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Three-point field goal
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Not to be confused with Field goal (American and Canadian football).
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Sara Giauro shoots a three-point shot at the 2005 FIBA Europe Cup Women's Finals
Stephen Curry currently holds the record for most three-point field goals in an NBA regular season with 402.
A three-point field goal (also 3-pointer or informally, trey) is a field goal in a basketball game made from beyond the three-point line, a designated arc surrounding the basket. A successful attempt is worth three points, in contrast to the two points awarded for field goals made within the three-point line and the one point for each made free throw.
The distance from the basket to the three-point line varies by competition level: in the National Basketball Association (NBA) the arc is 23 feet 9 inches (7.24 m) from the basket; in FIBA and the WNBA (the latter uses FIBA's three-point line standard) the arc is 6.75 metres or 22 feet 1 3⁄4 inches from the basket; and in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) the arc is 20 feet 9 inches (6.32 m) from the basket. In the NBA and FIBA/WNBA, the three-point line becomes parallel to each sideline at the points where the arc is 3 feet (0.91 m) from each sideline; as a result the distance from the basket gradually decreases to a minimum of 22 feet (6.71 m). In the NCAA the arc is continuous for 180° around the basket. There are more variations (see main article).
In 3x3, a FIBA-sanctioned variant of the half-court 3-on-3 game, the "three-point" line exists, but shots from behind the line are only worth 2 points. All other shots are worth 1 point.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Rule specifications
3 Related concepts
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
The three-point line was first tested at the collegiate level in a 1945 NCAA game between Columbia and Fordham but it was not kept as a rule. At the direction of Abe Saperstein, the American Basketball League became the first basketball league to institute the rule in 1961. Its three-point line was a radius of 25 feet (7.62 m) from the baskets, except along the sides.[2] The Eastern Professional Basketball League followed in its 1963–64 season.
The three-point shot later became popularized by the American Basketball Association after its introduction in the 1967–68 season. ABA commissioner George Mikan stated the three-pointer "would give the smaller player a chance to score and open up the defense to make the game more enjoyable for the fans."[3] During the 1970s, the ABA used the three-point shot, along with the slam dunk, as a marketing tool to compete with the National Basketball Association (NBA).
The official scorer's report showing the first made three-point field goal in NBA history.
In the 1979–80 season, after having tested it in the previous pre-season, the NBA adopted the three-point line despite the view of many that it was a gimmick.[4] Chris Ford of the Boston Celtics is widely credited with making the first three-point shot in NBA history on October 12, 1979. Kevin Grevey of the Washington Bullets also made one on the same day.
The sport's international governing body, FIBA, introduced the three-point line in 1984, at a distance of 6.25 m (20 ft 6 in).
The NCAA's Southern Conference became the first collegiate conference to use the three-point rule, adopting a 22-foot (6.71 m) line for the 1980–81 season.[5][6] Ronnie Carr of Western Carolina University was the first to score a three-point field goal in college basketball history on November 29, 1980.[6][7][8] Over the following five years, NCAA conferences differed in their use of the rule and distance required for a three-pointer. The line was as close as 17 ft 9 in (5.41 m) in the Atlantic Coast Conference, and as far away as 22 feet in the Big Sky Conference.[9] Used in conference play, it was adopted by the NCAA for the 1986–87 men's season at 19 ft 9 in (6.02 m), and was first used in the NCAA Tournament in 1987.[10] In the same 1986–87 season, the NCAA adopted the three-pointer in women's basketball on an experimental basis, using the same 19 ft 9 in distance, and made its use mandatory beginning in 1987–88.[11] In 2007, the NCAA lengthened the men's three-point distance to 20 ft 9 in (6.32 m), with the rule coming into effect at the beginning of the 2008–09 season.[12] The NCAA women's three-point distance was moved to match the men's distance in 2011–12.[11] American high schools, along with elementary and middle schools, adopted a 19 ft 9 in (6.02 m) line nationally in 1987, a year after the NCAA.[13] The NCAA used the FIBA three-point line (see below) in the 2018 National Invitation Tournament.[14]
