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Parasympathetic nervous system
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Parasympathetic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system innervation, showing the parasympathetic (craniosacral) systems in blue.
Details
Identifiers
Latin
Pars parasympathica divisionis autonomici systematis nervosi
Acronym(s)
PSNS
MeSH
D010275
TA
A14.3.02.001
FMA
9907
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) is one of the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system (a division of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)), the other being the sympathetic nervous system.[1][2] (The enteric nervous system (ENS) is now usually referred to as separate from the autonomic nervous system since it has its own independent reflex activity.) The autonomic nervous system is responsible for regulating the body's unconscious actions. The parasympathetic system is responsible for stimulation of "rest-and-digest" or "feed and breed"[3] activities that occur when the body is at rest, especially after eating, including sexual arousal, salivation, lacrimation (tears), urination, digestion and defecation. Its action is described as being complementary to that of the sympathetic nervous system, which is responsible for stimulating activities associated with the fight-or-flight response.
Nerve fibres of the parasympathetic nervous system arise from the central nervous system. Specific nerves include several cranial nerves, specifically the oculomotor nerve, facial nerve, glossopharyngeal nerve, and vagus nerve. Three spinal nerves in the sacrum (S2-4), commonly referred to as the pelvic splanchnic nerves, also act as parasympathetic nerves.
Because of its location, the parasympathetic system is commonly referred to as having "craniosacral outflow", which stands in contrast to the sympathetic nervous system, which is said to have "thoracolumbar outflow".
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Cranial nerves
1.2 Vagus nerve
1.3 Pelvic splanchnic nerves
2 Function
2.1 Sensation
2.2 Vascular effects
2.3 Sexual activity
2.4 Receptors
2.4.1 Types of muscarinic receptors
2.4.2 Types of nicotinic receptors
2.5 Relationship to sympathetic nervous system
3 Clinical significance
4 References
Structure[edit]
The parasympathetic nerves are autonomic or visceral[4][5] branches of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Parasympathetic nerve supply arises through three primary areas:
Some of the cranial nerves in the cranium, namely the preganglionic parasympathetic nerves (CN III, CN VII, and CN IX) usually arise from specific nuclei in the central nervous system (CNS) and synapse at one of four parasympathetic ganglia: ciliary, pterygopalatine, otic, or submandibular. From these four ganglia the parasympathetic nerves complete their journey to target tissues via trigeminal branches (ophthalmic nerve, maxillary nerve, mandibular nerve).
The vagus nerve does not participate in these cranial ganglia as most of its parasympathetic fibers are destined for a broad array of ganglia on or near thoracic viscera (esophagus, trachea, heart, lungs) and abdominal viscera (stomach, pancreas, liver, kidneys, small intestine, and about half of the large intestine). The vagus innervation ends at the junction between the midgut and hindgut, just before the splenic flexure of the transverse colon.
The pelvic splanchnic efferent preganglionic nerve cell bodies reside in the lateral gray horn of the spinal cord at the T12-L1 vertebral levels (the spinal cord terminates at the L1-L2 vertebrae with the conus medullaris), and their axons exit the vertebral column as S2-S4 spinal nerves through the sacral foramina.[6] Their axons continue away from the CNS to synapse at an autonomic ganglion. The parasympathetic ganglion where these preganglionic neurons synapse will be close to the organ of innervation. This differs from the sympathetic nervous system, where synapses between pre- and post-ganglionic efferent nerves in general occur at ganglia that are farther away from the target organ.
As in the sympathetic nervous system, efferent parasympathetic nerve signals are carried from the central nervous system to their targets by a system of two neurons. The first neuron in this pathway is referred to as the preganglionic or presynaptic neuron. Its cell body sits in the central nervous system and its axon usually extends to synapse with the dendrites of a postganglionic neuron somewhere else in the body. The axons of presynaptic parasympathetic neurons are usually long, extending from the CNS into a ganglion that is either very close to or embedded in their target organ. As a result, the postsynaptic parasympathetic nerve fibers are very short.[7]:42
Cranial nerves[edit]
The oculomotor nerve is responsible for several parasympathetic functions related to the eye. The oculomotor PNS fibers originate in the Edinger-Westphal nucleus in the central nervous system and travel through the superior orbital fissure to synapse in the ciliary ganglion located just behind the orbit (eye). From the ciliary ganglion the postganglionic parasympathetic fibers leave via short ciliary nerve fibers, a continuation of the nasociliary nerve (a branch of ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve). The short ciliary nerves innervate the orbit to control the ciliary muscle (responsible for accommodation) and the iris sphincter muscle, which is responsible for miosis or constriction of the pupil (in response to light or accommodation).
