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Sovereignty
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The frontispiece of Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan, depicting the Sovereign as a massive body wielding a sword and crosier and composed of many individual people
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Sovereignty is the full right and power of a governing body over itself, without any interference from outside sources or bodies. In political theory, sovereignty is a substantive term designating supreme authority over some polity.[1] It is a basic principle underlying the dominant Westphalian model of state foundation.
Contents
[hide]
1 Different approaches
2 History
2.1 Classical
2.2 Medieval
2.3 Reformation
2.4 Age of Enlightenment
3 Definition and types
3.1 Absoluteness
3.2 Exclusivity
3.3 De jure and de facto
3.3.1 Sovereignty and independence
3.4 Internal
3.4.1 Modern internal sovereignty
3.5 External
3.6 Shared and pooled
3.7 Nation-states
3.8 Federations
4 Acquisition
5 Justifications
6 Views
7 Relation to rule of law
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
Different approaches[edit]
The concepts of sovereignty have been discussed throughout history, and are still actively debated.[2][3] Its definition, concept, and application has changed throughout, especially during the Age of Enlightenment. The current notion of state sovereignty contains four aspects consisting of territory, population, authority and recognition.[4] According to Stephen D. Krasner, the term could also be understood in four different ways:
domestic sovereignty – actual control over a state exercised by an authority organized within this state,[5]
interdependence sovereignty – actual control of movement across state's borders, assuming the borders exist,[5]
international legal sovereignty – formal recognition by other sovereign states,[5]
Westphalian sovereignty – lack of other authority over state other than the domestic authority (examples of such other authorities could be a non-domestic church, a non-domestic political organization, or any other external agent).[5]
Often, these four aspects all appear together, but this is not necessarily the case – they are not affected by one another, and there are historical examples of states that were non-sovereign in one aspect while at the same time being sovereign in another of these aspects.[5] According to Immanuel Wallerstein, another fundamental feature of sovereignty is that it is a claim that must be recognised by others if it is to have any meaning: "Sovereignty is more than anything else a matter of legitimacy [...that] requires reciprocal recognition. Sovereignty is a hypothetical trade, in which two potentially conflicting sides, respecting de facto realities of power, exchange such recognitions as their least costly strategy."[6]
History[edit]
Classical[edit]
The Roman jurist Ulpian observed that:[7]
The people transferred all their imperium and power to the Emperor. Cum lege regia, quae de imperio eius lata est, populus ei et in eum omne suum imperium et potestatem conferat (Digest I.4.1)
The emperor is not bound by the laws. Princeps legibus solutus est (Digest I.3.31)
A decision by the emperor has the force of a statute. Quod principi placuit legis habet vigorem. (Digest I.4.1)
Ulpian was expressing the idea that the Emperor exercised a rather absolute form of sovereignty, that originated in the people, although he did not use the term expressly.
Medieval[edit]
Classical Ulpian's statements were known in medieval Europe, but sovereignty was an important concept in medieval times.[1] Medieval monarchs were not sovereign, at least not strongly so, because they were constrained by, and shared power with, their feudal aristocracy.[1] Furthermore, both were strongly constrained by custom.[1]
Sovereignty existed during the Medieval Period as the de jure rights of nobility and royalty, and in the de facto capability of individuals to make their own choices in life.[citation needed]
Around c. 1380–1400, the issue of feminine sovereignty was addressed in Geoffrey Chaucer's Middle English collection of Canterbury Tales, specifically in The Wife of Bath's Tale.[8]
A later English Arthurian romance, The Wedding of Sir Gawain and Dame Ragnell (c. 1450),[9] uses many of the same elements of the Wife of Bath's tale, yet changes the setting to the court of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. The story revolves around the knight Sir Gawain granting to Dame Ragnell, his new bride, what is purported to be wanted most by women: sovereignty.
We desire most from men,
From men both lund and poor,
To have sovereignty without lies.
For where we have sovereignty, all is ours,
Though a knight be ever so fierce,
And ever win mastery.
It is our desire to have master
Over such a sir.
Such is our purpose.
—  The Wedding of Sir Gawain and Dame Ragnell (c. 1450), [9]
Reformation[edit]
Sovereignty reemerged as a concept in the late 16th century, a time when civil wars had created a craving for stronger central authority, when monarchs had begun to gather power into their own hands at the expense of the nobility, and the modern nation state was emerging. Jean Bodin, partly in reaction to the chaos of the French wars of religion, argued that sovereignty was completely indivisible. In his 1576 treatise Les Six Livres de la République ("Six Books of the Republic") Bodin argued that it is inherent in the nature of the state that the sovereign must have both great and perpetual authority. Bodin rejected the notion of transference of sovereignty from people to the ruler (also known as the sovereign).
However, although he is often connected with absolutism, Bodin held some moderate opinions on how government should in practice be carried out. He held that although the sovereign is not obliged to, it is advisable for him, as a practical expedient, to convene a senate from whom he can obtain advice, to delegate some power to magistrates for the practical administration of the law, and to use the Estates as a means of communicating with the people.[citation needed] Furthermore, he emphasized that a sovereign is bound to observe certain basic rules derived from the divine law, the law of nature or reason, and the law that is common to all nations (jus gentium), as well as the fundamental laws of the state that determine who is the sovereign, who succeeds to sovereignty, and what limits the sovereign power. Thus, Bodin’s sovereign was restricted by the constitutional law of the state and by the higher law that was considered as binding upon every human being.[1] Bodin believed that “the most divine, most excellent, and the state form most proper to royalty is governed partly aristocratically and partly democratically”.[10] With his doctrine that sovereignty is conferred by divine law, Bodin predefined the scope of the divine right of kings.[citation needed]
Age of Enlightenment[edit]
During the Age of Enlightenment, the idea of sovereignty gained both legal and moral force as the main Western description of the meaning and power of a State. In particular, the "Social contract" as a mechanism for establishing sovereignty was suggested and, by 1800, widely accepted, especially in the new United States and France, though also in Great Britain to a lesser extent.
Thomas Hobbes, in Leviathan (1651) arrived a conception of sovereignty similar to Bodin's, which had just achieved legal status in the "Peace of Westphalia", but for different reasons. He created the first modern version of the social contract (or contractarian) theory, arguing that to overcome the "nasty, brutish and short" quality of life without the cooperation of other human beings, people must join in a "commonwealth" and submit to a "Soveraigne [sic] Power" that is able to compel them to act in the common good. This expediency argument attracted many of the early proponents of sovereignty. Hobbes strengthened the definition of sovereignty beyond either Westphalian or Bodin's, by saying that it must be:[citation needed]
Absolute: because conditions could only be imposed on a sovereign if there were some outside arbitrator to determine when he had violated them, in which case the sovereign would not be the final authority.
