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Secure Shell
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"SSH" redirects here. For other uses, see SSH (disambiguation).
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Secure Shell (SSH) is a cryptographic network protocol for operating network services securely over an unsecured network.[1] The best known example application is for remote login to computer systems by users.
SSH provides a secure channel over an unsecured network in a client-server architecture, connecting an SSH client application with an SSH server.[2] Common applications include remote command-line login and remote command execution, but any network service can be secured with SSH. The protocol specification distinguishes between two major versions, referred to as SSH-1 and SSH-2.
The most visible application of the protocol is for access to shell accounts on Unix-like operating systems, but it sees some limited use on Windows as well. In 2015, Microsoft announced that they would include native support for SSH in a future release.[3]
SSH was designed as a replacement for Telnet and for unsecured remote shell protocols such as the Berkeley rlogin, rsh, and rexec protocols. Those protocols send information, notably passwords, in plaintext, rendering them susceptible to interception and disclosure using packet analysis.[4] The encryption used by SSH is intended to provide confidentiality and integrity of data over an unsecured network, such as the Internet, although files leaked by Edward Snowden indicate that the National Security Agency can sometimes decrypt SSH, allowing them to read the contents of SSH sessions.[5]
On 6 July 2017, the government transparency organization WikiLeaks confirmed that the US Central Intelligence Agency had developed tools that can be installed on computers running Microsoft Windows or GNU/Linux operating systems to intercept SSH connections started by SSH clients on the compromised systems.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
2 Key management
3 Usage
4 History and development
4.1 Version 1.x
4.2 Version 2.x
4.3 Version 1.99
4.4 OpenSSH and OSSH
5 Uses
5.1 File transfer protocols
6 Architecture
7 Enhancements
8 Vulnerabilities
8.1 SSH-1
8.2 CBC plaintext recovery
8.3 Undisclosed vulnerabilities
8.4 US government hack of SSH protocols confirmed
9 Standards documentation
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Definition[edit]
SSH uses public-key cryptography to authenticate the remote computer and allow it to authenticate the user, if necessary.[2] There are several ways to use SSH; one is to use automatically generated public-private key pairs to simply encrypt a network connection, and then use password authentication to log on.
Another is to use a manually generated public-private key pair to perform the authentication, allowing users or programs to log in without having to specify a password. In this scenario, anyone can produce a matching pair of different keys (public and private). The public key is placed on all computers that must allow access to the owner of the matching private key (the owner keeps the private key secret). While authentication is based on the private key, the key itself is never transferred through the network during authentication. SSH only verifies whether the same person offering the public key also owns the matching private key. In all versions of SSH it is important to verify unknown public keys, i.e. associate the public keys with identities, before accepting them as valid. Accepting an attacker's public key without validation will authorize an unauthorized attacker as a valid user.
Key management[edit]
On Unix-like systems, the list of authorized public keys is typically stored in the home directory of the user that is allowed to log in remotely, in the file ~/.ssh/authorized_keys.[7] This file is respected by SSH only if it is not writable by anything apart from the owner and root. When the public key is present on the remote end and the matching private key is present on the local end, typing in the password is no longer required (some software like Message Passing Interface (MPI) stack may need this password-less access to run properly). However, for additional security the private key itself can be locked with a passphrase.
The private key can also be looked for in standard places, and its full path can be specified as a command line setting (the option -i for ssh). The ssh-keygen utility produces the public and private keys, always in pairs.
SSH also supports password-based authentication that is encrypted by automatically generated keys. In this case, the attacker could imitate the legitimate server side, ask for the password, and obtain it (man-in-the-middle attack). However, this is possible only if the two sides have never authenticated before, as SSH remembers the key that the server side previously used. The SSH client raises a warning before accepting the key of a new, previously unknown server. Password authentication can be disabled.
Usage[edit]
SSH is typically used to log into a remote machine and execute commands, but it also supports tunneling, forwarding TCP ports and X11 connections; it can transfer files using the associated SSH file transfer (SFTP) or secure copy (SCP) protocols.[2] SSH uses the client-server model.
The standard TCP port 22 has been assigned for contacting SSH servers.[8]
An SSH client program is typically used for establishing connections to an SSH daemon accepting remote connections. Both are commonly present on most modern operating systems, including macOS, most distributions of Linux, OpenBSD, FreeBSD, NetBSD, Solaris and OpenVMS. Notably, Windows is one of the few modern desktop/server OSs that does not include SSH by default. Proprietary, freeware and open source (e.g. PuTTY,[9] and the version of OpenSSH which is part of Cygwin[10]) versions of various levels of complexity and completeness exist. Native Linux file managers (e.g. Konqueror) can use the FISH protocol to provide a split-pane GUI with drag-and-drop. The open source Windows program WinSCP[11] provides similar file management (synchronization, copy, remote delete) capability using PuTTY as a back-end. Both WinSCP[12] and PuTTY[13] are available packaged to run directly off a USB drive, without requiring installation on the client machine. Setting up an SSH server in Windows typically involves installation (e.g. via installing Cygwin[14]). In Windows 10 version 1709, an official Win32 port of OpenSSH is available.
SSH is important in cloud computing to solve connectivity problems, avoiding the security issues of exposing a cloud-based virtual machine directly on the Internet. An SSH tunnel can provide a secure path over the Internet, through a firewall to a virtual machine.[15]
History and development[edit]
Version 1.x[edit]
In 1995, Tatu Ylönen, a researcher at Helsinki University of Technology, Finland, designed the first version of the protocol (now called SSH-1) prompted by a password-sniffing attack at his university network.[16] The goal of SSH was to replace the earlier rlogin, TELNET, ftp[17] and rsh protocols, which did not provide strong authentication nor guarantee confidentiality. Ylönen released his implementation as freeware in July 1995, and the tool quickly gained in popularity. Towards the end of 1995, the SSH user base had grown to 20,000 users in fifty countries.
