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Electricity sector in Sri Lanka
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Charts showing the available grid capacity by source (left) and the annual generation by source (right).[1][2][3]
The electricity sector in Sri Lanka has a national grid which is primarily powered by hydro power and thermal heat, with sources such as photovoltaics and wind power in early stages of deployment. Although potential sites are being identified, other power sources such as geothermal, nuclear, peat, solar thermal and wave power are not used in the power generation process for the national grid.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Power generation
2.1 Hydroelectricity
2.2 Thermal power
2.3 Wind power
2.3.1 Current status
2.4 Solar power
2.5 Geothermal power
2.6 Nuclear power
3 Power transmission
3.1 Transmission network
3.2 India – Sri Lanka grid interconnection
4 Electricity use
4.1 End-user power tariffs
4.2 Net metering
4.3 Entities exempted for electricity-usage charges
5 See also
6 References and Notes
6.1 Notes
6.2 References
History[edit]
Sri Lanka's first public electricity supply was made available in Colombo in 1895 by Messrs Boustead Bros. The business was soon taken over by the United Planters Co., Who extended it and in 1899 built the Colombo electric tramways. In 1902, the Colombo Electric Tramways and Lighting Co. Ltd. was formed and provided electricity supply until 1927 when the Department of Government Electrical Undertakings (DGEU) was established to control the utility, which had by then been purchased by the Government. DGEU was succeeded in 1969 when the Ceylon Electricity Board (CEB), a statutory corporation, was established on 1 November 1969 under the Act of Parliament No.17 of 1969.
In 1913 having had his initial proposals on hydro power ignored by the Engineering Association of Ceylon, D. J. Wimalasurendra constructed the first Ceylon's small hydro power station in at Blackpool, between Nanu Oya and Nuwara Eliya, to supply electricity to the Nuwara Eliya town. In 1918, he submitted a paper to the Engineering Association of Ceylon titled "Economics of Hydro Power Utilization in Ceylon", in it he proposed the possibility of hydro power from Maskelioya and Kehelgamuoya capable of lighting 100,000 lamps (114.5 MW) and the concept of developing a national grid. It was only in 1923, that the British colonial government undertake the development of hydro power in Ceylon, the Laxapana Hydro Power Scheme, the construction of which started in 1924 was thus resumed in 1938 and done to the finish. However, it was commissioned as the first hydro power plant of Sri Lankan history in December 1950. Between 1978 - 1985 under the Master Plan of Mahaweli Development Programme added seven hydro power stations to the national grid with a total installed capacity of 810 MW this can be considered as a great leap forward for electricity generation in Sri Lanka [4]
Power generation[edit]
A panoramic view of the Victoria Dam and Reservoir, the largest hydroelectric facility in Sri Lanka.
Electricity in Sri Lanka is generated using three primary sources — thermal power (which includes energy from biomass, coal, and all other fuel-oil sources), hydro power (including small hydro), and other non-conventional renewable energy sources (solar power and wind power):
Installed generation capacity by year (in megawatts)
Source
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Hydropower
1,293 1,316 1,326 1,357 1,379 1,382 1,401 1,584 1,628 1,665
Fuel oil
1,115 1,115 1,115 1,285 1,290 1,390 1,390 1,338 1,335 1,215
Coal
0 0 0 0 0 0 300 300 300 900
Other renewables
3 3 3 3 15 45 50 90 99 152
Total capacity
2,411 2,434 2,444 2,645 2,684 2,817 3,141 3,312 3,362 3,932
Annual generation by year (in gigawatt-hours)
Source
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Hydropower
3,453 4,636 3,948 4,135 3,905 5,634 4,622 3,292 6,926 4,534
Fuel oil
5,314 4,751 5,865 5,763 5,975 4,994 5,748 6,935 3,303 4,306
Coal
0 0 0 0 0 0 1,038 1,404 1,469 3,202
Other renewables
2 2 2 3 27 86 121 171 262 315
Total generation
8,769 9,389 9,815 9,901 9,907 10,714 11,529 11,802 11,960 12,357
Hydroelectricity[edit]
Hydroelectricity is the oldest and historically the principal source of electricity generation in Sri Lanka, holding a share of 48% of the total available grid capacity in December 2013 and 58% of power generated in 2013.[5] Hydroelectric power generation has been constantly under development since the introduction of the national grid itself, but its market share is declining because suitable new sites are scarce. Currently, ten large hydroelectric power stations are in operation, with the single largest hydroelectric source being the Victoria Dam. Although a large portion of the country's hydroelectric resource are tapped, the government continues to issue small hydro development permits to the private sector, for projects up to a total installed capacity of 10 MW per project.[6]
The three hydroelectric complexes of Sri Lanka. Use the scrollbar to see the full image.
State-run hydroelectric developments are categorized into three main geographic sectors.
Laxapana Complex consists of six main dams with related power stations — Broadlands, Canyon, Castlereigh, Laxapana, Maskeliya, and Norton dams.
Mahaweli Complex consists of eight dams and related power stations: Bowatenna, Kotmale, Moragahakanda, Polgolla, Randenigala, Rantembe, Upper Kotmale, and the Victoria dams.
Samanala Complex consists of the Gal Oya, Kukule Ganga, Samanala, and Udawalawe dams.
Thermal power[edit]
900MW Lakvijaya Power Station
Thermal power stations in Sri Lanka now roughly match the installed hydroelectric generation capacity, with a share of nearly 49% of the available capacity in December 2013 and 40% of power generated in 2013.[5] Thermal power stations in Sri Lanka runs on diesel, other fuel oils, naptha or coal.[5] The Norocholai Coal Power Station, the only coal-fired power station in the country, was commissioned in late 2011, adding a further 300 megawatts of electrical capacity to the grid. It is currently planned to add an additional 600 MW of capacity to Norocholai in the next half decade. The second and final coal power station,[7] the Sampur Coal Power Station, is under consideration in Trincomalee and is expected to be in-service by the end of 2017.[8]
Wind power[edit]
Turbines of the Ambewela Aitken Spence Wind Farm, the first multi-megawatt wind farm in the Central Province.