During the 1994–95, 1995–96, and 1996–97 seasons, the NBA attempted to address decreased scoring by shortening the distance of the line from 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m) (22 ft (6.71 m) at the corners) to a uniform 22 ft (6.71 m) around the basket. From the 1997–98 season on, the NBA reverted the line to its original distance of 23 ft 9 in (22 ft at the corners, with a 3 inch differential). Ray Allen is currently the NBA all-time leader in career made three-pointers with 2,973.[15]
In 2008, FIBA announced that the distance would be increased by 50 cm (19.69 in) to 6.75 m (22 ft 1 3⁄4 in), with the change being phased in beginning in October 2010. In December 2012, the WNBA announced that it would be using FIBA's distance, too, as of the 2013 season. The NBA has discussed adding a four-point line, according to president Rod Thorn.[16]
In the NBA, three-point field goals have become increasingly more frequent along the years, with effectiveness increasing slightly. The 1979-80 season had an average 2.2 three-point goals per game and 6.6 attempts (28% effectiveness). The 1989-90 season had an average 4.8 three-point goals per game and 13.7 attempts (35% effectiveness). The 2009-10 season had an average 6.4 three-point goals per game and 18.1 attempts (36% effectiveness). The 2016-17 season had an average 9.7 three-point goals per game and 27.0 attempts (36% effectiveness).[17]
Rule specifications[edit]
A three-point line consists of an arc at a set radius measured from the point on the floor directly below the center of the basket, and two parallel lines equidistant from each sideline extending from the nearest end line to the point at which they intersect the arc. In the NBA and FIBA standard, the arc spans the width of the court until it is a specified minimum distance from each sideline. The three-point line then becomes parallel to the sidelines from those points to the baseline. The unusual formation of the three-point line at these levels allows players some space from which to attempt a three-point shot at the corners of the court; the arc would be less than 2 feet (0.61 m) from each sideline at the corners if it was a continuous arc. In the NCAA and American high school standards, the arc spans 180° around the basket, then becomes parallel to the sidelines from the plane of the basket center to the baseline (5 feet 3 inches or 1.60 metres). The distance of the three-point line to the center of the hoop varies by level:
Arc radius
Minimum distance from sidelines
National Basketball Association 23 feet 9 inches (7.24 m) 3 feet (0.91 m) [18]
FIBA (also used by WNBA) 6.75 meters (22 ft 2 in) 0.90 meters (2 ft 11 in) [19]
National Collegiate Athletic Association 20 feet 9 inches (6.32 m) 4 feet 3 inches (1.30 m) [20]
American high school basketball 19 feet 9 inches (6.02 m) 5 feet 3 inches (1.60 m) [21]
A player's feet must be completely behind the three-point line at the time of the shot or jump in order to make a three-point attempt; if the player's feet are on or in front of the line, it is a two-point attempt. A player is allowed to jump from outside the line and land inside the line to make a three-point attempt, as long as the ball is released in mid-air.
An official raises his/her arm with three fingers extended to signal the shot attempt. If the attempt is successful, he/she raises his/her other arm with all fingers fully extended in manner similar to a football official signifying successful field goal to indicate the three-point goal. The official must recognize it for it to count as three points. Instant replay has sometimes been used, depending on league rules. The NBA,[22] WNBA, FIBA and the NCAA specifically allow replay for this purpose. In NBA, FIBA, and WNBA games, video replay does not have to occur immediately following a shot; play can continue and the officials can adjust the scoring later in the game, after reviewing the video. However, in late game situations, play may be paused pending a review.
If a shooter is fouled while attempting a three-pointer and subsequently misses the shot, the shooter is awarded three free-throw attempts. If a player completes a three-pointer while being fouled, the player is awarded one free-throw for a possible 4-point play. Conceivably, if a player completed a three-pointer while being fouled, and that foul was ruled as either a Flagrant 1 or a Flagrant 2 foul, the player would be awarded two free throws for a possible 5-point play.
