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Judicial system of Bhutan
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The judicial system of Bhutan is the purview of the Royal Court of Justice, the judicial branch of the government of Bhutan under the Constitution of 2008. The judicial system comprises the Judicial Commission, the courts, the police, the penal code, and regulations on jabmi (attorneys).
Contents
[hide]
1 Judicial system
1.1 National Judicial Commission
1.2 Court system
1.2.1 Attorney General
1.2.2 Civil and criminal procedure
1.2.3 Evidentiary standards
1.2.4 Practice of law
1.3 Penal system
1.4 Police force
2 History of the judicial system
3 See also
4 References
Judicial system[edit]
National Judicial Commission[edit]
The National Judicial Commission was established in 2001 as part of Bhutan's Civil and Criminal Procedure Code.[1] It began as a body appointed by the Druk Gyalpo and chaired by the Chief Justice of Bhutan, also a royal appointee.[1] In 2001, the number of council members was not codified.
The Commission was reshaped with the enactment of the Judicial Service Act of 2007.[2] Its membership was codified to include the chairperson of the Legislative Committee of the National Assembly, the Attorney General, the senior most Associate Justice (Drangpon) of the Supreme Court, and the Chief Justice of Bhutan as Chairperson.[2] The Commission advises the Druk Gyalpo on judicial appointments (the Chief Justice of Bhutan and the Drangpons of the Supreme Court and High Court – also the members of the Commission itself). The Commission also advises the Druk Gyalpo on the establishment of courts and tribunals in addition to those established by law. With the enactment of the Constitution of Bhutan in 2008, the Commission membership was reduced to four persons: the Chief Justice of Bhutan as Chairperson, the senior most Drangpon of the Supreme Court, the Chairperson of the Legislative Committee of the National Assembly, and the Attorney General[3] (Art. 2) All members of the Committee except the National Assembly Committee Chairperson remain royal appointments.
The Judicial Service Act of 2007 also established the Royal Judicial Service Council, an administrative agency ancillary to the National Judicial Commission. It has seven members: the Chief Justice of the High Court; the Registrars General of the Supreme Court and High Court; one sitting Drangpon of the Supreme Court; two Drangpons of the Dzongkhag Courts; and one Drangpon of the Dungkhag Courts on a two-year rotational basis. No Supreme Court Drangpon may simultaneously sit on both the Commission and the Council. The Royal Judicial Service Council determines and administers the organizational structure, budgetary, and personnel requirements of the judiciary. The Council is also empowered to create and abolish posts other than those of the Supreme Court and the High Court Drangpons, regulate higher or continuing legal education, and oversee the Judicial Service Selection Examination. All decisions of the Council must be reviewed by the Chief Justice of Bhutan.[2]
The Judicial Service Act codified the requirement that those in judicial service attain at least a bachelor of laws, including support personnel (clerks). Drangpons of the Dzongkhag and Dungkhag Courts are required to attain a postgraduate diploma in National Law. Prior to the Act, judges were selected from among civil servants. Other qualifications, such as natural born citizenship, lack of foreign relations, and political detachment are imposed under the Act. The Act also established rules of judicial conduct and promotion criteria.[2]
The Judicial Service Act of 2007 also codified aspects of the Bhutanese judicial system that appear in the Constitution of 2008, namely the function of the National Judicial Commission, the roles and appointments of the upper judiciary, and the general framework of the court system. Insofar as the Judicial Service Act is not inconsistent with the Constitution, it remains in effect.[3]
Court system[edit]
Main article: Royal Court of Justice
The ultimate authority of the judiciary and on the interpretation of laws is the Royal Court of Justice. Its constitutional mandate is to safeguard, uphold, and administer justice fairly and independently without fear, favour, or undue delay in accordance with the rule of law to inspire trust and confidence and to enhance access to justice.[3] (Art. 21) The Royal Court of Justice is composed of the Supreme Court, the High Court, the Dzongkhag Courts, the Dungkhag Courts, and such other courts and tribunals as may be established by the King on the recommendation of the National Judicial Commission.
Under the Constitution, as under the earlier Judicial Service Act, the Druk Gyalpo appoints most of the upper Judicial branch: the Chief Justice of Bhutan and the Drangpons (Associate Justices) of the Supreme Court; the Chief Justice and Drangpons (Associate Justices) of the High Court. These royal judicial appointments are made from among the vacant positions' peers, juniors, and available eminent jurists in consultation with the National Judicial Commission.[3]
Attorney General[edit]
Main article: Attorney General of Bhutan
Within the court system, the government of Bhutan and its organs are advised and represented in civil and criminal proceedings by the Attorney General of Bhutan. The Attorney General is appointed by the King of Bhutan on the advice of the Prime Minister.[3] The Attorney General Act of 2006, wholly incorporated by the Constitution of 2008,[3] tasks the Attorney General with prosecuting crimes, safeguarding the impartiality of the judicial process, and disseminating information about the law among the people. The Attorney General also drafts Bhutanese legislation for submission to parliament, reviews legislation authored in parliament, and advises all levels of government regarding judicial decisions.[4]
Civil and criminal procedure[edit]
Further information: Law enforcement in Bhutan
In the Bhutanese judicial system, civil and criminal procedure are defined by the Civil and Criminal Procedure Code of 2001. Foremost, the Code provides for open trials, equal protection of the laws, impartiality, and habeas corpus petition rights. Both civil and criminal trials in Bhutan are decided by one or more judges. After final appeal in the court system, the Code provides for appeal to the Druk Gyalpo.[1]
