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Impression management
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Impression management is a conscious or subconscious process in which people attempt to influence the perceptions of other people about a person, object or event. They do so by regulating and controlling information in social interaction.[1] It was first conceptualized by Erving Goffman in 1959, and then was expanded upon in 1967. An example of impression management theory in play is in sports such as soccer. At an important game, a player would want to showcase themselves in the best light possible, because there are college recruiters watching. This person would have the flashiest pair of cleats and try and perform their best to show off their skills. Their main goal may be to impress the college recruiters in a way that maximizes their chances of being chosen for a college team rather than winning the game.[2]
Impression management is usually used synonymously with self-presentation, in which a person tries to influence the perception of their image. The notion of impression management was first applied to face-to-face communication, but then was expanded to apply to computer-mediated communication. The concept of impression management is applicable to academic fields of study such as psychology and sociology as well as practical fields such as corporate communication and media.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Theory
2.1 Motives
2.2 Self-presentation
2.3 Social interaction
2.4 Dramaturgical analogy
2.5 Manipulation and ethics
3 Application
3.1 Face-to-face communication
3.1.1 Self, social identity and social interaction
3.1.2 Cross-cultural communication
3.1.3 Team-working in hospital wards
3.2 Computer-mediated communication
3.2.1 Corporate brand
3.2.1.1 Corporate storytelling
3.2.1.2 Corporate document
3.2.2 Media
3.2.2.1 Profiles on social networking sites
3.2.2.2 Political impression management
4 Implications
5 See also
6 Footnotes
7 References
Background[edit]
The foundation and the defining principles of impression management were created by Erving Goffman in The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Impression management theory states that one tries to alter one's perception according to one's goals. In other words, the theory is about how individuals wish to present themselves, but in a way that satisfies their needs and goals. Goffman "proposed to focus on how people in daily work situations present themselves and, in so doing, what they are doing to others", and he was "particularly interested in how a person guides and control how others form an impression of them and what a person may or may not do while performing before them".[3]
Theory[edit]
Motives[edit]
A range of factors that govern impression management can be identified. It can be stated that impression management becomes necessary whenever there exists a kind of social situation, whether real or imaginary. Logically, the awareness of being a potential subject of monitoring is also crucial. Furthermore, the characteristics of a given social situation are important. Specifically, the surrounding cultural norms determine the appropriateness of particular nonverbal behaviours.[4] The actions have to be appropriate to the targets, and within that culture, so that the kind of audience as well as the relation to the audience influences the way impression management is realized. A person's goals are another factor governing the ways and strategies of impression management. This refers to the content of an assertion, which also leads to distinct ways of presentation of aspects of the self. The degree of self-efficacy describes whether a person is convinced that it is possible to convey the intended impression.[5]
A new study finds that, all other things being equal, people are more likely to pay attention to faces that have been associated with negative gossip than those with neutral or positive associations. The study contributes to a body of work showing that far from being objective, human perceptions are shaped by unconscious brain processes that determine what they "choose" to see or ignore—even before they become aware of it. The findings also add to the idea that the brain evolved to be particularly sensitive to "bad guys" or cheaters—fellow humans who undermine social life by deception, theft or other non-cooperative behavior.[6]
There are many methods behind self-presentation, including self disclosure (identifying what makes you "you" to another person), managing appearances (trying to fit in), ingratiation, aligning actions (making one's actions seem appealing or understandable), and alter-casting (imposing identities on other people). These self-presentation methods can also be used on the corporate level as impression management.[7]
Self-presentation[edit]
Self-presentation is conveying information about oneself – or an image of oneself – to others. There are two types and motivations of self-presentation:
presentation meant to match one's own self-image, and
presentation meant to match audience expectations and preferences.[8]
Self-presentation is expressive. Individuals construct an image of themselves to claim personal identity, and present themselves in a manner that is consistent with that image.[9] If they feel like it is restricted, they often exhibit reactance or become defiant – try to assert their freedom against those who would seek to curtail self-presentation expressiveness. An example of this dynamic is the "preacher's daughter", whose suppressed personal identity and emotions cause an eventual backlash at her family and community.
Boasting – Millon notes that in self-presentation individuals are challenged to balance boasting against discrediting themselves via excessive self-promotion or being caught and being proven wrong. Individuals often have limited ability to perceive how their efforts impact their acceptance and likeability by others.[10]
Flattery – Flattery or praise to increase social attractiveness[11]
Intimidation aggressively showing anger to get others to hear and obey one's demands.[12]
Self-presentation can be either defensive or assertive strategies. Whereas defensive strategies include behaviours like avoidance of threatening situations or means of self-handicapping, assertive strategies refer to more active behaviour like the verbal idealisation of the self, the use of status symbols or similar practices.[13]
These strategies play important roles in one's maintenance of self-esteem.[14] One's self-esteem is affected by their evaluation of their own performance and their perception of how others react to their performance. As a result, people actively portray impressions that will elicit self-esteem enhancing reactions from others.[15]
Social interaction[edit]
Goffman argued in his 1967 book, Interaction ritual, that people participate in social interactions by performing a "line", or "pattern of verbal and nonverbal acts", which is created and maintained by both the performer and the audience.[16] By enacting a line effectively, the person gains positive social value, which is also called "face". The success of a social interaction will depend on whether the performer has the ability to maintain face.[3] As a result, a person is required to display a kind of character by becoming "someone who can be relied upon to maintain himself as an interactant, poised for communication, and to act so that others do not endanger themselves by presenting themselves as interactants to him".[16]
When Goffman turned to focus on people physically presented in a social interaction, the "social dimension of impression management certainly extends beyond the specific place and time of engagement in the organization". Impression management is "a social activity that has individual and community implications".[3] We call it "pride" when a person displays a good showing from duty to himself, while we call it "honor" when he "does so because of duty to wider social units, and receives support from these duties in doing so".[16]
Another approach to moral standards that Goffman pursues is the notion of "rules of conduct", which "can be partially understood as obligations or moral constraints". These rules may be substantive (involving laws, morality, and ethics) or ceremonial (involving etiquette).[3] Rules of conduct play an important role when a relationship "is asymmetrical and the expectations of one person toward another are hierarchical."[3]
Dramaturgical analogy[edit]
Goffman presented impression management dramaturgically, explaining the motivations behind complex human performances within a social setting based on a play metaphor.[17] Goffman's work incorporates aspects of a symbolic interactionist perspective,[18] emphasizing a qualitative analysis of the interactive nature of the communication process. Impression management requires the physical presence of others. Performers who seek certain ends in their interest, must "work to adapt their behavior in such a way as to give off the correct impression to a particular audience" and "implicitly ask that the audience take their performance seriously".[3]
The actor, shaped by the environment and target audience, sees interaction as a performance. The objective of the performance is to provide the audience with an impression consistent with the desired goals of the actor.[19] Thus, impression management is also highly dependent on the situation.[20] In addition to these goals, individuals differ in responses from the interactive environment, some may be non-responsive to an audience's reactions while others actively respond to audience reactions in order to elicit positive results. These differences in response towards the environment and target audience are called self-monitoring.[21] Another factor in impression management is self-verification, the act of conforming the audience to the person's self-concept.