Related concepts[edit]
Major League Lacrosse features a two-point line which forms a 15-yard (14 m) arc around the front of the goal. Shots taken from behind this line count for two points, as opposed to the standard one point.
In gridiron football, a standard field goal is worth three points; various professional and semi-pro leagues have experimented with four-point field goals. NFL Europe and the Stars Football League adopted a rule similar to basketball's three-point line in which an additional point was awarded for longer field goals; in both leagues any field goal of 50 yards (46 m) or more was worth four points. The Arena Football League awards four points for any successful drop kicked field goal (like the three-point shot, the drop kick is more challenging than a standard place kick, as the bounce of the ball makes a kick less predictable, and arena football also uses narrower goal posts for all kicks than the outdoor game does).
During the existence of the World Hockey Association in the 1970s, there were proposals for two-point hockey goals for shots taken beyond an established distance (one proposal was a 44-foot (13.4m) arc, which would have intersected the faceoff circles), but this proposal gained little support and faded after the WHA merged with the NHL. It was widely believed that long-distance shots in hockey had little direct relation to skill (usually resulting more from goalies' vision being screened or obscured), plus with the lower scoring intrinsic to the sport a two-point goal was seen as disruptive of the structure of the game.
The Super Goal is a similar concept in Australian rules football, in which a 50-meter (55 yd) arc determines the value of a goal; within the arc, it is the usual 6 points, but 9 points are scored for a "super goal" scored from outside the arc. To date the super goal is only used in pre-season games and not in the season proper.[23]
The National Professional Soccer League II, which awarded two points for all goals except those on the power play, also used a three-point line, drawn 45 feet (14 m) from the goal. It has since been adopted by some other indoor soccer leagues.
See also[edit]
50–40–90 club, exclusive group of players who have made at least 50% of two-pointers, 40% of three-pointers, and 90% of free throws in a season.
List of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Article 5: Scoring" (PDF). 3x3 Official Rules of the Game. FIBA. January 2016. Retrieved 3 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Frazier, Walt; Sachare, Alex (1998). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Basketball. New York City: Penguin Group.
Jump up ^ "4-Point Play Gets Approval By ABA". Associated Press. July 11, 1967. Retrieved June 17, 2013.
Jump up ^ "The History of the 3-Pointer - iHoops". Web.archive.org. 16 December 2010. Archived from the original on 16 December 2010. Retrieved 15 November 2017. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ Sanders, Steve (February 9, 1981). "22 will get you 3". Spartanburg Herald. South Carolina. p. B1.
^ Jump up to: a b "Basketball". Southern Conference. Retrieved July 30, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Carr's shot makes cage Hall of Fame". Gadsden Times. Alabama. Associated Press. May 31, 1981. p. 36.
Jump up ^ "Three-pointer turns 25". Eugene Register-Guard. Associated Press. December 3, 2005. p. B3.
Jump up ^ "Debate over 3-pointer Continues". Web.archive.org. 26 July 2010. Archived from the original on 5 December 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2017. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ Butts, David (April 3, 1986). "NCAA adds three-point basket". Bryan Times Agency=UPI. p. 12.
^ Jump up to: a b "NCAA Women's Basketball Playing Rules History" (PDF). NCAA. Retrieved August 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Important Rules Changes by Year" (PDF). NCAA Men's Basketball Record Book. NCAA. Retrieved August 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ Lynch, John (27 March 1987). "High School Basketball Draws Line, Adopts 3-Point Rule". Los Angeles Times.
Jump up ^ Bonagura, Kyle (February 27, 2018). "NIT to experiment with new rules this season". ESPN.com. Retrieved February 28, 2018.
Jump up ^ "NBA & ABA Career Leaders and Records for 3-Pt Field Goals | Basketball-Reference.com". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved 2016-05-19.
Jump up ^ "NBA has discussed bigger court, 4-point shot". Espn.go.com. 2014-02-25. Retrieved 2017-03-05.
Jump up ^ NBA League Averages - Basketball Reference
Jump up ^ "Rule No. 1---Court Dimensions--Equipment". NBA Official Rules. Retrieved 19 October 2010.