General procedure regulations include summons (including service), discovery (including privileges such as attorney work product), attachment of property, injunctions, interlocutory orders, receivership, and other legal mechanisms of common law civil actions. Its guarantees include general evidentiary standards, such as adversarial introduction of physical and testimonial evidence, cross examination, and production of exhibits. Unlike common law systems, however, Bhutanese judges are also authorized to investigate, inspect, or inquire into any matter before it. But as in common law systems, civil actions require parties prove their cases on a preponderance of the evidence. Also like common law jurisdictions, the prosecution's burden of proof (in order to find the accused guilty) is to prove guilt beyond reasonable doubt to the full satisfaction of the Court.[1]
The Code's civil procedure section further provides venue, jurisdiction, and pleadings rules. Many aspects are identical to common law procedure, namely the United States Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, including terminology for claims, pleadings, and motions. In civil actions, the parties are at all times able to resolve their disputes before local government mediators.[1]
The Code's criminal procedure section provides laws on arrest by police (with and without warrant), citizen's arrest, several kinds of search and seizure (also with and without warrant), charge, and trial procedure. Pleas, bargaining, and sentencing are also regulated under the Code, along with special rules for juvenile offenders. Nearly all the Code's criminal procedure is identical to that of any modern common law jurisdiction.[1]
The Civil and Criminal Procedure Code of 2001 also sets forth the structure and jurisdiction of the Bhutanse court system, echoed in the Judicial Service Act of 2007 and preserved by the Constitution of Bhutan in 2008.[1]
Evidentiary standards[edit]
Evidentiary standards are codified by the Evidence Act of 2005.[5] The Act includes many modern, liberal English common law provisions including the exclusion of evidence that is unfairly prejudicial, exclusion of evidence of attempts to settle outside court, and exclusion of evidence of subsequent remedial measures. The Act, however, does not guarantee parties before a court to confront the witnesses against them when the court believes the witness' identity needs to be protected. Physical evidence on an issue renders documentary evidence on the same issue inadmissible unless the court finds there is substantive and reasonable ground for the physical evidence to be untrue and irrelevant. Thus, judges retain a high level of discretion in the admission of evidence in all cases and the ability to rebut witness evidence in certain others. Witnesses may be impeached by prior inconsistent statements or by evidence of prior bad acts involving dishonesty or fraud. There are also provisions protecting witnesses and victims of sexual crimes which render evidence about the witness or victim's sexual behavior inadmissible in most situations. Hearsay (including non-hearsay and hearsay exceptions), party admissions, burdens, and presumptions are also codified in a fashion similar to the United States Federal Rules of Evidence.[5]
Interestingly, the Evidence Act also covers the requirements of contracts, legally termed "written agreements". Valid agreements require writing in the presence of one witness of each party; signature by all parties or another person himself duly empowered by a written agreement; and legal execution with a stamp. Contracts are invalidated by an erased word; an alteration which is not counter-signed by the parties executing the agreement; a defective seal or signature; an improper legal stamp; the mental unsoundness, duress, or minority of a party; an objection by any party in a court within 10 days; or is illegal in nature or object. Parol evidence is admissible only in order to resolve ambiguities, apparently both patent and latent.[5]
Practice of law[edit]
The Jabmi Act sets forth regulations for the legal profession.[6] Namely, the Act also details the role and responsibilities of the Attorney General of Bhutan. The body which regulates the legal profession is defined as the Jabmi Tshogdey, analogous to a bar association. All jabmi must be members of this body in good standing, and the Act sets forth several requirements for membership. All jabmi must be Bhutanese citizens; persons of integrity, good character and reputation; not addicted to drugs; not of unsound mind or of mental infirmity; not adjudged bankrupt; not sentenced for criminal offences; have legal qualification recognized by the Jabmi Tshogdey; have undergone the National Legal Course; and have passed the Bar selection examinations. The Constitution guarantees all persons the right to "consult and be represented by a Bhutanese Jabmi of [their] choice."[3] (Art. 7, § 21)
Notably, instances of repeated violations of the Jabmi Act by one jabmi resulted in a one-year prison sentence as well as multiple fines and monetary judgments against him.[7]
Penal system[edit]
Main article: Law enforcement in Bhutan
Under the Royal Command of Druk Gyalpo Jigme Singye Wangchuck in 1995, the High Court started drafting the Penal Code, which was enacted by the National Assembly in the August 2004. The Penal Code is the consolidation of collection of separate acts and sections of the Thrimzung Chhenmo enacted between 1959 and 1990.[8] It is intended to reinstate dignity to the victims of crime and increase the possibilities for rehabilitation of offenders. It remains intact insofar as it is consistent with the Constitution of 2008. While modern punishments include imprisonment and fines, capital punishment in Bhutan has been outlawed since March 20, 2004.[3][9]
Police force[edit]
Main articles: Royal Bhutan Police and Law enforcement in Bhutan
Under Article 28 § 3 of Constitution of Bhutan, the Royal Bhutan Police, as a trained uniform force under the Ministry of Home Affairs, are primarily responsible for maintaining law and order and prevention of crime, and are also considered to be an important part of the nation's security force.[3] Furthermore, the Royal Bhutan Police are empowered with some quasi-judicial powers, namely to prosecute suspects and to summon witnesses.[10]
History of the judicial system[edit]
Bhutan's civil and criminal codes are based on the Tsa Yig, a code established by Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal in the seventeenth century. The Tsa Yig was revised in 1957 and ostensibly replaced with a new code in 1965.[11] Historically, in Bhutan's judicial system, the King of Bhutan played an active role in the selection and retention of judges, as well as adjudication. Judicial appointments were made by the monarch, and until 2008, could be recalled by him at any time. Furthermore, the monarch was the final court of appeal (the "Supreme Court of Appeal").
