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Real estate contract
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A real estate contract is a contract between parties for the purchase and sale, exchange, or other conveyance of real estate. The sale of land is governed by the laws and practices of the jurisdiction in which the land is located. Real estate called leasehold estate is actually a rental of real property such as an apartment, and leases (rental contracts) cover such rentals since they typically do not result in recordable deeds. Freehold ("More permanent") conveyances of real estate are covered by real estate contracts, including conveying fee simple title, life estates, remainder estates, and freehold easements. Real estate contracts are typically bilateral contracts (i. e., agreed to by two parties) and should have the legal requirements specified by contract law in general and should also be in writing to be enforceable.
Contents
[hide]
1 Details explained on the contract
1.1 In writing
1.2 Offer and acceptance
1.3 Deed specified
1.4 Contingencies
1.5 Date of closing and possession
1.6 Condition of property
1.7 Riders
1.8 Earnest money deposit
2 Financial qualifications of buyer(s)
3 See also
4 References
Details explained on the contract[edit]
In writing[edit]
It is a legal requirement in all jurisdictions that contracts for the sale of land be in writing to be enforceable. The various Statute of frauds require contracts for the sale of land to be in writing. In South Africa, the Alienation of Land Act specifies that any agreement of sale of immovable property must be in writing. In Italy, each transfer of real estate must be registered in front of a notary public in writing.
The common practice is for an "exchange of contracts" to take place. This involves two copies of the contract of sale being signed, one copy of which is retained by each party. When the parties are together, both would usually sign both copies, one copy of which would be retained by each party, sometimes with a formal handing over of a copy from one party to the other. However, it is usually sufficient that only the copy retained by each party be signed by the other party only. This rule enables contracts to be "exchanged" by mail. Both copies of the contract of sale become binding only after each party is in possession of a copy of the contract signed by the other party—ie., the exchange is said to be "complete". An exchange by electronic means is generally insufficient for an exchange, unless the laws of the jurisdiction expressly validate such signatures.
A contract for the sale of land must:
Identify the parties: The full name of the parties must be on the contract. In a sales contract, the parties are the seller(s) and buyer(s) of the real estate, who are often called the principals to distinguish them from real estate agents, who are effectively their intermediaries and representatives in negotiation of the price. If there are any real estate agents brokering the sale, they are typically listed also as the real estate brokers/agents who would earn the commission from the sale.
Identify the real estate (property): At least the address, but preferably the legal description must be on the contract.
Identify the purchase price: The amount of the sales price or a reasonably ascertainable figure (an appraisal to be completed at a future date) must be on the contract.
Include signatures: A real estate contract must be entered into voluntarily (not by force), and must be signed by the parties.
Have a legal purpose: The contract is void if it calls for illegal action.
Involve Competent parties: Mentally impaired, drugged persons, etc. cannot enter into a contract. Contracts in which at least one of the parties is a minor are voidable by the minor.
Reflect a meeting of the minds: Each side must be clear and agree as to the essential details, rights, and obligations of the contract.
Include Consideration: Consideration is something of value bargained for in exchange of the real estate. Money is the most common form of consideration, but other consideration of value, such as other property in exchange, or a promise to perform (i.e. a promise to pay) is also satisfactory.
Notarization by a notary public is normally not required for a real estate contract, but many recording offices require that a seller's or conveyor's signature on a deed be notarized to record the deed. The real estate contract is typically not recorded with the government, although statements or declarations of the price paid are commonly required to be submitted to the recorder's office.
Sometimes real estate contracts will provide for a lawyer review period of several days after the signing by the parties to check the provisions of the contract and counterpropose any that are unsuitable.
If there are any real estate brokers/agents brokering the sale, the buyer's agent will often fill in the blanks on a standard contract form for the buyer(s) and seller(s) to sign. The broker commonly gets such contract forms from a real estate association he/she belongs to. When both buyer and seller have agreed to the contract by signing it, the broker provides copies of the signed contract to the buyer and seller.
Offer and acceptance[edit]
As may be the case with other contracts, real estate contracts may be formed by one party making an offer and another party accepting the offer. To be enforceable, the offers and acceptances must be in writing (Statute of Frauds, Common Law)and signed by the parties agreeing to the contract. Often, the party making the offer prepares a written real estate contract, signs it, and transmits it to the other party who would accept the offer by signing the contract. As with all other types of legal offers, the other party may accept the offer, reject it (in which case the offer is terminated), make a counteroffer (in which case the original offer is terminated), or not respond to the offer (in which case the offer terminates by the expiration date in it). Before the offer (or counteroffer) is accepted, the offering (or countering) party can withdraw it. A counteroffer may be countered with yet another offer, and a counteroffering process may go on indefinitely between the parties.