The audience can be real or imaginary. IM style norms, part of the mental programming received through socialization, are so fundamental that we usually do not notice our expectations of them. While an actor (speaker) tries to project a desired image, an audience (listener) might attribute a resonant or discordant image. An example is provided by situations in which embarrassment occurs and threatens the image of a participant.[22]
Goffman proposes that performers "can use dramaturgical discipline as a defense to ensure that the 'show' goes on without interruption."[3] Goffman contends that dramaturgical discipline includes:[3]
coping with dramaturgical contingencies;
demonstrating intellectual and emotional involvement;
remembering one's part and not committing unmeant gestures or faux pas;
not giving away secrets involuntarily;
covering up inappropriate behavior on the part of teammates on the spur of the moment;
offering plausible reasons or deep apologies for disruptive events;
maintaining self-control (for example, speaking briefly and modestly);
suppressing emotions to private problems; and
suppressing spontaneous feelings.
Manipulation and ethics[edit]
In business, "managing impressions" normally "involves someone trying to control the image that a significant stakeholder has of them". The ethics of impression management has been hotly debated on whether we should see it as an effective self-revelation or as cynical manipulation.[3] Some people insist that impression management can reveal a truer version of the self by adopting the strategy of being transparent, which is a kind of openness. Because transparency "can be provided so easily and because it produces information of value to the audience, it changes the nature of impression management from being cynically manipulative to being a kind of useful adaptation".
Virtue signalling is used within groups to criticize their own members for valuing outward appearance over substantive action (having a real or permanent, rather than apparent or temporary, existence).
Psychological manipulation is a type of social influence that aims to change the behavior or perception of others through abusive, deceptive, or underhanded tactics.[23] By advancing the interests of the manipulator, often at another's expense, such methods could be considered exploitative, abusive, devious, and deceptive. The process of manipulation involves bringing an unknowing victim under the domination of the manipulator, often using deception, and using the victim to serve their own purposes.
Machiavellianism is a term that some social and personality psychologists use to describe a person's tendency to be unemotional, and therefore able to detach him or herself from conventional morality and hence to deceive and manipulate others.[24] (See also Machiavellianism in the workplace.)
Sophism In modern useage sophist and sophistry are redefined and used disparagingly. A sophism is a specious argument for displaying ingenuity in reasoning or for deceiving someone. A sophist is a person who reasons with clever but fallacious and deceptive arguments.
Corporate jargon Variously known as corporate speak, corporate lingo, business speak, business jargon, management speak, workplace jargon, or commercialese, is the jargon often used in large corporations, bureaucracies, and similar workplaces.[1][2] The use of corporate jargon, also known as "corporatese", is criticised for its lack of clarity as well as for its tedium, making meaning and intention opaque and understanding difficult.
Application[edit]
Face-to-face communication[edit]
Self, social identity and social interaction[edit]
The social psychologist, Edward E. Jones, brought the study of impression management to the field of psychology during the 1960s and extended it to include people's attempts to control others' impression of their personal characteristics.[25] His work sparked an increased attention towards impression management as a fundamental interpersonal process.
The concept of self is important to the theory of impression management as the images people have of themselves shape and are shaped by social interactions[26] Our self-concept develops from social experience early in life.[27] Schlenker (1980) further suggests that children anticipate the effect that their behaviours will have on others and how others will evaluate them. They control the impressions they might form on others, and in doing so they control the outcomes they obtain from social interactions.
Social identity refers to how people are defined and regarded in social interactions .[28] Individuals use impression management strategies to influence the social identity they project to others.[27] The identity that people establish influences their behaviour in front of others, others' treatment of them and the outcomes they receive. Therefore, in their attempts to influence the impressions others form of themselves, a person plays an important role in affecting his social outcomes.[29]
Social interaction is the process by which we act and react to those around us. In a nutshell, social interaction includes those acts people perform toward each other and the responses they give in return.[30] The most basic function of self-presentation is to define the nature of a social situation (Goffman, 1959). Most social interactions are very role governed. Each person has a role to play, and the interaction proceeds smoothly when these roles are enacted effectively. People also strive to create impressions of themselves in the minds of others in order to gain material and social rewards (or avoid material and social punishments).[31]
Cross-cultural communication[edit]
Understanding how one's impression management behavior might be interpreted by others can also serve as the basis for smoother interactions and as a means for solving some of the most insidious communication problems among individuals of different racial/ethnic and gender backgrounds.[32]
"People are sensitive to how they are seen by others and use many forms of impression management to compel others to react to them in the ways they wish" (Giddens, 2005, p. 142). An example of this concept is easily illustrated through cultural differences. Different cultures have diverse thoughts and opinions on what is considered beautiful or attractive. For example, Americans tend to find tan skin attractive, but in Indonesian culture, pale skin is more desirable.[33]
Another illustration of how people attempt to control how others perceive them is portrayed through the clothing they wear. A person who is in a leadership position strives to be respected and in order to control and maintain the impression. This illustration can also be adapted for a cultural scenario. The clothing people choose to wear says a great deal about the person and the culture they represent. For example, most Americans are not overly concerned with conservative clothing. Most Americans are content with tee shirts, shorts, and showing skin. The exact opposite is true on the other side of the world. "Indonesians are both modest and conservative in their attire" (Cole, 1997, p. 77).[33]
Companies use cross-cultural training (CCT) to facilitate effective cross-cultural interaction. CCT can be defined as any procedure used to increase an individual's ability to cope with and work in a foreign environment. Training employees in culturally consistent and specific impression management (IM) techniques provide the avenue for the employee to consciously switch from an automatic, home culture IM mode to an IM mode that is culturally appropriate and acceptable. Second, training in IM reduces the uncertainty of interaction with FNs and increases employee's ability to cope by reducing unexpected events.[32]
Team-working in hospital wards[edit]
Impression management theory can also be used in health communication. It can be used to explore how professionals 'present' themselves when interacting on hospital wards and also how they employ front stage and backstage settings in their collaborative work.[34]
In the hospital wards, Goffman's front stage and backstage performances are divided into 'planned' and 'ad hoc' rather than 'official' and 'unofficial' interactions.[34]
Planned front stage is the structured collaborative activities such as ward rounds and care conferences which took place in the presence of patients and/or carers.