The use of wind energy was seen in the country even before 500 BC. The ancient Sinhalese used the monsoon winds to power furnaces as early as 300 BC, making Sri Lanka one of the first countries in the world to use wind power. Evidence of this has been found in Anuradhapura and in other cities.[9]
The development of modern wind farms has been considered by local and international developers for many years. Such developments were largely hampered due to the many obstacles faced in such developments in economics and infrastructure. The first commercial grid-connected wind farm is the 3 MW Hambantota Wind Farm, northwest of Hambantota.
Unlike other power sources, power developments from this source would face many challenges during its development timeline. Poor accessibility to potential sites is the first obstacle in the development of a wind farm. Most key transport routes around the country are too narrow or is constructed with tight turns to support transportation of turbines larger than 600 KW. Constructing wind farms with turbines smaller than the current commercial-scale megawatt-class turbines would prove to be uneconomical due to the high cost incurred during development.
The country is also in a long battle against its poor power grid. The grid, apart from being unstable in most provinces, is only capable of handling a small increases in load, typically limited to a few megawatts. Provinces with poor grids, such as the power grids in the Northern, North Central and North Western provinces needs complete upgrade to support further commercial-scale developments. This factor contributes to a large percentage in development costs for wind farms constructed such locations. The government policy limit of 10 MW per wind project also significantly decreases economies-of-scale, further straining such developments.
Current status[edit]
Despite the many technical obstacles, a few developments totaling 50 MW have been proposed till September 2009.[10] In October 2009, cases were filed over political interference connected with the approving of wind projects, leading to a complete halt in the wind power industry in Sri Lanka.[11] The Ministry made allegations of wrongdoing in allocating energy licences, including the structuring of the wind power tariff.[12] There were also allegations that energy licenses are being sold, similar to how car licenses have been sold.[12]
From December 2009 to March 2010, permits for another 50 MW of projects were issued by the Sri Lanka Sustainable Energy Authority, before concerns relating to the issuing of permits were raised again,[13][14] leading to another deadlock in the industry. As of June 2010, issuing of permits for the development of private wind farms were stopped.
In July 2010, engineers at the Ceylon Electricity Board raised further concerns regarding the approval of private wind projects with extra high tariffs, presumably some of the highest in the world.[15] A review of the wind power tariff was expected to be carried out on 12 September 2010,[16] after an agreed postponement.[17]
Solar power[edit]
Solar potential
Grid-connected solar power has only recently been introduced. The only operational commercial-scale solar-powered facility is the Buruthakanda Solar Park of 1.2 MW, operated by the Sri Lanka Sustainable Energy Authority (SLSEA).[18]
Geothermal power[edit]
Geothermal power is under research, although no power stations of this type are operational.[19][20][21]
Nuclear power[edit]
The CEB has included a 600MWe nuclear power plant as an option in its plans for 2031.[22]
Power transmission[edit]
Transmission network[edit]
The Sri Lankan electric transmission network consists principally of 132kV facilities, with a 220kV backbone connecting major inland hydroelectric generation to the capital region.
Sir Lanka Electric Transmission System Map
Overhead Transmission Lines
Line
No. of Ground Wires
No. of circuits
Nominal Voltage
Kolonnawa-Athurugiriya 2 2 132kV
Pannipitiya-Ratmalana 2 2 132kV
Biyagama-Pannipitiya 2 2 220kV
Biyagama-Kotmale 2 2 220kV
Kothmale-Kiribathkumbura 2 2 132kV
Kiribathkumbura-Ukuwela 2 2 132kV
Kiribathkumbura-Kurunagala 1 2 132kV
Puttalam-Madampa 1 2 132kV
Ukuwela-Bowatanna 1 1 132kV
Ukuwela-Naula 2 2 132kV
Naula-Habarana 2 2 132kV
Habarana-Old Anuradhapura 1 2 132kV
Old Anuradhapura-Puttalam 2 2 132kV
New Laxapana-Bogawanthalawa Estate 1 2 132kV
New Anuradhapura-Vavuni 1 2 132kV
Embilipitiya-Thimbolketiya 2 2 132kV
New Laxapana-Canyon PS 2 1 132kV
Old Laxapana-Polpitiya 2 2 132kV
Kotmale-Polpitiya 2 2 132kV
Nuwara Eliya-Badulla 2 2 132kV
Old Laxapana-Nuwara Eliya 2 2 132kV
Badulla-Medagama 2 1 132kV
Polpitiya-Seethawake 2 2 132kV
Seethawake-Kosgama 2 2 132kV
Athurugiriya-Thulhiriya 2 2 132kV
Embilipitiya-Hambantota 2 2 132kV
Balangoda-Samanalawewa 2 2 132kV
Balangoda-Rathnapura 2 2 132kV
Balangoda-Deniyaya 1 2 132kV
Matara-Embilipitiya 2 2 132kV
Habarana-Valachchenai 1 1 132kV
Kelanitissa-Biyagama 2 2 220kV
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
India – Sri Lanka grid interconnection[edit]
Main article: India – Sri Lanka HVDC Interconnection