During the reign of the Third King, Druk Gyalpo Jigme Dorji Wangchuck, the National Assembly enacted the first comprehensive codified laws known as the Thrimzhung Chhenmo ("Supreme Law") in 1953, which contain almost all modern categories of criminal offenses and their penalties.[12] The 1965 code, however, retained most of the spirit and substance of the seventeenth-century code. Family problems, such as marriage, divorce, and adoption, usually were resolved through recourse to Buddhist or Hindu religious law. As late as 1991, village heads often judged minor cases and district officials adjudicated major crimes.[11]
Trials in the 1980s were public, and it was the practice of the accuser and the accused each to put their cases in person to judges. There were no lawyers in Bhutan's legal system until the 1980s, and decisions were made on the facts of each case as presented by the litigants. Judges appointed by the Druk Gyalpo were responsible for investigations, filing of charges, prosecution, and judgment of defendants. Serious crimes were extremely rare throughout the twentieth century, although there were reports of increased criminal activity in the 1980s and early 1990s with the influx of foreign laborers, widening economic disparities, and greater contact with foreign cultures.[11]
Arrests could be made only under legal authority. Exile, stated as a punishment in the 1953 Constitution of the National Assembly, and its 1968 revision, was generally unused as a form of punishment; mutilation was abolished in 1965. Fines, according to various reports, ranged from the equivalent of US$10 to US$55, and jail sentences from seven days to one month were levied against citizens who violated the driglam namzha a compulsory but not widely enforced 1989 royal decree that they wear the national dress at formal gatherings to preserve and promote Bhutanese culture. With respect to international criminal law, in 1988 the National Assembly ratified a SAARC convention on terrorism, which Bhutan has consistently condemned in international forums. It provided for extradition of terrorists.[11]
Until the enactment of the Constitution of Bhutan in 2008, the Royal High Court of Bhutan was the highest court in the kingdom . The Royal High Court had original jurisdiction over the twenty dzongkhags of the nation.
See also[edit]
Royal Court of Justice
Constitution of Bhutan
Capital punishment in Bhutan
Bhutanese legislation
Royal Bhutan Police
Law enforcement in Bhutan
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "The Civil and Criminal Procedure Code of Bhutan 2001" (PDF). Government of Bhutan. 2001-07-23. Retrieved 2011-01-04. [permanent dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b c d "The Judicial Service Act of Bhutan 2007" (PDF). Government of Bhutan. 2007-02-20. Retrieved 2011-01-04. [permanent dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i "Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan (English)" (PDF). Government of Bhutan. 2008-07-18. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-06. Retrieved 2010-11-13.
Jump up ^ "Office of the Attorney General Act of Bhutan 2006" (PDF). Government of Bhutan. 2006-06-30. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-24. Retrieved 2011-01-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Evidence Act of Bhutan, 2005" (PDF). Royal Court of Justice Online. Government of Bhutan. 2005-11-29. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-04-27. Retrieved 2010-11-13.
Jump up ^ "Jabmi Act" (PDF). Royal Court of Justice Online. Government of Bhutan. 2005-11-29. Retrieved 2010-11-13.
Jump up ^ Pem, Tandin (2008-01-19). "Unlicensed Jabmi Jailed". Paro: Bhutan Observer. Archived from the original on 2012-03-20. Retrieved 2011-07-03.
Jump up ^ "Penal Code" (PDF). Royal Court of Justice Online. Government of Bhutan. 2004-08-11. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-06. Retrieved 2010-11-13.
Jump up ^ Kinley Dorji (2007-03-27). "Capital punishment abolished in Bhutan". Kuensel. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Royal Bhutan Police Act 2009" (PDF). Government of Bhutan. 2009. Retrieved 2011-01-07. [permanent dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Worden, Robert L.; Savada, Andrea Matles (ed.) (1991). "Criminal Justice". Nepal and Bhutan: Country Studies (3rd ed.). Federal Research Division, United States Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0777-1. Retrieved 2010-10-02. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link) This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
Jump up ^ "Acts and Rules". Royal Court of Justice Online. Government of Bhutan. Retrieved 2010-11-12.
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Led Zeppelin IV
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Zoso" redirects here. For the character from the TV series Once Upon a Time, see List of Once Upon a Time characters.
Untitled
Studio album by Led Zeppelin
Released
8 November 1971[1]
Recorded
November 1970 – January 1971[1]
Studio
Rolling Stones Mobile Studio, Headley Grange, East Hampshire; Island Studios, London[1]
Genre
Hard rock
blues rock
folk rock
Length
42:34
Label
Atlantic
Producer
Jimmy Page
Led Zeppelin chronology
Led Zeppelin III
(1970) Untitled
(1971) Houses of the Holy
(1973)
Singles from Untitled
"Black Dog/Misty Mountain Hop"
Released: 2 December 1971
"Rock and Roll/Four Sticks"
Released: 21 February 1972
English rock band Led Zeppelin's untitled fourth album, commonly known as Led Zeppelin IV, was released on 8 November 1971 by Atlantic Records. Produced by guitarist Jimmy Page, it was recorded between November 1970 and January 1971 at several locations, most prominently the Victorian house Headley Grange.
After the band's previous album Led Zeppelin III received lukewarm reviews from critics, Page decided their fourth album would officially be untitled. This, along with the inner sleeve's design featuring four symbols that represented each band member, led to the album being referred to variously as , Four Symbols, The Fourth Album, Untitled, Runes, The Hermit, and ZoSo (which was derived from Page's symbol).[2] In addition to lacking an album title, the cover featured no band name, as the group wished to be anonymous and to avoid easy pigeonholing by the press.[3]
Led Zeppelin IV was a commercial and critical success, featuring many of the band's best-known songs, including "Black Dog", "Rock and Roll", "Going to California" and "Stairway to Heaven". The album is one of the best-selling albums of all time with more than 37 million copies sold.[4][5] It is tied for third highest-certified album in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America at 23× Platinum.[6] Writers and critics have regularly cited it on lists of the greatest albums of all time.
