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Protectionism
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Protectionism is the economic policy of restricting imports from other countries through methods such as tariffs on imported goods, import quotas, and a variety of other government regulations. Proponents claim that protectionist policies shield the producers, businesses, and workers of the import-competing sector in the country from foreign competitors. However, they also reduce trade and adversely affect consumers in general (by raising the cost of imported goods), and harm the producers and workers in export sectors, both in the country implementing protectionist policies, and in the countries protected against.
There is a universal consensus among economists that protectionism has a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare,[1][2][3][4] while free trade, deregulation, and the reduction of trade barriers has a positive effect on economic growth.[2][5][6][7][8][9] However, trade liberalization can sometimes result in large and unequally distributed losses and gains, and can, in the short run, cause significant economic dislocation of workers in import-competing sectors.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Protectionist policies
2 History
2.1 In the United States
2.2 In Europe
2.3 In Canada
2.4 In Latin America
3 Impact
3.1 Living standards
3.2 Growth
3.3 Developing world
3.4 Conflict
4 Current world trends
5 See also
6 References
Protectionist policies[edit]
Main article: Tariff
A variety of policies have been used to achieve protectionist goals. These include:
Protection of technologies, patents, technical and scientific knowledge [10][11][12]
Prevent foreign investors from taking control of domestic firms[13][14]
Tariffs: Typically, tariffs (or taxes) are imposed on imported goods. Tariff rates usually vary according to the type of goods imported. Import tariffs will increase the cost to importers, and increase the price of imported goods in the local markets, thus lowering the quantity of goods imported, to favour local producers. Tariffs may also be imposed on exports, and in an economy with floating exchange rates, export tariffs have similar effects as import tariffs. However, since export tariffs are often perceived as "hurting" local industries, while import tariffs are perceived as "helping" local industries, export tariffs are seldom implemented.
Import quotas: To reduce the quantity and therefore increase the market price of imported goods. The economic effects of an import quota is similar to that of a tariff, except that the tax revenue gain from a tariff will instead be distributed to those who receive import licenses. Economists often suggest that import licenses be auctioned to the highest bidder, or that import quotas be replaced by an equivalent tariff.
Administrative barriers: Countries are sometimes accused of using their various administrative rules (e.g. regarding food safety, environmental standards, electrical safety, etc.) as a way to introduce barriers to imports.
Anti-dumping legislation: "Dumping" is the practice of firms selling to export markets at lower prices than are charged in domestic markets. Supporters of anti-dumping laws argue that they prevent import of cheaper foreign goods that would cause local firms to close down. However, in practice, anti-dumping laws are usually used to impose trade tariffs on foreign exporters.
Direct subsidies: Government subsidies (in the form of lump-sum payments or cheap loans) are sometimes given to local firms that cannot compete well against imports. These subsidies are purported to "protect" local jobs, and to help local firms adjust to the world markets.
Export subsidies: Export subsidies are often used by governments to increase exports. Export subsidies have the opposite effect of export tariffs because exporters get payment, which is a percentage or proportion of the value of exported. Export subsidies increase the amount of trade, and in a country with floating exchange rates, have effects similar to import subsidies.
Exchange rate control: A government may intervene in the foreign exchange market to lower the value of its currency by selling its currency in the foreign exchange market. Doing so will raise the cost of imports and lower the cost of exports, leading to an improvement in its trade balance. However, such a policy is only effective in the short run, as it will lead to higher inflation in the country in the long run, which will in turn raise the real cost of exports, and reduce the relative price of imports.
International patent systems: There is an argument for viewing national patent systems as a cloak for protectionist trade policies at a national level. Two strands of this argument exist: one when patents held by one country form part of a system of exploitable relative advantage in trade negotiations against another, and a second where adhering to a worldwide system of patents confers "good citizenship" status despite 'de facto protectionism'. Peter Drahos explains that "States realized that patent systems could be used to cloak protectionist strategies. There were also reputational advantages for states to be seen to be sticking to intellectual property systems. One could attend the various revisions of the Paris and Berne conventions, participate in the cosmopolitan moral dialogue about the need to protect the fruits of authorial labor and inventive genius...knowing all the while that one's domestic intellectual property system was a handy protectionist weapon."[15]
Political campaigns advocating domestic consumption (e.g. the "Buy American" campaign in the United States, which could be seen as an extra-legal promotion of protectionism.)
Preferential governmental spending, such as the Buy American Act, federal legislation which called upon the United States government to prefer US-made products in its purchases.
In the modern trade arena many other initiatives besides tariffs have been called protectionist. For example, some commentators, such as Jagdish Bhagwati, see developed countries efforts in imposing their own labor or environmental standards as protectionism. Also, the imposition of restrictive certification procedures on imports are seen in this light.
