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Cell theory
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Human cancer cells with nuclei (specifically the DNA) stained blue. The central and rightmost cell are in interphase, so the entire nuclei are labeled. The cell on the left is going through mitosis and its DNA has condensed.
In biology, cell theory is the historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms are made up of cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction. With continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology advanced enough to discover cells in the 17th century. This discovery is largely attributed to Robert Hooke, and began the scientific study of cells, also known as cell biology. Over a century later, many debates about cells began amongst scientists. Most of these debates involved the nature of cellular regeneration, and the idea of cells as a fundamental unit of life. Cell theory was eventually formulated in 1839. This is usually credited to Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. However, many other scientists like Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory.
The three tenets to the cell theory are as described below:
All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms.
Cells arise from pre-existing cells.
The first of these tenets is disputed, as non-cellular entities such as viruses are sometimes considered life-forms.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Microscopes
2 Discovery of cells
3 Cell theory
4 Modern interpretation
5 The modern version of the cell theory
6 Opposing concepts in cell theory: history and background
6.1 Evolution of the membrane and bulk phase theories
6.2 The emergence of the steady-state membrane pump concept
6.3 The reemergence of the bulk phase theories
7 Types of cells
8 See also
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 Further reading
12 External links
Microscopes
Anton van Leeuwenhoek's microscope from the 17th century with a magnification of 270x.
Robert Hooke's microscope
The discovery of the cell was made possible through the invention of the microscope. In the first century BC, Romans were able to make glass, discovering that objects appeared to be larger under the glass. In Italy during the 12th century, Salvino D’Armate made a piece of glass fit over one eye, allowing for a magnification effect to that eye. The expanded use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century probably led to wider spread use of simple microscopes (magnifying glasses) with limited magnification.[2] Compound microscope, which combine an objective lens with an eyepiece to view a real image achieving much higher magnification, first appeared in Europe around 1620[3][4] In 1665, Robert Hooke used a microscope about six inches long with two convex lenses inside and examined specimens under reflected light for the observations in his book Micrographia. Hooke also used a simpler microscope with a single lens for examining specimens with directly transmitted light, because this allowed for a clearer image.[5]
Extensive microscopic study was done by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a draper who took the interest in microscopes after seeing one while on an apprenticeship in Amsterdam in 1648. At some point in his life before 1668, he was able to learn how to grind lenses. This eventually led to Leeuwenhoek making his own unique microscope. His were a single lens simple microscope, rather than a compound microscope. This was because he was able to use a single lens that was a small glass sphere but allowed for a magnification of 270x. This was a large progression since the magnification before was only a maximum of 50x. After Leeuwenhoek, there was not much progress for the microscopes until the 1850s, two hundred years later. Carl Zeiss, a German engineer who manufactured microscopes, began to make changes to the lenses used. But the optical quality did not improve until the 1880s when he hired Otto Schott and eventually Ernst Abbe.[6]
Optical microscopes can focus on objects the size of a wavelength or larger, giving restrictions still to advancement in discoveries with objects smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. Later in the 1920s, the electron microscope was developed, making it possible to view objects that are smaller than optical wavelengths, once again, changing the possibilities in science.[6]
Discovery of cells
Drawing of the structure of cork by Robert Hooke that appeared in Micrographia.