Contents
[hide]
1 Recording sessions
2 Album title
3 The four symbols
4 Packaging and artwork
5 Release and reception
6 Awards and recognition
7 2014 reissue
8 Track listing
9 Personnel
10 Charts
11 Certifications
12 See also
13 References
14 External links
Recording sessions[edit]
Recording sessions for the album began at Island Records' newly opened Basing Street Studios, London, at the same time as Jethro Tull's Aqualung in December 1970.[7] Upon the recommendation of Fleetwood Mac,[8] the band then moved to Headley Grange, a remote Victorian Estate house in East Hampshire, England, to conduct additional recordings. Here they used the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio. Jimmy Page later recalled: "We needed the sort of facilities where we could have a cup of tea and wander around the garden and go in and do what we had to do."[9] This relaxed, atmospheric environment at Headley Grange also provided other advantages for the band. As is explained by Dave Lewis, "By moving into Headley Grange for the whole period of recording, many of the tracks [on the album] were made up on the spot and committed to tape almost there and then."[9]
Once the basic tracks had been recorded, the band later added overdubs at Island Studios, then took the completed master tapes to Sunset Sound in Los Angeles for mixing. However, the mix ultimately proved to be less than satisfactory, creating an unwanted delay in the album's release. Further mixing had to be undertaken in London, pushing the final release date back by some months.[9]
Three other songs from the sessions, "Down by the Seaside", "Night Flight" and "Boogie with Stu" (featuring Rolling Stones co-founder/collaborator Ian Stewart on piano), were included four years later on the double album Physical Graffiti.
Album title[edit]
After the lukewarm, if not confused and sometimes dismissive, critical reaction Led Zeppelin III had received in late 1970, Page decided that the next Led Zeppelin album would not have a title, but would instead feature four hand-drawn symbols on the inner sleeve and record label, each one chosen by the band member it represents.[8] "We decided that on the fourth album, we would deliberately play down the group name, and there wouldn't be any information whatsoever on the outer jacket," Page explained. "Names, titles and things like that do not mean a thing."[10]
Page has also stated that the decision to release the album without any written information on the album sleeve was contrary to strong advice given to him by a press agent, who said that after a year's absence from both records and touring, the move would be akin to "professional suicide."[11] In Page's words: "We just happened to have a lot of faith in what we were doing."[11] In an interview he gave to The Times in 2010, he elaborated:
It wasn't easy. The record company were sort of insisting that the name go on it. There were eyes looking towards heaven if you like. It was hinted it was professional suicide to go out with an album with no title. The reality of it was that we'd had so many dour reviews to our albums along the way. At the time each came out it was difficult sometimes for the reviewers to come to terms with what was on there, without an immediate point of reference to the previous album. But the ethic of the band was very much summing up where we were collectively at that point in time. An untitled album struck me as the best answer to all the critics — because we knew the way that the music was being received both by sales and attendance at concerts.[12]
Releasing the album without an official title has made it difficult to consistently identify. While most commonly called Led Zeppelin IV, Atlantic Records catalogues have used the names Four Symbols and The Fourth Album. It has also been referred to as ZoSo (which Page's symbol appears to spell), Untitled and Runes.[9] Page frequently refers to the album in interviews as "the fourth album" and "Led Zeppelin IV",[11][13][14] and Plant thinks of it as "the fourth album, that's it".[15] Not only does the album have no title, but there is no text anywhere on the front or back cover, or even a catalogue number on the spine (at least, on the original vinyl LP release).
The four symbols[edit]
The four symbols representing (from left to right);
at the top; Page, Jones
at the bottom; Bonham and Plant
The idea for each member of the band to choose a personal emblem for the cover was Page's.[11] In an interview he gave in 1977, he recalled:
After all this crap that we'd had with the critics, I put it to everybody else that it'd be a good idea to put out something totally anonymous. At first I wanted just one symbol on it, but then it was decided that since it was our fourth album and there were four of us, we could each choose our own symbol. I designed mine and everyone else had their own reasons for using the symbols that they used.[11]
Page stated that he designed his own symbol[8][9] and has never publicly disclosed any reasoning behind it. It has been argued that his symbol appeared as early as 1557 to represent Saturn.[16][17][18] The symbol is sometimes referred to as "ZoSo", though Page has explained that it was not in fact intended to be a word at all.[8] Page was known to be a devotee of Aleister Crowley and his sign resembles a magical sigil. The first three parts of the sigil or symbol also resemble the word "Zos" as found in the magical philosophy of Crowley's associate Austin Osman Spare known as 'Zos vel Thanatos'.
Bassist John Paul Jones' symbol, which he chose from Rudolf Koch's Book of Signs,[8] is a single circle intersecting three vesica pisces (a triquetra). It is intended to symbolise a person who possesses both confidence and competence.[9]
Drummer John Bonham's symbol, the three interlocking (Borromean) rings, was picked by the drummer from the same book.[8] It represents the triad of mother, father and child,[9][19] but, inverted, it also happens to be the logo for Ballantine beer.[9]
Singer Robert Plant's symbol of a feather within a circle was his own design, being based on the sign of the supposed Mu civilisation.[8][9]
Sandy Denny's symbol of three downward-pointing equilateral triangles.
A fifth, smaller symbol chosen by guest vocalist Sandy Denny represents her contribution to "The Battle of Evermore"; the figure, composed of three equilateral triangles, appears on the inner sleeve of the LP, serving as an asterisk.