To be enforceable, a real estate contract must possess original signatures by the parties and any alterations to the contract must be initialed by all the parties involved. If the original offer is marked up and initialed by the party receiving it, then signed, this is not an offer and acceptance but a counter-offer.
Deed specified[edit]
A real estate contract typically does not convey or transfer ownership of real estate by itself. A different document called a deed is used to convey real estate. In a real estate contract, the type of deed to be used to convey the real estate may be specified, such as a warranty deed or a quitclaim deed. If a deed type is not specifically mentioned, "marketable title" may be specified, implying a warranty deed should be provided. Lenders will insist on a warranty deed. Any liens or other encumbrances on the title to the real estate should be mentioned up front in the real estate contract, so the presence of these deficiencies would not be a reason for voiding the contract at or before the closing. If the liens are not cleared before by the time of the closing, then the deed should specifically have an exception(s) listed for the lien(s) not cleared.
The buyer(s) signing the real estate contract are liable (legally responsible) for providing the promised consideration for the real estate, which is typically money in the amount of the purchase price. However, the details about the type of ownership may not be specified in the contract. Sometimes, signing buyer(s) may direct a lawyer preparing the deed separately what type of ownership to list on the deed and may decide to add a joint owner(s), such as a spouse, to the deed. For example, types of joint ownership (title) may include tenancy in common, joint tenancy with right of survivorship, or joint tenancy by the entireties. Another possibility is ownership in trust instead of direct ownership.
Contingencies[edit]
Contingencies are conditions which must be met if a contract is to be performed.
Contingencies that suspend the contract until certain events occur are known as "suspensive conditions". Contingencies that cancel the contract if certain event occur are known as "resolutive conditions".
Most contracts of sale contain contingencies of some kind or another, because few people can afford to enter into a real estate purchase without them. But it is possible for a real estate contract not to have any contingencies.
Some types of contingencies which can appear in a real estate contract include:
Mortgage contingency – Performance of the contract (purchase of the real estate) is contingent upon or subject to the buyer getting a mortgage loan for the purchase. Usually such a contingency calls for a buyer to apply for a loan within a certain period of time after the contract is signed. Since most people who buy a house require financing to complete their purchase, mortgage contingencies are one of the most common type of contingencies in real property contracts. If the financing is not secured, the buyer may unilaterally cancel the contract by stating that his or her condition has not or will not be satisfied or allow the contract to expire by declining to waive the condition within the specified time period.
Inspection contingency – Another buyer's condition. Purchase of the real estate is contingent upon a satisfactory inspection of the real property revealing no significant defects. Contingencies could also be made on the satisfactory repair of a certain item associated with the real estate.
another sale contingency – Purchase or sale of the real estate is contingent on a successful sale or purchase of another piece of real estate. The successful sale of another house may be needed to finance the purchase of a new one.
appraisal contingency – Purchase of the real estate is contingent upon the contract price being at or below a fair market value determined by an appraisal. Lenders will often not lend more than a certain percentage (fraction) of the appraised value, so such a contingency may be useful for a buyer.
72-hour kick out contingency - Seller contingency, in which the seller accepts a contract from a buyer with a contingency (typically a home sale or rent contingency where the buyer conditions the sale on their ability to find a buyer or renter for their current property prior to settlement). The seller retains the right to sell the property to another party if he so chooses after giving the buyer 72 hours notice to remove their contingency. The buyer will then either remove their contingency and provide proof that they can consummate the sale or will release the seller from their contract and allow the seller to move forward with the new contract.
Date of closing and possession[edit]
A typical real estate contract specifies a date by which the closing must occur. The closing is the event in which the money (or other consideration) for the real estate is paid for and title (ownership) of the real estate is conveyed from the seller(s) to the buyer(s). The conveyance is done by the seller(s) signing a deed for buyer(s) or their attorneys or other agents to record the transfer of ownership. Often other paperwork is necessary at the closing.
The date of the closing is normally also the date when possession of the real estate is transferred from the seller(s) to the buyer(s). However, the real estate contract can specify a different date when possession changes hands. Transfer of possession of a house, condominium, or building is usually accomplished by handing over the key(s) to it. The contract may have provisions in case the seller(s) hold over possession beyond the agreed date.
The contract can also specify which party pays for what closing cost(s). If the contract does not specify, then there are certain customary defaults depending on law, common law (judicial precedents), location, and other orders or agreements, regarding who pays for which closing costs.