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, which can be found to be described in his book Micrographia. In this book, he gave 60 ‘observations’ in detail of various objects under a coarse, compound microscope.[5] One observation was from very thin slices of bottle cork. Hooke discovered a multitude of tiny pores that he named "cells". This came from the Latin word Cella, meaning ‘a small room’ like monks lived in and also Cellulae, which meant the six sided cell of a honeycomb. However, Hooke did not know their real structure or function.[7] What Hooke had thought were cells, were actually empty cell walls of plant tissues. With microscopes during this time having a low magnification, Hooke was unable to see that there were other internal components to the cells he was observing. Therefore, he did not think the "cellulae" were alive.[8] His cell observations gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells. In Micrographia, Hooke also observed mould, bluish in color, found on leather. After studying it under his microscope, he was unable to observe “seeds” that would have indicated how the mould was multiplying in quantity. This led to Hooke suggesting that spontaneous generation, from either natural or artificial heat, was the cause. Since this was an old Aristotelian theory still accepted at the time, others did not reject it and was not disproved until Leeuwenhoek later discovers generation is achieved otherwise.[5]
Anton van Leeuwenhoek is another scientist who saw these cells soon after Hooke did. He made use of a microscope containing improved lenses that could magnify objects almost 300-fold, or 270x.[8] Under these microscopes, Leeuwenhoek found motile objects. In a letter to The Royal Society on October 9, 1676, he states that motility is a quality of life therefore these were living organisms. Over time, he wrote many more papers in which described many specific forms of microorganisms. Leeuwenhoek named these “animalcules,” which included protozoa and other unicellular organisms, like bacteria.[6] Though he did not have much formal education, he was able to identify the first accurate description of red blood cells and discovered bacteria after gaining interest in the sense of taste that resulted in Leeuwenhoek to observe the tongue of an ox, then leading him to study "pepper water" in 1676. He also found for the first time the sperm cells of animals and humans. Once discovering these types of cells, Leeuwenhoek saw that the fertilization process requires the sperm cell to enter the egg cell. This put an end to the previous theory of spontaneous generation. After reading letters by Leeuwenhoek, Hooke was the first to confirm his observations that were thought to be unlikely by other contemporaries.[5]
The cells in animal tissues were observed after plants were because the tissues were so fragile and susceptible to tearing, it was difficult for such thin slices to be prepared for studying. Biologists believed that there was a fundamental unit to life, but were unsure what this was. It would not be until over a hundred years later that this fundamental unit was connected to cellular structure and existence of cells in animals or plants.[9] This conclusion was not made until Henri Dutrochet. Besides stating “the cell is the fundamental element of organization”,[10] Dutrochet also claimed that cells were not just a structural unit, but also a physiological unit.
In 1804, Karl Rudolphi and J.H.F. Link were awarded the prize for "solving the problem of the nature of cells", meaning they were the first to prove that cells had independent cell walls by the Königliche Societät der Wissenschaft (Royal Society of Science), Göttingen.[11] Before, it had been thought that cells shared walls and the fluid passed between them this way.
Cell theory
Matthias Jakob Schleiden (1804–1881)
Theodor Schwann (1810–1882)
Credit for developing cell theory is usually given to two scientists: Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden.[12] While Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory, he is not as credited for his attributions toward it. In 1839, Schleiden suggested that every structural part of a plant was made up of cells or the result of cells. He also suggested that cells were made by a crystallization process either within other cells or from the outside.[13] However, this was not an original idea of Schleiden. He claimed this theory as his own, though Barthelemy Dumortier had stated it years before him. This crystallization process is no longer accepted with modern cell theory. In 1839, Theodor Schwann states that along with plants, animals are composed of cells or the product of cells in their structures.[14] This was a major advancement in the field of biology since little was known about animal structure up to this point compared to plants. From these conclusions about plants and animals, two of the three tenets of cell theory were postulated.[9]
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells
2. The cell is the most basic unit of life
Schleiden's theory of free cell formation through crystallization was refuted in the 1850s by Robert Remak, Rudolf Virchow, and Albert Kolliker.[6] In 1855, Rudolf Virchow added the third tenet to cell theory. In Latin, this tenet states Omnis cellula e cellula.[9] This translated to:
3. All cells arise only from pre-existing cells
However, the idea that all cells come from pre-existing cells had in fact already been proposed by Robert Remak; it has been suggested that Virchow plagiarized Remak and did not give him credit.[15] Remak published observations in 1852 on cell division, claiming Schleiden and Schawnn were incorrect about generation schemes. He instead said that binary fission, which was first introduced by Dumortier, was how reproduction of new animal cells were made. Once this tenet was added, the classical cell theory was complete.
Modern interpretation
The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:
All known living things are made up of one or more cells[16]
All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.