In December 1995, Ylönen founded SSH Communications Security to market and develop SSH. The original version of the SSH software used various pieces of free software, such as GNU libgmp, but later versions released by SSH Communications Security evolved into increasingly proprietary software.
It was estimated that by the year 2000 the number of users had grown to 2 million.[18]
Version 2.x[edit]
"Secsh" was the official Internet Engineering Task Force's (IETF) name for the IETF working group responsible for version 2 of the SSH protocol.[19] In 2006, a revised version of the protocol, SSH-2, was adopted as a standard. This version is incompatible with SSH-1. SSH-2 features both security and feature improvements over SSH-1. Better security, for example, comes through Diffie–Hellman key exchange and strong integrity checking via message authentication codes. New features of SSH-2 include the ability to run any number of shell sessions over a single SSH connection.[20] Due to SSH-2's superiority and popularity over SSH-1, some implementations such as Lsh[21] and Dropbear[22] support only the SSH-2 protocol.
Version 1.99[edit]
In January 2006, well after version 2.1 was established, RFC 4253 specified that an SSH server which supports both 2.0 and prior versions of SSH should identify its protoversion as 1.99.[23] This is not an actual version but a method to identify backward compatibility.
OpenSSH and OSSH[edit]
In 1999, developers, wanting a free software version to be available, went back to the older 1.2.12 release of the original SSH program, which was the last released under an open source license. Björn Grönvall's OSSH was subsequently developed from this codebase. Shortly thereafter, OpenBSD developers forked Grönvall's code and did extensive work on it, creating OpenSSH, which shipped with the 2.6 release of OpenBSD. From this version, a "portability" branch was formed to port OpenSSH to other operating systems.[24]
As of 2005[update], OpenSSH was the single most popular SSH implementation, coming by default in a large number of operating systems. OSSH meanwhile has become obsolete.[25] OpenSSH continues to be maintained and supports the SSH-2 protocol, having expunged SSH-1 support from the codebase with the OpenSSH 7.6 release.
Uses[edit]
Example of tunneling an X11 application over SSH: the user 'josh' has SSHed from the local machine 'foofighter' to the remote machine 'tengwar' to run xeyes.
Logging into OpenWrt via SSH using PuTTY running on Windows.
SSH is a protocol that can be used for many applications across many platforms including most Unix variants (Linux, the BSDs including Apple's macOS, and Solaris), as well as Microsoft Windows. Some of the applications below may require features that are only available or compatible with specific SSH clients or servers. For example, using the SSH protocol to implement a VPN is possible, but presently only with the OpenSSH server and client implementation.
For login to a shell on a remote host (replacing Telnet and rlogin)
For executing a single command on a remote host (replacing rsh)
For setting up automatic (passwordless) login to a remote server (for example, using OpenSSH[26])
Secure file transfer
In combination with rsync to back up, copy and mirror files efficiently and securely
For forwarding or tunneling a port (not to be confused with a VPN, which routes packets between different networks, or bridges two broadcast domains into one).
For using as a full-fledged encrypted VPN. Note that only OpenSSH server and client supports this feature.
For forwarding X from a remote host (possible through multiple intermediate hosts)
For browsing the web through an encrypted proxy connection with SSH clients that support the SOCKS protocol.
For securely mounting a directory on a remote server as a filesystem on a local computer using SSHFS.
For automated remote monitoring and management of servers through one or more of the mechanisms discussed above.
For development on a mobile or embedded device that supports SSH.
File transfer protocols[edit]
The Secure Shell protocols are used in several file transfer mechanisms.
Secure copy (SCP), which evolved from RCP protocol over SSH
rsync, intended to be more efficient than SCP
SSH File Transfer Protocol (SFTP), a secure alternative to FTP (not to be confused with FTP over SSH or FTPS)
Files transferred over shell protocol (a.k.a. FISH), released in 1998, which evolved from Unix shell commands over SSH
Fast and Secure Protocol (FASP), aka Aspera, uses SSH for control and UDP ports for data transfer.
Architecture[edit]
Diagram of the SSH-2 binary packet.
The SSH-2 protocol has an internal architecture (defined in RFC 4251) with well-separated layers, namely:
The transport layer (RFC 4253). This layer handles initial key exchange as well as server authentication, and sets up encryption, compression and integrity verification. It exposes to the upper layer an interface for sending and receiving plaintext packets with sizes of up to 32,768 bytes each (more can be allowed by the implementation). The transport layer also arranges for key re-exchange, usually after 1 GB of data has been transferred or after 1 hour has passed, whichever occurs first.
The user authentication layer (RFC 4252). This layer handles client authentication and provides a number of authentication methods. Authentication is client-driven: when one is prompted for a password, it may be the SSH client prompting, not the server. The server merely responds to the client's authentication requests. Widely used user-authentication methods include the following:
password: a method for straightforward password authentication, including a facility allowing a password to be changed. Not all programs implement this method.
publickey: a method for public key-based authentication, usually supporting at least DSA or RSA keypairs, with other implementations also supporting X.509 certificates.
keyboard-interactive (RFC 4256): a versatile method where the server sends one or more prompts to enter information and the client displays them and sends back responses keyed-in by the user. Used to provide one-time password authentication such as S/Key or SecurID. Used by some OpenSSH configurations when PAM is the underlying host-authentication provider to effectively provide password authentication, sometimes leading to inability to log in with a client that supports just the plain password authentication method.
GSSAPI authentication methods which provide an extensible scheme to perform SSH authentication using external mechanisms such as Kerberos 5 or NTLM, providing single sign-on capability to SSH sessions. These methods are usually implemented by commercial SSH implementations for use in organizations, though OpenSSH does have a working GSSAPI implementation.