Condition of property[edit]
A real estate contract may specify in what condition of the property should be when conveying the title or transferring possession. For example, the contract may say that the property is sold as is, especially if demolition is intended. Alternatively there may be a representation or a warranty (guarantee) regarding the condition of the house, building, or some part of it such as affixed appliances, HVAC system, etc. Sometimes a separate disclosure form specified by a government entity is also used. The contract could also specify any personal property (non-real property) items which are to be included with the deal, such as washer and dryer which are normally detachable from the house. Utility meters, electrical wiring systems, fuse or circuit breaker boxes, plumbing, furnaces, water heaters, sinks, toilets, bathtubs, and most central air conditioning systems are normally considered to be attached to a house or building and would normally be included with the real property by default.
Riders[edit]
Riders (or addenda) are special attachments (separate sheets) that become part of the contract in certain situations.
Earnest money deposit[edit]
Although money is the most common consideration, it is not a required element to have a valid real estate contract. An earnest money deposit from the buyer(s) customarily accompanies an offer to buy real estate and the deposit is held by a third party, like a title company, attorney or sometimes the seller. The amount, a small fraction of the total price, is listed in the contract, with the remainder of the cost to be paid at the closing. In some rare cases, other instruments of value, like notes and/or stock or other negotiable instruments can be used for consideration. Other hard assets, like gold, silver and anything of value can also be used or in other cases, love (where it can be shown to have existed between the parties). However, the earnest money deposit represents a credit towards the final sales price, which is usually the main or only consideration.
Financial qualifications of buyer(s)[edit]
The better the financial qualification of the buyer(s) is, the more likely the closing will be successfully completed, which is typically the goal of the seller. Any documentation demonstrating financial qualifications of the buyer(s), such as mortgage loan pre-approval or pre-qualification, may accompany a real estate offer to buy along with an earnest money check. When there are competing offers or when a lower offer is presented, the seller may be more likely to accept an offer from a buyer demonstrating evidence of being well qualified than from a buyer without such evidence.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Real estate transaction
Land contract - a special form of real estate contract where the seller provides financing for the buyer to repay in installments
References[edit]
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Transatlantic telegraph cable
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Map of the 1858 trans-Atlantic cable route
A transatlantic telegraph cable is an undersea cable running under the Atlantic Ocean used for telegraph communications. The first was laid across the floor of the Atlantic from Telegraph Field, Foilhommerum Bay, Valentia Island in western Ireland to Heart's Content in eastern Newfoundland. The first communications occurred August 16, 1858, reducing the communication time between North America and Europe from ten days – the time it took to deliver a message by ship – to only 17 hours. Transatlantic telegraph cables have been replaced by transatlantic telecommunications cables.
Landing of the Atlantic Cable of 1866, Heart's Content, Newfoundland, by Robert Charles Dudley, 1866.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early history
2 Origins of the idea
3 St. John's to Nova Scotia
4 Transatlantic
5 First contact
6 Failure of the first cable
7 Repairing the cable
8 Great Eastern
9 Communication speeds
9.1 Repeaters
10 In fiction
11 In Popular Culture
12 See also
13 Notes
14 References and further reading
15 External links
Early history[edit]
In the 1840s and 1850s several individuals proposed or advocated construction of a telegraph cable across the Atlantic Ocean, including Edward Thornton and Alonzo Jackman.[1] Cyrus West Field and the Atlantic Telegraph Company were behind the construction of the first transatlantic telegraph cable.[2] The project began in 1854 and was completed in 1858. The cable functioned for only three weeks, but it was the first such project to yield practical results. The first official telegram to pass between two continents was a letter of congratulations from Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom to the President of the United States James Buchanan on August 16. Signal quality declined rapidly, slowing transmission to an almost unusable speed. The cable was destroyed the following month when Wildman Whitehouse applied excessive voltage to it while trying to achieve faster operation. It has been argued that the faulty manufacture, storage and handling of the 1858 cable would have led to premature failure in any case.[3] The cable's rapid failure undermined public and investor confidence and delayed efforts to restore a connection. A second attempt was undertaken in 1865 with much-improved material and, following some setbacks, a connection was completed and put into service on July 28, 1866. This cable proved more durable.