Jump up ^ "Official Basketball Rules 2010" (PDF). FIBA. Retrieved 19 October 2010.
Jump up ^ "2009 Court Diagram" (PDF). NCAA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 June 2010. Retrieved 19 October 2010.
Jump up ^ "Basketball Court Diagram" (PDF). Nebraska School Activities Association. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
Jump up ^ "Description of the NBA's new instant replay rules". NBA.com. October 23, 2008. Retrieved 16 November 2008.
Jump up ^ Denham, Greg (February 14, 2012). "NAB Cup's ruck and holding rules may run season". The Australian. Archived from the original on March 6, 2012.
External links[edit]
NBA.com's Top 10 three-pointers from past 25 years
Article on Columbia's experimentation with the three-point field goal decades before its official introduction
"Long Live the Three" by Steve Shutt, Basketball Hall of Fame
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Australian green tree frog
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the White's tree frog. For tree frogs that have some white color in them, see White-lipped tree frog, White-black tree frog, White-edged tree frog, and White-spotted tree frog.
Australian green tree frog
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Anura
Family: Hylidae
Genus: Litoria
Species: L. caerulea
Binomial name
Litoria caerulea
(White, 1790)
Distribution
Synonyms
List[show]
Rana caerulea (White 1790)
Rana austrasiae (Schneider 1799)
Hyla cyanea (Daudin 1803)
Rana coerulea (Daudin 1803)
Hyla cyanea (Peron 1807)
Hyla irrorata (De Vis 1884)
Pelodryas caerulea
The Australian green tree frog, simply green tree frog in Australia, White's tree frog, or dumpy tree frog (Litoria caerulea) is a species of tree frog native to Australia and New Guinea, with introduced populations in the United States and New Zealand, though the latter is believed to have died out. The species belongs to the genus Litoria. It is morphologically similar to some other members of the genus, particularly the magnificent tree frog (L. splendida) and the white-lipped tree frog (L. infrafrenata).
Larger than most Australian frogs, the Australian green tree frog reaches 10 cm (4 in) or more in length. Its average lifespan in captivity, about 16 years, is long compared with most frogs. Docile and well suited to living near human dwellings, Australian green tree frogs are often found on window sills or inside houses, eating insects drawn by the light. The green tree frog screams when it is in danger to scare off its foe, and squeaks when it is touched.
Due to its appearance and behavioral traits, the green tree frog is a popular exotic pet throughout the world. The skin secretions of the frog have antibacterial and antiviral properties that may prove useful in pharmaceutical preparations and which have rendered it relatively immune to the population declines being experienced by many species of amphibian. It is a common species and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being "least concern".
Contents
[hide]
1 Taxonomy
2 Description
3 Distribution and habitat
4 Ecology and behavior
5 Reproduction
6 As pets
7 Conservation
8 Use in research
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 External links
Taxonomy[edit]
Original print of the green tree frog, published in John White's Journal of a Voyage to New South Wales. Artist: S. Stone
The Australian green tree frog is a member of the tree frog family Hylidae and is placed in the subfamily "Pelodryadinae" which is endemic to Australia and New Guinea and includes about 160 species in the genera Cyclorana, Litoria and Nyctimystes.[4] Frogs in the genus Litoria are distinguishable from other tree frogs by the presence of horizontal irises and the lack of pigmentation on the eyelids.[5] The common name of the species, "White's tree frog", is in honor of John White's first description in 1790.[6][7] The green tree frog was the first Australian frog to be scientifically described; the original specimen found its way into the collection of Sir Joseph Banks, but was destroyed when the Hunterian Museum at the Royal College of Surgeons in London was bombed in World War II.[8]
The species was originally called the "blue frog" (Rana caerulea) despite its green color. The specimens White sent to England were damaged by the preservative and appeared blue.[6] The color of the frog is caused by blue and green pigments covered in a yellow layer; the preservative destroyed the yellow layer and left the frog with a blue appearance. The specific epithet, caerulea, which is Latin for blue, has remained.[9] This frog is sometimes referred to as Pelodryas caerulea in the scientific literature.[9] In Australia, the frog is also known more simply as the "green tree frog", but that name is often given to the most common green arboreal species in a region, such as the American green tree frog (Hyla cinerea).