The parasympathetic aspect of the facial nerve controls secretion of the sublingual and submandibular salivary glands, the lacrimal gland, and the glands associated with the nasal cavity. The preganglionic fibers originate within the CNS in the superior salivatory nucleus and leave as the intermediate nerve (which some consider a separate cranial nerve altogether) to connect with the facial nerve just distal (further out) to it surfacing the central nervous system. Just after the facial nerve geniculate ganglion (general sensory ganglion) in the temporal bone, the facial nerve gives off two separate parasympathetic nerves. The first is the greater petrosal nerve and the second is the chorda tympani. The greater petrosal nerve travels through the middle ear and eventually combines with the deep petrosal nerve (sympathetic fibers) to form the nerve of the pterygoid canal. The parasympathetic fibers of the nerve of the pterygoid canal synapse at the pterygopalatine ganglion, which is closely associated with the maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V2). The postganglionic parasympathetic fibers leave the pterygopalatine ganglion in several directions. One division leaves on the zygomatic division of CN V2 and travels on a communicating branch to unite with the lacrimal nerve (branch of the ophthalmic nerve of CN V1) before synapsing at the lacrimal gland. These parasympathetic to the lacrimal gland control tear production.
A separate group of parasympathetic leaving from the pterygopalatine ganglion are the descending palatine nerves (CN V2 branch), which include the greater and lesser palatine nerves. The greater palatine parasympathetic synapse on the hard palate and regulate mucus glands located there. The lesser palatine nerve synapses at the soft palate and controls sparse taste receptors and mucus glands. Yet another set of divisions from the pterygopalatine ganglion are the posterior, superior, and inferior lateral nasal nerves; and the nasopalatine nerves (all branches of CN V2, maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve) that bring parasympathetic innervation to glands of the nasal mucosa. The second parasympathetic branch that leaves the facial nerve is the chorda tympani. This nerve carries secretomotor fibers to the submandibular and sublingual glands. The chorda tympani travels through the middle ear and attaches to the lingual nerve (mandibular division of trigeminal, CN V3). After joining the lingual nerve, the preganglionic fibers synapse at the submandibular ganglion and send postganglionic fibers to the sublingual and submandibular salivary glands.
The glossopharyngeal nerve has parasympathetic fibers that innervate the parotid salivary gland. The preganglionic fibers depart CN IX as the tympanic nerve and continue to the middle ear where they make up a tympanic plexus on the cochlear promontory of the mesotympanum. The tympanic plexus of nerves rejoin and form the lesser petrosal nerve and exit through the foramen ovale to synapse at the otic ganglion. From the otic ganglion postganglionic parasympathetic fibers travel with the auriculotemporal nerve (mandibular branch of trigeminal, CN V3) to the parotid salivary gland.
Vagus nerve[edit]
The vagus nerve, named after the Latin word vagus (because the nerve controls such a broad range of target tissues – vagus in Latin literally means "wandering"), has parasympathetic that originate in the dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve and the nucleus ambiguus in the CNS. The vagus nerve is an unusual cranial parasympathetic in that it doesn't join the trigeminal nerve in order to get to its target tissues. Another peculiarity is that the vagus has an autonomic ganglion associated with it at approximately the level of C1 vertebra. The vagus gives no parasympathetic to the cranium. The vagus nerve is hard to track definitively due to its ubiquitous nature in the thorax and abdomen so the major contributions will be discussed. Several parasympathetic nerves come off the vagus nerve as it enters the thorax. One nerve is the recurrent laryngeal nerve, which becomes the inferior laryngeal nerve. From the left vagus nerve the recurrent laryngeal nerve hooks around the aorta to travel back up to the larynx and proximal esophagus while, from the right vagus nerve, the recurrent laryngeal nerve hooks around the right subclavian artery to travel back up to the same location as its counterpart. These different paths are a direct result of embryological development of the circulatory system. Each recurrent laryngeal nerve supplies the trachea and the esophagus with parasympathetic secretomotor innervation for glands associated with them (and other fibers that are not PN).