The connection layer (RFC 4254). This layer defines the concept of channels, channel requests and global requests using which SSH services are provided. A single SSH connection can host multiple channels simultaneously, each transferring data in both directions. Channel requests are used to relay out-of-band channel-specific data, such as the changed size of a terminal window or the exit code of a server-side process. The SSH client requests a server-side port to be forwarded using a global request. Standard channel types include:
shell for terminal shells, SFTP and exec requests (including SCP transfers)
direct-tcpip for client-to-server forwarded connections
forwarded-tcpip for server-to-client forwarded connections
The SSHFP DNS record (RFC 4255) provides the public host key fingerprints in order to aid in verifying the authenticity of the host.
This open architecture provides considerable flexibility, allowing the use of SSH for a variety of purposes beyond a secure shell. The functionality of the transport layer alone is comparable to Transport Layer Security (TLS); the user-authentication layer is highly extensible with custom authentication methods; and the connection layer provides the ability to multiplex many secondary sessions into a single SSH connection, a feature comparable to BEEP and not available in TLS.
Enhancements[edit]
These are intended for performance enhancements of SSH products:
SSH-over-SCTP: support for SCTP rather than TCP as the connection oriented transport layer protocol.[27]
ECDSA: support for elliptic curve DSA rather than DSA or RSA for signing.[28]
ECDH: support for elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman rather than plain Diffie–Hellman for encryption key exchange.[28]
UMAC: support for UMAC rather than HMAC for MAC/integrity.[29]
Vulnerabilities[edit]
SSH-1[edit]
In 1998 a vulnerability was described in SSH 1.5 which allowed the unauthorized insertion of content into an encrypted SSH stream due to insufficient data integrity protection from CRC-32 used in this version of the protocol.[30][31] A fix known as SSH Compensation Attack Detector[32] was introduced into most implementations. Many of these updated implementations contained a new integer overflow vulnerability[33] that allowed attackers to execute arbitrary code with the privileges of the SSH daemon, typically root.
In January 2001 a vulnerability was discovered that allows attackers to modify the last block of an IDEA-encrypted session.[34] The same month, another vulnerability was discovered that allowed a malicious server to forward a client authentication to another server.[35]
Since SSH-1 has inherent design flaws which make it vulnerable, it is now generally considered obsolete and should be avoided by explicitly disabling fallback to SSH-1.[citation needed] Most modern servers and clients support SSH-2.[citation needed]
CBC plaintext recovery[edit]
In November 2008, a theoretical vulnerability was discovered for all versions of SSH which allowed recovery of up to 32 bits of plaintext from a block of ciphertext that was encrypted using what was then the standard default encryption mode, CBC.[36] The most straightforward solution is to use CTR, counter mode, instead of CBC mode, since this renders SSH resistant to the attack.[36]
Undisclosed vulnerabilities[edit]
On December 28, 2014 Der Spiegel published classified information[5] leaked by whistleblower Edward Snowden which suggests that the National Security Agency may be able to decrypt some SSH traffic. The technical details associated with such a process were not disclosed.
US government hack of SSH protocols confirmed[edit]
On 6 July, 2017, the government transparency activist organization WikiLeaks released US Central Intelligence Agency documents that revealed how the CIA's Information Operations Center hacks into "secure" communications that utilize the SSH protocol on both Windows and Linux operating systems. The release included official user guides for the CIA's BothanSpy and Gyrfalcon programmes which "are designed to intercept and exfiltrate SSH credentials but work on different operating systems with different attack vectors" WikiLeaks reported.
"BothanSpy is an implant that targets the SSH client program Xshell on the Microsoft Windows platform and steals user credentials for all active SSH sessions. These credentials are either username and password in case of password-authenticated SSH sessions or username, filename of private SSH key and key password if public key authentication is used. BothanSpy can exfiltrate the stolen credentials to a CIA-controlled server (so the implant never touches the disk on the target system) or save it in an encrypted file for later exfiltration by other means. BothanSpy is installed as a Shellterm 3.x extension on the target machine.
"Gyrfalcon is an implant that targets the OpenSSH client on Linux platforms (centos,debian,rhel,suse,ubuntu). The implant can not only steal user credentials of active SSH sessions, but is also capable of collecting full or partial OpenSSH session traffic. All collected information is stored in an encrypted file for later exfiltration. It is installed and configured by using a CIA-developed root kit (JQC/KitV) on the target machine."[37]
Standards documentation[edit]
The following RFC publications by the IETF "secsh" working group document SSH-2 as a proposed Internet standard.
RFC 4250, The Secure Shell (SSH) Protocol Assigned Numbers
RFC 4251, The Secure Shell (SSH) Protocol Architecture
RFC 4252, The Secure Shell (SSH) Authentication Protocol
RFC 4253, The Secure Shell (SSH) Transport Layer Protocol
RFC 4254, The Secure Shell (SSH) Connection Protocol
RFC 4255, Using DNS to Securely Publish Secure Shell (SSH) Key Fingerprints
RFC 4256, Generic Message Exchange Authentication for the Secure Shell Protocol (SSH)
RFC 4335, The Secure Shell (SSH) Session Channel Break Extension
RFC 4344, The Secure Shell (SSH) Transport Layer Encryption Modes
RFC 4345, Improved Arcfour Modes for the Secure Shell (SSH) Transport Layer Protocol
It was later modified and expanded by the following publications.