Description[edit]
The green tree frog is a plump, rather large tree frog, and can grow up to 11.5 cm (4.5 in) in length, with fully grown females being slightly larger than males. A distinctive fatty ridge is seen over the eye, and the parotoid gland is moderately large. The iris is golden and has a horizontally slit pupil, as is typical of the genus Litoria, and the tympanum (a skin membrane similar to an eardrum) is visible just behind the eye. The limbs are short and robust, and large adhesive discs are at the end of the digits which provide grip while climbing. The fingers are about one-third webbed, and the toes nearly three-quarters webbed. The dorsal color depends on the temperature and nature of the environment, ranging from brownish- or greyish-green to bright emerald green. The frog occasionally has small, irregularly shaped white spots on its back. Males have a greyish, wrinkled vocal sac under the throat, while the throat of females is white. The ventral surface in both sexes is creamy-white and rough in texture.[6][10]
This frog is similar in appearance to the magnificent tree frog (L. splendida), which inhabits only north-western Australia. Older members of that species have very large parotoid glands, which cover the entire top of their heads and droop over their tympana. The parotoid gland of the green tree frog is much smaller, and it also lacks the yellow speckling on the back and the yellow markings on the hand, groin, and thigh.[11] It can be distinguished from the white-lipped tree frog(giant tree frog L. infrafrenata) by the distinct white stripe that species has along the edge of the lower jaw and extending to the shoulder, which is not present in the green tree frog.[12]
Tadpole
The tadpoles' appearance changes throughout their development. When newly hatched, they are 8 mm (0.3 in) long and when fully developed, 44 mm (1.7 in). They are initially mottled with brown, and increase in pigmentation (to either green or brown) during development. Their undersides are initially dark, but later become lighter in hue. The eggs are brown and are wrapped in a clear jelly; they are 1.1 to 1.4 mm (0.043 to 0.055 in) in diameter.[9]
The call is a low, slow brawk-brawk-brawk, repeated many times. For most of the year, the frogs call from high positions, such as trees and gutters, but during the breeding season, they descend to near the ponds and pools, where they breed. Like many frogs, green tree frogs call not only to attract a mate, but also to advertise their location outside the mating season. They are particularly vocal after rain, but the reasons for this are unclear. They emit a stress call when they are in danger, such as when being attacked by a predator or when a person steps on the log in which one is concealed.[10]
Distribution and habitat[edit]
Specimen climbing a tree
The green tree frog is native to northern and eastern regions of Australia and to the lowlands of New Guinea. Distribution is limited mostly to areas with warm, wet tropical climates. Its range spans from Irian Jaya to Port Moresby, and is most abundant on Daru Island. The IUCN suggests "scattered locations" in both New Guinea and Indonesia.[1] In Australia, its range extends from the Kimberley region of Western Australia through the Northern Territory and Queensland to north and central New South Wales and the extreme northeasterly part of South Australia. Its total extent of land occupancy is around 4,078,600 square kilometres (1,574,800 sq mi).[13]
The species has been introduced to both the United States and New Zealand. In the United States, it is restricted to two regions within Florida, where it was possibly introduced through the pet trade. Only small populations have been found there, and whether they have caused any ecological damage as an invasive species is unknown.[14] In New Zealand, a several individuals were liberated in various locations in 1897 and 1899, and a further accidental introduction was made in the 1940s. No sightings have been reported of this species since the 1950s.[15]
Depending on their location, green tree frogs occupy various habitats, but are not usually found in tropical rainforests.[10] They are often found in the canopy of trees near water bodies, but also occupy terrestrial habitats well away from water. They favor old stands of Eucalyptus, where the trees have hollows in which water collects. They are common along inland waterways and can survive in swamps (among the reeds) or in grasslands in cooler climates.[16]