The proposed connection involves the linking of the national grids of India and Sri Lanka via Rameshwaram in south India and Talaimannar in north-west Sri Lanka. The project involves the construction of a HVDC connection between Madurai in southern India and Anuradhapura in central Sri Lanka, through the Palk Strait. The link would measure approximately 285 kilometres (177 mi) in length, including 50 kilometres (31 mi) of submarine cables, and would take more than three years to construct. It would be implemented by the Power Grid Corporation of India Limited and Ceylon Electricity Board.[23]
Electricity use[edit]
End-user power tariffs[edit]
The monthly end-user electricity tariffs effective from 20 April 2013 are as follows:
Revised Electricity tariffs effective from 20 April 2013.[24]
User
Unit (kWh)/Time range
Tariff
(Rs./kWh)
Fixed Charge
(Rs./month)
Fuel Adjustment Charge
(% of Total Energy Charge)
Max. Demand Charge
(Rs./kVA)
Domestic (D-1)
(If the consumption is between 0-60 kWh per month) 000-030 3.00 30.00 25 N/A
031-060 4.70 60.00 35
Domestic (D-1)
(If the consumption is above 60 kWh per month) 000-060 10.00 N/A N/A N/A
061-090 12.00 90.00 10
091-120 26.50 315.00 40
121-180 30.50
≥181 42.00 420.00
Religious (R-1) 000-030 1.90 30.00 N/A N/A
031-090 2.80 60.00
091-120 6.75 180.00
121-180 7.50 180.00
≥181 9.40 240.00
General Purpose (GP) GP-1: ≤210 19.50 240.00 25 N/A
GP-1: ≥211 21.50
GP-2: Day (05:30-18:30) 20.50 3,000.00 1,100
GP-2: Peak (18:30-22:30) 25.00
GP-2: Off-peak (22:30-05:30) 14.50
GP-3: Day (05:30-18:30) 19.50 1,000
GP-3: Peak (18:30-22:30) 24.00
GP-3: Off-peak (22:30-05:30) 13.50
Government (GV)
[Note 1] GV-1: ∞ 14.65 600.00 0 or 25 N/A
GV-2: ∞ 14.55 3,000.00 1,100
GV-3: ∞ 14.35 1,000
Hotel (H) H-1: ∞ 22.00 600.00 15 N/A
H-2: Day (05:30-18:30) 14.65 3,000.00 1,100
H-2: Peak (18:30-22:30) 23.50
H-2: Off-peak (22:30-05:30) 09.80
H-3: Day (05:30-18:30) 12.60 1,000
H-3: Peak (18:30-22:30) 16.40
H-3: Off-peak (22:30-05:30) 8.85
Industry (I) I-1: ∞ 12.50 600.00 15 N/A
I-2: Day (05:30-18:30) 11.30 3,000.00 1,100
I-2: Peak (18:30-22:30) 21.00
I-2: Off-peak (22:30-05:30) 7.00
I-3: Day (05:30-18:30) 10.50 1,000
I-3: Peak (18:30-22:30) 24.00
I-3: Off-peak (22:30-05:30) 6.00
Street Lighting ∞ 17.00 N/A
Net metering[edit]
In July 2010, the Ministry of Power and Energy, with the Lanka Electricity Company and the Ceylon Electricity Board introduced net metering, where consumers could generate their own power from renewable sources and credit excess production back to the power utility.[25] While the power utility will not pay back in monetary values irrespective of how much credit a household generates, it allows the transferring of this credit between households.[26] The first solar power facility intended for net metering was commissioned in July 2010.[27]
Entities exempted for electricity-usage charges[edit]
Per Section 21-2 of the Sri Lanka Electricity Act No. 20 of 2009,[28] the Public Utilities Commission of Sri Lanka has granted the following entities exemptions in electricity usage:
Entities exempted for electricity-usage charges as of 20 June 2012.[29]
Exemption No.
Person/Entity
Premises
Gazette No. & Date
EL/EX-D/11/001 MAS Fabric Park (Private) Limited MAS Fabric Park, Kurunegala Road, Thulhiriya Extraordinary Gazette – No. 1725/14 28 September 2011
EL/EX-D/11/002 Overseas Realty (Ceylon) PLC World Trade Centre, Echelon Square, Colombo 1
EL/EX-D/11/003 Mireka Capital Land (Private) Limited 324, Havelock Road, Colombo 6
EL/EX-D/12/001 Asian Hotels and Properties PLC No. 89, Galle Road, Colombo 3 General Gazette – No. 1744, 3 February 2012
EL/EX-D/12/002 BOC Property Development & Management (Private) Limited BOC Merchant Tower, 28, St. Michael’s Road, Colombo 3
EL/EX-D/12/003 Millenium Development (Private) Limited Excel World Entertainment Park, 338, T B Jayah Mawatha, Colombo – 10
EL/EX-D/12/004 Property Finance and Investments Kandy (Private) Limited Kandy City Centre, 05, Dalada Vidiya, Kandy
EL/EX-D/12/005 Whittall Boustead (Private) Limited 148, Vauxhall Street, Colombo 2
EL/EX-D/12/006 Ceylon Carriers (Private) Limited 104, Nawala Road, Narahenpita, Colombo 5 Extraordinary Gazette – No. 1749/8, 12 March 2012
EL/EX-D/12/007 JayKay Marketing Services (Private) Limited K-Zone Shopping Mall, 340, Galle Road, Moratuwa Extraordinary Gazette – No. 1757/19, 11 May 2012
EL/EX-D/12/008 Platinum Realty Investments (Private) Limited 01, Bagatale Road, Colombo 3
EL/EX-D/12/009 Union Residencies (Private) Limited No. 200, Union Place, Colombo 2
EL/EX-D/12/010 Pelwatte Sugar Industries PLC Pelwatte Sugar Industries Buttala
EL/EX-G/12/001 Tokyo Cement Power (Lanka) Limited 10 MW Biomass Power Plant, Cod Bay, China Bay, Trincomalee Extraordinary Gazette – No. 1759/31, 23 May 2012
See also[edit]
List of power stations in Sri Lanka
Renewable energy by country
References and Notes[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Schools, hospitals, vocational training institutions and universities included, which are fully owned by the government, funded through the national budget, and providing services free-of-charge to the general public. Hospitals and schools are exempted from the Fuel Adjustment Charge (FAC).