RFC 4419, Diffie-Hellman Group Exchange for the Secure Shell (SSH) Transport Layer Protocol (March 2006)
RFC 4432, RSA Key Exchange for the Secure Shell (SSH) Transport Layer Protocol (March 2006)
RFC 4462, Generic Security Service Application Program Interface (GSS-API) Authentication and Key Exchange for the Secure Shell (SSH) Protocol (May 2006)
RFC 4716, The Secure Shell (SSH) Public Key File Format (November 2006)
RFC 4819: Secure Shell Public Key Subsystem (March 2007)
RFC 5647: AES Galois Counter Mode for the Secure Shell Transport Layer Protocol (August 2009)
RFC 5656, Elliptic Curve Algorithm Integration in the Secure Shell Transport Layer (December 2009)
RFC 6187: X.509v3 Certificates for Secure Shell Authentication (March 2011)
RFC 6239: Suite B Cryptographic Suites for Secure Shell (SSH) (May 2011)
RFC 6594: Use of the SHA-256 Algorithm with RSA, Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA), and Elliptic Curve DSA (ECDSA) in SSHFP Resource Records
RFC 6668, SHA-2 Data Integrity Verification for the Secure Shell (SSH) Transport Layer Protocol (July 2012)
RFC 7479: Ed25519 SSHFP Resource Records
In addition, the OpenSSH project includes several vendor protocol specifications/extensions:
OpenSSH PROTOCOL overview
OpenSSH certificate/key overview
See also[edit]
Cryptography portal
Ident
Web-based SSH
Comparison of SSH clients
Comparison of SSH servers
Corkscrew
Secure Shell tunneling
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Network Working Group of the IETF, January 2006, RFC 4251, The Secure Shell (SSH) Protocol Architecture
^ Jump up to: a b c Network Working Group of the IETF, January 2006, RFC 4252, The Secure Shell (SSH) Authentication Protocol
Jump up ^ Peter Bright (June 2, 2015). "Microsoft bringing SSH to Windows and PowerShell". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on June 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ "SSH Hardens the Secure Shell". Serverwatch.com. Archived from the original on 2008-12-23.
^ Jump up to: a b "Prying Eyes: Inside the NSA's War on Internet Security". Spiegel Online. December 28, 2014. Archived from the original on January 24, 2015.
Jump up ^ "BothanSpy". wikileaks.org. 2017-07-06. Archived from the original on 2017-09-21. Retrieved 2017-09-25.
Jump up ^ "How To Set Up Authorized Keys". Archived from the original on 2011-05-10.
Jump up ^ "Service Name and Transport Protocol Port Number Registry". iana.org. Archived from the original on 2001-06-04.
Jump up ^ "Download PuTTY - a free SSH and telnet client for Windows". Putty.org. Archived from the original on 2014-05-27. Retrieved 2014-04-28.
Jump up ^ "Cygwin Package List". Retrieved January 5, 2016.
Jump up ^ "WinSCP home page". Archived from the original on 2014-02-17.
Jump up ^ "WinSCP page for PortableApps.com". Archived from the original on 2014-02-16.
Jump up ^ "PuTTY page for PortableApps.com". Archived from the original on 2014-02-16.
Jump up ^ "Installing Cygwin and Starting the SSH Daemon". Archived from the original on 2014-02-22. Retrieved 2014-02-17.
Jump up ^ Amies, A; Wu, C F; Wang, G C; Criveti, M (2012). "Networking on the cloud". IBM developerWorks. Archived from the original on 2013-06-14.
Jump up ^ Tatu Ylönen. "The new skeleton key: changing the locks in your network environment". Archived from the original on 2017-08-20.
Jump up ^ Tatu Ylönen. "SSH Port". Archived from the original on 2017-08-03.
Jump up ^ Nicholas Rosasco and David Larochelle. "How and Why More Secure Technologies Succeed in Legacy Markets: Lessons from the Success of SSH" (PDF). Quoting Barrett and Silverman, SSH, the Secure Shell: The Definitive Guide, O'Reilly & Associates (2001). Dept. of Computer Science, Univ. of Virginia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2006-06-25. Retrieved 2006-05-19.
Jump up ^ "Secsh Protocol Documents". VanDyke Software, Inc. Archived from the original on 2010-01-13.
Jump up ^ "SSH Frequently Asked Questions". Archived from the original on 2004-10-10.
Jump up ^ "A GNU implementation of the Secure Shell protocols". Archived from the original on 2012-02-04.
Jump up ^ "Dropbear SSH". Archived from the original on 2011-10-14.
Jump up ^ "RFC 4253". Section 5. Compatibility With Old SSH Versions. Archived from the original on 2010-07-04. , IETF
Jump up ^ "OpenSSH: Project History and Credits". openssh.com. 2004-12-22. Archived from the original on 2013-12-24. Retrieved 2014-04-27.
Jump up ^ "OSSH Information for VU#419241". Archived from the original on 2007-09-27.
Jump up ^ Sobell, Mark (2012). A Practical Guide to Linux Commands, Editors, and Shell Programming (3rd Edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. pp. 702–704. ISBN 978-0133085044.
Jump up ^ Seggelmann, R.; Tuxen, M.; Rathgeb, E.P. (18–20 July 2012). "SSH over SCTP — Optimizing a multi-channel protocol by adapting it to SCTP". Communication Systems, Networks & Digital Signal Processing (CSNDSP), 2012 8th International Symposium on: 1–6. doi:10.1109/CSNDSP.2012.6292659. ISBN 978-1-4577-1473-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Stebila, D.; Green J. (December 2009). "RFC5656 - Elliptic Curve Algorithm Integration in the Secure Shell Transport Layer". Archived from the original on 19 July 2012. Retrieved 12 November 2012.
Jump up ^ Miller, D.; Valchev, P. (September 3, 2007). "The use of UMAC in the SSH Transport Layer Protocol / draft-miller-secsh-umac-00.txt". Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 12 November 2012.
Jump up ^ "SSH Insertion Attack". Core Security Technologies. Archived from the original on 2011-07-08.
Jump up ^ "Vulnerability Note VU#13877 - Weak CRC allows packet injection into SSH sessions encrypted with block ciphers". US CERT. Archived from the original on 2010-07-10.
