. However, as excretion involves several functions that are only superficially related, it is not usually used in more formal classifications of anatomy or function.
As most healthy functioning organs produce metabolic and other wastes, the entire organism depends on the function of the system. Breaking down of one of more of the systems is a serious health condition, for example renal failure.
Contents
[hide]
1 Systems
1.1 Urinary system
1.1.1 Kidneys
1.1.2 Ureter
1.1.3 Urinary bladder
1.1.4 Urethra
1.2 Respiratory system
1.3 Gastrointestinal tract
1.4 Biliary system
1.5 Integumentary system
1.5.1 Skin
1.5.2 Eccrine
2 Substances
2.1 Bile
2.2 Urine
2.3 Faeces
2.4 Sweat
2.5 Breath
3 Clinical signifiance
3.1 Kidney Stones
3.1.1 Treatment
3.2 Pyelonephritis
3.2.1 Acute Pyelonephritis
3.2.2 Chronic Pyelonephritis
3.2.3 Xanthogranulomatous Pyelonephritis
3.2.4 Treatment
3.2.5 Epidemiology
4 References
5 External links
Systems
Urinary system
Main article: Urinary system
The kidneys are bean-shaped organs which are present on each side of the vertebral column in the abdominal cavity. Humans have two kidneys and each kidney is supplied with blood from the renal artery. The kidneys remove from the blood the nitrogenous wastes such as urea, as well as salts and excess water, and excrete them in the form of urine. This is done with the help of millions of nephrons present in the kidney. The filtrated blood is carried away from the kidneys by the renal vein (or kidney vein). The urine from the kidney is collected by the ureter (or excretory tubes), one from each kidney, and is passed to the urinary bladder. The urinary bladder collects and stores the urine until urination. The urine collected in the bladder is passed into the external environment from the body through an opening called the urethra.
Kidneys
Main article: Kidneys
The kidney's primary function is the elimination of waste from the bloodstream by production of urine. They perform several homeostatic functions such as:-
Maintain volume of extracellular fluid
Maintain ionic balance in extracellular fluid
Maintain pH and osmotic concentration of the extracellular fluid.
Excrete toxic metabolic by-products such as urea, ammonia, and uric acid.
The way the kidneys do this is with nephrons. There are over 1 million nephrons in each kidney; these nephrons act as filters inside the kidneys. The kidneys filter needed materials and waste, the needed materials go back into the bloodstream, and unneeded materials becomes urine and is gotten rid of.
In some cases, excess wastes crystallize as kidney stones. They grow and can become painful irritants that may require surgery or ultrasound treatments. Some stones are small enough to be forced into the urethra.
Ureter
Main article: Ureters
The ureters are muscular ducts that propel urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. In the human adult, the ureters are usually 25–30 cm (10–12 in) long. In humans, the ureters arise from the renal pelvis on the medial aspect of each kidney before descending towards the bladder on the front of the psoas major muscle. The ureters cross the pelvic brim near the bifurcation of the iliac arteries (which they run over). This "pelviureteric junction" is a common site for the impaction of kidney stones (the other being the uteterovesical valve). The ureters run posteriorly on the lateral walls of the pelvis. They then curve anteriormedially to enter the bladder through the back, at the vesicoureteric junction, running within the wall of the bladder for a few centimeters. The backflow of urine is prevented by valves known as ureterovesical valves. In the female, the ureters pass through the mesometrium on the way to the bladder.
Urinary bladder
The urinary bladder is the organ that collects waste excreted by the kidneys prior to disposal by urination. It is a hollow muscular, and distensible (or elastic) organ, and sits on the pelvic floor. Urine enters the bladder via the ureters and exits via the urethra.
Embryologically, the bladder is derived from the urogenital sinus, and it is initially continuous with the allantois. In human males, the base of the bladder lies between the rectum and the pubic symphysis. It is superior to the prostate, and separated from the rectum by the rectovesical excavation. In females, the bladder sits inferior to the uterus and anterior to the vagina. It is separated from the uterus by the vesicouterine excavation. In infants and young children, the urinary bladder is in the abdomen even when empty.
Urethra
In anatomy, the (from Greek – ourethra) is a tube which connects the urinary bladder to the outside of the body. In humans, the urethra has an excretory function in both genders to pass.
Respiratory system
Main article: Respiratory system
One of the main functions of the lungs is to diffuse gaseous wastes, such as carbon dioxide, from the bloodstream as a normal part of respiration.