Another nerve that comes off the vagus nerves approximately at the level of entering the thorax are the cardiac nerves. These cardiac nerves go on to form cardiac and pulmonary plexuses around the heart and lungs. As the main vagus nerves continue into the thorax they become intimately linked with the esophagus and sympathetic nerves from the sympathetic trunks to form the esophageal plexus. This is very efficient as the major function of the vagus nerve from there on will be control of the gut smooth muscles and glands. As the esophageal plexus enter the abdomen through the esophageal hiatus anterior and posterior vagus trunks form. The vagus trunks then join with preaortic sympathetic ganglion around the aorta to disperse with the blood vessels and sympathetic nerves throughout the abdomen. The extent of the parasympathetic in the abdomen include the pancreas, kidneys, liver, gall bladder, stomach and gut tube. The vagus contribution of parasympathetic continues down the gut tube until the end of the midgut. The midgut ends two thirds of the way across the transverse colon near the splenic flexure.[8]
Pelvic splanchnic nerves[edit]
The pelvic splanchnic nerves, S2-4, work in tandem to innervate the pelvic viscera. Unlike in the cranium, where one parasympathetic is in charge of one particular tissue or region, for the most part the pelvic splanchnics each contribute fibers to pelvic viscera by traveling to one or more plexuses before being dispersed to the target tissue. These plexuses are composed of mixed autonomic nerve fibers (parasympathetic and sympathetic) and include the vesical, prostatic, rectal, uterovaginal, and inferior hypogastric plexuses. The preganglionic neurons in the pathway do not synapse in a ganglion as in the cranium but rather in the walls of the tissues or organs that they innervate. The fiber paths are variable and each individual's autonomic nervous system in the pelvis is unique. The visceral tissues in the pelvis that the parasympathetic nerve pathway controls include those of the urinary bladder, ureters, urinary sphincter, anal sphincter, uterus, prostate, glands, vagina, and penis. Unconsciously, the parasympathetic will cause peristaltic movements of the ureters and intestines, moving urine from the kidneys into the bladder and food down the intestinal tract and, upon necessity, the parasympathetic will assist in excreting urine from the bladder or defecation. Stimulation of the parasympathetic will cause the detrusor muscle (urinary bladder wall) to contract and simultaneously relax the internal sphincter muscle between the bladder and the urethra, allowing the bladder to void. Also, parasympathetic stimulation of the internal anal sphincter will relax this muscle to allow defecation. There are other skeletal muscles involved with these processes but the parasympathetic plays a huge role in continence and bowel retention.
A study published in 2016, suggests that all sacral autonomic output may be sympathetic; indicating that the rectum, bladder and reproductive organs may only be innervated by the sympathetic nervous system. This suggestion is based on detailed analysis of 15 phenotypic and ontogenetic factors differentiating sympathetic from parasympathetic neurons in the mouse. Assuming that the reported findings most likely applies to other mammals as well, this novel perspective suggests a simplified, bipartite architecture of the autonomic nervous system, in which the parasympathetic nervous system receives input from cranial nerves exclusively and the sympathetic nervous system from thoracic to sacral spinal nerves.[9]
Autonomic nervous supply to organs in the human body edit
Organ
Nerves[10]
Spinal column origin[10]
stomach
PS: anterior and posterior vagal trunks
S: greater splanchnic nerves
T6, T7, T8, T9, sometimes T10
duodenum
PS: vagus nerves
S: greater splanchnic nerves
T5, T6, T7, T8, T9, sometimes T10
jejunum and ileum
PS: posterior vagal trunks
S: greater splanchnic nerves
T5, T6, T7, T8, T9
spleen
S: greater splanchnic nerves
T6, T7, T8
gallbladder and liver
PS: vagus nerve
S: celiac plexus
right phrenic nerve
T6, T7, T8, T9
colon
PS: vagus nerves and pelvic splanchnic nerves
S: lesser and least splanchnic nerves
T10, T11, T12 (proximal colon)
L1, L2, L3, (distal colon)
pancreatic head
PS: vagus nerves
S: thoracic splanchnic nerves
T8, T9
vermiform appendix
nerves to superior mesenteric plexus
T10
kidneys and ureters
PS: vagus nerve
S: thoracic and lumbar splanchnic nerves
T11, T12
Emerging evidence in mouse models is suggesting that the previously held notion of the sacral spinal nerves being parasympathetic is incorrect, and that they may actually be sympathetic.[9]
Function[edit]
Sensation[edit]
The afferent fibers of the autonomic nervous system, which transmit sensory information from the internal organs of the body back to the central nervous system, are not divided into parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers as the efferent fibers are.[7]:34–35 Instead, autonomic sensory information is conducted by general visceral afferent fibers.