The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms.[17]
The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.[citation needed]
Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.[citation needed]
Cells contain DNA which is found specifically in the chromosome and RNA found in the cell nucleus and cytoplasm.[18]
All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species .[citation needed]
The modern version of the cell theory
The modern version of the cell theory includes the ideas that:
Energy flow occurs within cells.[19]
Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.[19]
All cells have the same basic chemical composition.[19]
Opposing concepts in cell theory: history and background
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 using a microscope. The first cell theory is credited to the work of Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden in the 1830s. In this theory the internal contents of cells were called protoplasm and described as a jelly-like substance, sometimes called living jelly. At about the same time, colloidal chemistry began its development, and the concepts of bound water emerged. A colloid being something between a solution and a suspension, where Brownian motion is sufficient to prevent sedimentation. The idea of a semipermeable membrane, a barrier that is permeable to solvent but impermeable to solute molecules was developed at about the same time. The term osmosis originated in 1827 and its importance to physiological phenomena realized, but it wasn’t until 1877, when the botanist Pfeffer proposed the membrane theory of cell physiology. In this view, the cell was seen to be enclosed by a thin surface, the plasma membrane, and cell water and solutes such as a potassium ion existed in a physical state like that of a dilute solution. In 1889 Hamburger used hemolysis of erythrocytes to determine the permeability of various solutes. By measuring the time required for the cells to swell past their elastic limit, the rate at which solutes entered the cells could be estimated by the accompanying change in cell volume. He also found that there was an apparent nonsolvent volume of about 50% in red blood cells and later showed that this includes water of hydration in addition to the protein and other nonsolvent components of the cells.
Evolution of the membrane and bulk phase theories
Two opposing concepts developed within the context of studies on osmosis, permeability, and electrical properties of cells.[20] The first held that these properties all belonged to the plasma membrane whereas the other predominant view was that the protoplasm was responsible for these properties. The membrane theory developed as a succession of ad-hoc additions and changes to the theory to overcome experimental hurdles. Overton (a distant cousin of Charles Darwin) first proposed the concept of a lipid (oil) plasma membrane in 1899. The major weakness of the lipid membrane was the lack of an explanation of the high permeability to water, so Nathansohn (1904) proposed the mosaic theory. In this view, the membrane is not a pure lipid layer, but a mosaic of areas with lipid and areas with semipermeable gel. Ruhland refined the mosaic theory to include pores to allow additional passage of small molecules. Since membranes are generally less permeable to anions, Leonor Michaelis concluded that ions are adsorbed to the walls of the pores, changing the permeability of the pores to ions by electrostatic repulsion. Michaelis demonstrated the membrane potential (1926) and proposed that it was related to the distribution of ions across the membrane.[21] Harvey and Danielli (1939) proposed a lipid bilayer membrane covered on each side with a layer of protein to account for measurements of surface tension. In 1941 Boyle & Conway showed that the membrane of frog muscle was permeable to both K+ and Cl-, but apparently not to Na+, so the idea of electrical charges in the pores was unnecessary since a single critical pore size would explain the permeability to K+, H+, and Cl- as well as the impermeability to Na+, Ca+, and Mg++. Over the same time period, it was shown (Procter & Wilson, 1916) that gels, which do not have a semipermeable membrane, would swell in dilute solutions. Loeb (1920) also studied gelatin extensively, with and without a membrane, showing that more of the properties attributed to the plasma membrane could be duplicated in gels without a membrane. In particular, he found that an electrical potential difference between the gelatin and the outside medium could be developed, based on the H+ concentration. Some criticisms of the membrane theory developed in the 1930s, based on observations such as the ability of some cells to swell and increase their surface area by a factor of 1000. A lipid layer cannot stretch to that extent without becoming a patchwork (thereby losing its barrier properties. Such criticisms stimulated continued studies on protoplasm as the principal agent determining cell permeability properties. In 1938, Fischer and Suer proposed that water in the protoplasm is not free but in a chemically combined form—the protoplasm represents a combination of protein, salt and water—and demonstrated the basic similarity between swelling in living tissues and the swelling of gelatin and fibrin gels. Dimitri Nasonov (1944) viewed proteins as the central components responsible for many properties of the cell, including electrical properties. By the 1940s, the bulk phase theories were not as well developed as the membrane theories. In 1941, Brooks & Brooks published a monograph The Permeability of Living Cells, which rejects the bulk phase theories.
