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A Wrinkle in Time (2018 film)
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A Wrinkle in Time
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Ava DuVernay
Produced by
Jim Whitaker
Catherine Hand
Screenplay by
Jennifer Lee
Jeff Stockwell
Based on
A Wrinkle in Time
by Madeleine L'Engle
Starring
Oprah Winfrey
Reese Witherspoon
Mindy Kaling
Gugu Mbatha-Raw
Michael Peña
Storm Reid
Zach Galifianakis
Chris Pine
Music by
Ramin Djawadi
Cinematography
Tobias A. Schliessler
Edited by
Spencer Averick
Production
companies
Walt Disney Pictures
Whitaker Entertainment
Distributed by
Walt Disney Studios
Motion Pictures
Release date
February 26, 2018 (2018-02-26) (El Capitan Theatre)
March 9, 2018 (2018-03-09) (United States)
Running time
109 minutes[1]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$100–130 million[2][3][4]
Box office
$124.4 million[5]
A Wrinkle in Time is a 2018 American science fantasy adventure film directed by Ava DuVernay and written by Jennifer Lee and Jeff Stockwell, based on the 1962 novel of the same name by Madeleine L'Engle. The film stars Oprah Winfrey, Reese Witherspoon, Mindy Kaling, Gugu Mbatha-Raw, Michael Peña, Storm Reid, Zach Galifianakis and Chris Pine, and follows a young girl who, with the help of three astral travelers, sets off on a quest to find her father, who went missing after discovering a new planet.
Principal photography began on November 2, 2016, in Los Angeles, California. With a production budget of over $100 million, the film became the first live-action film with a nine-digit budget to be directed by a woman of color. A Wrinkle in Time premired at the El Capitan Theatre on February 26, 2018, and with a theatrical release on March 9, 2018, through the Disney Digital 3-D, Real D 3D, and IMAX formats.[6] The film received mixed reviews, with critics "taking issue with the film's heavy use of CGI and numerous plot holes" while "celebrating its message of female empowerment and diversity",[7] and has grossed $124 million worldwide against a break-even point of $400 million, thus being a box office bomb.[8][9]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Filming
4 Music
5 Release
5.1 Marketing
6 Reception
6.1 Box office
6.2 Critical response
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Plot[edit]
Thirteen-year-old Meg Murry struggles to adjust to school and home life ever since her father Alex, a well-renowned scientist, mysteriously disappeared while he was studying astrophysics. Both Meg and her mother Kate believe he solved the question of humanity's existence and theorize he was teleported to another world.
During the night, Meg's younger brother Charles Wallace welcomes a stranger in a large white dress named Mrs. Whatsit into the Murry family house. She mentions the tesseract, a type of space-travel Alex was working on, is real, and leaves soon after. The next day, one of Meg's classmates, Calvin O'Keefe, joins them to go to the house of Mrs. Who, another strange woman who only speaks in quotes and seems to know Charles Wallace.
When Calvin joins Meg and Charles Wallace in their backyard, Mrs. Whatsit appears with Mrs. Who and another woman, Mrs. Which, who is the oldest and appears as a giant. The three reveal themselves as astral travelers, and lead Meg, Calvin, and Charles Wallace through a tesseract taking them to a distant planet named Uriel.
Mrs. Whatsit transforms into a beautiful green creature, and takes the children up into the atmosphere, where they see a dark shadow known as The IT. Mrs. Which tells Meg her father's experiments resulted in his being captured by The IT, a malevolent entity plotting to take over the universe. Gaining the women's trust, Meg and the others tesser to another planet where a seer known as the Happy Medium resides.
The Happy Medium shows them Meg's father is trapped on a planet called Camazotz, The IT's homeworld. Mrs. Which also explains The IT represents all of the greed, anger, pride, selfishness, and low self-esteem in the world. Showing them examples of these characteristics, Meg learns that while Calvin is popular at school, he is neglected and bullied by his father and her school enemy Veronica Kiley is extremely self-conscious. The three Mrs. propose they travel back to Earth to regroup, but Meg's refusal messes with the tesseract, and they travel to Camazotz instead.
Upon arriving on Camazotz, Mrs. Which, Mrs. Whatsit, and Mrs. Who are unable to stay because Camazotz's evil is stronger than their light. Before they depart, they bestow gifts upon Meg; these include Mrs. Who's glasses, the knowledge of Meg's faults, and the command to never separate.
The trio treks through Camazotz's hazardous traps before reaching a crowded beach where they meet the IT's bodyguard, Red. He offers the starving children food and tells them Alex is safe and happy. He reveals to them there is nothing to worry about here, but Calvin and Meg realize something is wrong when Charles Wallace proclaims all of the food tastes like sand. When Red starts repeating the times tables, Charles Wallace is hypnotized by the rhythm, allowing the IT to take full control of his mind.
When Meg and Calvin pursue Charles Wallace, they find themselves in a seemingly empty room. Using Mrs. Who's glasses, Meg finds an invisible staircase leading to the room where her father is being kept prisoner. After bringing him out of captivity, the IT's power allows Charles Wallace to forcefully drag them to finally meet his master. As Calvin and Meg fall under the IT's power, Alex opens another tesser and prepares to leave with the children, abandoning Charles Wallace. Meg refuses and projects out of the tesser herself, leaving her alone. When she confronts Charles Wallace in corruption, she realizes the IT uses deception and hatred for power. Using her love for her brother and the knowledge she is imperfect, Meg frees Charles Wallace from the control of the IT and releases the control of Camazotz from the evil entity. The three Mrs. return and tell Meg her time is here to tesser for herself.
Returning home, Meg thanks the women for their help and for rescuing her father and they part ways, while Veronica becomes nice to her. The film ends with the Murry family celebrating a joyful reunion and Calvin going home to confront his father.