Gastrointestinal tract
Main article: Gastrointestinal tract
The large intestine's main function is to transport food particles through the body and expel the indigestible parts at the other end, but it also collects waste from throughout the body. The typical brown colour of mammal waste is due to bilirubin, a breakdown product of normal heme catabolism.[1] The lower part of the large intestine also extracts any remaining usable water and then removes solid waste. At about 10 feet long in humans, it transports the wastes through the tubes to be excreted.
Biliary system
Main article: Biliary system
The liver detoxifies and breaks down chemicals, poisons and other toxins that enter the body. For example, the liver transforms ammonia (which is poisonous) into urea in fish, amphibians and mammals, and into uric acid in birds and reptiles. Urea is filtered by the kidney into urine or through the gills in fish and tadpoles. Uric acid is paste-like and expelled as a semi-solid waste (the "white" in bird excrements). The liver also produces bile, and the body uses bile to break down fats into usable fats and unusable waste.
Invertebrates lack a liver, but most terrestrial groups, like insects, possesses a number of blind guts that serve the similar functions. Marine invertebrates do not need the ammonia conversion of the liver, as they can usually expel ammonia directly by diffusion through the skin.
Integumentary system
Main article: Integumentary system
Skin
Sweat glands in the skin secrete a fluid waste called sweat or perspiration; however, its primary functions are temperature control and pheromone release. Therefore, its role as a part of the excretory system is minimal. Sweating also maintains the level of salt in the body.
In mammals. the skin excretes sweat through sweat glands throughout the body. The sweat, helped by salt, evaporates and helps to keep the body cool when it is warm. In amphibians, the lungs are very simple, and they lack the necessary means to the exhale like other tetrapods can. The moist, scale-less skin is therefore essential in helping to rid the blood of carbon dioxide, and also allows for urea to be expelled through diffusion when submerged.[2]
In small-bodied marine invertebrates, the skin is the most important excretory organ. That is particularly true for acoelomate groups like cnidarians, flatworms and nemerteans, who have no body cavities and hence no body fluid that can be drained or purified by nephrons, which is the reason acoelomate animals are thread-like (nemertans), flat (flatworms) or only consist of a thin layer of cells around a gelatinous non-cellular interior (cnidarians).[3]
Eccrine
Like sweat glands, eccrine glands allow excess water to leave the body. The majority of eccrine glands are located mainly on the forehead, the bottoms of the feet, and the palms, although the glands are everywhere throughout the body. They help the body to maintain temperature control. Eccrine glands in the skin are unique to mammals.[citation needed]
Secretions of sweat from the eccrine glands play a large role in controlling the body temperature of humans. Regulation of body temperature, also known as thermoregulation, is very important when it comes to instances that bring the body’s temperature outside of the homeostatic temperature such as with a fever or even exercise.[4] Together these glands make up the size of about one kidney and in one day a human can perspire amounts as much as 10 liters. The two functions consist of secretion of a filtrate in response to acetylcholine and reabsorption of sodium near the duct when there is water in excess so that a sweat can be surfacing the skin.[5]
There are three parts to the eccrine sweat gland and these are the pore, the duct, and the gland. The pore is the portion that goes through the outermost layer of the skin and is typically 5-10 microns in diameter. The duct is the part of the sweat gland that connects dermis cells to the epidermis. It is composed by two layers of cells and is between 10 and 20 microns in diameter. The gland does the actual secretion and it lies deep within the dermis. The cells that make up the gland are larger in size than the duct cells and its lumen is around 20 microns in diameter.[6]
Substances
Bile
Main article: Bile
After bile is produced in the liver, it is stored in the gall bladder. It is then secreted within the small intestine where it helps to emulsify fats in the same manner as a soap. Bile also contains bilirubin, which is a waste product.
Bile salts can be considered waste that is useful for the body given that they have a role in fat absorption from the stomach. They are excreted from the liver and along with blood flow they help to form the shape of the liver where they are excreted. For instance, if biliary drainage is impaired than that part of the liver will end up wasting away.
Biliary obstruction is typically due to masses blocking the ducts of the system such as tumors. The consequences of this depend on the site of blockage and how long it goes on for. There is inflammation of the ducts due to the irritation from the bile acids and this can cause infections. If rupture of the duct takes place it is very traumatic and even fatal.[7]
Urine
Main article: Urine
Within the kidney, blood first passes through the afferent artery to the capillary formation called a glomerulus and is collected in the Bowman's capsule, which filters the blood from its contents—primarily food and wastes. After the filtration process, the blood then returns to collect the food nutrients it needs, while the wastes pass into the collecting duct, to the renal pelvis, and to the ureter, and are then secreted out of the body via the urinary bladder.