The emergence of the steady-state membrane pump concept
With the development of radioactive tracers, it was shown that cells are not impermeable to Na+. This was difficult to explain with the membrane barrier theory, so the sodium pump was proposed to continually remove Na+ as it permeates cells. This drove the concept that cells are in a state of dynamic equilibrium, constantly using energy to maintain ion gradients. In 1935, Karl Lohmann discovered ATP and its role as a source of energy for cells, so the concept of a metabolically-driven sodium pump was proposed. The tremendous success of Hodgkin, Huxley, and Katz in the development of the membrane theory of cellular membrane potentials, with differential equations that modeled the phenomena correctly, provided even more support for the membrane pump hypothesis.
The modern view of the plasma membrane is of a fluid lipid bilayer that has protein components embedded within it. The structure of the membrane is now known in great detail, including 3D models of many of the hundreds of different proteins that are bound to the membrane. These major developments in cell physiology placed the membrane theory in a position of dominance and stimulated the imagination of most physiologists, who now apparently accept the theory as fact—there are, however, a few dissenters.[citation needed]
The reemergence of the bulk phase theories
In 1956, Afanasy S. Troshin published a book, The Problems of Cell Permeability, in Russian (1958 in German, 1961 in Chinese, 1966 in English) in which he found that permeability was of secondary importance in determination of the patterns of equilibrium between the cell and its environment. Troshin showed that cell water decreased in solutions of galactose or urea although these compounds did slowly permeate cells. Since the membrane theory requires an impermanent solute to sustain cell shrinkage, these experiments cast doubt on the theory. Others questioned whether the cell has enough energy to sustain the sodium/potassium pump. Such questions became even more urgent as dozens of new metabolic pumps were added as new chemical gradients were discovered.
In 1962, Gilbert Ling became the champion of the bulk phase theories and proposed his association-induction hypothesis of living cells.
Types of cells
Main article: Cell types
Prokaryote cell.
Eukaryote cell.
Cells can be subdivided into the following subcategories:
Prokaryotes: Prokaryotes are relatively small cells surrounded by the plasma membrane, with a characteristic cell wall that may differ in composition depending on the particular organism.[22] Prokaryotes lack a nucleus (although they do have circular or linear DNA) and other membrane-bound organelles (though they do contain ribosomes). The protoplasm of a prokaryote contains the chromosomal region that appears as fibrous deposits under the microscope, and the cytoplasm.[22] Bacteria and Archaea are the two domains of prokaryotes.
Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic cells are also surrounded by the plasma membrane, but on the other hand, they have distinct nuclei bound by a nuclear membrane or envelope. Eukaryotic cells also contain membrane-bound organelles, such as (mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles).[23] In addition, they possess organized chromosomes which store genetic material.[citation needed]
Animals have evolved a greater diversity of cell types in a multicellular body (100–150 different cell types), compared with 10–20 in plants, fungi, and protoctista.[24]
See also
Biology portal
Cell adhesion
Cell biology
Cellular differentiation
Germ theory of disease
Membrane models
References
Jump up ^ Villarreal, Luis P. (August 8, 2008) Are Viruses Alive? Scientific American
Jump up ^ Atti Della Fondazione Giorgio Ronchi E Contributi Dell'Istituto Nazionale Di Ottica, Volume 30, La Fondazione-1975, page 554
Jump up ^ Albert Van Helden; Sven Dupré; Rob van Gent (2010). The Origins of the Telescope. Amsterdam University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-90-6984-615-6.