Green tree frogs are little troubled by the presence of humans and often live in close association with them. They sometimes stray inside houses and are found in such places as sinks and toilets. They can also be found on outside windowsills at night, eating insects attracted to the light, and they may gather under outdoor lighting for the same reason.[6][16] They sometimes occupy tanks (cisterns), downpipes (downspouts), and gutters, as these have high humidity and are usually cooler than the external environment. They may be drawn to the downpipes and tanks during the mating season because the fixtures amplify their calls.[10] Green tree frogs seem to have homing abilities, being able to return to locations from which they were caught from a considerable distance after being displaced.[8]
Ecology and behavior[edit]
A green tree frog in a spider's web after eating the spider
Green tree frogs are very docile and unafraid of humans.[10] They are nocturnal[6] and come out in early evenings to call (in spring and summer) and hunt for food. During the day, they find cool, dark, and moist areas, such as tree holes or rock crevices, in which to sleep. They are not a rainforest species, but make use of the rain that falls almost daily and collects on leaves and in crevices, to keep themselves moist. Their skin exudes a waxy coating that helps prevent evaporation. In dry periods, they avoid desiccation by concealing themselves in a cool spot, perhaps by burrowing, and enveloping themselves in a cocoon made of shed skin and mucus.[10]
The diet of the green tree frog consists mainly of insects such as moths, cockroaches, and locusts. They also eat spiders and can include smaller frogs and even small mammals (including bats[17]) among their prey.[9][10] Frog teeth are not suited to cutting up prey, so the food item must be small enough to fit inside its mouth. Many frogs flick out their sticky tongues at prey and the victim sticks to the tip and is drawn back into the mouth and consumed. A green tree frog uses this technique for smaller prey; for larger items, however, it pounces, then pushes the prey into its mouth with its hands.[8]
The frog has a few native predators, among them snakes and birds. Since the European settlement of Australia, non-native predators have been introduced, primarily dogs and cats.[18] The species has an average life expectancy in captivity of 16 years, but some have been known to live over 20 years.[10]
Reproduction[edit]
Breeding occurs between November and February.[13] During the mating season, the males call from slightly elevated positions close to the still-water sources in which they choose to breed.[10] Clumps of between 200 and 2000 eggs are laid which initially float, but sink within 24 hours. The development of the tadpoles takes about six weeks, after which they undergo metamorphosis and leave the water as juvenile frogs.[13]
As pets[edit]
The green tree frog is one of the most popular pet frogs throughout the world. Its docile nature and long life expectancy make it an attractive choice for exotic pet owners. It is also one of the easier frogs to maintain; its diet is broad and it has a strong resistance to disease. One problem commonly associated with keeping this species as a pet is overfeeding; green tree frogs tend to become obese if overfed. In the wild, exertion of energy is required for a frog to capture its prey. However, in captivity, they are usually given live feed in a confined space. This lessens the activity needed for feeding, resulting in weight gain. An overweight member of the species deposits fat layers over the top of the head and body, giving it a "dumpy" appearance, thus the name "dumpy tree frog".[10][19]
The rover fireflies of the genus Photinus are poisonous, and an incident has been reported in which a firefly was fed to a green tree frog, which subsequently died.[3]
Conservation[edit]
Dark specimen in Köln Zoo
Australian law gives protected status to the green tree frog—along with all Australian fauna—under the federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.[20] The International Union for Conservation of Nature lists the green tree frog's conservation status as being of "least concern", given its broad range, its large total population, and its tolerance of a variety of habitat types. The population trend seems to be stable, and any decline in numbers is not likely to be at a fast enough rate to justify listing it in a more threatened category.[1]
In suburban areas, this frog is threatened by pollution and by predation by domestic animals. Also, some of the frogs have been found to be infected with the chytrid fungus which causes the fatal amphibian disease chytridiomycosis. The frog's status in New Guinea is poorly studied, but in 2002, some 75,000 individuals were exported from Indonesia as part of the pet trade, and this may impact populations in some locations. The frog is present in a number of protected areas in New Guinea, and it has been successfully bred in some Australian zoos. Overall, the main threat to this species is the potential for a widespread disease epidemic.[1]