Jump up ^ "SSH CRC-32 Compensation Attack Detector Vulnerability". SecurityFocus. Archived from the original on 2008-07-25.
Jump up ^ "Vulnerability Note VU#945216 - SSH CRC32 attack detection code contains remote integer overflow". US CERT. Archived from the original on 2005-10-13.
Jump up ^ "Vulnerability Note VU#315308 - Weak CRC allows last block of IDEA-encrypted SSH packet to be changed without notice". US CERT. Archived from the original on 2010-07-11.
Jump up ^ "Vulnerability Note VU#684820 - SSH-1 allows client authentication to be forwarded by a malicious server to another server". US CERT. Archived from the original on 2009-09-01.
^ Jump up to: a b "Vulnerability Note VU#958563 - SSH CBC vulnerability". US CERT. Archived from the original on 2011-06-22.
Jump up ^ "BothanSpy". www.wikileaks.org. 2017-07-06. Archived from the original on 2017-07-08. Retrieved 2017-07-09.
Further reading[edit]
Daniel J. Barrett, Richard E. Silverman, and Robert G. Byrnes, SSH: The Secure Shell (The Definitive Guide), O'Reilly 2005 (2nd edition). ISBN 0-596-00895-3
Michael Stahnke, Pro OpenSSH, Apress 2005 ISBN 1-59059-476-2
Tatu Ylönen (12 July 1995). "Announcement: Ssh (Secure Shell) Remote Login Program". comp.security.unix. Original announcement of Ssh
Himanshu Dwivedi; Implementing SSH, Wiley 2003. ISBN 978-0-471-45880-7
This article is based on material taken from the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008 and incorporated under the "relicensing" terms of the GFDL, version 1.3 or later.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to SSH.
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Internet Technologies/SSH
SSH Protocols
RFC7076
How to establish passwordless login with ssh
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Holes (novel)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 6 August 2017.
Jump to: navigation, search
Holes
Author
Louis Sachar
Language
English
Genre
Adventure, Satire
Publisher
Farrar, Straus and Giroux (US)
Bloomsbury (UK)
Ediciones SM (Spain)
Publication date
August 20, 1998
ISBN
978-0-786-22186-8
OCLC
3800257333232
Dewey Decimal
[Fic] 21
LC Class
PZ7.S1185 Ho 1998
Holes is a 1998 young adult mystery comedy novel written by Louis Sachar and first published by Farrar, Straus and Giroux. It won the 1998 U.S. National Book Award for Young People's Literature[1] and the 1999 Newbery Medal for the year's "most distinguished contribution to American literature for children".[2] In 2012 it was ranked number 6 among all-time children's novels in a survey published by School Library Journal.[3]
Holes was adapted as a feature film of the same name by Walt Disney Pictures, and was released in 2003.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
1.1 Present day
1.2 19th-century curse
1.3 Kissin' Kate Barlow
1.4 Camp Green Lake
2 Characters
2.1 Camp Green Lake
2.2 Town of Green Lake
2.3 Mid-1800s Latvia
2.4 Minor characters
3 Setting
4 Film adaptation
5 Sequels
5.1 Stanley Yelnats's Survival Guide to Camp Green Lake
5.2 Small Steps
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
This article's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (October 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Present day[edit]
Stanley Yelnats IV is a 14-year-old boy from a hard-working but poor family that is allegedly affected by a curse of bad luck, which they blame on Stanley's "no-good-dirty-rotten pig-stealing-great-great-grandfather".[4] Stanley's latest stroke of misfortune occurs when he is mistakenly convicted of the theft of a pair of athletic shoes once owned by Clyde "Sweet Feet" Livingston, which had been donated to a homeless shelter to raise money.
Stanley is sent to Camp Green Lake, a juvenile imprisonment and disciplinary facility which is ironically in the middle of a sterile desert. As a punishment, the inmates of the camp have to dig 1 hole a day 5 feet wide and 5 feet deep to 'build character'. Stanley soon begins to suspect that they are not digging to build character, but rather to find something hidden beneath the dry, rocky ground.
19th-century curse[edit]
Stanley's "no-good-dirty-rotten-pig-stealing-great-great-grandfather", Elya Yelnats, is in love with a girl named Myra Menke, but a much older pig farmer named Igor Barkov also wants to marry her, offering Myra's father his heaviest pig in exchange for Myra's hand in marriage.
Desperate to impress Myra and her father, Elya goes to his friend Madame Zeroni for help. She warns him that Myra is not intelligent and will not be a good wife, and advises him to move to America, as her son has. She gives him a tiny piglet, telling him to carry the piglet up a mountain every day, and let it drink from a stream while singing to it. Each day the water will make it grow bigger, and Elya will grow stronger. On the last day, after he carries the pig one last time, he must carry Madame Zeroni herself up the mountain to do the same, as he will then be strong enough to carry her. However, Zeroni warns him that if Elya does not carry her up the mountain, his family will be cursed.
Elya follows her directions, and the piglet grows to a large size, but he does not carry the pig up on the final day in order to have time to clean up. Elya nearly wins Myra as his bride, but his pig is revealed to be the same weight as Igor's. Since the pigs weigh the same, Myra is given the choice between Elya and Igor, but fails to decide. When Myra has Elya and Igor try to guess what number she's thinking of in order to win her, Elya walks away in disgust. Elya, forgetting his promise to Madame Zeroni, moves to America to start a new life, falls in love, and marries, but he is beset by Zeroni's curse. The song that he sang to the piglet becomes a lullaby that is passed down among Elya's descendants, who are all named Stanley due to its palindromic relation to the name Yelnats.