Jump up ^ William Rosenthal, Spectacles and Other Vision Aids: A History and Guide to Collecting, Norman Publishing, 1996, page 391 - 392
^ Jump up to: a b c d Gest, H (2004). "The discovery of microorganisms by Robert Hooke and Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek, fellows of the Royal Society". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 58 (2): 187–201. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2004.0055. PMID 15209075.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Mazzarello, P. (1999). "A unifying concept: the history of cell theory". Nature Cell Biology. 1 (1): E13–5. doi:10.1038/8964. PMID 10559875. Archived from the original on 2015-06-03.
Jump up ^ Inwood, Stephen (2003). The man who knew too much: the strange and inventive life of Robert Hooke, 1635–1703. London: Pan. p. 72. ISBN 0-330-48829-5.
^ Jump up to: a b Becker, Wayne M.; Kleinsmith, Lewis J.; Hardin, Jeff (2003). The World of the Cell. Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-8053-4854-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c Robinson, Richard. "History of Biology: Cell Theory and Cell Structure". Advameg, Inc. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Dutrochet, Henri (1824) "Recherches anatomiques et physiologiques sur la structure intime des animaux et des vegetaux, et sur leur motilite, par M.H. Dutrochet, avec deux planches"
Jump up ^ Kalenderblatt Dezember 2013 – Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Fakultät – Universität Rostock. Mathnat.uni-rostock.de (2013-11-28). Retrieved on 2015-10-15.
Jump up ^ Sharp, L. W. (1921). Introduction To Cytology. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company Inc.
Jump up ^ Schleiden, M. J. (1839). "Beiträge zur Phytogenesis". Archiv für Anatomie, Physiologie und wissenschaftliche Medicin: 137–176.
Jump up ^ Schwann, T. (1839). Mikroskopische Untersuchungen über die Uebereinstimmung in der Struktur und dem Wachsthum der Thiere und Pflanzen. Berlin: Sander.
Jump up ^ Silver, GA (1987). "Virchow, the heroic model in medicine: health policy by accolade". American Journal of Public Health. 77 (1): 82–8. doi:10.2105/AJPH.77.1.82. PMC 1646803  . PMID 3538915.
Jump up ^ Wolfe
Jump up ^ Wolfe, p. 5
Jump up ^ Wolfe, p. 8
^ Jump up to: a b c "The modern version of the Cell Theory". Retrieved 12 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Ling, Gilbert N. (1984). In search of the physical basis of life. New York: Plenum Press. ISBN 0306414090.
Jump up ^ Michaelis, L. (1925). "Contribution to the Theory of Permeability of Membranes for Electrolytes". The Journal of General Physiology. 8 (2): 33–59. doi:10.1085/jgp.8.2.33. PMC 2140746  . PMID 19872189.
^ Jump up to: a b Wolfe, p. 11
Jump up ^ Wolfe, p. 13
Jump up ^ Margulis, L. & Chapman, M.J. (2009). Kingdoms and Domains: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth ([4th ed.]. ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press/Elsevier. p. 116.
Bibliography
Wolfe, Stephen L. (1972). Biology of the cell. Wadsworth Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0-534-00106-3.
Further reading
Turner W (January 1890). "The Cell Theory Past and Present". J Anat Physiol. 24 (Pt 2): 253–87. PMC 1328050  . PMID 17231856.
Tavassoli M (1980). "The cell theory: a foundation to the edifice of biology". Am. J. Pathol. 98 (1): 44. PMC 1903404  . PMID 6985772.
External links
Mallery C (2008-02-11). "Cell Theory". Retrieved 2008-11-25.
"Studying Cells Tutorial". 2004. Retrieved 2008-11-25.
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text:
Still Got the Blues (For You)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Still Got the Blues (For You)"
Single by Gary Moore
from the album Still Got the Blues
Released
1990
Format
7" vinyl
Genre
Blues rock
Length
6:12
Label
Virgin
Songwriter(s)
Gary Moore
Producer(s)
Ian Taylor
Gary Moore
Gary Moore singles chronology
"Still Got the Blues (For You)"
(1990) "Too Tired"
(1990)
"Still Got the Blues (For You)"
(1990) "Too Tired"
(1990)
"Still Got the Blues (For You)" is a song by Northern Irish guitarist Gary Moore. It was originally released as the title track of the album Still Got the Blues.[1] The song was released as a single and reached #31 on the UK Singles Chart in May 1990.[2] It is the only single of Moore's solo career to chart on the Billboard Hot 100, where it reached #97 on 16 February 1991.[3] Moore played his Les Paul Standard Guitar throughout the song. He also filmed a basic music video for the song.