General visceral afferent sensations are mostly unconscious visceral motor reflex sensations from hollow organs and glands that are transmitted to the CNS. While the unconscious reflex arcs normally are undetectable, in certain instances they may send pain sensations to the CNS masked as referred pain. If the peritoneal cavity becomes inflamed or if the bowel is suddenly distended, the body will interpret the afferent pain stimulus as somatic in origin. This pain is usually non-localized. The pain is also usually referred to dermatomes that are at the same spinal nerve level as the visceral afferent synapse.
Vascular effects[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2012)
Sexual activity[edit]
Another role that the parasympathetic nervous system plays is in sexual activity. In males, the cavernous nerves from the prostatic plexus stimulate smooth muscles in the fibrous trabeculae of the coiled helicene arteries to relax and allow blood to fill the corpora cavernosum and the corpus spongiosum of the penis, making it rigid to prepare for sexual activity. Upon emission of ejaculate, the sympathetics participate and cause peristalsis of the ductus deferens and closure of the internal urethral sphincter to prevent semen from entering the bladder. At the same time, parasympathetics cause peristalsis of the urethral muscle, and the pudendal nerve causes contraction of the bulbospongiosus (skeletal muscle is not via PN), to forcibly emit the semen. During remission the penis becomes flaccid again. In the female, there is erectile tissue analogous to the male yet less substantial that plays a large role in sexual stimulation. The PN cause release of secretions in the female that decrease friction. Also in the female, the parasympathetics innervate the fallopian tubes, which helps peristaltic contractions and movement of the oocyte to the uterus for implantation. The secretions from the female genital tract aid in sperm migration. The PN (and SN to a lesser extent) play a significant role in reproduction.[7]
Receptors[edit]
The parasympathetic nervous system uses chiefly acetylcholine (ACh) as its neurotransmitter, although peptides (such as cholecystokinin) can be used.[11][12] The ACh acts on two types of receptors, the muscarinic and nicotinic cholinergic receptors. Most transmissions occur in two stages: When stimulated, the preganglionic neuron releases ACh at the ganglion, which acts on nicotinic receptors of postganglionic neurons. The postganglionic neuron then releases ACh to stimulate the muscarinic receptors of the target organ.
Types of muscarinic receptors[edit]
The five main types of muscarinic receptors:
The M1 muscarinic receptors (CHRM1) are located in the neural system.
The M2 muscarinic receptors (CHRM2) are located in the heart, and act to bring the heart back to normal after the actions of the sympathetic nervous system: slowing down the heart rate, reducing contractile forces of the atrial cardiac muscle, and reducing conduction velocity of the sinoatrial node and atrioventricular node. They have a minimal effect on the contractile forces of the ventricular muscle due to sparse innervation of the ventricles from the parasympathetic nervous system.