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b CEB Statistics, archived from the original on 2012-09-04, retrieved 2012-10-07
Jump up ^ Economic and Social Statistics of Sri Lanka 2011 pg. 58
Jump up ^ Economic and Social Statistics of Sri Lanka 2012 pg. 58
Jump up ^ Basnayaka, Chathuranga. "Ceylon Electricity Board" (PDF). University of Ruhuna. Retrieved 16 August 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Ceylon Electricity Board Statistical Digest 2013
Jump up ^ Energy permits for small hydro projects, retrieved 2012-10-07
Jump up ^ No more coal plants, retrieved 2010-08-08 [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Ministry: Current energy projects (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-07-11, retrieved 2010-08-07
Jump up ^ G. Juleff, "An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka", Nature 379(3), 60–63 (January, 1996)
Jump up ^ Energy permits for wind projects (PDF), retrieved 2010-10-22 [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Sri Lanka wind power probe to finish soon, archived from the original on 2010-01-03, retrieved 2010-08-07
^ Jump up to: a b Wind powered electricity generation projects halted, retrieved 2010-09-12
Jump up ^ Uproar over wind power scheme, retrieved 2010-08-07
Jump up ^ SLSEA rejects CEB engineers’ concerns, retrieved 2010-08-07
Jump up ^ CEB to purchase wind power at world’s highest price, retrieved 2010-08-07
Jump up ^ Revision of Non-Conventional Renewable Energy Based Electricity Purchase Tariffs, retrieved 2010-09-12 [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Extension of Period allowed for representations on proposed Non-Conventional Renewable Energy Based Electricity Purchase Tariffs, retrieved 2010-09-12 [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Energy permits for solar projects (PDF), retrieved 2010-10-22 [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Sri Lanka is to develop geothermal power, archived from the original on 2011-07-22, retrieved 2010-08-07
Jump up ^ Geothermal energy in Sri Lanka, retrieved 2010-08-07
Jump up ^ Geothermal energy for growing power demand, archived from the original on 2009-11-19, retrieved 2010-08-07
Jump up ^ "Sri Lanka eyes nuclear power plant after 2030". Lanka Business Online. 4 Jun 2014. Archived from the original on 12 January 2015. Retrieved 12 January 2015.
Jump up ^ "India-Sri Lanka 285-Km Power Transmission Link By 2013". RTT News. Global Energy Network Institute. 2009-12-29. Retrieved 2010-03-08.
Jump up ^ "Electricity Tariffs for 2013" (PDF). Public Utilities Commission of Sri Lanka. May 2013. Retrieved 9 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Sri Lanka power utility to start net metering, archived from the original on 2011-07-13, retrieved 2010-08-07
Jump up ^ Net metering of electricity, retrieved 2010-08-07
Jump up ^ Sri Lanka gets first ever net metered solar photovoltaic plant, retrieved 2010-08-07
Jump up ^ "Sri Lanka Electricity Act No. 20 of 2009" (PDF). Parliament of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka. 8 April 2009. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "Electricity Exemptions Granted to Persons as per the Section 21 (2) of the Sri Lanka Electricity Act No. 20 of 2009" (PDF). Public Utilities Commission of Sri Lanka. 1 April 2000. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
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Organizations
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Stop sign
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A stop sign in Australia
A stop sign is a traffic sign to notify drivers that they must make sure no cars are coming and stop before proceeding.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Specifications
2 Placement and standardization
2.1 In North America
2.1.1 On school buses
2.2 United Kingdom
3 Compliance requirements
3.1 Bicycles
4 Theft and vandalism
5 History
6 Sign variants
7 Stop signs around the world
7.1 Old stop signs
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Specifications[edit]
The 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals allows for two types of stop sign, as well as three acceptable variants. Sign B2a is a red octagon with the inscription "STOP" in white. Sign B2b is a red circle with a red inverted triangle with either a white or yellow background, and the inscription "STOP" in either black or dark blue. The Convention allows for the word "STOP" to be in either English or the national language of the particular country. The finalized version by the United Nations Economic and Social Council's Conference on Road Traffic in 1968 (and in force in 1978) proposed the standard stop sign diameters of 600, 900 or 1200 mm.
The United Kingdom and New Zealand stop signs are 750, 900 or 1200 mm, according to sign location and traffic speeds.[2][3]
In the United States, stop signs have a size of 750 mm across opposite flats of the red octagon, with a 20 mm white border. The white uppercase letters in small caps forming the stop legend are 250 mm tall.[4][5] Larger signs of 900 mm (35 in) with 300 mm (12 in) legend and 25 mm (⅞ in) border are used on multi-lane expressways. Regulatory provisions exist for extra-large 1,200 mm (47 in) signs with 400 mm (16 in) legend and 30 mm (1 1⁄4 in) border for use where sign visibility or reaction distance are limited, and the smallest permissible stop sign size for general usage is 600 mm (24 in) with a 200 mm (7.9 in) legend and 15 mm (⅝ in) border.[6] The metric units specified in the US regulatory manuals are rounded approximations of US customary units, not exact conversions.[5][7] The field, legend, and border are all retroreflective. In the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals of the UN, the instruction on the sign to stop is specified to be either in English as stop or written in the local language. Some countries use both. The sign's distinctive design was developed and first used in the US, and later adopted by other countries and by the UN. Despite this, the US is not a signatory to this UN Convention. The reason that the US has the same sign design as specified by the Convention is that the Convention adopted the US standard.
B2a
B2b
Acceptable variant of B2b
Acceptable variant of B2b
Acceptable variant of B2b
Placement and standardization[edit]
The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the Northern Hemisphere and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (August 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Stop signs are used globally. However, most countries see fewer of them than North America and South Africa, because all-way stops are never used and may even be legally prohibited.[8] In a majority of European and Central Asian countries, as well as Cuba in North America, junctions without traffic lights or roundabouts are controlled by stop signs on minor roads and by white, yellow and black priority diamond signs on the major road. In the UK, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, New Zealand and Australia, stop signs are restricted to situations wherein coming to a dead stop is actually necessary because of severely limited sight lines. At the vast majority of minor intersections in these countries Give Way signs and/or equivalent road markings are used. Finally, at the busier crossing streets, Give Way signs may be replaced by (mini) roundabouts, which also work on the give way (rather than stop) principle.