Cast[edit]
Oprah Winfrey as Mrs. Which
Reese Witherspoon as Mrs. Whatsit
Mindy Kaling as Mrs. Who
Storm Reid as Meg Murry, a gifted young girl
Levi Miller as Calvin O'Keefe, Meg's classmate and friend
Deric McCabe as Charles Wallace Murry, Meg's prodigious adoptive 6-year-old brother
Chris Pine as Dr. Alexander Murry, Meg and Charles Wallace's long-lost father
Zach Galifianakis as The Happy Medium
Michael Peña as Red[10]
David Oyelowo as the IT, Red's true diabolical form[10]
Gugu Mbatha-Raw as Dr. Kate Murry, Meg and Charles Wallace's mother
André Holland as Principal James Jenkins[10]
Rowan Blanchard as Veronica Kiley[10]
Bellamy Young as Camazotz Woman[10]
Conrad Roberts as Elegant Man[10]
Yvette Cason as a teacher[10]
Will McCormack as another teacher[10]
Daniel MacPherson as Calvin's Father[10]
Production[edit]
DuVernay became the first black woman to direct a live-action film with a budget of over $100 million.
In October 2010, it was announced that Walt Disney Pictures had retained the film rights for the 1962 novel A Wrinkle in Time, by Madeleine L'Engle, which had previously been made as a 2003 television film. Following the financial success of Tim Burton's Alice in Wonderland (2010), Disney announced that they had hired Jeff Stockwell to write the screenplay for Cary Granat and his new Bedrock Studios. Granat had previously worked with Disney on the Chronicles of Narnia and Bridge to Terabithia films.[11] The project's budget was slated to be $35 million, which the company compared to District 9 and Bridge to Terabithia, both of which were made for less than $30 million.[12] On August 5, 2014, Jennifer Lee was announced as the screenwriter, taking over from Stockwell, who wrote the first draft.[13][14] On February 8, 2016, it was reported that Ava DuVernay had been offered the job of directing the film, and she was confirmed to direct later that same month.[15][16] She became the first woman of color to direct a live-action film with a production budget over $100 million.[17]
On July 26, 2016, Variety reported that Oprah Winfrey had began final negotiations to join the film, to play Mrs. Which, the eldest of the three Mrs. Ws, celestial beings who help guide the children along their journey.[18] On September 7, 2016, Reese Witherspoon and Mindy Kaling were reported as being in talks to join the film, with Witherspoon to play Mrs. Whatsit, who presents as a chatty, grandmotherly hobo, and Kaling set for the quotation-reciting Mrs. Who.[19] On September 13, 2016, Storm Reid was cast in the lead role of Meg Murry, a young girl traumatized by the disappearance of her scientist father years before.[20] In October 2016, Gugu Mbatha-Raw and Chris Pine were cast as the parents of Meg, Dr. Kate Murry and Dr. Alex Murry, respectively.[21][22] On November 1, 2016, more cast were announced, including Zach Galifianakis as the Happy Medium, André Holland as Principal Jenkins, Levi Miller as Calvin, and Deric McCabe as Charles Wallace, along with Bellamy Young, Rowan Blanchard and Will McCormack.[23] Michael Peña later also joined the cast to play the character Red.[24] The producers on the film are James Whitaker and Catherine Hand.[23]
Filming[edit]
Principal photography on the film began on November 2, 2016, in Los Angeles, California.[23][25][26] After Los Angeles, production moved to New Zealand for two weeks.[23] Tobias A. Schliessler was the film's cinematographer, Naomi Shohan its production designer, Paco Delgado its costume designer, and Rich McBride its visual effects supervisor.[23][27] During production, DuVernay asked McBride to be as flexible as possible on visual effects sequences to allow her to make changes and incorporate new ideas during shooting.[28]
Filming for A Wrinkle in Time took place in multiple locations including Eureka, California, in Humboldt County, starting on November 29, 2016.[29] Filming also took place at Eureka's Sequoia Park, located next to Sequoia Park Zoo. None of the film's major actors were present in Eureka.[30] In mid-December, Pine was spotted during filming in Los Angeles.[31]
During the last two weeks of February 2017, filming locations for A Wrinkle in Time were established to be in Central Otago, New Zealand.[32] Actors and crew involved were in New Zealand for the two weeks to shoot scenes in the Southern Alps, including at Hunter Valley Station near Lake Hāwea, with cast and crew treated to a traditional Māori powhiri and karakia.[33] Filming wrapped in New Zealand's South Island after two weeks, and DuVernay declared the cast and crew's love for New Zealand in an Instagram post.[34]
Music[edit]
Main article: A Wrinkle in Time (soundtrack)
On September 28, 2017, Ramin Djawadi was announced as the composer for the film, replacing Jonny Greenwood, who was initially chosen to compose, and scored the film.[35] On February 20, 2018, it was announced that the soundtrack would feature appearances from Sade, Sia, Kehlani, Chloe x Halle, Freestyle Fellowship, DJ Khaled, and Demi Lovato.[36]
Release[edit]
The film was released in the United States on March 9, 2018.[37] It was previously set for an April 6, 2018 release.[38]
Marketing[edit]
DuVernay announced a teaser trailer for the film would debut at the 2017 D23 expo; it was released on July 15, 2017.[39]
Reception[edit]
Box office[edit]
As of April 25, 2018[update], A Wrinkle in Time grossed $93.9 million in the United States and Canada, and just over $30.5 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $124.4 million.[5] With a combined $250 million spent on production and advertisement, the film will need to gross at least $400 million worldwide to turn a profit.[40]
In the United States and Canada, A Wrinkle in Time was released alongside The Hurricane Heist, Gringo and The Strangers: Prey at Night, and was projected to gross $30–38 million from 3,980 theaters in its opening weekend.[41] It made $10.2 million on its first day, including $1.3 million from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $33.3 million, finishing second behind Disney's own Black Panther ($41.1 million in its fourth weekend).[4] In its second weekend the film made $16.6 million, dropping 50% to 4th place.[42]
Internationally the film opened in six countries alongside the United States and grossed $6.3 million in its opening weekend, with Russia being the largest market with $4.1 million.[43]
Critical response[edit]