Indivisible: The sovereign is the only final authority in his territory; he does not share final authority with any other entity. Hobbes held this to be true because otherwise there would be no way of resolving a disagreement between the multiple authorities.
Hobbes' hypothesis—that the ruler's sovereignty is contracted to him by the people in return for his maintaining their physical safety—led him to conclude that if and when the ruler fails, the people recover their ability to protect themselves by forming a new contract.
Hobbes's theories decisively shape the concept of sovereignty through the medium of social contract theories. Jean-Jacques Rousseau's (1712–1778) definition of popular sovereignty (with early antecedents in Francisco Suárez's theory of the origin of power), provides that the people are the legitimate sovereign. Rousseau considered sovereignty to be inalienable; he condemned the distinction between the origin and the exercise of sovereignty, a distinction upon which constitutional monarchy or representative democracy is founded. John Locke, and Montesquieu are also key figures in the unfolding of the concept of sovereignty; their views differ with Rousseau and with Hobbes on this issue of alienability.
The second book of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Du Contrat Social, ou Principes du droit politique (1762) deals with sovereignty and its rights. Sovereignty, or the general will, is inalienable, for the will cannot be transmitted; it is indivisible, since it is essentially general; it is infallible and always right, determined and limited in its power by the common interest; it acts through laws. Law is the decision of the general will in regard to some object of common interest, but though the general will is always right and desires only good, its judgment is not always enlightened, and consequently does not always see wherein the common good lies; hence the necessity of the legislator. But the legislator has, of himself, no authority; he is only a guide who drafts and proposes laws, but the people alone (that is, the sovereign or general will) has authority to make and impose them.[11]
Rousseau, in the Social Contract[12] argued, "the growth of the State giving the trustees of public authority more and means to abuse their power, the more the Government has to have force to contain the people, the more force the Sovereign should have in turn in order to contain the Government," with the understanding that the Sovereign is "a collective being of wonder" (Book II, Chapter I) resulting from "the general will" of the people, and that "what any man, whoever he may be, orders on his own, is not a law" (Book II, Chapter VI) – and furthermore predicated on the assumption that the people have an unbiased means by which to ascertain the general will. Thus the legal maxim, "there is no law without a sovereign."[13]
Definition and types[edit]
There exists perhaps no conception the meaning of which is more controversial than that of sovereignty. It is an indisputable fact that this conception, from the moment when it was introduced into political science until the present day, has never had a meaning which was universally agreed upon.
Lassa Oppenheim (30-03-1858 – 07-10-1919), an authority on international law[14]
Absoluteness[edit]
An important factor of sovereignty is its degree of absoluteness.[2][3] A sovereign power has absolute sovereignty when it is not restricted by a constitution, by the laws of its predecessors, or by custom, and no areas of law or policy are reserved as being outside its control. International law; policies and actions of neighboring states; cooperation and respect of the populace; means of enforcement; and resources to enact policy are factors that might limit sovereignty. For example, parents are not guaranteed the right to decide some matters in the upbringing of their children independent of societal regulation, and municipalities do not have unlimited jurisdiction in local matters, thus neither parents nor municipalities have absolute sovereignty. Theorists have diverged over the desirability of increased absoluteness.
Exclusivity[edit]
A key element of sovereignty in a legalistic sense is that of exclusivity of jurisdiction. Specifically, the degree to which decisions made by a sovereign entity might be contradicted by another authority. Along these lines, the German sociologist Max Weber proposed that sovereignty is a community's monopoly on the legitimate use of force; and thus any group claiming the same right must either be brought under the yoke of the sovereign, proven illegitimate, or otherwise contested and defeated for sovereignty to be genuine.[15] International law, competing branches of government, and authorities reserved for subordinate entities (such as federated states or republics) represent legal infringements on exclusivity. Social institutions such as religious bodies, corporations, and competing political parties might represent de facto infringements on exclusivity.
De jure and de facto[edit]
De jure, or legal, sovereignty concerns the expressed and institutionally recognised right to exercise control over a territory. De facto, or actual, sovereignty is concerned with whether control in fact exists. Cooperation and respect of the populace; control of resources in, or moved into, an area; means of enforcement and security; and ability to carry out various functions of state all represent measures of de facto sovereignty. When control is practiced predominantly by military or police force it is considered coercive sovereignty.
Sovereignty and independence[edit]
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State sovereignty is sometimes viewed synonymously with independence, however, sovereignty can be transferred as a legal right whereas independence cannot.[16] A state can achieve de facto independence long after acquiring sovereignty, such as in the case of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam.[16] Additionally, independence can also be suspended when an entire region becomes subject to an occupation such as when Iraq had been overrun by the forces to take part in the Iraq War of 2003, Iraq had not been annexed by any country, so its sovereignty during this period was not contested by any state including those present on the territory. Alternatively, independence can be lost completely when sovereignty itself becomes the subject of dispute. The pre-World War II administrations of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia maintained an exile existence (and considerable international recognition) whilst the entities were annexed by the Soviet Union and governed locally by their pro-Soviet functionaries. When in 1991 Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia re-enacted independence, it was done so on the basis of continuity directly from the pre-Soviet republics.[16][17] Another complicated sovereignty scenario can arise when regime itself is the subject of dispute. In the case of Poland, the People's Republic of Poland which governed Poland from 1945 to 1989 is now seen to have been an illegal entity by the modern Polish administration. The post-1989 Polish state claims direct continuity from the Second Polish Republic which ended in 1939. For other reasons however, Poland maintains its communist-era outline as opposed to its pre-World War II shape which included areas now in Belarus, Czech Republic, Lithuania, Slovakia and Ukraine but did not include some of its western regions that were then in Germany.
At the opposite end of the scale, there is no dispute regarding the self-governance of certain self-proclaimed states such as Republic of Abkhazia, Republic of South Ossetia or the Republic of Kosovo (see List of states with limited recognition) since their governments neither answer to a bigger state, nor is their governance subjected to supervision. The sovereignty (i.e. legal right to govern) however, is disputed in all three cases as the first two entities are claimed by Georgia and the third by Serbia.