In North America[edit]
Stop signs are often used in North America to control conflicting traffic movements at intersections that are not busy enough to justify the installation of a traffic signal or roundabout. In the United States, the stop sign is not intended for use as a traffic calming device;[6] it is intended to be installed mainly for safety and/or to assign right-of-way for a certain direction. Nevertheless, in the United States, Mexico and Canada, stop signs are commonly deployed as supposed safety measures in residential areas and near places where children play or walk (such as schoolyards), or that experience frequent automobile collisions, making extra precautions necessary. Stop signs may be erected on all intersecting roads, resulting in three- and four-way stops.[6] However, studies have confirmed that stop signs do not offer measurable safety benefits over the Yield approach adopted in the countries listed above based on original European research dating back many decades.[9][10]
More recently, Georgia Traffic Engineer Martin Bretherton Jr. reviewed over 70 technical papers to find that multi-way stop signs do not typically control traffic speeds, and can create a variety of problems, including liability issues, traffic noise, pollution, enforcement problems and poor stop compliance when drivers feel that the signs have no justification. Fifteen studies found that unwarranted multi-way stops actually increased speed away from intersections as motorists try to make up lost time spent at "unnecessary" stop signs. Multi-way stop signs impose high vehicle operating costs, longer than needed travel times, excessive fuel consumption and increased vehicle emissions.[11]
Researchers also found that safety of pedestrians (especially small children) may sometimes be actually decreased. Pedestrians expect vehicles to stop, but many drivers run the "unnecessary" signs. Engine exhaust, brake, tire and aerodynamic noise may all increase as cars brake and then accelerate up to speed. While the initial cost of installing stop signs is low, enforcement costs can be prohibitive, and one 1990 study estimated extra travel costs per intersection as $210,061/year.[12] Finally, where unwarranted multi-way stops have been successfully removed with public support, results have included improved compliance at justified stop signs.
Another major issue surrounding the use of stop signs pertains to the public's variegated understanding of their meaning. One prolific source of crashes is the misconception of law that every motorist who attempts to enter a main highway from a side road, does so at his or her peril. Such motorists usually have very definite rights granted by provisions of state vehicle codes, which provide that after the driver has 'yielded' by stopping at an arterial sign he or she may proceed and the drivers of all other vehicles approaching the intersection on the through highway shall yield the right of way to the vehicle crossing the through highway.[13] Where a car has actually entered an intersection before the other approaches it, the driver of the first car has the right to assume that he or she will be given the right of way and be permitted to pass through the intersection without danger of collision. He or she has a right to assume that the driver of the other car will obey the law, slow down, and yield the right of way, if slowing down be necessary to prevent a collision.[14] In order to be able fulfill the duty of yielding to entering motorists who have established control of the intersection, the through-driver must travel no faster than permitted by the assured clear distance ahead.[15][16]
Vehicles that are approaching an intersection from beyond the subtended angular velocity detection threshold (SAVT) limit may be perceived with subjective constancy by the stopped driver;[17] which means the oncoming vehicle cannot be reliably distinguished between moving or parked or give insight to time-to-collision, though they may be traveling at such an imprudent speed as to pose an immediate hazard.[18] An entering driver must have fair notice that his or her contemplated conduct is forbidden by such hazard for it to be illegal.[19]
Stop sign placement can pose an additional challenge to users. There is a trade-off between the salient visual cues provided by increased limit line set-back, and the crucial time that is lost in approaching the intersection from behind that line; being closer can provide a few additional seconds requisite for safe transit. However, common creeping into the intersection past the limit line causes drivers to lose the invaluable perspective of the visual acuity of lateral motion,[20] crippling them to the more dangerous SAVT.[18] This makes it very difficult to estimate the movement of oncoming traffic.[18][17] As intersections are not engineered to be used this way,[21] the traffic flow ideals have broken down when drivers consistently choose this method as the safer alternative. Stop signs are accompanied with a limit line,[22] which has a mandatory set-back distance[23][24][25] which is often not less than 15 feet.[25] While it may be negligence per se to prematurely pass the stop limit line,[22] drivers may be unfairly denied sufficient time gap or opportunity to enter otherwise because of the through-traffic flow and speed; the inherent problem with this traffic control device. While stop signs are a relatively inexpensive method of traffic management, they can be expensive from perspective of the damage they cause users. Pricey but safer traffic signals, roundabouts, and traffic circles are alternatively used where traffic flow dictates it is inappropriate to use a stop sign. It is just as crucial for law enforcement to regulate traffic through-speed that is above the assured clear distance ahead ahead as it is to cite stop sign runners for this device to be a viable option.
On school buses[edit]
Main article: School bus traffic stop laws
An American school bus displaying front and rear folding stop signs
A pivoting arm equipped with a stop sign is a piece of equipment required by law on North American school buses. The sign normally stows flat on the left side of the bus, and is deployed by the driver while picking up or dropping off passengers. Some buses have two such stop arms, one near the front facing forwards, and one near the rear facing backwards. The stop sign is retroreflective and equipped either with red blinking lights above and below the stop legend, or with a stop legend that is illuminated by LEDs. Unlike a normal stop sign, this sign requires other vehicles travelling in both directions to remain stopped until the sign is retracted.
United Kingdom[edit]
In the UK, stop signs may be placed only at sites with severely restricted visibility, and each must be individually approved by the Secretary of State for Transport.[26] Section 79 of the Highways Act 1980 enables the government to improve visibility at junctions, as by removing or shortening walls or hedges, in preference to placing a stop sign. The former UK practice of using "Halt" or "Slow" at Major Road Ahead signs was discontinued in 1965 at the recommendation of the Worboys Committee.[27] Instead of replacing all the old "Halt" signs with the new Vienna Convention "Stop" sign, "Give Way" became the standard sign at UK priority junctions.[28] Most UK drivers would treat a stop sign as a give way sign despite the rules due to the fact that they are so sparse in the country.
Compliance requirements[edit]
Laws and regulations regarding how drivers must comply with a stop sign vary by jurisdiction. In the United States and Canada, these rules are set and enforced at the state or provincial level.[citation needed] At a junction where two or more traffic directions are controlled by stop signs, generally the driver who arrives and stops first continues first. If two or three drivers in different directions stop simultaneously at a junction controlled by stop signs, generally the drivers on the left must yield the right-of-way to the driver on the far right.