Ad hoc front stage is the unstructured or unplanned interprofessional interactions that took place in front of patients/carers or directly involved patients/carers.
Planned backstage is the structured MDT meetings in which professionals gathered in a private area of the ward, in the absence of patients, to discuss management plans for patients under their care.
Ad hoc backstage is the use of corridors and other ward spaces for quick conversations between professionals in the absence of patients/carers.
Offstage is the social activities between and among professional groups/individuals outside of the hospital context.[34]
Results show that interprofessional interactions in this setting are often based less on planned front stage activities than on ad hoc backstage activities. While the former may, at times, help create and maintain an appearance of collaborative interprofessional 'teamwork', conveying a sense of professional togetherness in front of patients and their families, they often serve little functional practice. These findings have implications for designing ways to improve interprofessional practice on acute hospital wards where there is no clearly defined interprofessional team, but rather a loose configuration of professionals working together in a collaborative manner around a particular patient. In such settings, interventions that aim to improve both ad hoc as well as planned forms of communication may be more successful than those intended to only improve planned communication.[34]
Computer-mediated communication[edit]
The hyperpersonal model of computer-mediated communication (CMC) posits that users exploit the technological aspects of CMC in order to enhance the messages they construct to manage impressions and facilitate desired relationships. The most interesting aspect of the advent of CMC is how it reveals basic elements of interpersonal communication, bringing into focus fundamental processes that occur as people meet and develop relationships relying on typed messages as the primary mechanism of expression. "Physical features such as one's appearance and voice provide much of the information on which people base first impressions face-to-face, but such features are often unavailable in CMC. Various perspectives on CMC have suggested that the lack of nonverbal cues diminishes CMC's ability to foster impression formation and management, or argued impressions develop nevertheless, relying on language and content cues. One approach that describes the way that CMC's technical capacities work in concert with users' impression development intentions is the hyperpersonal model of CMC (Walther, 1996). As receivers, CMC users idealize partners based on the circumstances or message elements that suggest minimal similarity or desirability. As senders, CMC users selectively self-present, revealing attitudes and aspects of the self in a controlled and socially desirable fashion. The CMC channel facilitates editing, discretion, and convenience, and the ability to tune out environmental distractions and re-allocate cognitive resources in order to further enhance one's message composition. Finally, CMC may create dynamic feedback loops wherein the exaggerated expectancies are confirmed and reciprocated through mutual interaction via the bias-prone communication processes identified above."[35]
According to O'Sullivan's (2000) impression management model of communication channels, individuals will prefer to use mediated channels rather than face-to-face conversation in face-threatening situations. Within his model, this trend is due to the channel features that allow for control over exchanged social information. The present paper extends O'Sullivan's model by explicating information control as a media affordance, arising from channel features and social skills, that enables an individual to regulate and restrict the flow of social information in an interaction, and present a scale to measure it. One dimension of the information control scale, expressive information control, positively predicted channel preference for recalled face-threatening situations. This effect remained after controlling for social anxiousness and power relations in relationships. O'Sullivan's model argues that some communication channels may help individuals manage this struggle and therefore be more preferred as those situations arise. It was based on an assumption that channels with features that allow fewer social cues, such as reduced nonverbal information or slower exchange of messages, invariably afford an individual with an ability to better manage the flow of a complex, ambiguous, or potentially difficult conversations.[36] Individuals manage what information about them is known, or isn't known, to control other's impression of them. Anyone who has given the bathroom a quick cleaning when they anticipate the arrival of their mother-in-law (or date) has managed their impression. For an example from information and communication technology use, inviting someone to view a person's Webpage before a face-to-face meeting may predispose them to view the person a certain way when they actually meet.[3]
Corporate brand[edit]
The impression management perspective offers potential insight into how corporate stories could build the corporate brand, by influencing the impressions that stakeholders form of the organization. The link between themes and elements of corporate stories and IM strategies/behaviours indicates that these elements will influence audiences' perceptions of the corporate brand.[37]
Corporate storytelling[edit]
Corporate storytelling is suggested to help demonstrate the importance of the corporate brand to internal and external stakeholders, and create a position for the company against competitors, as well as help a firm to bond with its employees (Roper and Fill, 2012). The corporate reputation is defined as a stakeholder's perception of the organization (Brown et al., 2006), and Dowling (2006) suggests that if the story causes stakeholders to perceive the organization as more authentic, distinctive, expert, sincere, powerful, and likeable, then it is likely that this will enhance the overall corporate reputation.