Kissin' Kate Barlow[edit]
In the year 1888, the town of Green Lake is a flourishing lakeside community. Katherine "Kate" Barlow, the local teacher, falls in love with Sam, an African-American onion seller, while rejecting advances from wealthy resident Charles "Trout" Walker (named due to the smell of his feet). There is an uproar in the town after Hattie Parker sees Kate and Sam kissing in an alley, proclaiming God will punish them. After no children arrive at the schoolhouse the following day, a mob led by Trout Walker ransacks and burns the schoolhouse. Kate realizes that Sam is in danger of being lynched and seeks the help of the sheriff. The sheriff is drunk and states that Sam is to be hanged in accordance with the law, but will spare Sam if she gives him a kiss. Kate leaves in disgust. She finds Sam and they attempt an escape across the lake in Sam's rowboat, but Walker and the mob intercept them with Walker's motorboat, ramming the smaller vessel and sinking it. Sam is shot and killed in the water, while Kate is "rescued" against her wishes. Following the death of Sam, no rain falls ever again on the town, and the reader is asked: 'who did God punish?'
Kate becomes a prominent outlaw, who leaves a kiss-mark in lipstick on her first dead victim, earning her the nickname "Kissin' Kate Barlow." Kate robs Stanley's great-grandfather, Stanley Yelnats I, of his entire fortune, but rather than kill him, she abandons him in the desert that was previously Green Lake. Miraculously, he survives after he is found by lizard and snake hunters, who believe Stanley I to be crazy. Stanley I is subsequently taken to the hospital where he stays for a number of weeks. During his hospital stay, Stanley I falls in love with the nurse that is caring for him, and the two later marry.
Twenty years later, Kate returns to an old cabin on the former lakeside and is tracked down by Trout and his wife, who are bankrupt and desperate for money. They try to force her to reveal where she buried her loot, but she is bitten by a yellow-spotted lizard and dies. As she dies, she taunts them by saying, "start digging". The Walkers are left to dig the entire area in order to find the buried treasure.
Camp Green Lake[edit]
The inmates at Camp Green Lake are forced to dig cylindrical holes five feet deep and five feet wide, which the warden says "builds their character." They are promised the rest of their day off if they find anything that the Warden considers "interesting". Stanley finds a fossil, but Mr Pendanski tells him that the Warden "isn't interested in fossils", leading Stanley to suspect they are looking for something in particular. During one dig, Stanley finds one of Barlow's lipstick tubes (though he doesn't recognize it for what it is), but he pawns it off to X-Ray, the ringleader of Tent D, who convinces him that he deserves it more than Stanley. The Warden is excited by the discovery and orders them to greatly enlarge X-Ray's hole (the wrong hole) and to sift through the dirt from it for several weeks.
Meanwhile, Stanley and Zero, the smallest inmate in Tent D, who got his nickname because "he has nothing in his head", become friends. Stanley agrees to teach Zero how to read, and in return, Zero digs Stanley's hole part of the time. The other boys eventually become jealous after seeing Stanley getting help, eventually resulting in a fight. The Warden and the staff arrive and, learning that Zero has been assisting Stanley with digging in return for receiving education, mock him. The argument culminates in Zero angrily hitting Mr. Pendanski with a shovel and running away, and the camp staff decide to erase their records of him and let him die in the desert. A few days later, Stanley follows Zero and finds him living under the remains of Sam's boat, eating very old jars of Kate's spiced peaches, which he calls "Sploosh". Stanley notices a mountain resembling a human fist giving the thumbs up sign, and recalls that Stanley Yelnats I claimed to find "refuge on God’s thumb". On the mountain, Zero admits that he was the one who stole "Sweet Feet" Livingston's shoes.
Atop the mountain, Stanley discovers a field of onions that was once Sam's. The boys eat the onions and find water by digging in the ground, and Stanley sings Madame Zeroni's song to Zero, Zeroni's descendant, unknowingly breaking the curse. Stanley suggests that they return to the hole where Stanley found the lipstick to find the buried treasure. They find a suitcase buried in the hole, but they are captured by the Warden, and surrounded by a group of lethal yellow-spotted lizards. A stalemate develops: they cannot move, but the lizards prevent the Warden's staff from approaching them. The lizards do not bite Stanley and Zero because they are repelled by the onions the boys have been eating. They remain in the hole until the next morning, when an attorney arrives demanding Stanley's release, having received testimony that gives him an alibi during the time the shoes were stolen. The Warden tries to claim they stole the suitcase from her, but Zero reveals that the name 'Stanley Yelnats' is written on it, as the suitcase had belonged to Stanley's great-grandfather. Fearing that the warden will kill Zero if he leaves him behind, Stanley refuses to leave the camp unless Zero can come along. The attorney orders the Warden to get Zero's file, but the camp staff are naturally unable to find it, and Zero is also released.
Stanley's family open the case, discovering the jewels, deeds, stocks and promissory notes stolen from Stanley Yelnats I. Using the money raised from the bonds, Stanley's family buys a new house and Zero hires a team of investigators to find his missing mother; meanwhile, the drought at Green Lake is brought to an end by rainfall. The family's luck seems to change as if in response to Stanley's fulfillment of his ancestor's promise (a suggestion left purposely ambiguous by the narration). In a final scene, Clyde Livingston and his wife, along with the Yelnats and Zeroni families, celebrate the success of Stanley's father's antidote to foot odor, composed of preserved and fermented spiced peaches and onions and named "Sploosh" by Zero. The Warden is forced to sell Green Lake to "a national organization dedicated to the well-being of young girls", which turns it into a Girl Scout camp.