Faeces
Main article: Faeces
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2017)
Sweat
Main article: Sweat
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2017)
Breath
Main article: Breath
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2017)
Clinical signifiance
Kidney Stones
Main article: Kidney stone disease
Scientifically, masses referred to as a renal calculus or nephrolith, or more commonly, “kidney stones,” are solid masses of crystals that may be a variety of shapes, sizes, and textures, that can reside within one or both of the kidneys.[8] Kidney stones form when the balance is off between the concentration of substances that pass through urine, and the substances that are supposed to dissolve them. When substances are not properly dissolved, they have the ability to build up, and form these kidney stones. These stones are most commonly made up of substances such as calcium, cystine, oxalate, and uric acid, as these are the substances that normally would dissolve within the urine. When they do not dissolve correctly and further build up, they will commonly lodge themselves in the urinary tract and in this case, are usually small enough to pass through urine. In extreme situations, however, these stones may lodge themselves within the tube that connects the kidney and the bladder, called the ureter. In this case, they become very large in size and will most likely cause great pain, bleeding, and possibly even block the flow of urine.[9] These can occur in both men and women, and studies show that around 12% of men, and 8% of women in America will develop kidney stones within their lifetime.[10]
Treatment
In those extreme situations, in which kidney stones are too large to pass on their own, patients may seek removal. Most of these treatments involving kidney stone removal are done by a urologist; a physician who specializes in the organs of the Urinary system.[11] A common way of removal is shock wave lithotripsy, in which the urologist will shock the kidney stone into smaller pieces via laser, allowing these pieces to further pass through the urine on their own, as a normal case of kidney stones. Larger, more serious cases may demand Cystoscopy, Ureteroscopy, or Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy, in which the doctor will use a viewing tool or camera to locate the stone, and based on the size or situation, may either chose to continue with surgical removal, or use the shock wave lithotripsy treatment. Once the kidney stone(s) are successfully eliminated, the urologist will commonly suggest medication to prevent future recurrences.[8]
Pyelonephritis
Main article: Pyelonephritis
Pyelonephritis is a type of urinary tract infection that occurs when bacteria enters the body through the urinary tract. It causes an inflammation of the renal parenchyma, calyces, and pelvis.[12] There are three main classifications of pyelonephritis: acute, chronic and xanthogranulomatous.
Acute Pyelonephritis
In acute pyelonephritis, the patient experiences high fever, abdominal pain and pain while passing urine. Treatment for acute pyelonephritis is provided via antibiotics and an extensive urological investigation is conducted to find any abnormalities and prevent recurrence.[13]
Chronic Pyelonephritis
In chronic pyelonephritis, patients experience persistent abdominal and flank pain, high fever, decreased appetite, weight loss, urinary tract symptoms and blood in the urine. Chronic pyelonephritis can also lead to scarring of the renal parenchyma caused by recurrent kidney infections.[14]
Xanthogranulomatous Pyelonephritis
Xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis is an unusual form of chronic pyelonephritis. It results in severe destruction of the kidney and causes granulomatous abscess formation. Patients infected with Xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis experience recurrent fevers, anemia, kidney stones and loss of function in the affected kidney.[14]
Treatment
A urine culture and antibiotics sensitivity test is issued for patients who are believed to have pyelonephritis. Since most cases of pyelonephritis are caused from bacterial infections, antibiotics are a common treatment option. Depending on the species of the infecting organism and the antibiotics sensitivity profile of the organism, treatments may include fluoroquinolones, cephalosporins, aminoglycosides, or trimethoprim individually or in combination.[15] For patients with xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis, treatment might include antibiotics as well as surgery. Nephrectomy is the most common surgical treatment for a majority of cases invloving xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis.[16]
Epidemiology
In men, roughly 2-3 cases per 10,000 are treated as outpatients and 1 in 10,000 cases require admission to the hospital. In women, approximately 12-13 in 10,000 cases are treated as outpatients and 3-4 cases are admitted to a hospital.[17] The most common age group affected by Xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis is middle-aged women.[18] Infants and elderly are also at an increased risk because of hormonal and anatomical changes.[19]
References
Jump up ^ Dr. Tim Kenny. "Jaundice". Patient.co.uk. Retrieved 25 December 2014.