Before the first transatlantic cable, communications between Europe and the Americas took place only by ship. Sometimes, however, severe winter storms delayed ships for weeks. The transatlantic cable reduced communication time considerably, allowing a message and a response in the same day. Five attempts to lay a cable were made over a nine-year period – one in 1857, two in 1858, one in 1865, and one in 1866. Lasting connections were finally achieved with the 1866 cable and the 1865 cable, which was repaired by Isambard Kingdom Brunel's ship SS Great Eastern, captained by Sir James Anderson.[4] In the 1870s duplex and quadruplex transmission and receiving systems were set up that could relay multiple messages over the cable.[citation needed]
Additional cables were laid between Foilhommerum and Heart's Content in 1873, 1874, 1880, and 1894. By the end of the 19th century, British-, French-, German-, and American-owned cables linked Europe and North America in a sophisticated web of telegraphic communications.[citation needed]
Origins of the idea[edit]
Main article: Submarine communications cable
William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone introduced their working telegraph in 1839. As early as 1840 Samuel F. B. Morse proclaimed his faith in the idea of a submarine line across the Atlantic Ocean. By 1850 a cable was run between England and France. That same year Bishop John T. Mullock, head of the Roman Catholic Church in Newfoundland, proposed a telegraph line through the forest from St. John's to Cape Ray, and cables across the Gulf of St. Lawrence from Cape Ray to Nova Scotia across the Cabot Strait.
At about the same time a similar plan occurred to Frederick Newton Gisborne, a telegraph engineer in Nova Scotia. In the spring of 1851, Gisborne procured a grant from the legislature of Newfoundland and, having formed a company, began the construction of the landline. In 1853 his company collapsed, he was arrested for debt and he lost everything. The following year he was introduced to Cyrus West Field. Field invited Gisborne to his house to discuss the project. From his visitor, Field considered the idea that the cable to Newfoundland might be extended across the Atlantic Ocean.
Field was ignorant of submarine cables and the deep sea. He consulted Morse as well as Lieutenant Matthew Maury, an authority on oceanography. Field adopted Gisborne's scheme as a preliminary step to the bigger undertaking, and promoted the New York, Newfoundland and London Telegraph Company to establish a telegraph line between America and Europe.
St. John's to Nova Scotia[edit]
The first step was to finish the line between St. John's and Nova Scotia, and in 1855 an attempt was made to lay a cable across the Cabot Strait in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It was laid out from a barque in tow of a steamer. When half the cable was laid, a gale rose, and the line was cut to keep the barque from sinking. In 1856 a steamboat was fitted out for the purpose, and the link from Cape Ray, Newfoundland to Aspy Bay, Nova Scotia was successfully laid.[5]
Transatlantic[edit]
A U.S. postage stamp commemorating the Atlantic cable
With Charles Tilston Bright as chief engineer, Field then directed the transoceanic cable effort. A survey was made of the proposed route and showed that the cable was feasible. Funds were raised from both American and British sources by selling shares in the Atlantic Telegraph Company. Field himself supplied a quarter of the needed capital.
The cable consisted of seven copper wires, each weighing 26 kg/km (107 pounds per nautical mile), covered with three coats of gutta-percha (as suggested by Jonathan Nash Hearder[6]), weighing 64 kg/km (261 pounds per nautical mile), and wound with tarred hemp, over which a sheath of 18 strands, each of seven iron wires, was laid in a close spiral. It weighed nearly 550 kg/km (1.1 tons per nautical mile), was relatively flexible and was able to withstand a pull of several tens of kilonewtons (several tons). It was made jointly by two English firms – Glass, Elliot & Co., of Greenwich, and R. S. Newall & Co., of Birkenhead. Late in manufacturing it was discovered that the respective sections had been made with strands twisted in opposite directions. While the two sections proved a simple matter to join, this mistake subsequently became magnified in the public mind.[7]
The British government gave Field a subsidy of £1,400 a year and loaned the ships needed. Field also solicited aid from the U.S. government. A bill authorizing a subsidy was submitted in Congress. The subsidy bill passed the Senate by a single vote, due to opposition from protectionist senators. In the House of Representatives, the bill encountered similar resistance, but passed, and was signed by President Franklin Pierce.
The first attempt, in 1857, was a failure. The cable-laying vessels were the converted warships HMS Agamemnon and USS Niagara. The cable was started at the white strand near Ballycarbery Castle in County Kerry, on the southwest coast of Ireland, on August 5, 1857.[8] The cable broke on the first day, but was grappled and repaired; it broke again over the "telegraph plateau", nearly 3,200 m (2 statute miles) deep, and the operation was abandoned for the year.
The following summer, after experiments in the Bay of Biscay, Agamemnon and Niagara tried again. The vessels were to meet in the middle of the Atlantic, where the two halves of the cable were to be spliced together, and while Agamemnon paid out eastwards to Valentia Island, Niagara was to pay out westward to Newfoundland. On June 26, the middle splice was made and the cable was dropped. Again the cable broke, the first time after less than 5.5 km (three nautical miles), again after some 100 km (54 nautical miles) and for a third time when about 370 km (200 nautical miles) of cable had run out of each vessel.