Internal[edit]
Internal sovereignty is the relationship between a sovereign power and the political community. A central concern is legitimacy: by what right does a government exercise authority? Claims of legitimacy might refer to the divine right of kings or to a social contract (i.e. popular sovereignty).[citation needed]
With Sovereignty meaning holding supreme, independent authority over a region or state, Internal Sovereignty refers to the internal affairs of the state and the location of supreme power within it.[18] A state that has internal sovereignty is one with a government that has been elected by the people and has the popular legitimacy. Internal sovereignty examines the internal affairs of a state and how it operates. It is important to have strong internal sovereignty in relation to keeping order and peace. When you have weak internal sovereignty, organisations such as rebel groups will undermine the authority and disrupt the peace. The presence of a strong authority allows you to keep agreement and enforce sanctions for the violation of laws. The ability for leadership to prevent these violations is a key variable in determining internal sovereignty.[19] The lack of internal sovereignty can cause war in one of two ways: first, undermining the value of agreement by allowing costly violations; and second, requiring such large subsidies for implementation that they render war cheaper than peace.[20] Leadership needs to be able to promise members, especially those like armies, police forces, or paramilitaries will abide by agreements. The presence of strong internal sovereignty allows a state to deter opposition groups in exchange for bargaining. It has been said that a more decentralized authority would be more efficient in keeping peace because the deal must please not only the leadership but also the opposition group. While the operations and affairs within a state are relative to the level of sovereignty within that state, there is still an argument between who should hold the authority in a sovereign state.
This argument between who should hold the authority within a sovereign state is called the traditional doctrine of public sovereignty. This discussion is between an internal sovereign or an authority of public sovereignty. An internal sovereign is a political body that possesses ultimate, final and independent authority; one whose decisions are binding upon all citizens, groups and institutions in society. Early thinkers believe sovereignty should be vested in the hands of a single person, a monarch. They believed the overriding merit of vesting sovereignty in a single individual was that sovereignty would therefore be indivisible; it would be expressed in a single voice that could claim final authority. An example of an internal sovereign or monarch is Louis XIV of France during the seventeenth century; Louis XIV claimed that he was the state. Jean-Jacques Rousseau rejected monarchical rule in favor of the other type of authority within a sovereign state, public sovereignty. Public Sovereignty is the belief that ultimate authority is vested in the people themselves, expressed in the idea of the general will. This means that the power is elected and supported by its members, the authority has a central goal of the good of the people in mind. The idea of public sovereignty has often been the basis for modern democratic theory.[21]
Modern internal sovereignty[edit]
Within the modern governmental system, internal sovereignty is usually found in states that have public sovereignty and rarely found within a state controlled by an internal sovereign. A form of government that is a little different from both is the UK parliament system. From 1790 to 1859 it was argued that sovereignty in the UK was vested neither in the Crown nor in the people but in the "Monarch in Parliament". This is the origin of the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty and is usually seen as the fundamental principle of the British constitution. With these principles of parliamentary sovereignty majority control can gain access to unlimited constitutional authority, creating what has been called "elective dictatorship" or "modern autocracy". Public sovereignty in modern governments is a lot more common with examples like the USA, Canada, Australia and India where government is divided into different levels.[22]
External[edit]
See also: Sovereign state § Recognition
External sovereignty concerns the relationship between a sovereign power and other states. For example, the United Kingdom uses the following criterion when deciding under what conditions other states recognise a political entity as having sovereignty over some territory;
"Sovereignty." A government which exercises de facto administrative control over a country and is not subordinate to any other government in that country or a foreign sovereign state.
(The Arantzazu Mendi, [1939] A.C. 256), Stroud's Judicial Dictionary
External sovereignty is connected with questions of international law – such as: when, if ever, is intervention by one country into another's territory permissible?
Following the Thirty Years' War, a European religious conflict that embroiled much of the continent, the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 established the notion of territorial sovereignty as a norm of noninterference in the affairs of other nations, so-called Westphalian sovereignty, even though the actual treaty itself reaffirmed the multiple levels of sovereignty of the Holy Roman Empire. This resulted as a natural extension of the older principle of cuius regio, eius religio (Whose realm, his religion), leaving the Roman Catholic Church with little ability to interfere with the internal affairs of many European states. It is a myth, however, that the Treaties of Westphalia created a new European order of equal sovereign states.[23]
In international law, sovereignty means that a government possesses full control over affairs within a territorial or geographical area or limit. Determining whether a specific entity is sovereign is not an exact science, but often a matter of diplomatic dispute. There is usually an expectation that both de jure and de facto sovereignty rest in the same organisation at the place and time of concern. Foreign governments use varied criteria and political considerations when deciding whether or not to recognise the sovereignty of a state over a territory.[citation needed] Membership in the United Nations requires that "[t]he admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council."[24]
Sovereignty may be recognized even when the sovereign body possesses no territory or its territory is under partial or total occupation by another power. The Holy See was in this position between the annexation in 1870 of the Papal States by Italy and the signing of the Lateran Treaties in 1929, a 59-year period during which it was recognised as sovereign by many (mostly Roman Catholic) states despite possessing no territory – a situation resolved when the Lateran Treaties granted the Holy See sovereignty over the Vatican City. Another case, sui generis, though often contested,[citation needed] is the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, the third sovereign entity inside Italian territory (after San Marino and the Vatican City State) and the second inside the Italian capital (since in 1869 the Palazzo di Malta and the Villa Malta receive extraterritorial rights, in this way becoming the only "sovereign" territorial possessions of the modern Order), which is the last existing heir to one of several once militarily significant, crusader states of sovereign military orders. In 1607 its Grand masters were also made Reichsfürst (princes of the Holy Roman Empire) by the Holy Roman Emperor, granting them seats in the Reichstag, at the time the closest permanent equivalent to a UN-type general assembly; confirmed 1620). These sovereign rights were never deposed, only the territories were lost. 100 modern states still maintain full diplomatic relations with the order[25] (now de facto "the most prestigious service club"[citation needed]), and the UN awarded it observer status.[26]
The governments-in-exile of many European states (for instance, Norway, Netherlands or Czechoslovakia) during the Second World War were regarded as sovereign despite their territories being under foreign occupation; their governance resumed as soon as the occupation had ended. The government of Kuwait was in a similar situation vis-à-vis the Iraqi occupation of its country during 1990–1991.[27] The government of Republic of China was recognized as sovereign over China from 1911 to 1971 despite that its mainland China territory became occupied by Communist Chinese forces since 1949. In 1971 it lost UN recognition to Chinese Communist-led People's Republic of China and its sovereign and political status as a state became disputed and it lost its ability to use "China" as its name and therefore became commonly known as Taiwan.