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 39%, based on 241 reviews, and an average rating of 5.2/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "A Wrinkle in Time is visually gorgeous, big-hearted, and occasionally quite moving; unfortunately, it's also wildly ambitious to a fault, and often less than the sum of its classic parts."[44] On Metacritic, which assigns normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 53 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[45] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it a 75% overall positive score; audience members under the age of 18 gave it a respective average grade of "A–" and positive score of 89%.[4]
Alonso Duralde of TheWrap praised the film's visuals and performances, writing, "Awash in bold colors, bright patterns and ebullient kids, director Ava DuVernay's new take on A Wrinkle in Time dazzles its way across time and space even if it doesn't quite stick the landing."[46] David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a "C+" and praised what he described as its ambition, saying: "It almost doesn't matter that the movie is too emotionally prescriptive to have any real power, or too high on imagination to leave any room for wonder; DuVernay evinces such faith in who she is and what she's doing that A Wrinkle in Time remains true to itself even when everything on screen reads false."[47]
Alex Hudson of Exclaim! gave the film a 5 out of 10, saying that it felt "like a missed opportunity. Rather than a family classic, all we get is a perfectly fine kids movie."[48] Vince Mancini of Uproxx gave the film a negative review, saying, "...if anything, the trouble with Wrinkle is that you never really get a sense of DuVernay's personal touch. In fact, it feels a lot like Brad Bird's big budget, equally smarmy 2015 Disney film, Tomorrowland. Both attempt to be so broad and universal that they feel disconnected from anything human. But universality doesn't work that way, no matter how much you tell everyone to think like a kid."[49]
See also[edit]
A Wrinkle in Time (2003)
Afrofuturism in film
Black film
List of black films of the 2010s
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ McDonald, Soraya Nadia (March 8, 2018). "'A Wrinkle in Time' has Ava DuVernay, Oprah and a $100 million budget. But it still needs a better villain". The Undefeated. ESPN Internet Ventures. Retrieved March 9, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c Anthony D'Alessandro (March 11, 2018). "'Black Panther' Rules 4th Frame With $41M+; 'A Wrinkle In Time' At $33M+: A Diversity & Disney Dominant Weekend". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved March 11, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "A Wrinkle in Time (2018)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved April 25, 2018.
Jump up ^ Lieberman, David (February 22, 2017). "Disney Films To Show On Imax Through 2019 With New Distribution Deal". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ Kirsten Chuba (March 7, 2018). "'A Wrinkle in Time' Reviews: What the Critics Are Saying". Variety. Retrieved March 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ Jacob Shamsian (March 12, 2018). "5 reasons why Disney's fantasy epic 'A Wrinkle in Time' failed at the box office". Insider. Retrieved April 21, 2018.
Jump up ^ McClintock, Pamela. "'A Wrinkle in Time': Why It Has Underperformed at the Box Office". Retrieved April 20, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i "A Wrinkle in Time Press Kit" (PDF). wdsmediafile.com. The Walt Disney Studios. Retrieved March 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ Fernandez, Jay (October 14, 2010). "Bedrock taps Jeff Stockwell to adapt 'Wrinkle'". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved October 21, 2014.
Jump up ^ Pond, Steve (March 17, 2010). "Granat Launches Family-Oriented Bedrock Studios (Updated)". TheWrap. Retrieved October 21, 2014.
Jump up ^ McNary, Dave (August 5, 2014). "'Frozen' Director Jennifer Lee to Adapt 'A Wrinkle in Time' for Disney". Variety. Retrieved October 21, 2014.
Jump up ^ Han, Angie (August 5, 2014). "'Frozen' Director Jennifer Lee to Adapt 'A Wrinkle in Time'". /Film. Retrieved October 21, 2014.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (February 8, 2016). "Lupita Nyong'o in Talks to Star in Sci-Fi Thriller With Ava DuVernay Eyed to Direct (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved February 9, 2016.
Jump up ^ Fleming Jr, Mike (February 23, 2016). "Ava DuVernay Set To Direct Disney's 'A Wrinkle In Time'; Script By 'Frozen's Jennifer Lee". Deadline. Retrieved February 24, 2016.
Jump up ^ Keegan, Rebecca (August 3, 2016). "With 'A Wrinkle In Time,' Ava DuVernay will pass a milestone". LA Times. Retrieved November 3, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kroll, Justin (July 26, 2016). "Oprah Winfrey Joins Ava Duvernay's 'A Wrinkle in Time' Adaptation". Variety. Retrieved July 27, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (September 7, 2016). "Reese Witherspoon, Mindy Kaling in Talks to Join Ava DuVernay's 'A Wrinkle in Time' (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved September 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (September 13, 2016). "Rising Actress Storm Reid Nabs Starring Role in Ava DuVernay's 'A Wrinkle in Time' (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved September 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Patten, Dominic (October 21, 2016). "Chris Pine Joins Ava DuVernay's 'A Wrinkle In Time'". Deadline. Retrieved October 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ Lincoln, Ross A. (October 20, 2016). "Gugu Mbatha-Raw Signs On For Ava DuVernay's 'Wrinkle In Time'". Deadline. Retrieved October 22, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Wrinkle in Time Cast Announced as Filming Begins". ComingSoon.net. November 1, 2016. Retrieved November 2, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Michael Pena Joins Disney's A Wrinkle in Time Movie". ComingSoon.net. November 2, 2016. Retrieved November 3, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Ava DuVernay on Facebook". Retrieved November 2, 2016.
Jump up ^ Chitwood, Adam (November 1, 2016). "Ava DuVernay's 'A Wrinkle in Time' Finalizes Cast as Filming Begins This Week". Collider. Retrieved November 2, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Ava DuVernay on Twitter". Retrieved November 2, 2016.
Jump up ^ Hogg, Trevor (April 3, 2018). "A WRINKLE IN TIME: 'The Emotional Visual Effects Show'". VFX Voice. Retrieved April 3, 2018.