The expedition returned to Queenstown, and set out again on July 17, with little enthusiasm among the crews. The middle splice was finished on July 29, 1858. The cable ran easily this time. Niagara arrived in Trinity Bay, Newfoundland on August 4 and the next morning the shore end was landed. Agamemnon made an equally successful run. On August 5, she arrived at Valentia Island, and the shore end was landed at Knightstown and then laid to the nearby cable house.[9]
First contact[edit]
The Telegraph Field,[10] Valentia Island, Ireland, the site of the earliest message sent from Ireland to North America. In October 2002, a memorial to mark the laying of the transatlantic cable to Newfoundland was unveiled on top of Foilhomerrum Cliff. Made of Valentia slate and designed by local sculptor Alan Hall,[11] the memorial marks the history of the telegraph industry to the island from 1857 forward.
On August 16, 1858 the first message sent via the cable, other than technical messages sent by the electricians setting up the system, was, "Europe and America are united by telegraphy. Glory to God in the highest; on earth, peace and good will toward men," sent from England.[12][13] Queen Victoria then sent a telegram of congratulation to President James Buchanan at his summer residence in the Bedford Springs Hotel in Pennsylvania and expressed a hope that it would prove "an additional link between the nations whose friendship is founded on their common interest and reciprocal esteem." The President responded that, "it is a triumph more glorious, because far more useful to mankind, than was ever won by conqueror on the field of battle. May the Atlantic telegraph, under the blessing of Heaven, prove to be a bond of perpetual peace and friendship between the kindred nations, and an instrument destined by Divine Providence to diffuse religion, civilization, liberty, and law throughout the world."[14] The messages were hard to decipher – Queen Victoria's message of 98 words took sixteen hours to send.[15]
These messages engendered an outburst of enthusiasm. The next morning a grand salute of 100 guns resounded in New York City, the streets were decorated with flags, the bells of the churches were rung, and at night the city was illuminated.[16] Unfortunately, the excited mob also "poured into the streets of New York and set fire to City Hall." [17]
Failure of the first cable[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The operation of the new cable was plagued by the fact that the two senior electrical engineers of the company had very different ideas on how the cable should be worked.[18] Lord Kelvin and Dr Wildman Whitehouse were located at opposite ends of the cable, communicating only by the cable itself.[2]
Kelvin, located at the western end, believed that it was necessary to employ only a low voltage and to detect the rising edge of the current flowing out of the cable and, once this had been done, nothing would be gained by further monitoring (Morse code used a positive current for a 'dot' and a negative current for a 'dash'). Kelvin invented his mirror galvanometer precisely for this task of observing the current change quickly.
At the eastern end of the cable was Whitehouse. He was the company's chief electrician and a doctor of medicine – any electrical knowledge that he possessed was self-taught. Whitehouse believed that, in order to have the current at the receiving end change as rapidly as possible, the cable should be driven from a high-voltage source (several thousand volts from induction coils). The position was made worse because every time intelligible Morse code was seen on the mirror galvanometer at the eastern end, Whitehouse insisted that the galvanometer be disconnected and replaced with his own patented telegraph recorder, which was far less sensitive.
The effects of the poor handling and design of the cable, coupled with Whitehouse's repeated attempts to drive the cable with high voltages, resulted in the insulation of the cable being compromised. All the while, it was taking longer and longer to send messages. Towards the end, sending half a page of message text was taking as long as a day.
In September 1858, after several days of progressive deterioration of the insulation, the cable failed. The reaction to this news was tremendous. Some writers even hinted that the line was a mere hoax, and others pronounced it a stock exchange speculation. In the enquiry that followed, Dr Whitehouse was deemed responsible for the failure, and the company did not escape criticism for employing an electrical engineer with no recognised qualifications.
Field was undaunted by the failure. He was eager to renew the work, but the public had lost confidence in the scheme and his efforts to revive the company were futile. It was not until 1864 that, with the assistance of Thomas Brassey and John Pender, he succeeded in raising the necessary capital. The Glass, Elliot, and Gutta-Percha Companies were united to form the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company (Telcon, later part of BICC), which undertook to manufacture and lay the new cable. C.F. Varley replaced Whitehouse as chief electrician.[2]
In the meantime, long cables had been submerged in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. With this experience, an improved cable was designed. The core consisted of seven twisted strands of very pure copper weighing 300 pounds per nautical mile (73 kg/km), coated with Chatterton's compound, then covered with four layers of gutta-percha, alternating with four thin layers of the compound cementing the whole, and bringing the weight of the insulator to 400 lb/nmi (98 kg/km). This core was covered with hemp saturated in a preservative solution, and on the hemp were spirally wound eighteen single strands of high tensile steel wire produced by Webster & Horsfall Ltd of Hay Mills Birmingham, each covered with fine strands of manila yarn steeped in the preservative. The weight of the new cable was 35.75 long hundredweight (4000 lb) per nautical mile (980 kg/km), or nearly twice the weight of the old. The Haymills site successfully manufactured 30,000 miles (48,000 km) of wire (1,600 tons), made by 250 workers over eleven months.