The International Committee of the Red Cross is commonly mistaken to be sovereign. It has been granted various degrees of special privileges and legal immunities in many countries,[which?] that in cases like Switzerland are considerable,[28] The Committee is a private organisation governed by Swiss law.[29]
Shared and pooled[edit]
Just as the office of head of state can be vested jointly in several persons within a state, the sovereign jurisdiction over a single political territory can be shared jointly by two or more consenting powers, notably in the form of a condominium.[citation needed]
Likewise the member states of international organizations may voluntarily bind themselves by treaty to a supranational organization, such as a continental union. In the case of the European Union members states this is called "pooled sovereignty".[30][31]
Another example of shared and pooled sovereignty is the Acts of Union 1707 which created the unitary state now known as the United Kingdom.[32][33][34] It was a full economic union, meaning the Scottish and English systems of currency, taxation and laws regulating trade were aligned.[35] Nonetheless, Scotland and England never fully surrendered or pooled all of their governance sovereignty; they retained many of their previous national institutional features and characteristics, particularly relating to their legal, religious and educational systems.[36] In 2012, the Scottish Government, created in 1998 through devolution in the United Kingdom, negotiated terms with the Government of the United Kingdom for the Scottish independence referendum, 2014 which resulted in the people of Scotland deciding to continue the pooling of its sovereignty with the rest of the United Kingdom.
Nation-states[edit]
A community of people who claim the right of self-determination based on a common ethnicity, history and culture might seek to establish sovereignty over a region, thus creating a nation-state. Such nations are sometimes recognised as autonomous areas rather than as fully sovereign, independent states.
Federations[edit]
In a federal system of government, sovereignty also refers to powers which a constituent state or republic possesses independently of the national government. In a confederation constituent entities retain the right to withdraw from the national body, but in a federation[citation needed] member states or republics do not hold that right.[dubious – discuss]
Different interpretations of state sovereignty in the United States of America, as it related to the expansion of slavery and fugitive slave laws, led to the outbreak of the American Civil War. Depending on the particular issue, sometimes both northern and southern states justified their political positions by appealing to state sovereignty. Fearing that slavery would be threatened by results of the 1860 presidential election, eleven slave states declared their independence from the federal Union and formed a new confederation.[37] The United States government rejected the secessions as rebellion, declaring that secession from the Union by an individual state was unconstitutional, as the states were part of an indissolvable federation.[citation needed]
Acquisition[edit]
Main article: Acquisition of sovereignty
A number of modes of acquisition of sovereignty are presently or have historically been recognised by international law as lawful methods by which a state may acquire sovereignty over territory. The classification of these modes originally derived from Roman property law and from the 15th and 16th century with the development of international law. The modes are:[38]
Cession is the transfer of territory from one state to another usually by means of treaty;
Occupation is the acquisition of territory that belongs to no state, or terra nullius;
Prescription is the effective control of territory of another acquiescing state;
Operations of nature is the acquisition of territory through natural processes like river accretion or volcanism;
Creation is the process by which new land is reclaimed from the sea such as in the Netherlands.
Adjudication and
Conquest
Limits of national jurisdiction and sovereignty
Outer space (including Earth orbits; the Moon and other celestial bodies, and their orbits)
national airspace territorial waters airspace contiguous zone airspace[citation needed] international airspace
land territory surface internal waters surface territorial waters surface contiguous zone surface Exclusive Economic Zone surface international waters surface
internal waters territorial waters Exclusive economic zone international waters
land territory underground Continental shelf surface extended continental shelf surface international seabed surface
Continental shelf underground extended continental shelf underground international seabed underground
full national jurisdiction and sovereignty
restrictions on national jurisdiction and sovereignty
international jurisdiction per common heritage of mankind
Justifications[edit]
There exist vastly differing views on the moral basis of sovereignty. A fundamental polarity is between theories that assert that sovereignty is vested directly in the sovereigns by divine or natural right and theories that assert it originates from the people. In the latter case there is a further division into those that assert that the people transfer their sovereignty to the sovereign (Hobbes), and those that assert that the people retain their sovereignty (Rousseau).[citation needed]
During the brief period of absolute monarchies in Europe, the divine right of kings was an important competing justification for the exercise of sovereignty. The Mandate of Heaven had some similar implications in China.
A republic is a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, retain sovereignty over the government and where offices of state are not granted through heritage.[39][40] A common modern definition of a republic is a government having a head of state who is not a monarch.[41][42]
Democracy is based on the concept of popular sovereignty. In a direct democracy the public plays an active role in shaping and deciding policy. Representative democracy permits a transfer of the exercise of sovereignty from the people to a legislative body or an executive (or to some combination of legislature, executive and Judiciary). Many representative democracies provide limited direct democracy through referendum, initiative, and recall.
Parliamentary sovereignty refers to a representative democracy where the parliament is ultimately sovereign and not the executive power nor the judiciary.
Views[edit]
Classical liberals such as Stuart Mill consider every individual as sovereign in himself.
Realists view sovereignty as being untouchable and as guaranteed to legitimate nation-states.[citation needed]
Rationalists see sovereignty similarly to realists. However, rationalism states that the sovereignty of a nation-state may be violated in extreme circumstances, such as human rights abuses.[citation needed]
Internationalists believe that sovereignty is outdated and an unnecessary obstacle to achieving peace, in line with their belief of a 'global community'. In the light of the abuse of power by sovereign states such as Hitler's Germany or Stalin's Soviet Union, they argue that human beings are not necessarily protected by the state whose citizens they are, and that the respect for state sovereignty on which the UN Charter is founded is an obstacle to humanitarian intervention.[43]
Anarchists and some libertarians deny the sovereignty of states and governments. Anarchists often argue for a specific individual kind of sovereignty, such as the Anarch as a sovereign individual. Salvador Dalí, for instance, talked of "anarcho-monarchist" (as usual for him, tongue in cheek); Antonin Artaud of Heliogabalus: Or, The Crowned Anarchist; Max Stirner of The Ego and Its Own; Georges Bataille and Jacques Derrida of a kind of "antisovereignty". Therefore, anarchists join a classical conception of the individual as sovereign of himself, which forms the basis of political consciousness. The unified consciousness is sovereignty over one's own body, as Nietzsche demonstrated (see also Pierre Klossowski's book on Nietzsche and the Vicious Circle). See also sovereignty of the individual and self-ownership.
Imperialists hold a view of sovereignty where power rightfully exists with those states that hold the greatest ability to impose the will of said state, by force or threat of force, over the populace of other states with weaker military or political will. They effectively deny the sovereignty of the individual in deference to either the 'good' of the whole, or to divine right.[citation needed]
According to Matteo Laruffa "sovereignty resides in every public action and policy as the exercise of executive powers by institutions open to the participation of citizens to the decision-making processes"[44]
Relation to rule of law[edit]
Another topic is whether the law is held to be sovereign, that is, whether it is above political or other interference. Sovereign law constitutes a true state of law, meaning the letter of the law (if constitutionally correct) is applicable and enforceable, even when against the political will of the nation, as long as not formally changed following the constitutional procedure. Strictly speaking, any deviation from this principle constitutes a revolution or a coup d'état, regardless of the intentions.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Philosophy portal
Look up sovereignty in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Air sovereignty
Autonomous area
Basileus
Electronic leviathan
Mandate of Heaven
National sovereignty
Plenary authority
Sovereignty of the Individual
Souverainism
Suzerainty
References[edit]
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "article name needed". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton.