During Led Zeppelin's tour of the United Kingdom in winter 1971, which took place shortly following the release of the album, the band visually projected the four symbols on their stage equipment. Page's symbol was put onto one of his Marshall amplifiers, Bonham's three interlinked circles adorned the outer skin of his bass drum, Jones had his symbol stencilled onto material which was draped across his Fender Rhodes keyboard, and Plant's feather symbol was painted onto a side speaker PA cabinet. Only Page's and Bonham's symbols were retained for subsequent Led Zeppelin concert tours.[20]
Packaging and artwork[edit]
The 19th-century rustic oil painting on the front of the album was purchased from an antique shop in Reading, Berkshire by Plant.[8][9][21] The painting was then juxtaposed and affixed to the internal, papered wall of a partly demolished suburban house for the photograph to be taken. The block of flats seen on the album is "Salisbury Tower" in the Ladywood district of Birmingham, England.[22]
Page has explained that the cover of the fourth album was intended to bring out a city/country dichotomy that had initially surfaced on Led Zeppelin III:
It represented the change in the balance which was going on. There was the old countryman and the blocks of flats being knocked down. It was just a way of saying that we should look after the earth, not rape and pillage it.[11]
However, regarding the meaning of the album cover, he has also stated:
The cover was supposed to be something that was for other people to savour rather than for me to actually spell everything out, which would make the whole thing rather disappointing on that level of your own personal adventure into the music.[23]
The album cover was among the 10 chosen by the Royal Mail for a set of "Classic Album Cover" postage stamps issued in January 2010.[24]
The inside illustration, entitled "The Hermit" and credited to Barrington Colby MOM, was influenced by the design of the card of the same name in the Rider-Waite tarot deck.[9] This character was later portrayed by Page himself in Led Zeppelin's concert film, The Song Remains the Same (1976). The inner painting is also referred to as View in Half or Varying Light and was sold at auction under that name in 1981.[25]
Varied versions of the artwork within the album exist. Some versions depict a longhaired and bearded supplicant climbing at the base of the mountain, while some others do not show the six pointed star within the hermit's lantern. If the inside cover of the album is held vertically against a mirror, a man's face can be seen hidden in the rocks below the hermit. Speculation exists that the face is actually that of a black dog.[25]
The typeface for the lyrics to "Stairway to Heaven", printed on the inside sleeve of the album, was Page's contribution. He found it in an old arts and crafts magazine called The Studio which dated from the late 19th century. He thought the lettering was interesting and arranged for someone to create a whole alphabet.[21]
Release and reception[edit]
Professional ratings
Review scores
Source
Rating
AllMusic [26]
Blender [27]
Christgau's Record Guide A[28]
Encyclopedia of Popular Music [29]
Entertainment Weekly A+[30]
Mojo [31]
MusicHound Rock 5/5[32]
Pitchfork 9.1/10[33]
Q [34]
The Rolling Stone Album Guide [35]
In the lead-up to the album's release, a series of teaser advertisements depicting each symbol was placed in the music press.[9] The album was a massive instant seller. It entered the UK chart at No. 10, rising to No.1 the following week and stayed on the chart for 90 weeks.[9] In the US it stayed on the charts longer than any other Led Zeppelin album and became the biggest selling album in the US not to top the charts (peaking at #2).[9] "Ultimately," writes Lewis, "the fourth Zeppelin album would be the most durable seller in their catalogue and the most impressive critical and commercial success of their career".[9] At one point, it was ranked as one of the top five best-selling albums of all time.[29]
Led Zeppelin IV received overwhelming praise from critics.[29] In a contemporary review for Rolling Stone, Lenny Kaye called it the band's "most consistently good" album yet and praised the diversity of the songs: "out of eight cuts, there isn't one that steps on another's toes, that tries to do too much all at once."[36] Billboard magazine called it a "powerhouse album" that has the commercial potential of the band's previous three albums.[37]
Robert Christgau originally gave Led Zeppelin IV a lukewarm review in The Village Voice, but later called the album a "genre masterpiece",[38] and wrote that it showed the band at the pinnacle of their songwriting.[39] Even though he found their Medieval ideas limiting as usual, he said that it is "the definitive Led Zeppelin and hence heavy metal album".[28] In his review for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine credited the album for "defining not only Led Zeppelin but the sound and style of '70s hard rock", while "encompassing heavy metal, folk, pure rock & roll, and blues".[26] In his album guide to heavy metal, Spin magazine's Joe Gross cited Led Zeppelin IV as a "monolithic cornerstone".[40] BBC Music's Daryl Easlea said that the album made the band a global success and effectively combined their third album's folk ideas with their second album's hard rock style,[41] while Katherine Flynn and Julian Ring of Consequence of Sound felt it featured their debut's blues rock, along with the other styles from their second and third albums.[42] Led Zeppelin's Rock Hall biography described the album as "a fully realized hybrid of the folk and hard-rock directions".[43] Music journalist Chuck Eddy named it the number one metal album of all time in his 1991 book Stairway to Hell: The 500 Best Heavy Metal Albums in the Universe.[44]
Awards and recognition[edit]
In 2000, Led Zeppelin IV was named the twenty-sixth greatest British album in a list by Q magazine.[45] In 2002, Spin magazine's Chuck Klosterman named it the second greatest metal album of all time and said that it was "the most famous hard-rock album ever recorded" as well as an album that unintentionally created metal—"the origin of everything that sounds, feels, or even tastes vaguely metallic".[46] In 2003, the album was ranked number 69 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time", which described it as "the peak of Seventies hard rock".[47] It was also named the seventh-best album of the 1970s in a list by Pitchfork.[48]
Publication
Country
Accolade
Year
Rank
Mojo United Kingdom "The 100 Greatest Albums Ever Made"[49] 1996 24
Grammy Awards United States Grammy Hall of Fame Award[50] 1999 *
The Guitar United States "Album of the Millennium"[51] 1999 2
Classic Rock United Kingdom "100 Greatest Rock Albums Ever"[52] 2001 1
Rolling Stone United States "500 Greatest Albums Ever"[47] 2012 69
Pitchfork United States "Top 100 Albums of the 1970s"[48] 2004 7
Q United Kingdom "The Greatest Classic Rock Albums Ever"[53] 2004 *
Robert Dimery United States 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die[54] 2005 *
Q United Kingdom "100 Best Albums Ever"[55] 2006 21
Classic Rock United Kingdom "100 Greatest British Rock Albums Ever"[56] 2006 1
Rock and Roll Hall of Fame United States "The Definitive 200: Top 200 Albums of All-Time"[57] 2007 4
NME United Kingdom NME's The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time[58] 2013 106
(*) designates unordered lists.