Impression management theory is a relevant perspective to explore the use of corporate stories in building the corporate brand. The corporate branding literature notes that interactions with brand communications enable stakeholders to form an impression of the organization (Abratt and Keyn, 2012), and this indicates that IM theory could also therefore bring insight into the use of corporate stories as a form of communication to build the corporate brand. Exploring the IM strategies/behaviors evident in corporate stories can indicate the potential for corporate stories to influence the impressions that audiences form of the corporate brand.[37]
Corporate document[edit]
Firms use more subtle forms of influencing outsiders' impressions of firm performance and prospects, namely by manipulating the content and presentation of information in corporate documents with the purpose of "distort[ing] readers" perceptions of corporate achievements" [Godfrey et al., 2003, p. 96]. In the accounting literature this is referred to as impression management. The opportunity for impression management in corporate reports is increasing. Narrative disclosures have become longer and more sophisticated over the last few years. This growing importance of descriptive sections in corporate documents provides firms with the opportunity to overcome information asymmetries by presenting more detailed information and explanation, thereby increasing their decision-usefulness. However, they also offer an opportunity for presenting financial performance and prospects in the best possible light, thus having the opposite effect. In addition to the increased opportunity for opportunistic discretionary disclosure choices, impression management is also facilitated in that corporate narratives are largely unregulated.[38]
Media[edit]
The medium of communication influences the actions taken in impression management. Self-efficacy can differ according to the fact whether the trial to convince somebody is made through face-to-face-interaction or by means of an e-mail.[21] Communication via devices like telephone, e-mail or chat is governed by technical restrictions, so that the way people express personal features etc. can be changed. This often shows how far people will go.
Profiles on social networking sites[edit]
Social networking users will employ protective self-presentations for image management. Users will use subtractive and repudiate strategies to maintain a desired image.[39] Subtractive strategy is used to untag an undesirable photo on Social Networking Sites. In addition to un-tagging their name, some users will request the photo to be removed entirely. Repudiate strategy is used when a friend posts an undesirable comment about the user. In response to an undesired post, users may add another wall post as an innocence defense. Michael Stefanone states that "self-esteem maintenance is an important motivation for strategic self-presentation online."[39] Outside evaluations of their physical appearance, competence, and approval from others determines how social media users respond to pictures and wall posts. Unsuccessful self-presentation online can lead to rejection and criticism from social groups. Social networking sites like MySpace, Facebook, and StudiVZ are popular means of communicating personality. Recent theoretical and empirical considerations of homepages and Web 2.0 platforms show that impression management is a major motive for actively participating in social networking sites.[40]
According to Marwick, social profiles create implications such as "context collapse" for presenting oneself to the audience. The concept of ‘‘context collapse,’’ suggests that social technologies make it difficult to vary self-presentation based on environment or audience. "Large sites such as Facebook and Twitter group friends, family members, coworkers, and acquaintances together under the umbrella term ‘‘friends’ "[41]
Political impression management[edit]
One arena where impression management is essential is in politics. "Political impression management" was coined in 1972 by sociologist Peter M. Hall, who defined the term as the art of making a candidate look electable and capable (Hall 1972). This is due in part to the importance of "presidential" candidates—appearance, image, and narrative are a key part of a campaign and thus impression management has always been a huge part of winning an election (Katz 2016). As social media becomes more and more a part of the political process, political impression management is becoming more challenging as the online image of the candidate often now lies in the hands of the voters themselves.
Implications[edit]
Impression management can distort the results of empirical research that relies on interviews and surveys, a phenomenon commonly referred to as "social desirability bias". Impression management theory nevertheless constitutes a field of research on its own.[42] When it comes to practical questions concerning public relations and the way organizations should handle their public image, the assumptions provided by impression management theory can also provide a framework.[43]
An examination of different impression management strategies acted out by individuals who were facing criminal trials where the trial outcomes could range from a death sentence, life in prison or acquittal has been reported in the forensic literature.[44] The Perri and Lichtenwald article examined female psychopathic killers, whom as a group were highly motivated to manage the impression that attorneys, judges, mental health professions and ultimately, a jury had of the murderers and the murder they committed. It provides legal case illustrations of the murderers combining and/or switching from one impression management strategy such as ingratiation or supplication to another as they worked towards their goal of diminishing or eliminating any accountability for the murders they committed.
Since the 1990s, researchers in the area of sport and exercise psychology have studied self-presentation. Concern about how one is perceived has been found to be relevant to the study of athletic performance. For example, anxiety may be produced when an athlete is in the presence of spectators. Self-presentational concerns have also been found to be relevant to exercise. For example, the concerns may elicit motivation to exercise.[45]
More recent research investigating the effects of impression management on social behaviour showed that social behaviours (e.g. eating) can serve to convey a desired impression to others and enhance one's self-image. Research on eating has shown that people tend to eat less when they believe that they are being observed by others.[46]
See also[edit]
Calculating Visions: Kennedy, Johnson, and Civil Rights (book)
Character mask
Charm offensive
Dramaturgy (sociology)
First impression (psychology)
Ingratiation
Online identity management
On the Internet, nobody knows you're a dog
Personal branding
Register (sociolinguistics)
Reputation capital
Reputation management
Self-monitoring theory
Self-verification theory
Signalling (economics)
Spin (public relations)
Superficial charm
Stigma management
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ Piwinger, Manfred; Ebert, Helmut (2001). "Impression Management: Wie aus Niemand Jemand wird". in: Bentele, Guenther et al. (Ed.), Kommunikationsmanagement: Strategien, Wissen, Lösungen. Luchterhand, Neuwied.
Jump up ^ "Impression Management in Sociology: Theory, Definition & Examples". Study.com.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Browning, Larry D.; Saetre, Alf Steinar; Stephens, Keri; Sornes, Jan-Oddvar (2010-09-28). Information and Communication Technologies in Action: Linking Theories and Narratives of Practice. Routledge. ISBN 9781135889432.
Jump up ^ Kamau, C. (2009) Strategising impression management in corporations: cultural knowledge as capital. In D. Harorimana (Ed) Cultural implications of knowledge sharing, management and transfer: identifying competitive advantage. Chapter 4. Information Science Reference. ISBN 978-1-60566-790-4
Jump up ^ Doering 1999, p. 261-2.
Jump up ^ Anderson, E; Siegel, EH; Bliss-Moreau, E; Barrett, LF (Jun 2011). "The visual impact of gossip". Science. 332 (6036): 1446–8. doi:10.1126/science.1201574. PMC 3141574  . PMID 21596956.