In all countries, the driver must come to a complete stop before entering a stop-controlled intersection, even if no other vehicle or pedestrian is visible. If a stop line is marked on the pavement, they must stop before crossing the line.
However, some drivers slow but don't come to a complete stop. This maneuver is called a rolling stop or nicknamed after a city or region regarded as somewhere it is commonplace (e.g., "Rhode Island roll" or "California stop"[29]) – slowing down significantly but not stopping completely at the sign.[30] This partial stop is not acceptable to most law enforcement officials, and can result in a traffic citation.
Bicycles[edit]
In some jurisdictions, most notably Idaho, the traffic code allows for cyclists approaching a stop sign to slow to a "reasonable speed" and yield to conflicting traffic, but does not mandate a full stop unless "required for safety".[31] This is commonly known as an "Idaho stop" or "stop-as-yield". The Idaho law has been in effect since 1982 and has not been shown to be detrimental to safety.[32] Cyclist advocacy groups have sought similar laws for other jurisdictions in the United States.[33][34]
Theft and vandalism[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2010)
Stop signs are sometimes vandalized or stolen as pranks. A fatal accident caused by the theft of a stop sign could result in manslaughter charges against the offender.[35]
In 2009, Harry Potter fans in several US and UK cities have vandalised stop signs by writing "(Stop) Voldemort" on them with permanent markers.[36]
History[edit]
Yellow 1924–1954 stop sign. Mounting height is typical.
Stop signs originated in Michigan in 1915.[37][38] The first ones had black lettering on a white background and were 24 by 24 inches (61 cm × 61 cm), somewhat smaller than the current sign. As stop signs became more widespread, a committee supported by the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) met in 1922 to standardize them, and selected the octagonal shape that has been used in the United States ever since. The unique eight-sided shape of the sign allows drivers facing the back of the sign to identify that oncoming drivers have a stop sign and prevent confusion with other traffic signs. It was also chosen so that it could be identified easily at night, since the original signs were not reflective. The National Conference on Street and Highway Safety (NCSHS), a group competing with AASHTO, advocated a smaller pink-on-yellow stop sign.[37] These two organizations eventually merged to form the Joint Committee on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, which in 1935 published the first Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices for Streets and Highways (MUTCD) detailing the stop sign's specifications.
The MUTCD stop sign specifications were altered eight times between 1935 and 1971, mostly dealing with its reflectorization and its mounting height. From 1924 to 1954, stop signs were made with a black stop legend on a yellow field. The reflective sign, initially yellow, was developed by the reflective applications division of 3M spearheaded by Joseph E. Van Kirk, Sr.. The sign gained its current white legend/red field color configuration. Red signifies stop on traffic signals, so this specification unified red as a stop signal whether indicated by sign or by light. The original decision to use a yellow background for the stop sign was based “largely on the unavailability of red pigments that would not fade on exposure.”[39][40] The mounting height reached its current level of 7 ft (2.13 m) in 1971;[37] previously, stop signs were typically mounted 2–3 feet (0.61–0.91 m)[vague] above the ground.[41]
The already-widespread use of the MUTCD stop sign became law in the United States in 1966.[37] In 1968, this sign was adopted by the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals as part of United Nations Economic Commission for Europe's effort to standardize road travel across borders. The Convention specifies that 'stop' be written in English or the national language and allows an alternative circular yellow sign. Many European countries are party to the Convention. English-speaking countries, the exception being India, are not party to the Convention but usually use the red octagonal stop sign per their own standards, like the MUTCD. Even in countries not associated with either standard mentioned above, the red octagonal stop sign is often used. Unique types of stop signs may still be observed in countries like Japan.
Sign variants[edit]
Although all English-speaking and many other countries use the word stop on stop signs, some jurisdictions use an equivalent word in their primary language instead of or in addition to it. Israel uses the image of a hand in a "stop" gesture.
In some Caribbean and South American countries (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico, Uruguay and Venezuela), signs bear the legend pare ("stop" in Portuguese and Spanish). Mexico and Central American countries bear the legend alto ("halt") instead.
Bilingual stop sign in Ottawa, Ontario Canada
In the Canadian province of Quebec, modern signs read either arrêt or stop;[42] however, it is not uncommon to see older signs containing both words in smaller lettering, with arrêt on top.[43] Both stop and arrêt are considered valid French words and the Office québécois de la langue française (OQLF) notes that the use of "stop" on stop signs is attested in French since 1927.[44] At the time of the debates surrounding the adoption of the Charter of the French Language ("Bill 101") in 1977, the usage of "stop" on the older dual-word signs was considered to be English and therefore controversial; some signs were occasionally vandalized with red spray paint to turn the word stop into "101".[45] However, it was later officially determined by the OQLF that "stop" is a valid French word in this context, and the older dual arrêt + stop usage is therefore not considered bilingual but merely redundant and therefore deprecated (à éviter). All newly installed signs thus use either one word or the other, but not both.
The province of New Brunswick has bilingual stop arrêt in English-speaking areas. Acadian regions of Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island also have bilingual signs. Some areas in Manitoba and Ottawa, Ontario also have bilingual signs, as do entrances to the country through Canada Customs. On First Nations or Inuit territories, stop signs sometimes use the local aboriginal language in addition to or instead of English and/or French. Other parts of Canada use stop. The use of native languages is also commonplace on U.S. native reservations, especially those promoting Language revitalization efforts.
Arabic-speaking countries use قف qif
Chinese-using area (Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan) uses 停 tíng
Iran and Afghanistan use ایست ist
Japan uses 止まれ tomare
North Korea uses 섯 sŏt
South Korea uses 정지 jeongji
Malaysia and Brunei use berhenti
Mongolia uses ЗОГС zogs
Thailand uses หยุด yùd
Turkey uses dur
Almost all of Europe, including France, Greece, Russia, Serbia and Spain, (except Turkey) use stop in Latin letters.
The white text on red background appearance is usually the same. Exceptions include Japan, which uses an inverted solid red triangle, and Zimbabwe, which uses a disc bearing a black cross.
This is a list of stop signs around the world with the old signs.