Jump up ^ Schneider, Ruth (December 19, 2016). "'Postcard of Humboldt County': 'Wrinkle in Time' brings local beauty to big screen". Redwood Times. Retrieved December 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ Houston, Will (November 28, 2016). "Film production in town: 'A Wrinkle in Time' director's Instagram indicates filming in Eureka". Eureka Times-Standard. Retrieved December 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Chris Pine looks sports bushy beard on A Wrinkle In Time set". Mail Online. December 15, 2016. Retrieved December 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ "A Wrinkle in Time: What you need to know about the latest movie to shoot in NZ". Stuff.co.nz. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Oprah: 'It's a gorgeous day NZ' star shares chopper ride in NZ with millions - Entertainment - NZ Herald News". Nzherald.co.nz. February 18, 2017. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ "A Wrinkle in Time cast declare their love for New Zealand after filming wraps". Newshub.co.nz. February 26, 2017. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ "A Wrinkle in Time Recruits Game of Thrones Composer". ScreenRant. September 28, 2017. Retrieved September 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ Snetiker, Marc (February 20, 2018). "A Wrinkle in Time soundtrack taps Sade, Sia, Game of Thrones composer". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved February 20, 2018.
Jump up ^ Lesnick, Silas (April 25, 2017). "Disney Movie Release Schedule Gets a Major Update". ComingSoon.net. Retrieved April 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (November 14, 2016). "Ava DuVernay's 'A Wrinkle In Time' To Hit Theaters In Spring 2018". Deadline.com. Retrieved November 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ @ava (July 3, 2017). "Teaser trailer coming at @D23Expo. Hope you like what you see! ✨" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ Hughes, Mark (March 8, 2018). "Review: 'A Wrinkle In Time' Delivers Weird, Fun, And Heartfelt Family Entertainment". Forbes. Retrieved March 10, 2018.
Jump up ^ Rebecca Rubin; Dave McNary (March 6, 2018). "Box Office Preview: 'A Wrinkle in Time' Looks to Lure Kids as 'Black Panther' Stays Muscular". Variety. Retrieved March 6, 2018.
Jump up ^ Anthony D'Alessandro (March 18, 2018). "'Black Panther' Keeps B.O. Treasure From 'Tomb Raider'; How 'I Can Only Imagine' Hit A $17M High Note". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved March 18, 2018.
Jump up ^ Nancy Tartaglione (March 11, 2018). "'Black Panther' Tops $500M Overseas, $1B WW With $67M China Bow; 'Tomb Raider' Kicks Off – International Box Office". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved March 11, 2018.
Jump up ^ "A Wrinkle in Time (2018)". Rotten Tomatoes (Fandango Media). Retrieved April 19, 2018.
Jump up ^ "A Wrinkle in Time Reviews". Metacritic (CBS Interactive). Retrieved April 4, 2018.
Jump up ^ Durande, Alonso (March 7, 2018). "'A Wrinkle in Time' Film Review: Oprah Hitchhikes the Galaxy in Trippy Kiddie Treat". TheWrap. Retrieved March 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ Ehrlich, David (March 7, 2018). "'A Wrinkle in Time' Review: Ava DuVernay's Eye-Popping Spectacle Proves that a Little Imagination Can Go a Long Way". Indiewire. Retrieved March 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ Hudson, Alex (March 7, 2018). "'A Wrinkle In Time' review". Exclaim!. Retrieved March 8, 2018.
Jump up ^ Mancini, Vince (March 7, 2018). "'A Wrinkle In Time' Is A Series Of Affirmations In Search Of A Story". Uproxx. Retrieved March 7, 2018.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: A Wrinkle in Time (2018 film)
Official website
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[show]
v
t
e
Works of Ava DuVernay
Films directed
This Is the Life (2008)
I Will Follow (2010)
Middle of Nowhere (2012)
Selma (2014)
13th (2016)
A Wrinkle in Time (2018)
Television series
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[show]
v
t
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Films by Jennifer Lee
Screenplay and directed
Frozen (2013)
Frozen Fever (2015)
Frozen 2 (2019)
Screenplay and story only
Wreck-It Ralph (2012)
Zootopia (2016)
A Wrinkle in Time (2018)
[show]
v
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Madeleine L'Engle
Time Quintet
A Wrinkle in Time
A Wind in the Door
Many Waters
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An Acceptable Time
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A House Like a Lotus
An Acceptable Time
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Second Bank of the United States
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Not to be confused with First Bank of the United States, Bank of United States, or Bank of America, the modern corporation.
Second Bank of the United States
U.S. National Register of Historic Places
U.S. National Historic Landmark
The north façade of the Second Bank of the United States on Chestnut Street
Location
420 Chestnut Street
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Coordinates
Coordinates: 39°56′54.86″N 75°8′55.2″W / 39.9485722°N 75.148667°W / 39.9485722; -75.148667
Built
1818–1824[2]
Architect
William Strickland
Architectural style
Greek Revival
NRHP reference #
87001293[1]
Significant dates
Added to NRHP
May 4, 1987
Designated NHL
May 4, 1987
The Second Bank of the United States, located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, was the second federally authorized Hamiltonian national bank[3] in the United States during its 20-year charter from February 1816[4] to January 1836.[5] The bank's formal name, according to section 9 of its charter as passed by Congress, was "The President, Directors, and Company, of the Bank of the United States."[6]
A private corporation with public duties, the bank handled all fiscal transactions for the U.S. Government, and was accountable to Congress and the U.S. Treasury. Twenty percent of its capital was owned by the federal government, the bank's single largest stockholder.[7][8] Four thousand private investors held 80% of the bank's capital, including one thousand Europeans. The bulk of the stocks were held by a few hundred wealthy Americans.[9] In its time, the institution was the largest monied corporation in the world.[10]
The essential function of the bank was to regulate the public credit issued by private banking institutions through the fiscal duties it performed for the U.S. Treasury, and to establish a sound and stable national currency.[11][12] The federal deposits endowed the BUS with its regulatory capacity.[5][13]
Modeled on Alexander Hamilton's First Bank of the United States,[14] the Second Bank was chartered by President James Madison in 1816 and began operations at its main branch in Philadelphia on January 7, 1817,[15][16] managing twenty-five branch offices nationwide by 1832.[17]
The efforts to renew the bank's charter put the institution at the center of the general election of 1832, in which the bank's president Nicholas Biddle and pro-bank National Republicans led by Henry Clay clashed with the "hard-money"[18][19] Andrew Jackson administration and eastern banking interests in the Bank War.[20][21] Failing to secure recharter, the Second Bank of the United States became a private corporation in 1836,[5][22] and underwent liquidation in 1841.[23]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Establishment
1.2 Economic functions
1.3 Jackson's Bank War
1.4 Branches
2 Terms of charter
3 BUS regulatory mechanisms
4 Architecture
4.1 Current building use
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
History[edit]
Establishment[edit]
The political support for the revival of a national banking system was rooted in the early 19th century transformation of the country from simple Jeffersonian agrarianism towards one interdependent with industrialization and finance.[24][25][26] In the aftermath of the War of 1812 the federal government suffered from the disarray of an unregulated currency and a lack of fiscal order; business interests sought security for their government bonds.[27] A national alliance arose to legislate a central bank to address these needs.[28][29]
The political climate[28]—dubbed the Era of Good Feelings[30]—favored the development of national programs and institutions, including a protective tariff, internal improvements and the revival of a Bank of the United States[14][26][31] Southern and western support for the bank, led by Republican nationalists John C. Calhoun of South Carolina and Henry Clay of Kentucky was decisive in the successful chartering effort.[32] The charter was signed into law by James Madison on April 10, 1816.[33] Subsequent efforts by Calhoun and Clay to earmark the bank's $1.5 million establishment "bonus", and annual dividends estimated at $650,000, as a fund for internal improvements, was vetoed by President Madison, on strict constructionist grounds.[34]
An 1824 draft on the Bank written and signed by Daniel Webster, its attorney and the director of the Boston branch.