Jump up ^ "What is Impression Management?". wiseGEEK.
Jump up ^ Baumeister, Roy F. (1987). "Self-Presentation Theory: Self-Construction and Audience Pleasing". Springer Series in Social Psychology. Theories of Group Behavior.
Jump up ^ Schlenker 1980, p. 37.
Jump up ^ Millon, Theodore (2003). Handbook of Psychology, Personality and Social Psychology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 337. ISBN 978-0-471-38404-5.
Jump up ^ Schlenker 1980, p. 169.
Jump up ^ Felson 1984, p. 187.
Jump up ^ Piwinger; Ebert 2001, p. 26.
Jump up ^ Leary; Kowalski 1990.
Jump up ^ Hass 1981
^ Jump up to: a b c Goffman, E. (1967). Interaction ritual: Essays on face-to-face behavior. Chicago: Aldine.
Jump up ^ Dillard et al., 2000
Jump up ^ Schlenker 1980, p. 34.
Jump up ^ Barnhart, 1994
Jump up ^ Goffman 2006, p. 40.
^ Jump up to: a b Döring 1999, p. 262.
Jump up ^ Goffman 1956
Jump up ^ Braiker, Harriet B. (2004). Who's Pulling Your Strings ? How to Break The Cycle of Manipulation. ISBN 0-07-144672-9.
Jump up ^ Adrian Furnham (November 18, 2016). "The Machiavellian Boss". Psychology Today.
Jump up ^ Leary; Kowalski 1990
Jump up ^ Schlenker 1980, p. 47.
^ Jump up to: a b Schlenker 1980, p. 85.
Jump up ^ Schlenker 1980, p. 69.
Jump up ^ Schlenker 1980, p. 90.
Jump up ^ Moffitt, Kimberly. "Social Interactions: Definition & Types".
Jump up ^ Brown, Jonathon. "CHAPTER 07 SELF-PRESENTATION" (PDF).
^ Jump up to: a b Rosenfeld, Paul; Giacalone, Robert A.; Riordan, Catherine A. (1994-03-01). "Impression Management Theory and Diversity Lessons for Organizational Behavior". American Behavioral Scientist. 37 (5): 601–604. doi:10.1177/0002764294037005002. ISSN 0002-7642.
^ Jump up to: a b Norris, Ashley (2011). "Impression Management: Considering Cultural, Social, and Spiritual Factors".
^ Jump up to: a b c d Lewin, Simon; Reeves, Scott (2011-05-01). "Enacting 'team' and 'teamwork': using Goffman's theory of impression management to illuminate interprofessional practice on hospital wards". Social Science & Medicine. 72 (10): 1595–1602. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.03.037. ISSN 1873-5347. PMID 21549467.
Jump up ^ Walther, Joseph B. (2007-09-01). "Selective self-presentation in computer-mediated communication: Hyperpersonal dimensions of technology, language, and cognition" (PDF). Computers in Human Behavior. 23 (5): 2538–2557. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2006.05.002.
Jump up ^ Feaster, John Christian (2010-10-01). "Expanding the Impression Management Model of Communication Channels: An Information Control Scale". Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. 16 (1): 115–138. doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2010.01535.x. ISSN 1083-6101.
^ Jump up to: a b Sara Spear; Stuart Roper (2013-11-01). "Using corporate stories to build the corporate brand: an impression management perspective". Journal of Product & Brand Management. 22 (7): 491–501. doi:10.1108/JPBM-09-2013-0387. ISSN 1061-0421.
Jump up ^ University, Bangor. "Dr Doris Merkl-Davies | Bangor Business School | Bangor University". www.bangor.ac.uk. Retrieved 2016-03-11.
^ Jump up to: a b Rui, J. and M. A. Stefanone (2013). Strategic Management of Other-Provided Information Online: Personality and Network Variables. System Sciences (HICSS), 2013 46th Hawaii International Conference on.
Jump up ^ Krämer, Nicole C.; Winter, Stephan (2008-01-01). "Impression Management 2.0". Journal of Media Psychology. 20 (3): 106–116. doi:10.1027/1864-1105.20.3.106. ISSN 1864-1105.
Jump up ^ Marwick, Alice E. (2013). Online Identity. Blackwell. pp. 355–364.
Jump up ^ Tedeschi 1984
Jump up ^ Piwinger; Ebert 2001, p. 3.
Jump up ^ Perri, Frank S. and Lichtenwald, Terrance G. (2010). "The Last Frontier: Myths & The Female Psychopathic Killer". Forensic Examiner, Summer 2010, 50-67.
Jump up ^ Martin Ginis, K.A., Lindwall, M., & Prapavessis, H. (2007). Who cares what other people think? Self-presentation in exercise and sport. In R. Eklund & G. Tenenbaum (Eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology (pp. 136–153). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiles & Sons.
Jump up ^ Herman; Roth; Polivy 2003
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Goffman, Erving (1956). "Embarrassment and Social Organization". The American Journal of Sociology. 62 (3): 264–71. doi:10.1086/222003.
Goffman, Erving (2006), Wir alle spielen Theater: Die Selbstdarstellung im Alltag, Piper, Munich.
Dillard, Courtney et al. (2000), Impression Management and the use of procedures at the Ritz-Carlton: Moral standards and dramaturgical discipline, Communication Studies, 51.
Döring, Nicola (1999), Sozialpsychologie des Internet: Die Bedeutung des Internet für Kommunikationsprozesse, Identitäten, soziale Beziehungen und Gruppen Hogrefe, Goettingen.
Felson, Richard B (1984): An Interactionist Approach to Aggression, in: Tedeschi, James T. (Ed.), Impression Management Theory and Social Psychological Research Academic Press, New York.
Hall, Peter (1972). "A Symbolic Interactionist Analysis of Politics." Sociological Inquiry 42.3-4: 35-75
Hass, Glen R. (1981), Presentational Strategies, and the Social Expression of Attitudes: Impression management within Limits, in: Tedeschi, James T. (Ed.): Impression Management Theory and Social Psychological Research, Academic Press, New York.