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^ Jump up to: a b Núñez, Jorge Emilio. "About the Impossibility of Absolute State Sovereignty: The Middle Ages". International Journal for the Semiotics of Law. 28: 235–250. doi:10.1007/s11196-014-9379-4.
Jump up ^ Biersteker, Thomas; Weber, Cynthia (1996). State Sovereignty as Social Construct. Cambridge Studies in International Relations. 46. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521565998.
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Jump up ^ "Chaucer's tale of the Wife of Bath". Retrieved 10 January 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Wedding of Sir Gawain and Dame Ragnell". Retrieved 10 January 2009.
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Jump up ^ http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/assets/pdfs/rousseau1762.pdf
Jump up ^ Social Contract, Book II, Chapter III.
Jump up ^ Stallybrass, William Teulon Swan (1918). "A society of states: Or, Sovereignty, independence, and equality in a league of nations".
Jump up ^ Lassa Oppenheim, International Law 66 (Sir Arnold D. McNair ed., 4th ed. 1928)
Jump up ^ Newton, Kenneth. Foundations of comparative politics: democracies of the modern world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
^ Jump up to: a b c Talmon, Stefan (1998). Recognition of Governments in International Law. Oxford Monographs in International Law Series. Oxford University Press. p. 50. ISBN 9780198265733.
Jump up ^ Mälksoo, Lauri (2003). Illegal Annexation and State Continuity: The Case of the Incorporation of the Baltic States by the USSR. M. Nijhoff Publishers. p. 193. ISBN 9041121773.
Jump up ^ Heywood, Andrew. "Political Theory". pg. 92. Palgrave Macmillan. Retrieved 25 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Wolford, Rider, Scott, Toby. "War, Peace, and Internal Sovereignty" (PDF). pg.1. Retrieved 19 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Wolford, Rider, Scott, Toby. "War, Peace, and Internal Sovereignty" (PDF). pg.3. Retrieved 19 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Heywood, Andrew. "Political Theory". pg. 93. Palgrave Macmillan. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Heywood, Andrew. "Political Theory". pgs. 94–95. Palgrave Macmillan. Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Andreas Osiander, "Sovereignty, International Relations, and the Westphalian Myth", International Organization Vol. 55 No. 2 (Spring 2001), pp. 251–287.
Jump up ^ "UN Chart, Article 2". Archived from the original on 8 December 2013. Retrieved 4 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Bilateral diplomatic relations of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta Archived 3 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ United Nations General Assembly Session 48 Resolution 265. Observer status for the Sovereign Military Order of Malta in the General Assembly A/RES/48/265 Retrieved 10 September 2007.
Jump up ^ Nolan, Cathal J. (2002). The Greenwood Encyclopedia of International Relations. Volume 4. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 1559.
Jump up ^ By formal agreement between the Swiss government and the ICRC, Switzerland grants full sanctity of all ICRC property in Switzerland including its headquarters and archive, grants members and staff legal immunity, exempts the ICRC from all taxes and fees, guarantees the protected and duty-free transfer of goods, services, and money, provides the ICRC with secure communication privileges at the same level as foreign embassies, and simplifies Committee travel in and out of Switzerland.
On the other hand Switzerland does not recognize ICRC issued passports Archived 10 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine..
Jump up ^ "About the International Committee of the Red Cross".
Jump up ^ "The European Union: Pooled Sovereignty, Divided Accountability". Political Studies. 45: 559–578. doi:10.1111/1467-9248.00096.
Jump up ^ McNaughton, Neil (2003). Understanding British and European political issues : a guide for A2 politics studies. Manchester University Press. p. 207. ISBN 0719062454.
Jump up ^ Mannin, Michael L. (2010). British government and politics balancing Europeanization and independence. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 134. ISBN 9780742567771.
Jump up ^ Rawlings, edited by Richard; Leyland, Peter; Young, Alison L (2013). Sovereignty and the law : domestic, European, and international perspectives. Oxford University Press. p. 28. ISBN 0199684065. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Jesse, Neal G.; Williams, Kristen P. (2005). Identity and institutions: conflict reduction in divided societies. State Univ. of New York Press. p. 120. ISBN 0791464512.
Jump up ^ R. Mitchison, A History of Scotland (London: Routledge, 3rd edn., 2002), ISBN 0415278805, p. 314.
Jump up ^ McCann, Philip (2016). The UK Regional–National Economic Problem: Geography, globalisation and governance. Routledge. p. 372. ISBN 9781317237174.
Jump up ^ McPherson, James, Battle Cry of Freedom, (1988) pp. 40, 195, 214, 241
Jump up ^ Malanczuk, Peter. Akehurst's Modern Introduction to International Law. International politics/Public international law. Routledge. pp. 147–152. ISBN 9780415111201.
Jump up ^ "Republic". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Jump up ^ Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws (1748), Bk. II, ch. 1.
Jump up ^ "republic". WordNet 3.0. Dictionary.com. Retrieved 20 March 2009
Jump up ^ "Republic". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 14 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Beatrice Heuser: "Sovereignty, self-determination and security: new world orders in the 20th century", in Sohail Hashmi (ed.): State Sovereignty: Change and Persistence in International Relations (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press, 1997).
Jump up ^ Matteo Laruffa, "The European Integration and National Interests: from an intergovernmental model to a Constitutional Agreement"(Hungarian Academy of Social Sciences, Budapest, 3 July 2014)
Further reading[edit]
Benton, Lauren (2010). A Search for Sovereignty: Law and Geography in European Empires, 1400–1900. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88105-0.
Philpott, Dan. "Sovereignty". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Prokhovnik, Raia (2007). Sovereignties: contemporary theory and practice. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire New York, N.Y: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781403913234.
Prokhovnik, Raia (2008). Sovereignty: history and theory. Exeter, UK Charlottesville, VA: Imprint Academic. ISBN 9781845401412.
Thomson, Janice E. (1996). Mercenaries, pirates, and sovereigns: state-building and extraterritorial violence in early modern Europe. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02571-1.
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The Real (talk show)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 19 January 2018.