Repairing the cable[edit]
Broken cables required an elaborate repair procedure. The approximate distance to the break is determined by measuring the resistance of the broken cable. The repair ship navigated to the location. The cable was hooked with a grapple and brought on board to test for electrical continuity. Buoys were deployed to mark the ends of good cable and a splice was made between the two ends.[19][20]
Great Eastern[edit]
Great Eastern at Heart's Content
The new cable was laid by the ship Great Eastern captained by Sir James Anderson.[21] Her immense hull was fitted with three iron tanks for the reception of 2,300 nautical miles (4,300 km) of cable, and her decks furnished with the paying-out gear. At noon on July 15, 1865, Great Eastern left the Nore for Foilhommerum Bay, Valentia Island, where the shore end was laid by Caroline. This attempt failed on July 31 when, after 1,062 miles (1968 km) had been paid out, the cable snapped near the stern of the ship, and the end was lost.[22]
Great Eastern steamed back to England, where Field issued another prospectus, and formed the Anglo-American Telegraph Company,[23] to lay a new cable and complete the broken one. On July 13, 1866, Great Eastern started paying out once more. Despite problems with the weather on the evening of Friday, July 27, the expedition reached the port of Heart's Content in a thick fog. The next morning at 9 a.m. a message from England cited these words from the leader in The Times: "It is a great work, a glory to our age and nation, and the men who have achieved it deserve to be honoured among the benefactors of their race." "Treaty of peace signed between Prussia and Austria." The shore end was landed during the day by Medway. Congratulations poured in, and friendly telegrams were again exchanged between Queen Victoria and the United States.
Grappling hook used for lifting the cable
On August 9 Great Eastern put to sea again, in order to grapple the lost cable of 1865, and complete it to Newfoundland.[24] They were determined to find it. There were some who thought it hopeless to try, declaring that to locate a cable two-and-a-half miles down would be like looking for a small needle in a large haystack. Robert Halpin navigated the ship to the correct location.[25] For days, Great Eastern moved slowly here and there, "fishing" for the lost cable with a grappling hook at the end of a stout rope. Suddenly, the cable was "caught" and brought to the surface, but while the men cheered it slipped from the hook and vanished again. It was not until a fortnight later that it was once more fished up; it took 26 hours to get it safely on board Great Eastern again. The cable was carried to the electrician's room, where it was determined that the cable was connected. All on the ship cheered or wept as rockets were sent up into the sky to light the sea. The recovered cable was then spliced to a fresh cable in her hold, and paid out to Heart's Content, Newfoundland, where she arrived on Saturday, September 7. There were now two working telegraph lines.
Communication speeds[edit]
Initially messages were sent by an operator sending Morse code. The reception was very bad on the 1858 cable, and it took two minutes to transmit just one character (a single letter or a single number), a rate of about 0.1 words per minute. This is despite the use of a highly sensitive mirror galvanometer, a new invention at the time.
The first message on the 1858 cable took over 17 hours to transmit.[26] For the 1866 cable, the methods of cable manufacture, as well as sending messages, had been vastly improved. The 1866 cable could transmit eight words a minute[27] – 80 times faster than the 1858 cable. Heaviside and Mihajlo Idvorski Pupin in later decades understood that the bandwidth of a cable is hindered by an imbalance between capacitive and inductive reactance, which causes a severe dispersion and hence a signal distortion; see Telegrapher's equations. This has to be solved by iron tape or by load coils. It was not until the 20th century that message transmission speeds over transatlantic cables would reach even 120 words per minute. Despite this, London had become the world center in telecommunications. Eventually, no fewer than eleven cables radiated from Porthcurno Cable Station near Land's End and formed with their Commonwealth links a "live" girdle around the world.
Repeaters[edit]
The original cables were not fitted with repeaters, which would have amplified the signal along the way, because there was no practical way to power the relays. As technology advanced, intermediate relays became possible and the first transatlantic cable with repeaters was TAT-1 in 1956.
In fiction[edit]
The cable is one of the many underwater landmarks observed by the Nautilus in Jules Verne’s Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (1870).
Hans Christian Andersen's story "The Great Sea-Serpent" (1872) describes the havoc and confusion among the sea-dwellers caused by the laying of the cable.