Herman, Peter C; Roth, Deborah A; Polivy, Janet (2003). "Effects of the Presence of Others on Food Intake: A Normative Interpretation". Psychological Bulletin. 129 (6): 873–86. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.6.873. PMID 14599286.
Katz, Nathan (2016). "Impression Management, Super PACs and the 2012 Republican Primary." Symbolic Interaction 39.2: 175-95.
Leary, Mark R; Kowalski, Robin M (1990). "Impression Management: A Literature Review and Two-Component Model". Psychological Bulletin. 107 (1): 34–47. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.107.1.34.
Piwinger, Manfred; Ebert, Helmut (2001). "Impression Management: Wie aus Niemand Jemand wird". in: Bentele, Guenther et al. (Ed.), Kommunikationsmanagement: Strategien, Wissen, Lösungen. Luchterhand, Neuwied.
Schlenker, Barry R. (1980). Impression Management: The Self-Concept, Social Identity, and Interpersonal Relations. Monterey, California: Brooks/Cole.
Tedeschi, James T.; Riess, Marc (1984), Identities, the Phenomenal Self, and Laboratory Research, in: Tedeschi, James T. (Ed.): Impression Management Theory and Social Psychological Research, Academic Press, New York.
Smith, Greg (2006), Erving Goffman, Routledge, New York.
Rui, J. and M. A. Stefanone (2013). Strategic Management of Other-Provided Information Online: Personality and Network Variables. System Sciences (HICSS), 2013 46th Hawaii International Conference on.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Impression_management&oldid=833881751"
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List of thermodynamic properties
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Main article: Intensive and extensive properties
Within thermodynamics, a physical property is any property that is measurable, and whose value describes a state of a physical system. Some constants, such as the ideal gas constant, R, do not describe the state of a system, and so are not properties. On the other hand, some constants, such as Kf (the freezing point depression constant, or cryoscopic constant), depend on the identity of a substance, and so may be considered to describe the state of a system, and so may be considered physical properties.
"Specific" properties are expressed on a per mass basis. If the units were changed from per mass to, for example, per mole, the property would remain as it was (i.e., intensive or extensive).
Regarding Work and Heat
Work and heat are not thermodynamic properties, but rather process quantities: flows of energy across a system boundary. Systems do not contain work, but can perform work, and likewise, in formal thermodynamics, systems do not contain heat, but can transfer heat. Informally, however, a difference in the energy of a system that occurs solely because of a difference in its temperature is commonly called heat, and the energy that flows across a boundary as a result of a temperature difference is "heat".
Altitude (or elevation) is usually not a thermodynamic property. Altitude can help specify the location of a system, but that does not describe the state of the system. An exception would be if the effect of gravity needed to be considered in order to describe a state, in which case altitude could indeed be a thermodynamic property.
Thermodynamic properties and their characteristics
Property
Symbol
Units
Extensive?
Intensive?
Conjugate
Potential?
Activity a {\displaystyle a} – Y
Chemical potential μ i {\displaystyle \mu _{i}} kJ/mol Y Particle
number N i {\displaystyle N_{i}}
Compressibility (adiabatic) β S {\displaystyle \beta _{S}} , κ {\displaystyle \kappa } Pa−1 Y
Compressibility (isothermal) β T {\displaystyle \beta _{T}} , κ {\displaystyle \kappa } Pa−1 Y
Cryoscopic constant[1] K f {\displaystyle K_{f}} K·kg/mol Y
Density ρ {\displaystyle \rho } kg/m3 Y
Ebullioscopic constant K b {\displaystyle K_{b}} K·kg/mol Y
Enthalpy H {\displaystyle H} J Y Y
Specific enthalpy h {\displaystyle h} J/kg Y
Entropy S {\displaystyle S} J/K Y Temperature T {\displaystyle T} Y (entropic)
Specific entropy s {\displaystyle s} J/(kg K) Y
Fugacity f {\displaystyle f} N/m² Y
Gibbs free energy G {\displaystyle G} J Y Y
Specific Gibbs free entropy g {\displaystyle g} J/(kg K) Y
Gibbs free entropy Ξ {\displaystyle \Xi } J/K Y Y (entropic)
Grand / Landau potential Ω {\displaystyle \Omega } J Y Y
Heat capacity (constant pressure) C p {\displaystyle C_{p}} J/K Y
Specific heat capacity
(constant pressure) c p {\displaystyle c_{p}} J/(kg·K) Y
Heat capacity (constant volume) C v {\displaystyle C_{v}} J/K Y
Specific heat capacity
(constant volume) c v {\displaystyle c_{v}} J/(kg·K) Y
Helmholtz free energy A {\displaystyle A} , F {\displaystyle F} J Y Y
Helmholtz free entropy Φ {\displaystyle \Phi } J/K Y Y (entropic)
Internal energy U {\displaystyle U} J Y Y
Specific internal energy u {\displaystyle u} J/kg Y
Internal pressure π T {\displaystyle \pi _{T}} Pa Y
Mass m {\displaystyle m} kg Y
Particle number N i {\displaystyle N_{i}} – Y Chemical
potential μ i {\displaystyle \mu _{i}}
Pressure p {\displaystyle p} Pa Y Volume V {\displaystyle V}
Temperature T {\displaystyle T} K Y Entropy S {\displaystyle S}
Thermal conductivity k {\displaystyle k} W/(m·K) Y
Thermal diffusivity α {\displaystyle \alpha } m²/s Y
Thermal expansion (linear) α L {\displaystyle \alpha _{L}} K−1 Y
Thermal expansion (area) α A {\displaystyle \alpha _{A}} K−1 Y
Thermal expansion (volumetric) α V {\displaystyle \alpha _{V}} K−1 Y
Vapor quality[2] χ {\displaystyle \chi } – Y
Volume V {\displaystyle V} m3 Y Pressure P {\displaystyle P}
Specific volume v {\displaystyle v} m3/kg Y
See also[edit]
Dimensionless numbers
Thermodynamic databases for pure substances
Thermodynamic variable
Conjugate variables
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Aylward, Gordon; Findlay, Tristan (2002), SI Chemical Data 5th ed. (5 ed.), Sweden: John Wiley & Sons, p. 202, ISBN 0-470-80044-5
Jump up ^ Cengel, Yunus A.; Boles, Michael A. (2002). Thermodynamics: an engineering approach. Boston: McGraw-Hill. p. 79. ISBN 0-07-121688-X.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_thermodynamic_properties&oldid=805900068"
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text:
Diamonds & Rust (song)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
"Diamonds & Rust"
Song by Joan Baez
from the album Diamonds & Rust
Released
July 1975
Recorded
January 1975
Genre
Folk rock
Length
4:39
Label
A&M
Songwriter(s)
Joan Baez
Producer(s)
David Kershenbaum and Joan Baez
Diamonds & Rust track listing
"Diamonds & Rust" "Fountain of Sorrow"
"Diamonds & Rust" is a song written, composed, and performed by Joan Baez. It was written in November 1974 and released in 1975.