The M3 muscarinic receptors (CHRM3) are located at many places in the body, such as the endothelial cells of blood vessels, as well as the lungs causing bronchoconstriction. The net effect of innervated M3 receptors on blood vessels is vasodilation, as acetylcholine causes endothelial cells to produce nitric oxide, which diffuses to smooth muscle and results in vasodilation. They are also in the smooth muscles of the gastrointestinal tract, which help in increasing intestinal motility and dilating sphincters. The M3 receptors are also located in many glands that help to stimulate secretion in salivary glands and other glands of the body. They are also located on the detrusor muscle and urothelium of the bladder, causing contraction.[13]
The M4 muscarinic receptors: Postganglionic cholinergic nerves, possible CNS effects
The M5 muscarinic receptors: Possible effects on the CNS
Types of nicotinic receptors[edit]
In vertebrates, nicotinic receptors are broadly classified into two subtypes based on their primary sites of expression: muscle-type nicotinic receptors (N1) primarily for somatic motor neurons; and neuronal-type nicotinic receptors (N2) primarily for autonomic nervous system.[14]
Relationship to sympathetic nervous system[edit]
Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition to each other. The sympathetic division typically functions in actions requiring quick responses. The parasympathetic division functions with actions that do not require immediate reaction. A useful mnemonic to summarize the functions of the parasympathetic nervous system is SSLUDD (sexual arousal, salivation, lacrimation, urination, digestion and defecation).
Clinical significance[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2012)
The parasympathetic nervous system promotes digestion and the synthesis of glycogen, and allows for normal function and behavior.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Langley, John Newport (1921). The Autonomic Nervous System. Cambridge: Heffer. p. 10. ISBN 9781152710191.
Jump up ^ Pocock, Gillian (2006). Human Physiology (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 63–64. ISBN 978-0-19-856878-0.
Jump up ^ McCorry, LK (Aug 15, 2007). "Physiology of the autonomic nervous system". American journal of pharmaceutical education. 71 (4): 78. doi:10.5688/aj710478. PMC 1959222  . PMID 17786266.
Jump up ^ "visceral nerve fibers - definition of visceral nerve fibers in the Medical dictionary - by the Free Online Medical Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia". Medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved 2012-07-06.
Jump up ^ "Visceral nerve - RightDiagnosis.com". Wrongdiagnosis.com. 2012-02-01. Retrieved 2012-07-06.
Jump up ^ "The Vertebral Column and Spinal Cord". www.emery.edu. 1997-08-21. Retrieved 2013-03-21.
^ Jump up to: a b c Moore, Keith L.; Agur, A. M. R. (2007). Essential Clinical Anatomy (3rd ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-7817-6274-8.
Jump up ^ Netter. Atlas of Human Anatomy, Fourth Ed. Saunders Elsevier. 2003.
^ Jump up to: a b Espinosa-Medina, I; Saha, O; Boismoreau, F; Chettouh, Z; Rossi, F; Richardson, WD; Brunet, JF (18 November 2016). "The sacral autonomic outflow is sympathetic". Science. 354 (6314): 893–897. doi:10.1126/science.aah5454. PMID 27856909.
^ Jump up to: a b Unless specified otherwise in the boxes, the source is: Moore, Keith L.; Agur, A. M. R. (2002). Essential Clinical Anatomy (2nd ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 199. ISBN 978-0-7817-5940-3.
Jump up ^ Wank, SA (Nov 1995). "Cholecystokinin receptors". The American Journal of Physiology. 269 (5 Pt 1): G628–46. PMID 7491953.
Jump up ^ Takai, N; Shida, T; Uchihashi, K; Ueda, Y; Yoshida, Y (Apr 15, 1998). "Cholecystokinin as neurotransmitter and neuromodulator in parasympathetic secretion in the rat submandibular gland". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 842: 199–203. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09649.x. PMID 9599311.
Jump up ^ Moro, C; Uchiyama, J; Chess-Williams, R (December 2011). "Urothelial/lamina propria spontaneous activity and the role of M3 muscarinic receptors in mediating rate responses to stretch and carbachol". Urology. 78 (6): 1442.e9–15. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2011.08.039. PMID 22001099.
Jump up ^ Colquhoun, David. "Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors" (PDF). www.ucl.ac.uk/. University College London. Retrieved 4 March 2015.