In the novel Open the Door! (1918) by Catherine Carswell, the Bannermans visit the Great Eastern, which lay in Liverpool harbor as a show ship before being broken up; Linnet Bannerman's imagination has been captured by the cable.
The 2003 novel Signal & Noise by John Griesemer (ISBN 0-312-42334-9) tells a fictionalized story of the project, including many incidents from real life. (ISBN 0-312-42334-9)
In Popular Culture[edit]
In 1857 Henry Kleber wrote a piano work called The Atlanic Telegraph Scottisch.
See also[edit]
Robert Halpin – Captain of the Great Eastern
Transatlantic telephone cable
Western Union Telegraph Expedition – overland alternative via Russia
1929 Grand Banks earthquake
Commercial Cable Company
Enderby's Wharf
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Moll, Marita; Shade, Leslie Regan (2004). Seeking Convergence in Policy and Practice: Communications in the Public Interest. Volume 2. Canadian Center for Policy Alternatives. p. 27. ISBN 0-88627-386-2.
^ Jump up to: a b c Guarnieri, M. (2014). "The Conquest of the Atlantic". IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine. 8 (1): 53–56/67. doi:10.1109/MIE.2014.2299492.
Jump up ^ de Cogan, D. "Dr E.O.W. Whitehouse and the 1858 trans-Atlantic Cable". History of the Atlantic Cable & Undersea Communications. Archived from the original on 2009-09-06.
Jump up ^ Wilson, Arthur (1994). The Living Rock: The Story of Metals Since Earliest Times and Their Impact on Civilization. p. 203. Woodhead Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85573-301-5.
Jump up ^ Henry Youle Hind; Thomas C. Keefer; John George Hodgins; Charles Robb (1864). Eighty Years' Progress of British North America: Showing the Wonderful Development of Its Natural Resources, Giving, in a Historical Form, the Vast Improvements Made in Agriculture, Commerce, and Trade, Modes of Travel and Transportation, Mining, and Educational Interests, Etc., Etc., with a Large Amount of Statistical Information, from the Best and Latest Authorities. L. Stebbins. pp. 759–.
Jump up ^ Hearder, Ian G. (September 2004). "Hearder, Jonathan Nash (1809–1876)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 7 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Cookson, Gillian (2006). The Cable (2 ed.). Tempus Publishing. p. 73. ISBN 0-7524-3903-0.
Jump up ^ "History of the Atlantic Cable – Submarine Telegraphy – 1857 – Laying the Atlantic Telegraph From Ship To Shore". Retrieved August 5, 2008.
Jump up ^ "History of the Atlantic Cable – Submarine Telegraphy – Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper 1858 Cable News". Retrieved August 5, 2008.
Jump up ^ The Telegraph Field
Jump up ^ Alan Hall
Jump up ^ Harry Granick, Underneath New York, p. 115, Fordham University Press, 1991 ISBN 0823213129.
Jump up ^ http://www.atlantic-cable.com/Article/Lanello/ The Curious Story of the Tiffany Cables. see 'The Great Transatlantic Cable – 1858." Bill Burns. Atlantic-cable.com. Retrieved June 12, 2014.
Jump up ^ Jesse Ames Spencer (1866). 'THE QUEEN'S MESSAGE' and 'THE PRESIDENT'S REPLY' (full wording) (Digitised eBook). History of the United States: from the earliest period to the administration of President Johnson. Vol. 3. Johnson, Fry. p. 542, chap. 10. Retrieved June 12, 2014.
Jump up ^ Jim Al-Khalili. "Shock and Awe: The Story of Electricity", Ep, 2 "The Age of Invention" October 13, 2011, BBC TV, Using Chief Engineer Bright's original notebook. Retrieved June 12, 2014
Jump up ^ "1858 NY Celebration". History of the Atlantic Cable & Undersea Communications. Atlantic-cable.com. January 10, 2013. Retrieved August 5, 2008.
Jump up ^ Stephenson, Neal. "Mother Earth Mother Board". WIRED. Retrieved 2016-10-07.
Jump up ^ Voice Across the Sea – Arthur C Clarke
Jump up ^ The 1911 edition of The Encyclopædia Britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information, Volume 26 Page 513-516
Jump up ^ History of the Atlantic Cable & Undersea Communications – HOW SUBMARINE CABLES ARE MADE, LAID, OPERATED AND REPAIRED
Jump up ^ History of the Atlantic Cable & Submarine Telegraphy – Great Eastern
Jump up ^ "History of the Atlantic Cable – Submarine Telegraphy – Daniel Gooch". Retrieved August 5, 2008.