In the song, Baez recounts an out-of-the-blue phone call from an old lover, which sends her a decade back in time, to a "crummy" hotel in Greenwich Village circa 1964 or 1965; she recalls giving him a pair of cuff-links, and summarizes that memories bring "diamonds and rust". Baez has stated that the lyrics refer to her relationship with Bob Dylan.[1]
The song, which was a top-40 hit for Baez on the U.S. pop singles chart, is regarded by a number of critics, as well as by Baez fans, as one of her best compositions. It served as the title song on Baez's gold-selling album Diamonds & Rust, which was released in 1975.
Contents
[hide]
1 Variations
2 Bob Dylan
3 Charts
4 Popular covers
5 References
6 External links
Variations[edit]
For her 1995 live recording Ring Them Bells, Baez performed the song as a duet with Mary Chapin Carpenter. In that performance, she changed the end lines: "And if you're / offering me diamonds and rust / I've already paid," to: "And if you ... well I'll take the diamonds." The line "I bought you some cuff links, you brought me something" was changed to "I bought you some cuff links, you brought troubles." And on 25 February 2009, in Austin, she sang it, "And if you ... well I'll take the Grammy." In 2010, she recorded it as a duet with Judy Collins on Collins's album Paradise.
Bob Dylan[edit]
Dylan with Baez August 28, 1963
The song alludes to Baez's relationship with Bob Dylan ten years before. Although Dylan is not specifically named in the song, in the third chapter of her memoir, And a Voice to Sing With (1987), Baez uses phrases from the song in describing her relationship with Dylan, and has been explicit that he was the inspiration for the song. She recounts how she originally told Dylan that the song was about her ex-husband David Harris, which was obviously not true.[2] The lyrics, for example, include the lines, "Well, you burst on the scene already a legend / the unwashed phenomenon, the original vagabond..." which would describe Dylan but not Harris.
In her memoir, And A Voice To Sing With, Baez records a 1975 conversation between herself and Dylan, discussing songs to include in the then-upcoming Rolling Thunder Revue concerts:
"You gonna sing that song about robin's eggs and diamonds?" Bob had asked me on the first day of rehearsals.
"Which one?"
"You know, that one about blue eyes and diamonds..."
"Oh", I said, "you must mean 'Diamonds And Rust,' the song I wrote for my husband, David. I wrote it while he was in prison."
"For your husband?" Bob said.
"Yeah. Who did you think it was about?" I stonewalled.
"Oh, hey, what the fuck do I know?"
"Never mind. Yeah, I'll sing it, if you like."
But Baez's marriage to Harris had, in fact, already ended by the time the song was written and composed. In an interview with music writer Mike Ragogna, Baez later admitted that the character in the song is Dylan:
MR: "Diamonds And Rust" was another magic moment. You've said when you began writing the song, it started as something else until Dylan phoned you. Then it became about him. That must have been one helluva call.
JB: He read me the entire lyrics to "Lily, Rosemary and the Jack of Hearts" that he'd just finished from a phone booth in the Midwest.
MR: What was the song about originally?
JB: I don't remember what I'd been writing about, but it had nothing to do with what it ended up as.[3]
Charts[edit]
Chart (1972-2016)
Peak
position
Canada Adult Contemporary (RPM)[4] 14
Canada Top Singles (RPM)[5] 61
US Adult Contemporary (Billboard)[6] 5
US Billboard Hot 100[7] 35
Popular covers[edit]
"Diamonds and Rust"
Single by Judas Priest
from the album Sin After Sin
Released
23 April 1977
Recorded
January – February 1977, Ramport Studios, Battersea
Genre
Heavy metal
Length
3:28
Songwriter(s)
Joan Baez
Producer(s)
Roger Glover, Judas Priest
Judas Priest singles chronology
"The Ripper"
(1976) "Diamonds and Rust"
(1977) "Better by You, Better than Me"
(1978)
"The Ripper"
(1976) "Diamonds & Rust"
(1977) "Better by You, Better than Me"
(1978)
Sin After Sin track listing
"Sinner"
(1) "Diamonds & Rust"
(2) "Starbreaker"
(3)
The song was later covered with edited lyrics by Judas Priest for the album Sin After Sin. It was originally recorded a year earlier for Sad Wings of Destiny, but not included on that album. This early version appears on The Best of Judas Priest, Hero, Hero, and some remasters of their first album, Rocka Rolla. A live version of the song is on Unleashed in the East. The song remains a staple of Judas Priest live concert performances. In recent years, Priest have been performing a mostly acoustic version of the song that is more similar to the original than the rock version on their recorded albums.
Baez commented on the Judas Priest version:
I love that! I was so stunned when I first heard it. I thought it was wonderful. It's very rare for people to cover my songs. I think there are a couple of reasons. One is they're personal – they don't have a universal quality to them. And I think maybe it's because I've already sung them, and who wants to compete with that? But it's always flattering when somebody does.[8]
Cover versions have also been recorded by Blackmore's Night, S.O.D., Great White, Taylor Mitchell, and Thunderstone.