Characters[edit]
Camp Green Lake[edit]
Stanley Yelnats IV (also known as "Caveman" by the rest of the campers, but referred to in the book by his proper name): Stanley is a 14-year-old boy who does not have any friends from school and is often picked on by his classmates and the school bully. Stanley's family is cursed with bad luck, and although they do not have much money, they always try to remain hopeful and look on the bright side of things. Stanley shares these traits with his family and, although he does not have a lot of self-confidence, he is not easily depressed, a characteristic that helps him adjust to the horrendous conditions of Camp Green Lake. However, he has a bad habit of blaming his great great grandfather when he gets in trouble. This habit made him impudent.[5] As the book progresses, Stanley slowly gains strength. He identifies the people who threaten him, like the Warden, and while he tries not to get in trouble he also stands up for himself and his friends and family. Stanley rebels for the rights of his friends when he steals Mr. Sir's truck to look for his friend Zero in the dry lake bed.[6]
Zero (Hector Zeroni): Zero is known to be the best digger at Camp Green Lake. So often, he is considered to be "stupid" or a mere nothing by the other boys and the counselors at the lake. He lacks an education, meaning he cannot really read nor write. However, he is smart and manages to stand for himself in the face of adversity. Typically he is noted as the character that hardly speaks due to the fact that he is wary of those who mock him. He is said to always have a scowl on his face and does not like to answer questions. Zero is shown to be an honest character after becoming close friends with Stanley. Zero is the one who steals the shoes that Stanley was arrested for and accused of stealing. He is the great-great-great-grandson of Madame Zeroni, the woman who put a curse on Stanley's family. He has been homeless for most of his life, as well as being abandoned by his mother at a very young age. Although he suffers quite a bit, he always seems to persevere and come out on top.
X-Ray (Rex Washburn): X-Ray is the unofficial head of the boys in Group D. X-Ray decides that Stanley will be called Caveman and fixes the order of the line for water. X-Ray maintains his position as the leader of the boys even though he is one of the smallest and can barely see without his glasses. He convinces Stanley to give him the lipstick tube that Stanley finds in his hole so that he can have the day off instead of Stanley. X-Ray is able to maintain his position at the head of the group through a system of rewards and allies. Every time that Stanley does something nice for X-Ray, X-Ray is nice to Stanley and stands up for him when the other boys pick on him. When Stanley becomes friends with Zero, however, X-Ray's system is threatened and he becomes hostile towards Stanley. His nickname X-ray comes from it being pig Latin of his actual name, Rex.
Squid (Alan): Squid is a member of Group D at Camp Green Lake. He is often the one for taunting Stanley for sending and receiving letters to his mother. Just like X-Ray, Squid is very tough but very subservient to X-Ray's rules and directions.
Magnet (José): Another member of Group D. Magnet earned his nickname because of his ability to steal, he got into Camp Green Lake for stealing animals from the zoo and refers to his fingers as "little magnets".
Armpit (Theodore Johnson): One of X-Ray's close friends at camp, he pushes Stanley when Stanley calls him Theodore.
Zig Zag (Ricky): Zigzag is described to being the tallest kid of Group D, constantly looking like he has been electrocuted, with frizzy hair. Stanley often thinks he is the weirdest and craziest kid at Camp Green Lake. Zigzag is the one who hit Stanley on the head with a shovel and did not apologize for doing so. Zigzag suffers from paranoia, highlighting his displayed "craziness".
The Warden (Ms. Walker): Running Camp Green Lake, she is known to be violent, abusive, and quite mean. She uses her power and privilege to get what she wants and make members of the camp to do as she pleases. She has hidden cameras, using them to spy on the members of the camp. She is often thought of to have hidden cameras in the showers, causing Stanley to be paranoid whenever he took a shower, rushing out as fast as possible. She wears nail polish traced with rattlesnake venom, and scratches those when they displease or go against what she says. She has the members of Camp Green Lake digging holes to look for Kate Barlow's hidden treasure. She is the granddaughter of Charles "Trout" Walker.
Mr. Sir: One of the counselors at Camp Green Lake, he is constantly eating sunflower seeds. He took up this habit after deciding to quit smoking. He is known to be mean and tough.
Mr. Pendanski: In Group D at Camp Green Lake Mr. Pendanski is in charge. Mr. Pendanski may seem friendly, but he is just as mean as the Warden and Mr. Sir. He never stops making fun of Zero.
Town of Green Lake[edit]
Katherine Barlow (Kissin' Kate Barlow): Katherine Barlow is a sweet and intelligent woman who teaches in a one-room school house on Green Lake one hundred and ten years before it becomes Camp Green Lake. She falls in love with Sam, the man who sells onions in the town. Although the rest of the white people in the town are racist and enforce rules that prohibit black people from going to school, Kate, who is white, does not care about the color of a person's skin and she loves Sam for the person that he is. When Kate and Sam kiss, the townsfolk grow angry and kill Sam. Kate is devastated by Sam's death and becomes Kissin' Kate Barlow, one of the most feared outlaws in the West. Kissin' Kate always leaves her mark by kissing someone when she finishes killing them; if she had only robbed them, she would leave them in the hot desert letting the yellow-spotted lizards bite the victim with their venomous teeth and kill them. She is the outlaw responsible for robbing Stanley Yelnats I (Stanley's ancestor). Kate dies when a yellow spotted lizard bites her foot. The lipstick tube that Stanley finds during his second week at Camp Green was owned by Kate Barlow.
Sam: Sam is an African-American farmer in the town Green Lake, Texas who grows onions. He believes onions are the cure to everything and makes many remedies from onions. He also has an immense love for his donkey, Mary Lou. His relationship with Kate begins when Sam exchanges his onions for some jars of peaches. He is killed by the townspeople for kissing Kate. His death is led by Charles "Trout" Walker (Trout Walker).
Charles "Trout" Walker: Charles "Trout" Walker is an extremely spoiled son of a rich family in Green Lake. He gets upset when Kate denies his request to date her. This angers him, and adds on to the reason of causing him to lead the townspeople to burn down the schoolhouse and kill Sam. His nickname Trout comes because of his foot fungus that causes his feet to smell like dead fish. He is The Warden's grandfather, which upon his death, opens up the juvenile detention camp to increase the efficiency of finding Kate Barlow's hidden treasure.