Jump to: navigation, search
The Real
Genre
Talk show
Presented by
Tamar Braxton
Adrienne Houghton
Loni Love
Jeannie Mai
Tamera Mowry-Housley
Opening theme
"This is Our Time"
Ending theme
"This is Our Time"
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
4
No. of episodes
596 (as of January 19, 2018)
Production
Executive producer(s)
SallyAnn Salsano (season 1-2)
Rachel Miskowiec (season 3-present)
Running time
43 minutes (approx.)
Production company(s)
Telepictures Productions
495 Productions (season 1–2)
Distributor
Warner Bros. Television Distribution
Release
Original network
Syndication
Picture format
NTSC (480i)
HDTV 1080i
Original release
July 15, 2013 (2013-07-15) – present (present)
External links
Website
The Real is an American syndicated talk show. The series initially received a trial run on Fox owned markets in the summer of 2013. The series was developed as a talk show designed to appeal to younger female viewers who, like the co-hosts, were experiencing new events in their lives. It was green-lit for national syndication later that fall and officially premiered the following year.
On January 3, 2018, Fox Television Stations announced that the show has been renewed for two more seasons.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Production
2 Co-hosts
2.1 Timeline
2.2 Seasons 1–2
2.3 Season 3-present
3 Notable episodes
4 Awards and nominations
5 References
6 External links
Production[edit]
From L-R: Mowry-Housley, Mai, Houghton and Love.
In the summer of 2013, it was announced that the series was ordered for a test run on seven Fox-owned stations in New York, Los Angeles, Washington D.C., Philadelphia, Phoenix, Houston and Tampa.[2][3][4] In October 2013, it was announced that The Real had been green-lit for a national syndicated launch and would premiere on September 15, 2014-until September 15, 2017[5] with reruns airing on BET.[6]
In February 2015, Warner Bros. announced the series had been renewed for a second season.[7] In October 2015, the series was renewed for a third and fourth seasons, allowing it to air through 2018.[8][9]. In July 2017, the show announced that, for its fourth season, it will begin airing live broadcasts, with reruns airing on VH1 starting September 18, 2017.
SallyAnn Salsano and Rachel Miskowiec are recognized as the series' executive producers; it is produced by 495 Productions and Telepictures Productions, and is distributed by Warner Bros. Domestic Television Distribution.[10][11][12][13]
Co-hosts[edit]
Timeline[edit]
Co-host
Seasons
Pilot
1
2
3
4
Tamar Braxton
Adrienne Houghton
Loni Love
Jeannie Mai
Tamera Mowry-Housley
Seasons 1–2[edit]
The panel consisted of actress Tamera Mowry-Housley from the 1990s sitcom, Sister, Sister; hostess and fashion expert Jeannie Mai; R&B singer and television personality, Tamar Braxton, best known for her hit reality series Braxton Family Values; singer and actress Adrienne Houghton, known for being the lead singer in groups 3LW and The Cheetah Girls; and comedian and actress Loni Love, known for being the runner up on Star Search 26 and a panelist on Chelsea Lately.[14][15]
Season 3-present[edit]
On May 22, 2016, Warner Bros. Domestic Television announced that Tamar Braxton would no longer be a part of the cast. Although it was rumored that Tamar Braxton left involuntarily, she was terminated before the third season premiered.[16][17][18]
Notable episodes[edit]
The Real celebrated its 100th episode on February 24, 2015. In January 2016, the co-hosts traveled to Washington, D.C. to visit The White House and First Lady Michelle Obama. In addition to granting an interview, The First Lady and the co-hosts spoke to high schoolers about college.[19][20]
Awards and nominations[edit]
Year
Award
Category
Honorees
Result
Ref
2015
42nd Daytime Emmy Awards Outstanding Hairstyling Robbi Rogers, Kya Bilal, Alyson Black-Barrie, Ray Dodson, Adriana Tesler, Noogie Thai Nominated
[21]
Outstanding Makeup Sarah Hall, Pamela Farmer, Motoko Honjo, Hyun-Jung Kim, Uzmee Krakovszki, Terrell Mullin Nominated
[21]
2016
43rd Daytime Emmy Awards
Outstanding Talk Show / Entertainment The Real Nominated
[22]
Outstanding Entertainment Talk Show Host Bailon, Braxton, Love, Mai, Mowry-Housley Nominated
[22]
Outstanding Hairstyling Roberta Rogers-Windley, Ray D, James Davis, Jeuge Master Karim, Noogie Thai Nominated
[22]
Outstanding Makeup Melanie Mills, Glen Alen, Motoko Honjo Clayton, Eva Kim, Uzmee Krakovski, Keesh Winkler-Smith Nominated
[22]
2017
48th NAACP Image Awards Outstanding Talk Series The Real Nominated
[23]
44th Daytime Emmy Awards Outstanding Entertainment Talk Show Host Braxton, Houghton, Love, Mai, Mowry-Housley Nominated
[24]
2018
49th NAACP Image Awards Outstanding Talk Series The Real Won
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Petski, Denise (3 January 2018). "'The Real' Renewed By Fox TV Stations Through 2020". Deadline. Retrieved 3 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Nededog, Jethro (June 12, 2013). "Tamar Braxton, Tamera Mowry-Housley Talk Show 'The Real' Gets Test Run on Fox Stations". TheWrap. The Wrap News Inc. Retrieved May 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ "It's Official: 'The Real' Talk Show Begins Four-Week Test Run July 15". Deadline.com. June 12, 2013. Retrieved 28 July 2013.
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (May 31, 2013). "Tamera Mowry & Tamar Braxton Among Hosts Of New Syndicated Talk Show Getting Summer Trial Run On Fox Stations". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved 28 July 2013.
Jump up ^ Block, Alex Ben (October 31, 2013). "'The Real' Gets National Syndication and Cable Pick Up". The Hollywood Reporter.
Jump up ^ Bibel, Sara (October 31, 2013). "FOX Owned Television Stations Pick Up Syndicated Talk Show 'The Real' for Fall 2014". TV by the Numbers.