The song was covered by Eric Clapton on his 2013 album Old Sock as a tribute to Moore following his death in 2011.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plagiarism case
2 Track listing
3 Personnel
4 References
Plagiarism case[edit]
On December 3, 2008, a Munich, Germany court ruled that the guitar solo on the song was plagiarized from a 1974 instrumental recording called "Nordrach" (named after Nordrach, a small river in the central Black Forest) by the German progressive rock band Jud's Gallery from Offenburg.[4] Moore denied knowing of the song, due to its unavailability on record or CD at the time of studio work on his album; the court stated that the song could have been heard on the radio or in a live performance during that time. The court also stated that there was no evidence that the guitar solo was lifted from "Nordrach", but copyright infringement does not depend on outright theft. Moore was ordered to pay Jürgen Winter, leader of Jud's Gallery, an undisclosed amount in damages.[5]
Track listing[edit]
"Still Got the Blues (For You)" - 4:12
"Left Me with the Blues" - 3:04
Personnel[edit]
Gary Moore - lead vocals, lead and rhythm guitars
Don Airey - keyboards
Gavyn Wright - strings
Andy Pyle - bass guitar
Graham Walker - drums[6]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.gary-moore.com/traklist00.html
Jump up ^ David Roberts, ed. (2006). British Hit Singles and Albums. Guinness World Records Limited. p. 377. ISBN 978-1904994107.
Jump up ^ https://www.billboard.com/artist/1490134/gary+moore/chart?f=379
Jump up ^ "Gerichtsurteil: Gary Moores Welthit "Still got the Blues" war geklaut - SPIEGEL ONLINE - Nachrichten - Kultur". Spiegel.de. Retrieved 2012-01-07.
Jump up ^ Dave Graham (3 December 2008). "Ex-Thin Lizzy guitarist loses German plagiarism case". Berlin. Reuters.
Jump up ^ http://www.discogs.com/Gary-Moore-Still-Got-The-Blues/release/1109269
[hide]
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"Don't Let Me Be Misunderstood"
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"Still Got the Blues"
Related articles
Discography
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Thin Lizzy
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Colosseum II
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BBM
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Still_Got_the_Blues_(For_You)&oldid=812589374"
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Edman degradation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Edman degradation, developed by Pehr Edman, is a method of sequencing amino acids in a peptide.[1] In this method, the amino-terminal residue is labeled and cleaved from the peptide without disrupting the peptide bonds between other amino acid residues.
Contents
[hide]
1 Mechanism
2 Limitations
3 Coupled analysis
4 See also
5 References
Mechanism[edit]
Phenyl isothiocyanate is reacted with an uncharged N-terminal amino group, under mildly alkaline conditions, to form a cyclical phenylthiocarbamoyl derivative. Then, under acidic conditions, this derivative of the terminal amino acid is cleaved as a thiazolinone derivative. The thiazolinone amino acid is then selectively extracted into an organic solvent and treated with acid to form the more stable phenylthiohydantoin (PTH)- amino acid derivative that can be identified by using chromatography or electrophoresis. This procedure can then be repeated again to identify the next amino acid. A major drawback to this technique is that the peptides being sequenced in this manner cannot have more than 50 to 60 residues (and in practice, under 30). The peptide length is limited due to the cyclical derivatization not always going to completion. The derivatization problem can be resolved by cleaving large peptides into smaller peptides before proceeding with the reaction. It is able to accurately sequence up to 30 amino acids with modern machines capable of over 99% efficiency per amino acid. An advantage of the Edman degradation is that it only uses 10 - 100 pico-moles of peptide for the sequencing process. The Edman degradation reaction was automated in 1967 by Edman and Beggs to speed up the process[2] and 100 automated devices were in use worldwide by 1973.[3]
Limitations[edit]
Because the Edman degradation proceeds from the N-terminus of the protein, it will not work if the N-terminus has been chemically modified (e.g. by acetylation or formation of pyroglutamic acid). Sequencing will stop if a non-α-amino acid is encountered (e.g. isoaspartic acid), since the favored five-membered ring intermediate is unable to be formed. Edman degradation is generally not useful to determine the positions of disulfide bridges. It also requires peptide amounts of 1 picomole or above for discernible results.