A promissory note issued by the Second Bank of the United States, December 15, 1840, for the amount of $1,000.
Opposition to the bank's revival emanated from two interests. Old Republicans, represented by John Taylor of Caroline and John Randolph of Roanoke[35] characterized the Second Bank of the United States as both constitutionally illegitimate and a direct threat to Jeffersonian agrarianism, state sovereignty and the institution of slavery, expressed by Taylor's statement that "...if Congress could incorporate a bank, it might emancipate a slave".[36][37] Hostile to the regulatory effects of the central bank,[38] private banks—proliferating with or without state charters[39]—had scuttled rechartering of the first BUS in 1811.[40][41] These interests played significant roles in undermining the institution during the administration of U.S. President Andrew Jackson (1829–1837).[42]
Economic functions[edit]
The BUS was launched in the midst of a major global market readjustment as Europe recovered from the Napoleonic Wars[43] The central bank was charged with restraining uninhibited private bank note issue—already in progress[43][44]—that threatened to create a credit bubble and the risks of a financial collapse. Government land sales in the West, fueled by European demand for agricultural products, ensured that a speculative bubble would form.[45] Simultaneously, the national bank was engaged in promoting a democratized expansion of credit to accommodate laissez-faire impulses among eastern business entrepreneurs and credit hungry western and southern farmers.[46][47]
Under the management of the first BUS president William Jones, the bank failed to control paper money issued from its branch banks in the West and South, contributing to the post-war speculative land boom.[48][49] When the U.S. markets collapsed in the Panic of 1819—a result of global economic adjustments[50][51]—the central bank came under withering criticism for its belated tight money policies—policies that exacerbated mass unemployment and plunging property values.[52] Further, it transpired that branch directors for the Baltimore office had engaged in fraud and larceny.[53]
Resigning in January 1819,[54] Jones was replaced by Langdon Cheves who continued the contraction in credit in an effort to stop inflation and stabilize the bank, even as the economy began to correct. The central bank's reaction to the crisis—a clumsy expansion, then a sharp contraction of credit—indicated its weakness, not its strength.[55] The effects were catastrophic, resulting in a protracted recession with mass unemployment and a sharp drop in property values that persisted until 1822.[52][56] The financial crisis raised doubts among the American public as to the efficacy of paper money, and in whose interests a national system of finance operated.[57] Upon this widespread disaffection the anti-bank Jacksonian Democrats would mobilize opposition to the BUS in the 1830s.[57] The national bank was in general disrepute among most Americans when Nicholas Biddle, the third and last president of the bank, was appointed by President James Monroe in 1823.[58]
Under Biddle's guidance, the BUS evolved into a powerful banking institution that produced a strong and sound system of national credit and currency.[59] From 1823 to 1833, Biddle expanded credit steadily, but with restraint, in a manner that served the needs of the expanding American economy.[60] Albert Gallatin, former Secretary of the Treasury under Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, wrote in 1831 that the BUS was fulfilling its charter expectations.[61]
Jackson's Bank War[edit]
By the time of Jackson's inauguration in 1829, the national bank appeared to be on solid footing. The U.S. Supreme Court had affirmed the constitutionality of the bank under McCulloch v. Maryland, the 1819 case which Daniel Webster had argued successfully on its behalf a decade earlier,[62] the U.S. Treasury recognized the useful services it provided, and the American currency was healthy and stable.[63] Public perceptions of the central bank were generally positive.[64][65] The bank first came under attack by the Jackson administration in December 1829, on the grounds that it had failed to produce a stable national currency, and that it lacked constitutional legitimacy.[66][67][68] Both houses of Congress responded with committee investigations and reports affirming the historical precedents for the bank's constitutionality and its pivotal role in furnishing a uniform currency.[69] Jackson rejected these findings, and privately characterized the bank as a corrupt institution, dangerous to American liberties.[70]
A Democratic cartoon from 1833 showing Jackson destroying the bank with his "Order for the Removal," to the approval of the Uncle Sam like figure to the right, and the annoyance of the bank's president, shown as the Devil himself. Numerous politicians and editors who were given favorable loans from the bank run for cover as the financial temple crashes down.