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (February 10, 2015). "'The Real' Renewed For Second Season". Deadline.com. Retrieved May 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ Stanhope, Kate (October 29, 2015). "'The Real' Renewed for Two Seasons". The Hollywood Reporter. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved May 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Development Update: Thursday, October 29". The Futon Critic. October 29, 2015. Retrieved September 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ "About the Show, The Real". The Real. Retrieved September 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Show: The Real on Fox on Daytime". 495 Productions. Retrieved September 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (June 18, 2015). "'The Real' Names Rachel Miskowiec As New Showrunner". Deadline. Retrieved September 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie. "SallyAnn Salsano Steps Down From 'The Real' As Showrunner, Will Be Consultant". Deadline. Retrieved September 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Telepictures Productions to Produce 4-Week Test of Talk Show "The Real" to be Distributed by Warner Bros. Domestic Television Distribution". The Futon Critic. June 13, 2013. Retrieved September 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ ""The Real" Renewed in 95%+ of the U.S". The Futon Critic. April 11, 2014. Retrieved September 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (May 22, 2016). "Tamar Braxton Exits 'The Real' Talk Show". Deadline. Retrieved September 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ Heller, Corrine (May 23, 2016). "Tamar Braxton Is Leaving The Real Talk Show". E Online. E News!. Retrieved September 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Daytime Emmy(R)-Nominated Talk Show "The Real" Returns for Season Three with "Free Money, Honey" and "Fan-Cash-Tic Giveaways" During Premiere Week". The Futon Critic. September 2, 2016. Retrieved September 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ "'The Real' Co-Hosts & First Lady Michelle Obama Talk 'Better Make Room' Movement". Extra. January 25, 2016.
Jump up ^ "First Lady Michelle Obama to Get "Real" on Education". The Futon Critic. January 21, 2016. Retrieved September 19, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "The 42nd Annual Daytime Emmy Award Nominations". New York City: emmyonline.org and National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences. March 31, 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 31, 2015. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "The 43rd Annual Daytime Emmy Award Nominations" (PDF). New York City: emmyonline.org and National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences. March 24, 2016. Archived from the original on March 24, 2016. Retrieved March 24, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kinane, Ruth (December 13, 2016). "Beyonce leads the pack of 2017 NAACP Image Award Nominees". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved December 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ "The 44th Annual Daytime Emmy Award Nominations" (PDF). New York City: emmyonline.org and National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences. March 22, 2017. Retrieved March 22, 2017.
External links[edit]
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Bronze sculpture
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Victorious Youth (ca. 310 B.C.), is a rare, water-preserved bronze from ancient Greece. (3D image available)
Chinese ritual bronze, a Late Shang dǐng
Benin bronze of a woman's head
Gilt-bronze doors of the Baptistry at Florence (Lorenzo Ghiberti, 1401-22)
9th-century bronze vessel in form of a snail shell excavated in Igbo-Ukwu,(part of igbo tribe in Nigeria)
Bronze is the most popular metal for cast metal sculptures; a cast bronze sculpture is often called simply a "bronze". It can be used for statues, singly or in groups, reliefs, and small statuettes and figurines, as well as bronze elements to be fitted to other objects such as furniture. It is often gilded to give gilt-bronze or ormolu.
Common bronze alloys have the unusual and desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus filling the finest details of a mould. Then, as the bronze cools, it shrinks a little, making it easier to separate from the mould.[1] Their strength and ductility (lack of brittleness) is an advantage when figures in action are to be created, especially when compared to various ceramic or stone materials (such as marble sculpture). These qualities allow the creation of extended figures, as in Jeté, or figures that have small cross sections in their support, such as the equestrian statue of Richard the Lionheart.[2]
But the value of the bronze for uses other than making statues is disadvantageous to the preservation of sculptures; few large ancient bronzes have survived, as many were melted down to make weapons or ammunition in times of war or to create new sculptures commemorating the victors, while far more stone and ceramic works have come through the centuries, even if only in fragments. As recently as 2007 several life sized bronze sculptures by John Waddell were stolen, probably due to the value of the metal after the work has been melted.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Material
2 History
3 Process
3.1 Lost wax method
3.2 Creating large sculptures
3.3 Finishing
4 Gallery
5 Sculptors
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Material[edit]
There are many different bronze alloys, and the term is now tending to be regarded by museums as too imprecise, and replaced in descriptions by "copper alloy", especially for older objects. Typically modern bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin.[4] Alpha bronze consists of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper. Alpha bronze alloys of 4–5% tin are used to make coins and a number of mechanical applications. Historical bronzes are highly variable in composition, as most metalworkers probably used whatever scrap was on hand; the metal of the 12th-century English Gloucester Candlestick is bronze containing a mixture of copper, zinc, tin, lead, nickel, iron, antimony, arsenic with an unusually large amount of silver – between 22.5% in the base and 5.76% in the pan below the candle. The proportions of this mixture may suggest that the candlestick was made from a hoard of old coins. The Benin Bronzes are really brass, and the Romanesque Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège is described as both bronze and brass.
In the Bronze Age, two forms of bronze were commonly used: "classic bronze", about 10% tin, was used in casting; and "mild bronze", about 6% tin, was hammered from ingots to make sheets. Bladed weapons were mostly cast from classic bronze, while helmets and armour were hammered from mild bronze. According to one definition, modern "statuary bronze" is 90% copper and 10% tin.[2]
History[edit]
Chola bronze of Queen Sembiyan Mahadevi as the goddess Parvati
Further information: History of sculpture
The great civilizations of the old world worked in bronze for art, from the time of the introduction of the alloy for tools and edged weapons. Dancing Girl from Mohenjodaro belonging to the Harappan civilization dating back to 2500 BCE is perhaps the first bronze statue.[5] The Greeks were the first to scale the figures up to life size. Few examples exist in good condition; one is the seawater-preserved bronze Victorious Youth that required painstaking efforts to bring it to its present state for museum display. Far more Roman bronze statues have survived.
The ancient Chinese knew both lost-wax casting and section mould casting, and during the Shang dynasty created large numbers of Chinese ritual bronzes, ritual vessels covered with complex decoration, which were buried in sets of up to 200 pieces in the tombs of royalty and the nobility. Over the long creative period of Egyptian dynastic art, small lost-wax bronze figurines were made in large numbers; several thousand of them have been conserved in museum collections.
Sri Lankan Sinhalese bronze statue of Buddhist Alakothiveshwara Tara Devi statue, now in England, is an excellent example of Bronze statues. From the ninth through the thirteenth century the Chola dynasty in South India represented the pinnacle of bronze casting in India.[6]
Process[edit]
Making bronzes is highly skilled work, and a number of distinct casting processes may be employed, including lost-wax casting (and its modern-day spin-off investment casting), sand casting and centrifugal casting. The term "bronze" is also applied to metal sculptures made by electrotyping (or galvanoplasty), although these sculptures are typically pure copper and their fabrication does not involve metal casting.[7]
Lost wax method[edit]
Main article: Lost wax casting
In lost-wax or investment casting, the artist starts with a full-sized model of the sculpture, most often a non-drying oil-based clay such as Plasticine model for smaller sculptures or for sculptures to be developed over an extended period (water-based clays must be protected from drying), and water-based clay for larger sculptures or for sculptures for which it is desired to capture a gestural quality - one that transmits the motion of the sculptor in addition to that of the subject. A mould is made from the clay pattern, either as a piece mould from plaster, or using flexible gel or similar rubber-like materials stabilized by a plaster jacket of several pieces. Often a plaster master will be made from this mould for further refinement. Such a plaster is a means of preserving the artwork until a patron may be found to finance a bronze casting, either from the original moulds or from a new mould made from the refined plaster positive.