Jump up ^ http://atlantic-cable.com/CableCos/AngloAmerican/index.htm Anglo-American Telegraph Company
Jump up ^ "History of the Atlantic Cable – Submarine Telegraphy-Recovery of the Lost Cable". Retrieved August 5, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Laying the French Atlantic Cable". Nautical magazine. Brown, Son and Ferguson. 38: 460. 1869. Retrieved September 10, 2011. To have navigated the ship in a fog so exactly to her proper position was certainly a most wonderful testimony to Captain Halpin's judgment and skill, ...
Jump up ^ "1858 August 16 Queen Victoria Sends Telegram to President Buchanan". Famous Messages Received and Sent. Library and Archives Canada. Retrieved July 9, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Narrative History Of Submarine Cables". International Cable Protection Committee. February 26, 2014. Retrieved June 12, 2014.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "article name needed". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
References and further reading[edit]
Clarke, Arthur C. Voice Across the Sea (1958) and How the World was One (1992); the two books include some of the same material.
Gordon, John Steele. A Thread across the Ocean: The Heroic Story of the Transatlantic Cable. New York: Walker & Co, 2002. ISBN 978-0-8027-1364-3.
Murray, Donald (June 1902). "How Cables Unite the World". The World's Work: A History of Our Time. II: 2298–2309. Retrieved July 9, 2009.
Rozwadowski, Helen. Fathoming the Ocean (2005). Devotes a good deal of space to the description of cable-laying.
Standage, Tom. The Victorian Internet (1998). ISBN 0-7538-0703-3. The story of the men and women who were the earliest pioneers of the on-line frontier, and the global network they created – a network that was, in effect, the Victorian Internet.
Cookson, Gillian. The Cable. 2nd Ed (2006), Tempus Publishing. ISBN 0-7524-3903-0.
External links[edit]
The Atlantic Cable by Bern Dibner (1959) – Complete free electronic version of The Atlantic Cable by Bern Dibner (1959), hosted by the Smithsonian Institution Libraries
History of the Atlantic Cable & Undersea Communications – Comprehensive history of submarine telegraphy with much original material, including photographs of cable manufacturers samples
PBS, American Experience: The Great Transatlantic Cable
The History Channel: Modern Marvels: Transatlantic Cable: 2500 Miles of Copper
A collection of articles on the history of telegraphy
Cabot Strait Telegraph Cable 1856 between Newfoundland and Nova Scotia
American Heritage: The Cable Under the Sea
Alan Hall – First Transatlantic Cable and First message sent to USA 1856 Memorial
Travelogue around the world's communications cables by Neal Stephenson
IEEE History Center: County Kerry Transatlantic Cable Stations, 1866
IEEE History Center: Landing of the Transatlantic Cable, 1866
Laying Of The Atlantic Cable
The Great Eastern – Robert Dudley Lithographs 1865–66
Special Service in Commemoration of the Laying of the Atlantic Ocean Telegraph, Trinity Church, New-York, September First, 1858. Reconstructed and digitized by Cynthia McFarland and Richard Mammana, 2011
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Jaro Institute of Technology, Management and Research
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Jaro Institute of Technology, Management and Research
Established
2009
Director
Dr. Sanjay Salunkhe
Location
Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Website
jaro.in
Jaro Institute of Technology Management and Research, also known as Jaro Education, is a business school located in Mumbai, India that provides international Master of Business Administration and executive international MBA programs.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Outline
2 Academic partners
3 Awards
4 References
5 External links
Outline[edit]
Jaro Education is an ISO 9001:2008 certified institution, fully accredited by the European Association for International Education, United States Distance Learning Association and Accreditation Services for Certifying Bodies Europe.[1]
The institute signed a memorandum of understanding with Ulyanovsk State University in Russia, to assist their International MBA program.[when?][2] Jaro works with many University Grants Commission recognized universities to launch Doctor of Philosophy.
Academic partners[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Jaro Education has academic partners with Welingkar Institute, NMIMS University, Alliance B-School, Bharathiar University & Ural Federal University.
Awards[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Fastest Growing MBA Program in Asia Pacific Countries at Singapore, by World Education
Congress, 2012.
“India's Best International MBA Program” by Bombay Management Association, 2011.
India’s Best International MBA Program
“Most Innovative & Successful Online MBA Program in India,” by Brands Academy, 2012.
“Best Employer Award for Career Development and Grooming 2016,” by Employer Branding Institute, powered by the World HRD Congress.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "International MBA programmes". Siliconindia. March 27, 2014. Retrieved March 27, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Jaro Education bags the prestigious award for Best ICT enabled Higher Education Institute". The Free Press Journal. Retrieved November 26, 2012.
External links[edit]
Official website
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This page was last edited on 13 March 2017, at 23:59.
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