2014 reissue[edit]
A remastered version of Led Zeppelin IV was reissued on 27 October 2014, along with Houses of the Holy. The reissue comes in six formats: a standard CD edition, a deluxe two-CD edition, a standard LP version, a deluxe two-LP version, a super deluxe two-CD plus two-LP version with a hardback book, and as high resolution 96k/24-bit digital downloads. The deluxe and super deluxe editions feature bonus material. The reissue was released with an inverted color version of the original album's artwork as its bonus disc's cover.[59] The album's remastered version received widespread acclaim from critics, including Rolling Stone, who found Page's remastering "illuminative".[60]
Track listing[edit]
Standard edition – side one
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Length
1. "Black Dog"
John Paul Jones
Jimmy Page
Robert Plant
4:54
2. "Rock and Roll"
John Bonham
Jones
Page
Plant
3:40
3. "The Battle of Evermore"
Page
Plant
5:51
4. "Stairway to Heaven"
Page
Plant
8:02
Standard edition – side two
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Length
5. "Misty Mountain Hop"
Jones
Page
Plant
4:38
6. "Four Sticks"
Page
Plant
4:44
7. "Going to California"
Page
Plant
3:31
8. "When the Levee Breaks"
Bonham
Jones
Memphis Minnie
Page
Plant
7:07
Deluxe edition bonus disc
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Length
1. "Black Dog" (Basic track with guitar overdubs)
Jones
Page
Plant
4:34
2. "Rock and Roll" (Alternate mix)
Bonham
Jones
Page
Plant
3:39
3. "The Battle of Evermore" (Mandolin/Guitar mix from Headley Grange)
Page
Plant
4:13
4. "Stairway to Heaven" (Sunset Sound mix)
Page
Plant
8:03
5. "Misty Mountain Hop" (Alternate mix)
Jones
Page
Plant
4:45
6. "Four Sticks" (Alternate mix)
Page
Plant
4:33
7. "Going to California" (Mandolin/Guitar mix)
Page
Plant
3:34
8. "When the Levee Breaks" (Alternate UK mix)
Bonham
Jones
Minnie
Page
Plant
7:08
Total length: 40:32
Personnel[edit]
John Bonham – drums, percussion
John Paul Jones – bass guitar, electric piano, mandolin on "Going to California", recorders, EMS VCS 3, acoustic guitar on "The Battle of Evermore"[citation needed]
Jimmy Page – electric and acoustic guitars, mandolin on "The Battle of Evermore",[61] production, mastering, digital remastering
Robert Plant – lead and overdubbed backing vocals, tambourine, harmonica on "When the Levee Breaks"
Sandy Denny – vocals on "The Battle of Evermore"
Ian Stewart – piano on "Rock and Roll"[62]
Barrington Colby M.O.M. – The Hermit illustration
George Chkiantz – mixing
Peter Grant – executive production
Graphreaks – design coordination
Andy Johns – engineering, mixing
Joe Sidore – mastering (original 1984 Compact Disc release)
George Marino – remastering (1990 Compact Disc re-release)
Charts[edit]
Chart (1971–72)
Peak
position
Australian Albums Chart[63]
2
Canadian Albums Chart[64]
1
Danish Albums Chart[65]
2
French Albums Chart[66]
2
German Albums Chart[67]
9
Japanese Albums Chart[68]
2
Norwegian Albums Chart[69]
3
Italian Albums Chart[70]
2
Spanish Albums Chart[71]
8
UK Albums Chart[72]
1
US Billboard 200[73]
2
Chart (2014)
Peak
position
Polish Albums (ZPAV)[74]
18
Certifications[edit]
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales
Argentina (CAPIF)[75]
Platinum 60,000^
Australia (ARIA)[76]
9× Platinum 630,000^
Brazil (Pro-Música Brasil)[77]
Gold 100,000*
Canada (Music Canada)[78]
2× Diamond 2,000,000^
France (SNEP)[79]
2× Platinum 970,866[80]
Germany (BVMI)[81]
3× Gold 750,000^
Italy (FIMI)[82]
Gold 50,000*
Netherlands (NVPI)[83]
Platinum 100,000^
New Zealand (RMNZ)[84]
7× Platinum 105,000^
Spain (PROMUSICAE)[85]
Platinum 100,000^
Switzerland (IFPI Switzerland)[86]
Platinum 50,000^
United Kingdom (BPI)[87]
6× Platinum 1,800,000^
United States (RIAA)[88]
23× Platinum 23,000,000^
*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone
See also[edit]
List of best-selling albums
List of best-selling albums in the United States
References[edit]
Footnotes
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Dave Schulps, Interview with Jimmy Page, Trouser Press, October 1977.
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Jump up ^ In the 1990 Bonham tribute radio special, "It's Been a Long Time", son Jason Bonham confirmed that the symbol was chosen as a representation of man, woman and child-
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Bibliography
Brown, Pat (2001). The Guide to United States Popular Culture. Minneapolis, MN: Popular Press. ISBN 0-87972-821-3.
Bukszpan, Daniel (2003). The Encyclopedia of Heavy Metal. New York, NY: Barnes & Noble. ISBN 0-7607-4218-9.
Wall, Mick (2008). When Giants Walked the Earth: A Biography of Led Zeppelin. London: Orion. ISBN 978-1-4091-0319-6.