Stop signs around the world[edit]
Argentina
Australia, Canada, New Zealand, United States
Bangladesh, Nepal
Belize, Mexico, Panama, Central America
Bhutan
Brunei
Brazil
Cambodia
Canada (Quebec and other French-speaking communities)
Canada (Nunavut, Inuktitut language)
Canada (Abenaki-speaking communities)
Canada (Cree-speaking communities)
Canada (Mi'Kmaq-speaking communities)
Canada (Mohawk-speaking communities)
Canada (Wendat-speaking communities)
Canada (English and French)
Chile, Dominican Republic, Venezuela
China (Mainland)
China (Taiwan area)
China (Hong Kong)
Cuba
Cyprus (Northern Cyprus)
Czech Republic
Ethiopia
France
Germany
Iran
Ireland (Irish language)
Israel
Jamaica
Japan
Jordan
Laos (Lao)
Libya
Malaysia
Mongolia
Morocco
Morocco (Berber-speaking communities)
Myanmar
North Korea
Norway
Pakistan
Papua New Guinea
Poland
SADC
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
South Korea
Thailand
Tonga
Turkey
United Arab Emirates
United States (Cherokee Nation)
United States (Seneca Nation)
United States (Puerto Rico)
Vanuatu
Zambia, Zimbabwe
Old stop signs[edit]
Old American stop sign until 1961
"Halt" sign used in Australia (1940s–1956)
Old Australian stop sign (1956–1964)
Old Austrian stop sign (1960–1971)
Old Belgian stop sign (1950–1971)
Bohemia and Moravia stop sign (1939–1960)
Old Danish stop sign (1955–1978)
Old Finnish stop sign (1957–1971)
First German stop sign (before 1937)
Second German stop sign (1938–1953 West; 1938–1956 East)
West German stop sign (1953–1956)
West German stop sign (1956–1971)
East German stop sign (1956–1978)
Old Icelandic stop sign (1956-1975)
Old Italian stop sign (before 1959)
Old Italian stop sign (1959–1992)
Japanese stop sign (1950–1960)
Japanese stop sign (1960–1963)
Old Mozambique stop sign until 1980
Old North Korean stop sign
Old Dutch stop sign (1950–1979)
Old Norwegian stop sign (1953–1971)
Old Romanian stop sign (1957–1961)
Old Romanian stop sign (1961–1966)
Old Romanian stop sign (1966–1970)
Old Romanian stop sign (1970)
Old South Korean stop sign
Old Swedish stop sign (1951–1975)
Old Swiss stop sign
Old Thai stop sign
Old version of the STOP sign in the United Arab Emirates until 1971
Former UK stop sign until 1975 (still used in the Bahamas)
Stop sign used in South Vietnam since the 1950s
Old Zimbabwe stop sign
See also[edit]
All-way stop
Assured Clear Distance Ahead
Octagon
Road traffic safety
Roundabout
Rules of the road
School bus traffic stop laws
Stopping sight distance
Traffic circle
Traffic psychology
Traffic sign
Warning sign
Yield sign
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals, 1968. United Nations Publication. ISBN 978-92-1-116973-7
Jump up ^ "UK Department of Transport. Traffic Signs Manual, Chapter 3: Regulatory Signs" (PDF). 9 September 2008. (2.0 MB)
Jump up ^ New Zealand Transport Agency. Traffic Control Devices Manual: General requirements for traffic signs, (963 KB)
Jump up ^ Standard Highway Signs manual, 2004 Metric edition (8.36 MB)
^ Jump up to: a b "Standard Highway Signs manual, 2004 English edition" (PDF). (8.49 MB)
^ Jump up to: a b c "Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices 2003, Section 2B". Mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Standard Highway Signs manual, 2004 Metric edition" (PDF). (8.36 MB)
Jump up ^ UK Department of Transport. Traffic Signs Manual, Chapter 3: Regulatory Signs, Section 3.4, 9 September 2008 "[1]". External link in |title= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help) (2.0 MB)
Jump up ^ Some factors influencing the road behaviour of vehicle drivers. R.J. Smeed, UK Road Research Laboratory. Operational Research Quarterly, Journal of the Operational Research Society, Birmingham, England, 1952.
Jump up ^ "Driver behaviour and accident records at unsignalized urban intersections". Abishai Polusa, Department of Civil Engineering & Transportation Research Institute, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel. June 1984. Available online 4 July 2002.
Jump up ^ Bretherton, M. "Multi-Way Stops—The MUTCD Is Correct!" 1999 ITE Compendium of Technical Papers. Institute of Transportation Engineers, August 1999.
Jump up ^ Carl R. Dawson, Jr., "Effectiveness of Stop Signs When Installed to Control Speeds Along Residential Streets", Proceedings from Southern District ITE Meeting, Institute of Transportation Engineers, Richmond, Virginia, April 1993.
Jump up ^ Grasso v. Cunial, 106 Cal. App. 2d 294, Stafford v. Alexander, 182 Cal. App. 2d 301, Malinson v. Black, 83 Cal. App. 2d 375, Glynn v. Vaccari, 64 Cal. App. 2d 718, and Casselman v. Hartford Accident and Indemnity Co., 36 Cal. App. 2d 700
Jump up ^ Stafford v. Alexander, 182 Cal. App. 2d 301
Jump up ^ Reaugh v. Cudahy Packing Co. , 189 Cal. 335 (Supreme Court of California July 27, 1922) (“[The basic speed law] is but a reiteration of the rule, in statutory form, which has always been in force without regard to a statutory promulgation to the effect that drivers or operators of vehicles, and more particularly motor vehicles, must be specially watchful in anticipation of the presence of others at places where other vehicles are constantly passing, and where men, women, and children are liable to be crossing, such as corners at the intersections of streets or other similar places or situations where people are likely to fail to observe an approaching automobile.”).
Jump up ^ Riggs v. Gasser Motors , 22 Cal. App.2d 636, (California Court of Appeal September 25, 1937) (“It is common knowledge that intersecting streets in cities present a continuing hazard, the degree of hazard depending upon the extent of the use of the intersecting streets and the surrounding circumstances or conditions of each intersection. Under such circumstances the basic [speed] law...is always governing.”).