Use in research[edit]
Although frogs have lungs, they absorb oxygen through their skin; for this to occur efficiently, the skin must be moist. A disadvantage of moist skin is that pathogens such as molds and bacteria can thrive on it, increasing the chance of infection. To counteract this, frogs secrete peptides that destroy these pathogens. The secretion from the paratoid gland of the green tree frog contains 25 caerins, a group of peptides with antibacterial and antiviral properties. The caerins produced by frogs of this species from different geographical localities have subtle but reproducible differences.[21] The secretions also contain caeruleins, which have the same physiological effects as CCK-8, a digestive hormone and hunger suppressant.[22] These caeruleins now have a number of clinical applications.[8] Several peptides from the skin secretions of the green tree frog have been found to destroy HIV without harming healthy T cells.[23][24][25]
The fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, the causal agent of chytridiomycosis, is causing declines in many species of amphibians, but the secretions produced by the green tree frog and certain other Australian species of frog (Litoria chloris and Litoria genimaculata) are protective against this fungus. The peptides inhibit the growth of the fungus in vitro and these frog species are believed not to be in decline.[26]
Green tree frogs are sometimes used as model animals in research.[27] The structure of their toe pads was used to investigate the microstructure and properties of the epithelium that allows the animals to adhere to wet surfaces.[28]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Hero, Jean-Marc; Richards, Stephen; Retallick, Richard; Horner, Paul; Clarke, John; Meyer, Ed (2004). "Litoria caerulea". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN. 2004: e.T41082A10385007. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T41082A10385007.en. Retrieved 10 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "Litoria caerulea". Frogs of Australia. Amphibian Research Centre. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Knight, Michael; Glor, Richard; Smedley, Scott R.; González, Andrés; Adler, Kraig; Eisner, Thomas (1999). "Firefly Toxicosis in Lizards". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 25 (9): 1981–1986. doi:10.1023/A:1021072303515.
Jump up ^ "Hylidae". AmphibiaWeb. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Anstis, Marion; Tyler, Michael J.; Roberts, Dale; Price, Luke C.; Doughty, Paul (2010). "A new species of Litoria (Anura: Hylidae) with a highly distinctive tadpole from the north-western Kimberley region of Western Australia". Zootaxa. 2550: 39–57.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Egerton, p. 383.
Jump up ^ White, John (1790). Journal of a Voyage to New South Wales with sixty-five plates of non descript animals, birds, lizards, serpents, curious cones of trees and other natural productions. London: J. Debrett. (Rana caerulea, new species).
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tyler, Michael J; Davies, Margaret (1993). "Family Hylidae" (PDF). Fauna of Australia. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bruin, T. (2000). "Litoria caerulea: Information". Animal Diversity Web (Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan). Retrieved 4 April 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j "Fact Sheet: White's Tree Frog". Smithsonian National Zoological Park. Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on 16 December 2005. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Tyler, M. J.; Davies, M.; Martin, A. A. (1977). "A new species of large green tree frog from northern western Australia". Transactions of The Royal Society of South Australia. 101 (5): 133–138. Retrieved 23 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Vanderduys, Eric (2012). Field Guide to the Frogs of Queensland. Csiro Publishing. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-643-10630-7.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Litoria caerulea". AmphibiaWeb. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "Litoria caerulea (White, 1790)". Nonindigenous Aquatic Species. U.S. Geological Survey. 2002. Archived from the original on 18 December 2007. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "Introduced frogs". New Zealand Frog Research Group. 2006. Archived from the original on 24 December 2007. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Vanderduys, Eric (2012). Field Guide to the Frogs of Queensland. Csiro Publishing. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-643-10630-7.