External links[edit]
Led Zeppelin IV at Discogs (list of releases)
Led Zeppelin IV at MusicBrainz
Preceded by
Top of the Pops, Volume 20 by Various artists UK Albums Chart number-one album
4–18 December 1971 Succeeded by
Electric Warrior by T. Rex
[show]
v
t
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Led Zeppelin IV track listing
Songs
Side one
"Black Dog"
"Rock and Roll"
"The Battle of Evermore"
"Stairway to Heaven"
Side two
"Misty Mountain Hop"
"Four Sticks"
"Going to California"
"When the Levee Breaks"
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In Through the Out Door
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[show]
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text:
FAFSA
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Student loans in the U.S.
Regulatory framework
Higher Education Act of 1965
U.S. Dept. of Education · FAFSA
Cost of attendance · Expected Family Contribution
Distribution channels
Federal Direct Student Loan Program
Federal Family Education Loan Program
Loan products
Perkins · Stafford
PLUS · Consolidation Loans
Private student loans
The Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) is a form that can be prepared annually by current and prospective college students (undergraduate and graduate) in the United States to determine their eligibility for student financial aid.
The FAFSA should not be confused with the CSS Profile, which is also required by some colleges. The CSS is a fee-based product of the College Board and usually used by colleges to distribute their own institutional funding rather than federal or state.
Contents
[hide]
1 Eligibility
2 Preparation and filing options
3 Application process
4 Types of financial aid
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Eligibility[edit]
The official FAFSA website is FAFSA.gov.
Education in the United States
By state and in insular areas
By subject area
History of
Issues: Finance – Law – Literacy – Reform
Levels: Pre-kindergarten – Primary – Secondary – Higher
Organizations
Education portal
United States portal
v
t
e
Nearly every student is eligible for some form of financial aid. Students who may not be eligible for need-based aid may still be eligible for an unsubsidized Stafford Loan regardless of income or circumstances.[1]
A student who can meet all of the following criteria may be eligible for aid:
has registered with the Selective Service System (for Conscription in the United States) between the ages of 18 and 25, if required to do so (females are excluded from this requirement);[2][3]
maintain Satisfactory Academic Progress (SAP);[4][5]
is a U.S. citizen, a U.S. national, or an eligible non-citizen;
has a valid Social Security number;
has a high school diploma or GED;
sign the certification statement stating that: 1) not in default on a federal student loan and do not owe money on a federal student grant and 2) federal student aid will only be used for educational purposes;
has not been found guilty of the sale or possession of illegal drugs while federal aid was being received.[6]
Student Aid and Fiscal Responsibility Act (SAFRA) of 2010 changed the criteria for suspension of eligibility for drug-related offenses. Previously, students could lose eligibility for either the possession or sale of a controlled substance during the period of enrollment. SAFRA dropped the penalties for possession of a controlled substance but retained the penalties for sale of a controlled substance. SAFRA increases the suspension to two years for a first offense and indefinite for a second offense.
Students who are military veterans and active duty service members may apply for financial aid by filing a FAFSA even if they also apply for education and housing benefits offered by the Post-9/11 G.I. Bill and its accompanying Yellow Ribbon program. The amount of military aid a student receives for a college education does not defer eligibility or reduce the amount of student aid that student could receive from the four federal grant programs – Pell, SMART, FSEOG, and TEACH – and many of the state student aid programs.
Preparation and filing options[edit]
Beginning with the 2017-2018 academic year, the FAFSA is made available to the public on October 1. The 2016-2017 academic year was the final time the FAFSA was made available on January 1. The US Department of Education made the FAFSA available earlier to more closely align the timing of the financial aid application process with the typical college application process.[7] Additionally, 2-year old US tax information is used to complete the financial sections of the FAFSA beginning with the 2017-2018 academic year. This change in using "prior-prior tax year" information enables families to use the IRS Data Retrieval Tool in the FAFSA to verify their tax information without a delay from the IRS processing tax information.[7] Some financial aid is provided on a first-come, first-served basis, and students are encouraged to submit a FAFSA as soon as possible.[7]
According to the U.S. Department of Education's website, students have three preparation options:[8]
online at fafsa.ed.gov
by telephone at 1-800-433-3243
by paper
The Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008 authorized fee-based FAFSA preparation.[9] By law, fee-based FAFSA preparation services must on initial contact with students inform them of the free option and be transparent about their non-affiliation with the U.S. Department of Education and their fees. Students should not engage with FAFSA preparation firms that are not transparent about FAFSA options and their fees upfront, or that promise to obtain scholarships.
Application process[edit]
2014–15 FAFSA
In addition to demographic and financial information, applicants can list up to ten schools to receive the results of the application once it is processed. Historically, there was some concern that colleges could deny admission, waitlist applicants, or offer less financial aid as a result of the order in which applicants list schools on the application, or FAFSA position.[10][11] However, the US Department of Education changed the FAFSA for the 2016-2017 academic year to prevent schools from having access to view other schools that may be listed on the application.[12]
After completing the FAFSA, students are presented with a Student Aid Report (SAR). The SAR provides a student with their potential eligibility for different types of financial aid, their Expected Family Contribution (EFC), and a summary of the data a student provided in the application.[13] Students should carefully review the SAR for errors and make any corrections as necessary. An electronic version of the SAR (called an ISIR) is made available to the colleges/universities the student includes on the FAFSA. The ISIR is also sent to state agencies that award need-based aid.
Types of financial aid[edit]
Federal Student Aid offers several different types of financial aid. The four most common types of aid students are offered from the federal government as a result of completing a FAFSA are:
Pell Grant – A grant of up to $5,815 (as of the 2016-17 Award Year) for students with a low expected family contribution.[14] A 2016 NerdWallet study found that students missed out on $2.7 billion in free federal Pell grants by not completing the FAFSA.[15]
Stafford Loan – As of July 1, 2015, any Federal Direct subsidized loan will have a fixed interest rate of 4.29% and the interest is paid by the government while the student is enrolled at least half time. The Federal Direct unsubsidized loan also has a fixed interest rate of 4.29% and accumulates onto the outstanding balance.[16]
Federal Perkins Loan – A loan that is like the Stafford but is lent directly by schools that are Title IV-eligible. Interest rate is fixed at 5%.[17]
The Federal Work-Study Program – A program where students can get part-time work, up to a certain amount. In most cases, the federal government pays half of a student's wage and the school pays the other half.