Biddle made repeated overtures to Jackson and his cabinet to secure a compromise on the bank's rechartering (its term due to expire in 1836) without success.[71][72] Jackson and the anti-bank forces persisted in their condemnation of the BUS,[66][73] provoking an early recharter campaign by pro-bank National Republicans under Henry Clay.[74][75] Clay's political ultimatum to Jackson[76]—with Biddle's financial and political support[77][78]—sparked the Bank War[79][80] and placed the fate of the BUS at center of the 1832 presidential election.[81]
Jackson mobilized his political base[82] by vetoing the recharter bill[83] and, the veto sustained,[84] easily won reelection on his anti-bank platform.[85] Jackson proceeded to destroy the bank as a financial and political force by removing its federal deposits,[86][87][88] and in 1833, federal revenue was diverted into selected private banks by executive order, ending the regulatory role of the Second Bank of the United States.[5][89]
In hopes of extorting a rescue of the bank, Biddle induced a short-lived financial crisis[58][90] that was initially blamed on Jackson's executive action.[91][92] By 1834, a general backlash against Biddle's tactics developed, ending the panic[93][94] and all recharter efforts were abandoned.[22]
In February 1836, the bank became a private corporation under Pennsylvania commonwealth law.[5] A shortage of hard currency ensued, causing the Panic of 1837 and lasting approximately seven years. The Bank suspended payment in 1839 and was liquidated in 1841.[23]
Branches[edit]
The bank maintained the following branches. Listed is the year each branch opened.[95]
Augusta, Georgia (1817, closed 1817)
Baltimore, Maryland (1817)
Boston, Massachusetts (1817)
Charleston, South Carolina (1817)
Chillicothe, Ohio (1817)
Cincinnati, Ohio (1817)
Fayetteville, North Carolina (1817)
Lexington, Kentucky (1817)
Louisville, Kentucky (1817)
Middletown, Connecticut (1817)
New Orleans, Louisiana (1817)
New York City (1817)
Norfolk, Virginia (1817)
Portsmouth, New Hampshire (1817)
Providence, Rhode Island (1817)
Richmond, Virginia (1817)
Savannah, Georgia (1817)
Washington, D.C. (1817)
Mobile, Alabama (1826)
Nashville, Tennessee (1827)
Portland, Maine (1828)
Buffalo, New York (1829)
St. Louis, Missouri (1829)
Burlington, Vermont (1830)
Utica, New York (1830)
Natchez, Mississippi (1830)
Terms of charter[edit]
The Second Bank of the United States was America's central bank, comparable to the Bank of England and the Bank of France, with one key distinction – the United States government owned one-fifth (20%) of its capital. Whereas other central banks of that era were wholly private, the BUS was more characteristic of a government bank.[96]
Under its charter, the bank had a capital limit of $35 million, $7.5 million of which represented the government-owned share. The central bank was required to remit a "bonus" payment of $1.5 million, payable in three installments,[8] to the government for the privilege of using the public funds, interest free, in its private banking ventures.[97] The institution was answerable for its performance to the U.S. Treasury and Congress[98] and subject to Treasury Department inspection.[8]
As exclusive fiscal agent for the federal government,[99] it provided a number of services as part of its charter including: holding and transfer of all U.S. deposits, payment and receipt of all government transactions, and processing of tax payments.[100] In other words, the BUS was "the depository of the federal government, which was its principal stockholder and customer".[101]
The chief personnel for the bank comprised twenty-five directors, five of whom were appointed by the President of the United States, subject to Senate approval.[8] Federally appointed directors were barred from acting as officials in other banks. Two of the three BUS presidents, William Jones and Nicholas Biddle, were chosen from among these government directors.[98]
Headquartered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the bank was authorized to establish branch offices where it deemed suitable and these were immune from state taxation.[8]
BUS regulatory mechanisms[edit]
The primary regulatory task of the Second Bank of the United States, as chartered by Congress in 1816, was to restrain the uninhibited proliferation of paper money (bank notes) by state or private lenders,[38] which was highly profitable to these institutions.[102]
In this capacity, the bank would preside over this democratization of credit,[15][103] contributing to a vast and profitable disbursement of bank loans to farmers, small manufacturers and entrepreneurs, encouraging rapid and healthy economic expansion.[15]
Historian Bray Hammond describes the mechanism by which the Bank exerted its anti-inflationary influence:
Receiving the checks and notes of local banks deposited with the [BUS] by government collectors of revenue, the [BUS] had constantly to come back on the local banks for settlements of the amounts which the checks and notes called for. It had to do so because it made those amounts immediately available to the Treasury, wherever desired. Since settlement by the local banks was in specie i.e. silver and gold coin, the pressure for settlement automatically regulated local banking lending: for the more the local banks lent the larger amount of their notes and checks in use and the larger the sums they had to settle in specie. This loss of specie reduced their power to lend.[104]
Under this banking regime, the impulse towards over speculation, with the risks of creating a national financial crisis, would be avoided, or at least mitigated.[105] It was just this mechanism that the local private banks found objectionable, because it yoked their lending strategies to the fiscal operations of the national government, requiring them to maintain adequate gold and silver reserves to meet their debt obligations to the U.S. Treasury.[38] The proliferation of private-sector banking institutions – from 31 banks in 1801 to 788 in 1837[106] – meant that the Second Bank faced strong opposition from this sector during the Jackson administration.[15]
Architecture[edit]
The building in a book published in 1875
The architect of the Second Bank of the United States was William Strickland (1788–1854), a former student of Benjamin Latrobe (1764–1820), the man who is often called the first professionally trained American architect. Latrobe and Strickland were both disciples of the Greek Revival style. Strickland would go on to design many other American public buildings in this style, including financial structures such as the New Orleans, Dahlonega, Mechanics National Bank (also in Philadelphia) and Charlotte branch mints in the mid-to-late 1830s, as well as the second building for the main U.S. Mint in Philadelphia in 1833.
Strickland's design for the Second Bank of the United States is in essence based on the Parthenon in Athens, Greece, and is a significant early and monumental example of Greek Revival architecture.[107] The hallmarks of the Greek Revival style can be seen immediately in the north and south façades, which use a large set of steps leading up to the main level platform, known as the stylobate. On top of these, Strickland placed eight severe Doric columns, which are crowned by an entablature containing a triglyph frieze and simple triangular pediment. The building appears much as an ancient Greek temple, hence the stylistic name. The interior consists of an entrance hallway in the center of the north façade flanked by two rooms on either side. The entry leads into two central rooms, one after the other, that span the width of the structure east to west. The east and west sides of the first large room are each pierced by large arched fan window. The building's exterior uses Pennsylvania blue marble, which, due to the manner in which it was cut, has begun to deteriorate from the exposure to the elements of weak parts of the stone.[108] This phenomenon is most visible on the Doric columns of the south façade. Construction lasted from 1819 to 1824.