Stanley Yelnats I: Stanley Yelnats I is the son of Elya Yelnats as well as the great-grandfather of Stanley Yelnats IV. He was the one whose treasure was stolen by Kate Barlow while he was moving from New York to California. He is known to have survived by climbing to the top of a thumb-shaped mountain (God's Thumb) which happens to be Sam's old onion field.
Mid-1800s Latvia[edit]
Elya Yelnats: Elya is the great-great-grandfather of Stanley. He was often referred to as his "no-good-dirty-rotten-pig-stealing-great-great-grandfather", constantly being blamed for everything that goes wrong in Stanley's life. He is considered to be the reason why the Yelnats family has such bad luck. After he fell in love with the woman in Latvia, he travels to America, forgetting to go through with the promise he made to an old woman named Madame Zeroni. This causes generations of bad luck to trickle down the Yelnats family tree. However, he does pass down an important song that Madame Zeroni taught him in Latvia.
Madame Zeroni: Madame Zeroni is the great-great-great-grandmother of Hector Zeroni (Zero). She is great friends with Elya Yelnats, and she gives him a pig. Because Elya breaks his promise of carrying her to the top of the mountain, she is considered to be the one who put a "curse" on the Yelnats family.
Myra Menke: Myra is the most beautiful girl in the Latvian village of Elya and Madame Zeroni. Madame Zeroni compares her to a flowerpot. Myra's father promised to award her hand in marriage to whichever suitor can raise the fattest pig. When the pigs were the same size, Myra asked Elya and Igor Barkov to guess a number between 1 and 10, showing her inability to make her own decisions.
Igor Barkov: Igor was Elya's competitor for the hand of Myra Menke. He was already old and fat, but was a successful pig farmer.
Minor characters[edit]
Mr. Yelnats (Stanley Yelnats III): Mr. Yelnats is Stanley's father. He is an inventor and quite smart, but extremely unlucky. He attempts to discover a way to recycle old sneakers and because of this, the Yelnats' apartment smells bad. However, he eventually discovers a cure to ridding foot odor and is able to hire a lawyer, Ms. Morengo, to get Stanley out of Camp Green Lake.
Mrs. Yelnats: Mrs. Yelnats is Stanley's mother. She does not believe in curses but always points out the terrible luck that the Yelnats go through.
Setting[edit]
Camp Green Lake is located on a dried-up lake in the U.S. state of Texas.[7] The area is not green and there is no lake, besides the fact that there is such a little amount of shade (two oak trees) which are owned by the Warden. Camp Green Lake is a parched barren place with the scorching sun above them with hardly any clouds, so the sun is always shining, making the environment much hotter. Camp Green Lake is a juvenile detention center, where inmates spend most of their time digging holes. The majority of the book takes place between the past and present. Protagonists deal with flashbacks existing from pre-dried up Green Lake to Latvia (mid-1800s) back to modern day Camp Green Lake.
Film adaptation[edit]
Main article: Holes (film)
In 2003, Walt Disney Pictures released a film version of Holes, which was directed by Andrew Davis and written by Louis Sachar.[8]
Sequels[edit]
Two companion novels have followed Holes: Stanley Yelnats' Survival Guide to Camp Green Lake (2003) and Small Steps (2006).[9]
Stanley Yelnats's Survival Guide to Camp Green Lake[edit]
As Louis Sachar states: "Should you ever find yourself at Camp Green Lake—or somewhere similar—this is the guide for you." Written from Stanley's point of view, the book offers advice on everything from scorpions, rattlesnakes, yellow-spotted lizards, etc.[10]
Small Steps[edit]
In this sequel to Holes, former inmate Armpit is now 17 and struggling with the challenges facing an African American teenager with a criminal history. A new friendship with Ginny, who has cerebral palsy, a reunion with former friend X-Ray, a ticket-scalping scheme, a beautiful pop singer, and a frame-up all test Armpit’s resolve to "Just take small steps and keep moving forward".[11]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "National Book Awards – 1998". National Book Foundation. Retrieved 2012-01-26.
(With acceptance speech by Sachar.)
Jump up ^ "Newbery Medal and Honor Books, 1922-Present". Association for Library Service to Children. ALA. Retrieved 2012-03-26.
Jump up ^ Bird, Elizabeth (July 7, 2012). "Top 100 Chapter Book Poll Results". A Fuse #8 Production. Blog. School Library Journal (blog.schoollibraryjournal.com). Retrieved 2015-10-29.
Jump up ^ Sachar, Louis (2000). Holes. New York: Yearling Books. p. 7. ISBN 0440414806.
Jump up ^ "Holes Q & A". www.Louissachar.com. Retrieved January 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ Sachar, Louis (1998). "Holes", p. 103. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York 30 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Sachar, Louis (2000). Holes. New York: Yearling. p. 1. ISBN 0440414806.
Jump up ^ Holes at the Internet Movie Database
Jump up ^ Small Steps: Summary and book reviews of Small Steps by Louis Sachar
Jump up ^ Sachar, Louis. "Stanley Yelnats's Survival Guide to Camp Green Lake". Louis Sachar. Retrieved 2015. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ Sachar, Louis. "Louis Sachar: Booklist". Louis Sachar. Louis Sachar. Retrieved 2015. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
External links[edit]
Children's literature portal
Novels portal
Holes at publisher Scholastic Corporation
Awards
Preceded by
Out of the Dust Newbery Medal recipient
1999 Succeeded by
Bud, Not Buddy
Preceded by
New category Winner of the
William Allen White Children's Book Award
Grades 6–8
2001 Succeeded by
Bud, Not Buddy
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Holes_(novel)&oldid=794161179"
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