[show]
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Nervous system
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[show]
v
t
e
Anatomy of the autonomic nervous system
Head
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Cervical ganglia: roots
long ciliary
Deep petrosal
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Ciliary ganglion: roots
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splanchnic nerves: cardiopulmonary
thoracic
cardiac nerves: Superior
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Inferior
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paravertebral ganglia: Lumbar ganglia
prevertebral ganglia:
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Inferior mesenteric ganglion
prevertebral plexus:
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Hepatic
Splenic
Pancreatic
aorticorenal
Abdominal aortic plexus
Renal/Suprarenal
Superior mesenteric
Gastric
Inferior mesenteric
Spermatic
Ovarian
Superior hypogastric
hypogastric nerve
Superior rectal
Inferior hypogastric
Vesical
Prostatic / Cavernous nerves of penis
Uterovaginal
Middle rectal
splanchnic nerves: Lumbar splanchnic nerves
Enteric
Submucous plexus
Myenteric plexus
Pelvis
Sympathetic
paravertebral ganglia: Sacral ganglia
Ganglion impar
splanchnic nerves: Sacral splanchnic nerves
Parasympathetic
splanchnic nerves: Pelvic splanchnic nerves
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Biodiversity hotspot
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with significant levels of biodiversity that is threatened with destruction. For example forests are considered as biodiversity hotspots.
Norman Myers wrote about the concept in two articles in “The Environmentalist” (1988),[1] & 1990[2] revised after thorough analysis by Myers and others in “Hotspots: Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions”[3] and a paper published in the journal Nature.[4]
To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot on Myers 2000 edition of the hotspot-map, a region must meet two strict criteria: it must contain at least 0.5% or 1,500 species of vascular plants as endemics, and it has to have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation.[4] Around the world, 36 areas qualify under this definition.[5] These sites support nearly 60% of the world's plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species, with a very high share of those species as endemics.
Contents
[hide]
1 Hotspot conservation initiatives
2 Distribution by region
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
6 Further reading
Hotspot conservation initiatives[edit]
Only a small percentage of the total land area within biodiversity hotspots is now protected. Several international organizations are working in many ways to conserve biodiversity hotspots.
Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF) is a global program that provides funding and technical assistance to nongovernmental organizations and participation to protect the Earth's richest regions of plant and animal diversity including: biodiversity hotspots, high-biodiversity wilderness areas and important marine regions.
The World Wide Fund for Nature has derived a system called the "Global 200 Ecoregions", the aim of which is to select priority Ecoregions for conservation within each of 14 terrestrial, 3 freshwater, and 4 marine habitat types. They are chosen for their species richness, endemism, taxonomic uniqueness, unusual ecological or evolutionary phenomena, and global rarity. All biodiversity hotspots contain at least one Global 200 Ecoregion.
Birdlife International has identified 218 “Endemic Bird Areas” (EBAs) each of which hold two or more bird species found nowhere else. Birdlife International has identified more than 11,000 Important Bird Areas[6] all over the world.
Plant life International coordinates several the world aiming to identify Important Plant Areas.
Alliance for Zero Extinction is an initiative of a large number of scientific organizations and conservation groups who co-operate to focus on the most threatened endemic species of the world. They have identified 595 sites, including a large number of Birdlife’ s Important Bird Areas.
The National Geographic Society has prepared a world map[7] of the hotspots and ArcView shapefile and metadata for the Biodiversity Hotspots[8] including details of the individual endangered fauna in each hotspot, which is available from Conservation International.[9]
By the influence of that the central government of india arrived a new authority named CAMPA(compulsory afforestation fund management and planning authority) to control the destruction of forests and biological spots in india
Distribution by region[edit]
Biodiversity hotspots. Original proposal in green, and added regions in blue.
North and Central America
California Floristic Province •8•
Madrean pine-oak woodlands •26•
Mesoamerica •2•
North American Coastal Plain (composed of Atlantic Coastal Plain and Gulf Coastal Plain) •36•
The Caribbean
Caribbean Islands •3•
South America
Atlantic Forest •4•
Cerrado •6•
Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests •7•
Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena •5•
Tropical Andes •1•
Europe
Mediterranean Basin •14•
Africa
Cape Floristic Region •12•
Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa •10•
Eastern Afromontane •28•
Guinean Forests of West Africa •11•
Horn of Africa •29•
Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands •9•
Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany •27•
Succulent Karoo •13•
Central Asia
Mountains of Central Asia •31•
South Asia
Eastern Himalaya, Nepal, India •32•
Indo-Burma, India and Myanmar •19•
Western Ghats, India•21•
Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka•21•
South East Asia and Asia-Pacific
East Melanesian Islands •34•
New Caledonia •23•
New Zealand •24•
Philippines •18•
Polynesia-Micronesia •25•
Eastern Australian temperate forests •35•
Southwest Australia •22•
Sundaland and Nicobar islands of India •16•
Wallacea •17•
East Asia
Japan •33•
Mountains of Southwest China •20•
West Asia
Caucasus •15•
Irano-Anatolian •30•
Critiques of "Hotspots"
The high profile of the biodiversity hotspots approach has resulted in some criticism. Papers such as Kareiva & Marvier (2003)[10][citation needed] have argued that the biodiversity hotspots:
Do not adequately represent other forms of species richness (e.g. total species richness or threatened species richness).