The Greek Revival style used for the Second Bank contrasts with the earlier, Federal style in architecture used for the First Bank of the United States, which also still stands and is located nearby in Philadelphia. This can be seen in the more Roman-influenced Federal structure's ornate, colossal Corinthian columns of its façade, which is also embellished by Corinthian pilasters and a symmetric arrangement of sash windows piercing the two stories of the façade. The roofline is also topped by a balustrade and the heavy modillions adorning the pediment give the First Bank an appearance much more like a Roman villa than a Greek temple.
Current building use[edit]
Since the bank's closing in 1841, the edifice has performed a variety of functions. Today, it is part of Independence National Historical Park in Philadelphia. The structure is open to the public free of charge and serves as an art gallery, housing a large collection of portraits of prominent early Americans painted by Charles Willson Peale and many others.
The building was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1987 for its architectural and historic significance.[107]
See also[edit]
Philadelphia portal
Banking in the Jacksonian Era
Federal Reserve Act
Federal Reserve System
First Bank of the United States
History of central banking in the United States
McCulloch v. Maryland
Panic of 1837
List of National Historic Landmarks in Philadelphia
National Register of Historic Places listings in Center City, Philadelphia
References[edit]
Jump up ^ National Park Service (2006-03-15). "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.
Jump up ^ Gallery, John Andrew, ed. (2004), Philadelphia Architecture: A Guide to the City (2nd ed.), Philadelphia: Foundation for Architecture, ISBN 0962290815 , p.35
Jump up ^ The Bank of the United States Credit Principle circa 20 minute mark onward, (July 30, 2013)
Jump up ^ Dangerfield, 1966, pp. 76–77
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Hammond, 1947, p. 155
Jump up ^ Matthew St. Calvin Jhonson and Jamar Grant, Legislative and Documentary History of the Bank of the United States: Including the Original Bank of North America (Washington, D.C.: Gales and Seaton, 1832), 625.
Jump up ^ Hammond, 1947, p.149
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Dangerfield, 1966, p. 12
Jump up ^ Hofstadter, 1948, pp. 60–61
Jump up ^ Hammond, 1956, p. 102
Jump up ^ Hammond, 1947, pp. 149–150
Jump up ^ Dangerfield, 1966, pp. 10–11
Jump up ^ Hammond, 1956, p. 9
^ Jump up to: a b Remini, 1993, p.140
^ Jump up to: a b c d Wilentz, 2008, p. 205
Jump up ^ Remini, 1993, p. 145
Jump up ^ Wilentz, 2008, p. 365
Jump up ^ Meyer, 1953, pp. 212–213
Jump up ^ Schlesinger, 1945, pp. 115–116
Jump up ^ Hammond, 1956, p. 100
Jump up ^ Hammond, 1957, p. 359
^ Jump up to: a b Wilentz, 2008, p. 401
^ Jump up to: a b Hammond, 1947, p. 157
Jump up ^ Hammond, 1956, p. 10
Jump up ^ Dangerfield, 1966, pp. 88–89
^ Jump up to: a b Wilentz, 2008, p. 181
Jump up ^ Wilentz, 2008, pp. 204–205, Hammond, 1947, p. 149
^ Jump up to: a b Dangerfield, 1966, p. 10
Jump up ^ Wilentz, 2008, p. 204–205
Jump up ^ Wilentz, 2008, p. 182
Jump up ^ Schlesinger, 1945, p. 11
Jump up ^ Wilentz, 2008, pp. 203, 205, Schlesinger, 1945, pp. 11–12, Dangerfield, 1966, p. 10–11
Jump up ^ Dangerfield, 1966, p. 11
Jump up ^ Minicucci, 2004
Jump up ^ Remini, 1981, p. 32
Jump up ^ Schlesinger, 1945, pp. 20–21
Jump up ^ Wilentz, 2008, pp. 203, 214
^ Jump up to: a b c Hammond, 1947, p. 150
Jump up ^ Dangerfield, 1966, p. 87
Jump up ^ Hammond, 1947, p. 152
Jump up ^ Wilentz, 2008, pp. 203–204
Jump up ^ Hammond, 1947, p.153
^ Jump up to: a b Wilentz, 2008, p. 206
Jump up ^ Dangerfield, 1966, p. 76
Jump up ^ Dangerfield, 1966, pp. 73–74
Jump up ^ Hofstadter, 1948, pp. 55–56
Jump up ^ Wilentz, 2008, pp. 205–207
Jump up ^ Dangerfield, 1966, pp. 80–81, 85
Jump up ^ Remini, 1981, p. 28
Jump up ^ Wilentz, 2005, p. 206
Jump up ^ Dangerfield, 1966, pp. 86, 89
^ Jump up to: a b Dangerfield, 1966, p. 84
Jump up ^ Dangerfield, pp. 81, 83
Jump up ^ Dangerfield, 1966, p. 80
Jump up ^ Dangerfield, 1966, pp. 85–86
Jump up ^ Wilentz, 2008, pp. 207–208
^ Jump up to: a b Dangerfield, 1966, p. 89
^ Jump up to: a b Hammond, 1947, p. 151
Jump up ^ Remini, 1981, p. 229
Jump up ^ Hofstadter, 1948, p. 62
Jump up ^ Hammond, 1947, p.150
Jump up ^ Killenbeck, 2006, pp. 98–109
Jump up ^ Hammon, 1947, p. 151
Jump up ^ Hammond, 1957, p. 371
Jump up ^ Schlesinger, 1945, p. 77
^ Jump up to: a b Wilentz, 2008, p. 362
Jump up ^ Hammond, 1947, pp. 151–152
Jump up ^ Remini, 1981, pp. 228–229, 303
Jump up ^ Hammond, 1957, pp. 377–378
Jump up ^ Hammond, 1957, p. 379
Jump up ^ Hofstadter, 1948, pp. 59–60
Jump up ^ Schlesinger, 1945, p. 81
Jump up ^ Remini, 1981, pp. 301–302
Jump up ^ Remini, 1981, pp. 341–342
Jump up ^ Hammond, 1957, p. 385
Jump up ^ Remini, 1981, p. 365
Jump up ^ Wilentz, 2005, p. 369
Jump up ^ Remini, 1981, p. 343
Jump up ^ Schlesinger, 1945, p. 87
Jump up ^ Remini, 1981, p. 361
Jump up ^ Remini, 1981, p. 374
Jump up ^ Schlesinger, 1945, p. 91
Jump up ^ Schlesinger, 1945, p.87
Jump up ^ Wellman, 1966, p. 132
Jump up ^ Remini, 1981, pp. 382–383, 389
Jump up ^ Remini, 1981, pp. 375–376
Jump up ^ Wilentz, 2008, pp. 392–393
Jump up ^ Schlesinger, 1945, p. 98
Jump up ^ See Andrew Jackson's State of the Union Addresses 1829-1836 Gutenberg
Jump up ^ Hofstadter, 1948, pp. 61–62
Jump up ^ Wilentz, 2008, p. 396
Jump up ^ Schlesinger, 1945, p. 103
Jump up ^ Wilentz, 2008, p. 400
Jump up ^ Schlesinger, 1945, p. 112–113
Jump up ^ The Second Bank of the United States: A Chapter in the History of Central Banking. p. 7.