Coupled analysis[edit]
Following 2D SDS PAGE the proteins can be transferred to a polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) blotting membrane for further analysis. Edman degradations can be performed directly from a PVDF membrane. N-terminal residue sequencing resulting in five to ten amino acid may be sufficient to identify a Protein of Interest (POI).
See also[edit]
Bergmann degradation
Dansyl chloride
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Edman, P.; Högfeldt, Erik; Sillén, Lars Gunnar; Kinell, Per-Olof (1950). "Method for determination of the amino acid sequence in peptides". Acta Chem. Scand. 4: 283–293. doi:10.3891/acta.chem.scand.04-0283 .
Jump up ^ Edman P, Begg G (March 1967). "A protein sequenator". Eur. J. Biochem. 1 (1): 80–91. doi:10.1111/j.1432-1033.1967.tb00047.x. PMID 6059350.
Jump up ^ Niall HD (1973). "Automated Edman degradation: the protein sequenator". Meth. Enzymol. Methods in Enzymology. 27: 942–1010. doi:10.1016/S0076-6879(73)27039-8. ISBN 978-0-12-181890-6. PMID 4773306.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edman_degradation&oldid=809376943"
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text:
People Are Crazy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"People Are Crazy"
Single by Billy Currington
from the album Little Bit of Everything
Released
March 2, 2009
Format
CD
digital download
Recorded
2008
Genre
Country
Length
3:52
Label
Mercury Nashville
Songwriter(s)
Bobby Braddock
Troy Jones
Producer(s)
Carson Chamberlain
Billy Currington
Billy Currington singles chronology
"Don't"
(2008) "People Are Crazy"
(2009) "That's How Country Boys Roll"
(2009)
"Don't"
(2008) "People Are Crazy"
(2009) "That's How Country Boys Roll"
(2009)
Music video
"People Are Crazy" at CMT.com
"People Are Crazy" is a song written by Bobby Braddock and Troy Jones, recorded by American country music singer Billy Currington. It was released in March 2009 as the second single from his album Little Bit of Everything. The song is Currington's ninth single on the Billboard country singles charts, and has become his third number-one single. On December 2, 2009, "People Are Crazy" was Grammy-nominated for Best Male Country Vocal Performance and Best Country Song.[1] The song has also received a "Song of the Year" nomination on the 2010 Academy of Country Music Awards.
Contents
[hide]
1 Content
2 Music video
3 Critical reception
4 Chart performance
4.1 End of year charts
5 References
6 External links
Content[edit]
"People Are Crazy" centralizes on the male narrator and an old man whom he meets in a bar. In the first verse, the two of them converse, which leads to the old man saying, "God is great, beer is good / And people are crazy." They continue to converse throughout the second verse as well before parting ways. In the third verse, some time has passed, and the narrator reads the old man's obituary in the paper. He discovers that the now dead old man was a millionaire and "left his fortune to / Some guy he barely knew" (i.e., the narrator).[2] After this discovery, the narrator also declares that "people are crazy." The song is in a 4/4 time signature and a moderate tempo, in the key of F major, using a main chord pattern of F–C–Dm–B♭. Currington's vocals range from B♭3 to D5.[3]
According to the blog maintained by the television network CMT, Currington said of the song, "It’s one of those that lifts your spirits and make you laugh. I knew the first time I heard it, I wanted to lay it down and record it for the album."[4]
Bobby Braddock and Troy Jones wrote the song after Jones gave Braddock the idea for the line "God is great, beer is good / And people are crazy." Jones was in Alabama and decided to take a drive through the country. He was trying to think of three things you can't argue with and came up with the three things. When the two were writing the song, Braddock then suggested the twist ending.[5]
Music video[edit]
The music video was shot by the Brads, a directing duo consisting of Potsy Ponciroli and Blake McClure.