^ Jump up to: a b Hershel Weinberger (19 February 1971). "Conjecture on the Visual Estimation of Relative Radial Motion" (PDF). Nature. 229: 562. doi:10.1038/229562a0.
^ Jump up to: a b c Michael E. Maddox; Aaron Kiefer (September 2012). "Looming Threshold Limits and Their Use in Forensic Practice". Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting. 50 (1): 700–704. doi:10.1177/1071181312561146. A number of laboratory researchers have reported values of the looming threshold to be in the range of 0.003 radian/sec. Forensic practitioners routinely use elevated values of the looming threshold, e.g., 0.005-0.008, to account for the complexity of real-world driving tasks. However, only one source has used data from actual vehicle accidents to arrive at a looming threshold – and that value, 0.0275 rad/sec, is an order of magnitude larger than that derived from laboratory studies. In this study, we examine a much broader range of real-world accident data to obtain an estimate of the reasonable upper end of the looming threshold. The results show a range of 0.0397 to 0.0117 rad/sec...
Jump up ^ Connally v. General Construction Co. , 269 United States Reports 385, 391 (Supreme Court of the United States January 4, 1926) (“That the terms of a penal statute creating a new offense must be sufficiently explicit to inform those who are subject to it what conduct on their part will render them liable to its penalties is a well recognized requirement, consonant alike with ordinary notions of fair play and the settled rules of law, and a statute which either forbids or requires the doing of an act in terms so vague that men of common intelligence must necessarily guess at its meaning and differ as to its application violates the first essential of due process of law.”).
Jump up ^ Joseph S. Lappin; Duje Tadin; Jeffrey B. Nyquist; Anne L. Corn (January 2009). "Spatial and temporal limits of motion perception across variations in speed, eccentricity, and low vision.". Journal of Vision. 9 (30): 1–14. doi:10.1167/9.1.30. Displacement thresholds for peripheral motion were affected by acuity limits for speeds below 0.5 degrees/s.
Jump up ^ A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (6th ed.). American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. 2011. ISBN 978-1560515081.
^ Jump up to: a b "C.V.C. § 22450(a)&(b)". State of California. The driver of any vehicle approaching a stop sign at the entrance to, or within, an intersection shall stop at a limit line
Jump up ^ "Title 23, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 655.603". US Government Publishing Office. The MUTCD approved by the Federal Highway Administrator is the national standard for all traffic control devices installed on any street, highway, or bicycle trail open to public travel in accordance with 23 U.S.C. 109(d) and 402(a)...Where State or other Federal agency MUTCDs or supplements are required, they shall be in substantial conformance with the National MUTCD.
Jump up ^ "3B.16.10". California MUTCD 2014. California Department of Transportation. p. 681. Chapter 3B.16.10: If used, stop and yield lines should be placed a minimum of 4 feet in advance of the nearest crosswalk line at controlled intersections...In the absence of a marked crosswalk, the stop line or yield line should be placed at the desired stopping or yielding point, but should not be placed more than 30 feet or less than 4 feet from the nearest edge of the intersecting traveled way.
^ Jump up to: a b "405.1". California Highway Design Manual. California Department of Transportation. 2012. pp. 400–14. Chapter 405.1: Set back for the driver of the vehicle on the crossroad shall be a minimum of 10 feet plus the shoulder width of the major road but not less than 15 feet.
Jump up ^ UK Department of Transport. Traffic Signs Manual, Chapter 3: Regulatory Signs, Section 3.2, 9 September 2008
Jump up ^ Great Britain. Report of the Traffic Signs Committee [Chairman, Sir Walter Worboys], 18 April 1963.
Jump up ^ "New traffic signs demonstrated on road at Birmingham." The Surveyor and Municipal Engineer, vol 122, p880, 1963.
Jump up ^ Rosenberg, Mike (30 September 2010). "Cheaper fines for right turn on red? No way, governor says". San Jose Mercury News. Retrieved 30 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "Dictionary.com definition". Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Bicycle-related Idaho Code" (PDF). Idaho Vehicle Code Title 49, Chapter 7. Idaho Transportation Department. Retrieved 7 February 2013.
Jump up ^ "Bike Law University: Idaho Stop". League of American Wheelman. 22 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Maus, Jonathan. "Exclusive: BTA will go for "Idaho style" stop sign law". BikePortland.org. Retrieved 7 February 2013.
Jump up ^ "Idaho-style STOP law". San Francisco Bicycle Coalition. Retrieved 7 February 2013.
Jump up ^ Thomas Miller v. State of Florida, Second District Court of Appeal of Florida, 2001-02-28. Retrieved 2008-10-03.
Jump up ^ A Hairy Potter Situation Erupts as Boy Wizard Fans Attack Stop Signs, MTV.com, 2009-07-21. Retrieved 2017-02-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Signalfan. History of the Stop Sign in America. 1997.
Jump up ^ Greenbaum, Hilary; Rubinstein, Dana (9 December 2011). "The Stop Sign Wasn’t Always Red". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 February 2013.
Jump up ^ Felton, Ryan (14 October 2017). "Here's Why Stop Signs Are Red". Jalopnik. Gawker Media. Retrieved 16 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Manaul on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (PDF). Department of Commerce. 1954. p. 2. Retrieved 16 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. 1948 Edition. Part 1A, Section 31. "[A stop sign] shall be mounted so that its bottom will be 2 1⁄2 feet above the crown of the roadway."
Jump up ^ "Répertoire des dispositifs de signalisation routière du Québec, Transports Québec". Mtqsignalisation.mtq.gouv.qc.ca. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Canada, Quebec, Montreal, bilingual Stop sign Stock Photos". Masterfile.com. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Office québécois de la langue française, granddictionnaire.com. No direct link: look up "panneau STOP" under "Recherche" and then click on either "route" or "transport" under the resulting "Index" listing
Jump up ^ Photo by Flickr.com user "imagesdistributioncanada"
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