Jump up ^ Hammond, 1947, p. 140
Jump up ^ Wilentz, 2008, p. 364
^ Jump up to: a b Hammond, 1947, p. 149
Jump up ^ Wellman, 1966, p. 92, Hammond, 1947, p. 149
Jump up ^ Wilentz, 2005, p. 365
Jump up ^ Hammond, 1947, p. 149, Hammond, 1957, p. 9
Jump up ^ Wilentz, 2008, pp. 74–75
Jump up ^ Hofstadter, 1948, p. 56
Jump up ^ Hammond, 1956, pp. 9–10
Jump up ^ Hammond, 1947, p. 149-150, Wilentz, 2008, p. 205, Hofstadter, 1948, p. 56
Jump up ^ Hammond, 1947, p. 153
^ Jump up to: a b "NHL nomination for Second Bank of the United States" (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved 2017-03-26.
Jump up ^ "Pennsylvania Blue Marble". Second Bank of the United States. National Park Service.
Further reading[edit]
Bodenhorn, Howard. A History of Banking in Antebellum America: Financial Markets and Economic Development in an Era of Nation-Building (2000). Stresses how all banks promoted faster growth in all regions.
Dangerfield, George. The Awakening of American Nationalism: 1815–1828. New York: Harper & Row, 1965. ISBN 978-0-88133-823-2
Feller, Daniel "The bank war", in Julian E. Zelizer, ed. The American Congress (2004), pp 93–111.
Govan, Thomas Payne (1959). Nicolas Biddle, Nationalist and Public Banker, 1786–1844. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Hammond, Bray. "Jackson, Biddle, and the Bank of the United States", The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 7, No. 1 (May, 1947), pp. 1–23 in Essays on Jacksonian America, Ed. Frank Otto Gatell. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. New York. 1970. JSTOR 2113597
Hammond, Bray. 1957. Banks and Politics in America, from the Revolution to the Civil War. Princeton, Princeton University Press.
Hammond, Bray. 1953. "The Second Bank of the United States. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Ser., Vol. 43, No. 1 (1953), pp. 80–85 JSTOR 1005664
Hofstadter, Richard. Great Issues in American History: From the Revolution to the Civil War, 1765–1865 (1958).
Kahan, Paul. The Bank War: Andrew Jackson, Nicholas Biddle, and the Fight for American Finance (Yardley: Westholme, 2016. xii, 187 pp.
Killenbeck, Mark R. "M'Culloch v. Maryland: Securing a Nation". Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2006.
McGrane, Reginald C. Ed. The Correspondence of Nicholas Biddle (1919)
Meyers, Marvin. 1953. "The Jacksonian Persuasion". American Quarterly Vol. 5 No. 1 (Spring, 1953) in Essays on Jacksonian America, Ed. Frank Otto Gatell. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. New York.
Minicucci, Stephen. 2004. Internal Improvements and the Union, 1790–1860, Studies in American Political Development, Vol. 18, Issue 2: p. 160-185, October 2004, Cambridge University Press doi:10.1017/S0898588X04000094
Ratner, Sidney, James H. Soltow, and Richard Sylla. The Evolution of the American Economy: Growth, Welfare, and Decision Making. (1993)
Remini Robert V. Andrew Jackson and the Bank War: A Study in the Growth of Presidential Power (1967).
Remini, Robert V. 1981. Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822–1832. vol. II. Harper & Row, New York.
Remini, Robert V. 1984. Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1833–1845. vol. III. Harper & Row, New York.
Remini, Robert. V. 1993. Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union. W. W. Norton & Company, New York.
Schlesinger, Arthur Meier Jr. Age of Jackson (1946). Pulitzer prize winning intellectual history; strongly pro-Jackson.
Schweikart, Larry. Banking in the American South from the Age of Jackson to Reconstruction (1987)
Taylor; George Rogers, ed. Jackson Versus Biddle: The Struggle over the Second Bank of the United States (1949).
Temin, Peter. The Jacksonian Economy (1969)
Walters Jr, Raymond. "The origins of the Second Bank of the United States." Journal of Political Economy 53.2 (1945): 115-131 online; focus on Dallas, Calhoun and 5 others
Wellman, Paul I. 1984. The House Divides: The Age of Jackson and Lincoln. Doubleday and Company, Inc., New York.
Wilburn, Jean Alexander. Biddle's Bank: The Crucial Years (1967).
Wilentz, Sean. 2008. The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln. W.W. Horton and Company. New York.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Second Bank of the United States.
Second Bank – official site at Independence Hall National Historical Park
Documents produced by the Second Bank of the United States on FRASER
The Second Bank of the United States – a history of the Bank by Ralph C. H. Catterall of the University of Chicago, 1902 – on Google Books
Andrew Jackson on the Web : Bank of the United States
Second Bank of the United States at the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) (Library of Congress)
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