The song has been sampled in two popular hip-hop songs, "Happiness" by Busdriver and "Upgrade Call" by Andre Nickatina. The versions used in both songs are pitch-warped to sound squeaky.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ragogna, Mike. "How Sweet The Sound: An Interview With Joan Baez". Huffington Post. Retrieved 2016-10-10.
Jump up ^ Baez, Joan. 1987. And a Voice to Sing With: A Memoir. Century Hutchinson, London. ISBN 0-671-40062-2
Jump up ^ Ragogna, Mike (October 14, 2009). "How Sweet The Sound: An Interview With Joan Baez". Huffington Post. Retrieved 1 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "Top RPM Adult Contemporary: Issue 6486." RPM. Library and Archives Canada.
Jump up ^ "Top RPM Singles: Issue 4043b." RPM. Library and Archives Canada.
Jump up ^ "Joan Baez Chart History (Adult Contemporary)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Joan Baez Chart History (Hot 100)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Joan Baez changing her tune | Music | Entertainment". Toronto Sun. Retrieved 2014-05-19.
External links[edit]
Joan Baez performing the song in 1975
[show]
v
t
e
Joan Baez
Studio albums
Joan Baez
Joan Baez, Vol. 2
Joan Baez/5
Farewell, Angelina
Noël
Joan
Baptism: A Journey Through Our Time
Any Day Now
David's Album
I Live One Day at a Time
Carry It On
Blessed Are...
Come from the Shadows
Where Are You Now, My Son?
Gracias a la Vida: Joan Baez canta en español
Diamonds & Rust
Gulf Winds
Blowin' Away
Honest Lullaby
Recently
Speaking of Dreams
Play Me Backwards
Gone From Danger
Dark Chords on a Big Guitar
Day after Tomorrow
Whistle Down the Wind
Live albums
Joan Baez in Concert
Joan Baez in Concert, Part 2
From Every Stage
Live Europe 83
Diamonds & Rust in the Bullring
Ring Them Bells
Live at Newport
Bowery Songs
Compilations
Folksingers 'Round Harvard Square
Portrait of Joan Baez
The First 10 Years
The Joan Baez Ballad Book
Hits: Greatest and Others
The Contemporary Ballad Book
The Joan Baez Lovesong Album
Best of Joan C. Baez
The Joan Baez Country Music Album
Joan Baez: Classics
Brothers in Arms
Rare, Live & Classic
Notable songs
"Babe, I'm Gonna Leave You"
"Diamonds & Rust"
"Farewell, Angelina"
"Forever Young"
"Here's to You"
"Honest Lullaby"
"House of the Rising Sun"
"It's All Over Now, Baby Blue"
"Joe Hill"
"Lily of the West"
"Love Is Just a Four-Letter Word"
"Love Song to a Stranger"
"Mary Hamilton"
"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down"
"Reunion Hill"
"Scarlet Tide"
"Silver Dagger"
"Speaking of Dreams"
"Sweet Sir Galahad"
"There but for Fortune"
"We Shall Overcome"
"What Have They Done to the Rain"
Related
Discography
List of Joan Baez concerts
Albert Baez (father)
Mimi Fariña (sister)
David Harris (husband)
Richard Fariña (brother-in-law)
[show]
v
t
e
Judas Priest
Ian Hill
Glenn Tipton
Rob Halford
Scott Travis
Richie Faulkner
K. K. Downing
Tim "Ripper" Owens
Dave Holland
Les Binks
Alan Moore
John Hinch
Al Atkins
Studio albums
Rocka Rolla
Sad Wings of Destiny
Sin After Sin
Stained Class
Killing Machine
British Steel
Point of Entry
Screaming for Vengeance
Defenders of the Faith
Turbo
Ram It Down
Painkiller
Jugulator
Demolition
Angel of Retribution
Nostradamus
Redeemer of Souls
Firepower
Live albums
Unleashed in the East
Priest...Live!
Priest, Live and Rare
'98 Live Meltdown
Live in London
A Touch of Evil: Live
British Steel: 30th Anniversary Live
Battle Cry
Compilations
The Best of Judas Priest
Hero, Hero
Metal Works '73–'93
The Best of Judas Priest: Living After Midnight
Genocide
Metalogy
The Essential Judas Priest
Single Cuts
The Chosen Few
Videos
Live in London
Electric Eye
Rising in the East
Live Vengeance '82
Epitaph
Battle Cry
Singles
"Rocka Rolla"
"The Ripper"
"Diamonds and Rust"
"Better by You, Better than Me"
"Take On the World"
"Evening Star"
"Rock Forever"
"Living After Midnight"
"Breaking the Law"
"United"
"Heading Out to the Highway"
"You've Got Another Thing Comin'"
"Electric Eye"
"The Green Manalishi (With the Two Prong Crown)"
"Freewheel Burning"
"Some Heads Are Gonna Roll"
"Turbo Lover"
"Locked In"
"Parental Guidance"
"Ram It Down"
"Johnny B. Goode"
"Painkiller"
"A Touch of Evil"
"Bullet Train"
"Revolution"
Other songs
"Run of the Mill"
"Victim of Changes"
"Dreamer Deceiver"
"Dissident Aggressor"
"Exciter"
"Beyond the Realms of Death"
"Burn in Hell"
"Judas Rising"
Tours and concerts
Judas Priest Tour
The Return of the Priest Tour
Whiskey Woman Tour
Rocka Rolla Tour
Sad Wings of Destiny Tour
Sin After Sin Tour
Stained Class Tour
X Certificate Tour
Hell Bent for Leather Tour
Unleashed in the East Tour
British Steel Tour
World Wide Blitz Tour
World Vengeance Tour
Metal Conqueror Tour
Fuel for Life Tour
Mercenaries of Metal Tour
Painkiller Tour
Operation Rock & Roll
Reunited Tour
Retribution Tour
Nostradamus World Tour
Metal Masters Tour
Epitaph World Tour
Redeemer of Souls Tour
Related articles
Discography
Members
A Tribute to Judas Priest: Legends of Metal
Hell Bent Forever: A Tribute to Judas Priest
A Tribute to the Priest
Book:Judas Priest
Category:Judas Priest
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