Once a production mould is obtained, a wax (hollow for larger sculptures) is then cast from the mould. For a hollow sculpture, a core is then cast into the void, and is retained in its proper location (after wax melting) by pins of the same metal used for casting. One or more wax sprues are added to conduct the molten metal into the sculptures - typically directing the liquid metal from a pouring cup to the bottom of the sculpture, which is then filled from the bottom up in order to avoid splashing and turbulence. Additional sprues may be directed upward at intermediate positions, and various vents may also be added where gases could be trapped. (Vents are not needed for ceramic shell casting, allowing the sprue to be simple and direct). The complete wax structure (and core, if previously added) is then invested in another kind of mould or shell, which is heated in a kiln until the wax runs out and all free moisture is removed. The investment is then soon filled with molten bronze. The removal of all wax and moisture prevents the liquid metal from being explosively ejected from the mould by steam and vapour.
Students of bronze casting will usually work in direct wax, where the model is made in wax, possibly formed over a core, or with a core cast in place, if the piece is to be hollow. If no mould is made and the casting process fails, the artwork will also be lost. After the metal has cooled, the external ceramic or clay is chipped away, revealing an image of the wax form, including core pins, sprues, vents, and risers. All of these are removed with a saw and tool marks are polished away, and interior core material is removed to reduce the likelihood of interior corrosion. Incomplete voids created by gas pockets or investment inclusions are then corrected by welding and carving. Small defects where sprues and vents were attached are filed or ground down and polished.
A model of an apple in wax. This is the first step of the lost-wax casting process in bronze
Liquid bronze at 1200 °C is poured into the dried and empty casting mould
The sculpture of the apple, just extracted from its mould. Below is the funnel through which the bronze was poured (upside down). This is the last step of the lost-wax casting process
Creating large sculptures[edit]
A monumental conical pendulum clock by Eugène Farcot with a patinated bronze statue.
For a large sculpture, the artist will usually prepare small study models until the pose and proportions are determined. An intermediate-sized model is then constructed with all of the final details. For very large works, this may again be scaled to a larger intermediate. From the final scale model, measuring devices are used to determine the dimensions of an armature for the structural support of a full-size temporary piece, which is brought to rough form by wood, cardboard, plastic foam, and/or paper to approximately fill the volume while keeping the weight low. Finally, plaster, clay or other material is used to form the full-size model, from which a mould may be constructed. Alternatively, a large refactory core may be constructed, and the direct-wax method then applied for subsequent investment. Before modern welding techniques, large sculptures were generally cast in one piece with a single pour. Welding allows a large sculpture to be cast in pieces, then joined.
Finishing[edit]
After final polishing, corrosive materials may be applied to form a patina, a process that allows some control over the colour and finish.
Another form of sculptural art that uses bronze is ormolu, a finely cast soft bronze that is gilded (coated with gold) to produce a matte gold finish. Ormolu was popularized in the 18th century in France and is found in such forms as wall sconces (wall-mounted candle holders), inkstands, clocks and garnitures. Ormolu wares can be identified by a clear ring when tapped, showing that they are made of bronze, not a cheaper alloy such as spelter or pewter.
Gallery[edit]
Brunswick Lion (ca. 1166) in Brunswick, Germany
The Orator, c. 100 BC, an Etrusco-Roman bronze statue depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an Etruscan man wearing a Roman toga while engaged in rhetoric; the statue features an inscription in the Etruscan alphabet
Perseus with the Head of Medusa (Benvenuto Cellini, 1545–54) in the Piazza della Signoria in Florence, Italy after the statue's cleaning
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (Leone Leoni, mid-16th century)
Richard the Lionheart (Carlo Marochetti, 1860), outside the Palace of Westminster in central London, England
Prospect Park War Memorial (Augustus Lukeman, 1921) in Prospect Park, Brooklyn
Patinated bronze (above) and ormolu (below) Empire style clock, c. 1810, by Pierre-Philippe Thomire
Jeté (Enzo Plazzotta, 1975), at Millbank in Westminster, England, illustrates the material's capabilities
Balance by David Ascalon shows how reactive chemicals applied to the metal create a marbleized blue surface
The Spirit of Detroit (Marshall Fredericks, 1958) in Detroit, Michigan, United States
Bronze sculpture in Tbilisi, Georgia
Sculptors[edit]
Main article: List of sculptors
See also[edit]
Bronze and brass ornamental work
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Savage, George, ‘’A Concise History of Bronzes’’, Frederick A. Praeger, Inc. Publishers, New York, 1968 p. 17
^ Jump up to: a b Caleb Hornbostel, Construction Materials: Types, Uses and Applications, Second Edition (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1991) p. 175.
Jump up ^ http://www.evelinenow.com/BeautyandtheBeastinCornvilleArizona.html
Jump up ^ Knapp, Brian. (1996) Copper, Silver and Gold. Reed Library, Australia.
Jump up ^ http://www.nationalmuseumindia.gov.in/prodCollections.asp?pid=44&id=1&lk=dp1
Jump up ^ "Chola Bronzes. Asiatic Society". Asia Society. Archived from the original on 2009-12-31.
Jump up ^ Scott, David A. (2002). Copper and bronze in art: corrosion, colourants, conservation. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-638-5. Some extremely important commissions were made in electrotypes, such as the "bronzes" that adorn the Opera, Paris, and the 320 cm high statue of Prince Albert and four accompanying figures, erected behind the Albert Hall in London as a memorial to the Great Exhibition of 1851. The Prince Albert statue was electrotyped by Elkington & Company of Birmingham, England, in 1861 and has recently been restored. Note that the Memorial to the Great Exhibition was originally erected in the garden of the Royal Horticultural Society, and moved to its present location around 1890.
Further reading[edit]
Scholten, Frits (2011). European sculpture and metalwork. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9781588394415.
Weinryb, Ittai, The Bronze Object in the Middle Ages (Cambridge, 2016)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bronze sculptures.
Bronze Sculpture and Architecture
MMA exhibition of Shang Dynasty ritual vessels
A 26min film about Auguste Rodin and the Gates of Hell
"Flash animation of the lost-wax casting process". James Peniston Sculpture. Retrieved 2007-10-24.
Short video on bronze sculptor working
[show]
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Processes
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Components
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Pattern
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Casting
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