Jump up ^ Janis, C.M.; Keller, J.C. (2001). "Modes of ventilation in early tetrapods: Costal aspiration as a key feature of amniotes" (PDF). Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 46 (2): 137–170. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Dorit, R. L.; Walker, W. F.; Barnes, R. D. (1991). Zoology. Saunders College Publishing. ISBN 978-0-03-030504-7.
Jump up ^ Charkoudian, Nisha (2003). "Skin Blood Flow in Adult Human Thermoregulation: How It Works, When It Does Not, and Why". Mayo Clinic Precedings. 78: 603–612. doi:10.4065/78.5.603.
Jump up ^ Sato, Kenzo (2005). "The physiology, pharmacology, and biochemistry of the eccrine sweat gland". Reviews of Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology. 79: 51–131.
Jump up ^ Holyoke, John B. "Histologic Variations in the Structure of Human Eccrine Sweat Glands – ScienceDirect". Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 18: 147–167. doi:10.1038/jid.1952.18. Retrieved 2017-04-03.
Jump up ^ Jubb, K.V.F (1993). Pathology of Domestic Animals. San Diego, California: Academic Press, Inc. pp. 320–361. ISBN 0-12-391606-2.
^ Jump up to: a b https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/urologic-diseases/kidney-stones/definition-facts
Jump up ^ Punnoose, Ann R.; Golub, Robert M.; Lynm, Cassio (2012). "Kidney Stones". JAMA. 307 (23). doi:10.1001/jama.2012.6217.
Jump up ^ Coe, Fredric L.; Evan, Andrew; Worcester, Elaine (2005-10-01). "Kidney stone disease". Journal of Clinical Investigation. 115 (10): 2598–2608. doi:10.1172/JCI26662. ISSN 0021-9738. PMC 1236703  . PMID 16200192.
Jump up ^ "Medical Definition of Urologist". MedicineNet. Retrieved 2017-04-23.
Jump up ^ "mediLexicon". mediLexicon.
Jump up ^ Martin, Elizabeth (2015). Concise Medical Dictionary (9 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-968781-7.
^ Jump up to: a b Korkes, Fernando; Favoretto, Ricardo L.; Bróglio, Marcos; Silva, Carlos A.; Castro, Marilia G.; Perez, Marjo D. C. (2008-02-01). "Xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis: clinical experience with 41 cases". Urology. 71 (2): 178–180. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.026. ISSN 1527-9995. PMID 18308077.
Jump up ^ Gupta, Kalpana; Hooton, Thomas M.; Naber, Kurt G.; Wullt, Björn; Colgan, Richard; Miller, Loren G.; Moran, Gregory J.; Nicolle, Lindsay E.; Raz, Raul (2011-03-01). "International clinical practice guidelines for the treatment of acute uncomplicated cystitis and pyelonephritis in women: A 2010 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the European Society for Microbiology and Infectious Diseases". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 52 (5): e103–120. doi:10.1093/cid/ciq257. ISSN 1537-6591. PMID 21292654.
Jump up ^ Korkes, Fernando; Favoretto, Ricardo L.; Bróglio, Marcos; Silva, Carlos A.; Castro, Marilia G.; Perez, Marjo D. C. (2008-02-01). "Xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis: clinical experience with 41 cases". Urology. 71 (2): 178–180. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.026. ISSN 1527-9995. PMID 18308077.
Jump up ^ Czaja, Christopher A.; Scholes, Delia; Hooton, Thomas M.; Stamm, Walter E. (2007-08-01). "Population-based epidemiologic analysis of acute pyelonephritis". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 45 (3): 273–280. doi:10.1086/519268. ISSN 1537-6591. PMID 17599303.
Jump up ^ Malek, R. S.; Elder, J. S. (1978-05-01). "Xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis: a critical analysis of 26 cases and of the literature". The Journal of Urology. 119 (5): 589–593. doi:10.1016/s0022-5347(17)57559-x. ISSN 0022-5347. PMID 660725.
Jump up ^ Goodman, T. R.; McHugh, K.; Lindsell, D. R. (1998-01-01). "Paediatric xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis". International Journal of Clinical Practice. 52 (1): 43–45. ISSN 1368-5031. PMID 9536568.
External links
CLC Biology: Excretory/Urinary System
The Franklin Institute: Excretory System
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