Critical reception[edit]
In his review of the album, Billboard critic Mikael Wood said that the song was a "briskly strummed country-rock number" that "handily reduces [Currington]'s worldview to a memorable one-liner", and added that the rest of the album "doesn't do much to complicate that philosophy".[6] Matt Bjorke of Roughstock gave the song a positive review, saying that "It goes a long way into proving just what is great about country music: the stories and simple, effective melodies."[7] Juli Thanki of Engine 145 gave the song a thumbs-down rating, saying that it was "feel-good like a Reader's Digest story" and did not have a country music sound other than "an occasionally audible steel guitar lick."[2]
Chart performance[edit]
Chart (2009)
Peak
position
US Hot Country Songs (Billboard)[8] 1
US Billboard Hot 100[9] 27
Canada (Canadian Hot 100)[10] 48
End of year charts[edit]
Charts (2009)
Position
U.S. Billboard Hot 100 93[11]
US Country Songs (Billboard)[12] 7
Preceded by
"I Run to You"
by Lady Antebellum Billboard Hot Country Songs
number-one single
August 1–August 8, 2009 Succeeded by
"Alright"
by Darius Rucker
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The 52nd Annual Grammy Awards Nominees List", Grammy.com, December 2, 2009
^ Jump up to: a b Thanki, Juli (2009-03-06). "Billy Currington - "People Are Crazy"". Engine 145. Retrieved 2009-04-29.
Jump up ^ http://www.musicnotes.com/sheetmusic/mtdFPE.asp?ppn=MN0076183&
Jump up ^ Shelburne, Craig (2008-10-14). "Billy Currington will convince you that "People Are Crazy"". CMT. Retrieved 2009-04-29.
Jump up ^ Horner, Marianne (2009-08-31). "Story Behind the Song: Two Guys Having Fun Equals a Hit". Country Weekly. 16 (29): 23. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Wood, Mikael (2008-10-18). "Little Bit of Everything review". Billboard. Archived from the original on October 15, 2008. Retrieved 2009-04-29.
Jump up ^ http://www.roughstock.com/blog/billy-curringtonpeple-are-crazy
Jump up ^ "Billy Currington Chart History (Hot Country Songs)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Billy Currington Chart History (Hot 100)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Billy Currington Chart History (Canadian Hot 100)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Year End Charts - Year-end songs - The Billboard Hot 100". Billboard. Retrieved November 12, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Best of 2009: Country Songs". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. 2009. Retrieved December 13, 2009.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
[hide]
v
t
e
Billy Currington
Studio albums
Billy Currington (2003)
Doin' Somethin' Right (2005)
Little Bit of Everything (2008)
Enjoy Yourself (2010)
We Are Tonight (2013)
Summer Forever (2015)
Compilation albums
Icon (2011)
Singles
"Walk a Little Straighter"
"I Got a Feelin'"
"Must Be Doin' Somethin' Right"
"Why, Why, Why"
"Good Directions"
"Tangled Up"
"Don't"
"People Are Crazy"
"That's How Country Boys Roll"
"Pretty Good at Drinkin' Beer"
"Let Me Down Easy"
"Love Done Gone"
"Like My Dog"
"Hey Girl"
"We Are Tonight"
"Don't It"
"Drinkin' Town with a Football Problem"
"It Don't Hurt Like It Used To"
"Do I Make You Wanna"
"Wake Me Up"
Guest singles
"Party for Two" (with Shania Twain)
Related topics
Discography
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=People_Are_Crazy&oldid=820137890"
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View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
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navigation
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/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

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Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
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value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Find background information on current events

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/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
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value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

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display: none; font-size: 13px;

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