Do not adequately represent taxa other than vascular plants (e.g. vertebrates, or fungi).
Do not protect smaller scale richness hotspots.
Do not make allowances for changing land use patterns. Hotspots represent regions that have experienced considerable habitat loss, but this does not mean they are experiencing ongoing habitat loss. On the other hand, regions that are relatively intact (e.g. the Amazon Basin) have experienced relatively little land loss, but are currently losing habitat at tremendous rates.
Do not protect ecosystem services.
Do not consider phylogenetic diversity.[11]
A recent series of papers has pointed out that biodiversity hotspots (and many other priority region sets) do not address the concept of cost.[12] The purpose of biodiversity hotspots is not simply to identify regions that are of high biodiversity value, but to prioritize conservation spending. The regions identified include some in the developed world (e.g. the California Floristic Province), alongside others in the developing world (e.g. Madagascar). The cost of land is likely to vary between these regions by an order of magnitude or more, but the biodiversity hotspot designations do not consider the conservation importance of this difference. However, the available resources for conservation also tend to vary in this way.
See also[edit]
Biodiversity
Conservation biology
Crisis Ecoregions
Ecoregions
Global 200
Hawaiian honeycreeper conservation
High-Biodiversity Wilderness Areas
Hope spot: biodiversity hotspots in the open sea
Megadiverse countries
Protected Areas
Key Biodiversity Areas
Wilderness
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Myers, N. The Environmentalist 8 187-208 (1988)
Jump up ^ Myers, N. The Environmentalist 10 243-256 (1990)
Jump up ^ Russell A. Mittermeier, Norman Myers and Cristina Goettsch Mittermeier, Hotspots: Earth's Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions, Conservation International, 2000 ISBN 978-968-6397-58-1
^ Jump up to: a b Myers, Norman; Mittermeier, Russell A.; Mittermeier, Cristina G.; da Fonseca, Gustavo A. B.; Kent, Jennifer (2000). "Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities" (PDF). Nature. 403 (6772): 853–858. doi:10.1038/35002501. ISSN 0028-0836.
Jump up ^ "CEPF.net - The Biodiversity Hotspots". www.cepf.net. Retrieved 2017-03-05.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived August 8, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Conservation International" (PDF). The Biodiversity Hotspots. 2010-10-07. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-27. Retrieved 2012-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Conservation International". The Biodiversity Hotspots. 2010-10-07. Archived from the original on 2012-03-20. Retrieved 2012-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Resources". Biodiversityhotspots.org. 2010-10-07. Archived from the original on 2012-03-24. Retrieved 2012-06-22.
Jump up ^ Kareiva, P. and M. Marvier (2003) Conserving Biodiversity Coldspots, American Scientist, 91, 344-351.
Jump up ^ Daru, Barnabas H.; van der Bank, Michelle; Davies, T. Jonathan (2014). "Spatial incongruence among hotspots and complementary areas of tree diversity in southern Africa". Diversity and Distributions. doi:10.1111/ddi.12290.
Jump up ^ Possingham, H. and K. Wilson (2005) Turning up the heat on hotspots, Nature, 436, 919-920.
External links[edit]
A-Z of Areas of Biodiversity Importance: Biodiversity Hotspots
Conservation International's Biodiversity Hotspots project
African Wild Dog Conservancy's Biodiversity Hotspots Project
Biodiversity hotspots in India
New biodiversity maps color-coded to show hotspots
Further reading[edit]
Dedicated issue of Philosophical Transactions B on Biodiversity Hotspots. Some articles are freely available.[permanent dead link]
Spyros Sfenthourakis, Anastasios Legakis: Hotspots of endemic terrestrial invertebrates in Southern Greece. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001
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