Jump up ^ Mikula, P. 2015: Fish and amphibians as bat predators. European Journal of Ecology 1 (1): 71-80. doi: 10.1515/eje-2015-0010
Jump up ^ "Green tree frog". Perth Zoo. 10 May 2013. Archived from the original on 1 July 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "White's Tree Frog". Frog World. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999". Australian Government. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Waugh, Russell J.; Stone, David J.M.; Bowie, John H.; Wallace, John C.; Tyler, Michael J. (1993). "Peptides from Australian frogs. Structures of the caeridins from Litoria caerulea". Journal of the Chemical Society, Perkin Transactions 1. 5: 573–576. doi:10.1039/P19930000573.
Jump up ^ Salmon, Amanda L.; Johnsen, Anders H.; Bienert, Michael; McMurray, Gordon; Nandha, Kiran A.; Bloom, Steve R.; Shaw, Chris (2000). "Isolation, structural characterization, and bio-activity of a novel neuromedin U analog from the defensive skin secretion of the Australasian tree frog, Litoria caerulea". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 275 (7): 4549–4554. doi:10.1074/jbc.275.7.4549. PMID 10671478.
Jump up ^ "Frog secretions block HIV". Vanderbilt University. Archived from the original on 27 November 2005. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Vanderbilt University Medical Center (30 September 2005). "Frog Peptides Block HIV In Lab Study". ScienceDaily.
Jump up ^ VanCompernolle, Scott E.; Taylor, R. Jeffery; Oswald-Richter, Kyra; Jiang, Jiyang; Youree, Bryan E.; Bowie, John H.; Tyler, Michael J.; Conlon, J. Michael; Wade, David; Aiken, Christopher; Dermody, Terence S.; KewalRamani, Vineet N.; Rollins-Smith, Louise A.; Unutmaz, Derya (September 2005). "Antimicrobial Peptides from Amphibian Skin Potently Inhibit Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection and Transfer of Virus from Dendritic Cells to T Cells". Journal of Virology. 79 (18): 11598–11606. doi:10.1128/JVI.79.18.11598-11606.2005. PMC 1212620  . PMID 16140737.
Jump up ^ Woodhams, Douglas C.; Rollins-Smith, Louise A.; Carey, Cynthia; Reinert, Laura; Tyler, Michael J.; Alford, Ross A. (2006). "Population trends associated with skin peptide defenses against chytridiomycosis in Australian frogs". Oecologia. 146 (4): 531–540. doi:10.1007/s00442-005-0228-8.
Jump up ^ Von Esse, F. V.; Wright, K. M. (1974). "Effect of intracoelomic propofol in White's tree frogs, Pelodryas caerulea". Bulletin of the Association of Reptilian and Amphibian Veterinarians. 9 (7–8).
Jump up ^ Scholz, Ingo; Barnes, W. Jon P.; Smith, Joanna M.; Baumgartner, Werner (2009). "Ultrastructure and physical properties of an adhesive surface, the toe pad epithelium of the tree frog, Litoria caerulea White". Journal of Experimental Biology. 212: 155–162. doi:10.1242/jeb.019232.
Bibliography[edit]
Australian Biological Resources Study (1993). Fauna of Australia: Amphibia & Reptilia. Canberra: Australian Govt. Pub. Service. ISBN 978-0-644-32429-8.
Bruin, T. "ADW: Litoria caerulea: Information". Archived from the original on 12 June 2005. Retrieved 2005-06-12.
Cogger, Harold G. (1979). Reptiles & Amphibians of Australia. A. H. & A. W. REED PTY LTS. ISBN 0-589-50108-9.
Egerton, L. ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Australian wildlife. Reader's Digest ISBN 1-876689-34-X
Menzies, J. I. (1976). Handbook of Common New Guinea Frogs. Wau Ecology Institute.
Tyler, M. J. (1994). Australian Frogs A Natural History. Reed Books. ISBN 0-7301-0468-0.
External links[edit]
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Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q654682
ADW: Litoria_caerulea
EoL: 1025328
Fossilworks: 153547
GBIF: 2427694
iNaturalist: 23622
ITIS: 662872
IUCN: 41082
NCBI: 30344
uBio: 4802715
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LCCN: sh2001001432
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