See also[edit]
College admissions in the United States
CSS Profile
Edifi
FAFSA position
Transfer admissions in the United States
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Eligibility for Aid FAQ".
Jump up ^ FAFSA.ed.gov: Most male students must register with Selective Service to receive federal student aid Archived 2013-02-17 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ FAFSA.ed.gov: Am I eligible for student aid?: If you are a male between the ages of 18 and 25, you must register or already be registered with Selective Service. If you are a citizen of the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands or the Republic of Palau you are exempt from registering.
Jump up ^ "Eligibility for Aid FAQ". Retrieved 2014-03-25.
Jump up ^ "If you want to keep receiving your federal student aid, make sure you stay eligible". studentaid.ed.gov. Retrieved 2016-09-02.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-04-22. Retrieved 2015-06-24.
^ Jump up to: a b c Tompor, Susan (August 28, 2016). "Oct. 1 is a new kickoff for FAFSA headaches: What do you do next?". Detroit Free Press. Retrieved January 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ "FAFSA Filing Options".
Jump up ^ Higher Education Act of 2008 PUBLIC LAW 110–315—AUG. 14, 2008 122 STAT. 3279-80
Jump up ^ Weston, Liz (November 11, 2013). "Colleges May Penalize Students Over Preference on Financial Aid Applications". Reuters. Retrieved January 12, 2016.
Jump up ^ Rivard, Ry (October 28, 2013). "Using FAFSA Against Students". Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved January 12, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Summary of Changes for the Application Processing System 2016 2017" (PDF). US Department of Education. December 2015. Retrieved January 12, 2016. (see page 3:) "....We have designed a solution for 2016-2017 that allows us to send an ISIR to each school listed on the student’s record and only include the Federal School Code of the school receiving the ISIR.."
Jump up ^ "What is the Student Aid Report (SAR)?". US Department of Education. Retrieved January 12, 2016.
Jump up ^ "2015-2016 Federal Pell Grant Payment and Disbursement Schedules".
Jump up ^ https://www.nerdwallet.com/blog/loans/student-loans/college-students-fafsa-money/
Jump up ^ https://studentaid.ed.gov/sa/types/loans/interest-rates
Jump up ^ http://studentaid.ed.gov/types/loans/interest-rates
External links[edit]
The official government site for the FAFSA
FAFSA4caster – U.S. Department of Education – FAFSA aid estimating tool
"The EFC Formula, 2010–2011" (PDF).
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FAFSA&oldid=817054839"
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Matthew 6:10
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Matthew 6:9-10 on a sculpture in Germany
Matthew 6:10 is the tenth verse of the sixth chapter of the Gospel of Matthew in the New Testament and is part of the Sermon on the Mount. This verse is the second one of the Lord's Prayer, one of the best known parts of the entire New Testament. This verse contains the second and third petitions to God.
In the King James Version of the Bible the text reads:
Thy kingdom come,
Thy will be done in
earth, as it is in heaven.
The World English Bible translates the passage as:
Let your Kingdom come.
Let your will be done, as
in heaven, so on earth.
For a collection of other versions see BibRef Matthew 6:10
The opening of this verse, like the end of the last ones, echoes the Jewish Qaddish prayer. That prayer contained a call for the Kingdom of God to begin in one's lifetime.
Kingdom is a metaphor for the Kingdom of God that the Jewish messiah was meant to bring. At several places in the New Testament Jesus states that he has brought the kingdom, and that this kingdom is the Christian faith, not the worldly empire that had been expected. Fowler notes that some have thus argued that this prayer is out of date, that it was intended for a pre-Christian audience not one where Christianity is already established. One response to this is that Christianity is far from universal, and that this phrase is a call for the Kingdom of Christ to spread to those who do not yet believe. Even those who do believe are never perfect Christians, and some part of their heart is always left untouched, and this verse can thus be read as calling for the full adoption of Christianity. Alternatively it is common to see kingdom as having more than one meaning in the New Testament, and that while Jesus did inaugurate and new kingdom, this verse is eschatological and looking forward to the final end times.[1]
There is also debate over how eschatological the third petition is. The will of God could refer to the power of God, the manifestation of his reign, and the last petition is simply an addendum to the second calling for God's power to be made manifest on Earth as clearly as it is in Heaven, a clear reference to the end times. The second interpretation is that the petition is a call for humans to obey God's will, his commandments and ethical teachings. A call for proper human behaviour, rather than for divine intervention.
In the original Greek the phrase "in earth, as it is in heaven" is ambiguous. Either it can mean that things on Earth should become as they are in Heaven, or it could be read as stating that these things should be done in both Earth and Heaven. The first interpretation is the most common, and this gives us rare information about Heaven, making clear that in that realm God's will is fully enacted. It is uncertain whether this phrase is intended to only modify the last petition, or all three.[2]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Fowler, Harold. The Gospel of Matthew: Volume One. Joplin: College Press, 1968
Jump up ^ Hendriksen, William. The Gospel of Matthew. Edinburgh: Banner of Truth Trust, 1976
Preceded by
Matthew 6:9 Gospel of Matthew
Chapter 6 Succeeded by
Matthew 6:11
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Gospel of Matthew chapter 6
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2
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4
5
6
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8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
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24
25
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27
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33
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← chapter 5 Gospel of Matthew chapter 7 →
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8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Verse
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2:1-23
3:1-17
4:1-25
5:1-48
6:1-34
7:1-24
27:1-66
28:1-16
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Sources
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← Book of Malachi (chapter 4)
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Matthew_6:10&oldid=808162592"
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