Further, others point out that free trade agreements often have protectionist provisions such as intellectual property, copyright, and patent restrictions that benefit large corporations. These provisions restrict trade in music, movies, pharmaceuticals, software, and other manufactured items to high cost producers with quotas from low cost producers set to zero.[16]
History[edit]
Tariff Rates in Japan (1870–1960)
Tariff Rates in Spain and Italy (1860–1910)
Historically, protectionism was associated with economic theories such as mercantilism (which focused on achieving positive trade balance and accumulating gold), and import substitution.[citation needed]
In the 18th century, Adam Smith famously warned against the "interested sophistry" of industry, seeking to gain advantage at the cost of the consumers.[17] Friedrich List saw Adam Smith's views on free trade as disingenuous, believing that Smith advocated for freer trade so that British industry could lock out underdeveloped foreign competition.[18]
Some have argued that no major country has ever successfully industrialized without some form of economic protection.[19][20] Economic historian Paul Bairoch wrote that "historically, free trade is the exception and protectionism the rule".[21]
According to economic historians Douglas Irwin and Kevin O'Rourke, "shocks that emanate from brief financial crises tend to be transitory and have little long-run effect on trade policy, whereas those that play out over longer periods (early 1890s, early 1930s) may give rise to protectionism that is difficult to reverse. Regional wars also produce transitory shocks that have little impact on long-run trade policy, while global wars give rise to extensive government trade restrictions that can be difficult to reverse."[22]
One paper notes that sudden shifts in comparative advantage for specific countries have led said countries to become protectionist: "The shift in comparative advantage associated with the opening up of New World frontiers, and the subsequent “grain invasion” of Europe, led to higher agricultural tariffs from the late 1870s onwards, which as we have seen reversed the move toward freer trade that had characterized mid-nineteenth-century Europe. In the decades after World War II, Japan’s rapid rise led to trade friction with other countries. Japan’s recovery was accompanied by a sharp increase in its exports of certain product categories: cotton textiles in the 1950s, steel in the 1960s, automobiles in the 1970s, and electronics in the 1980s. In each case, the rapid expansion in Japan’s exports created difficulties for its trading partners and the use of protectionism as a shock absorber."[22]
According to some political theorists, protectionism is advocated mainly by parties that hold far-left or left-wing economic positions, while economically right-wing political parties generally support free trade.[23][24][25][26][27]
In the United States[edit]
Main articles: Protectionism in the United States and Tariffs in United States history
Tariff Rates (France, UK, US)
Average Tariff Rates in US (1821–2016)
US Trade Balance (1895–2015)
According to economic historian Douglas Irwin, a common myth about U.S. trade policy is that low tariffs harmed American manufacturers in the early 19th century and then that high tariffs made the United States into a great industrial power in the late 19th century.[28] A review by the Economist of Irwin's 2017 book Clashing over Commerce: A History of US Trade Policy notes:[28]
Political dynamics would lead people to see a link between tariffs and the economic cycle that was not there. A boom would generate enough revenue for tariffs to fall, and when the bust came pressure would build to raise them again. By the time that happened, the economy would be recovering, giving the impression that tariff cuts caused the crash and the reverse generated the recovery. Mr Irwin also methodically debunks the idea that protectionism made America a great industrial power, a notion believed by some to offer lessons for developing countries today. As its share of global manufacturing powered from 23% in 1870 to 36% in 1913, the admittedly high tariffs of the time came with a cost, estimated at around 0.5% of GDP in the mid-1870s. In some industries, they might have sped up development by a few years. But American growth during its protectionist period was more to do with its abundant resources and openness to people and ideas.
According to Paul Bairoch, the United States was "the mother country and bastion of modern protectionism" since the end of the 18th century and until the post-World War II period.[29]
The Bush administration implemented tariffs on Chinese steel in 2002; according to a 2005 review of existing research on the tariff, all studies found that the tariffs caused more harm than gains to the US economy and employment.[30] The Obama administration implemented tariffs on Chinese tires between 2009 and 2012 as an anti-dumping measure; a 2016 study found that these tariffs had no impact on employment and wages in the US tire industry.[31]
In Europe[edit]
Europe became increasingly protectionist during the eighteenth century.[32] Economic historians Findlay and O'Rourke write that "the immediate aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, European trade policies were almost universally protectionist," with the exceptions being smaller countries such as the Netherlands and Denmark.[32]
Europe increasingly liberalized its trade during the 19th century.[33] Countries such as Britain, the Netherlands, Denmark, Portugal and Switzerland, and arguably Sweden and Belgium, had fully moved towards free trade prior to 1860.[33] Economic historians see the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 as the decisive shift toward free trade in Britain.[33][34] A 1990 study by the Harvard economic historian Jeffrey Williamsson showed that the Corn Laws (which imposed restrictions and tariffs on imported grain) substantially increased the cost of living for unskilled and skilled British workers, and hampered the British manufacturing sector by reducing the disposable incomes that British workers could have spent on manufactured goods.[35] The shift towards liberalization in Britain occurred in part due to "the influence of economists like David Ricardo", but also due to "the growing power of urban interests".[33]
Findlay and O'Rourke characterize the 1860 Cobden Chevalier treaty between France and the United Kingdom as "a decisive shift toward European free trade."[33] This treaty was followed by numerous free trade agreements: "France and Belgium signed a treaty in 1861; a Franco-Prussian treaty was signed in 1862; Italy entered the “network of Cobden-Chevalier treaties” in 1863 (Bairoch 1989, 40); Switzerland in 1864; Sweden, Norway, Spain, the Netherlands, and the Hanseatic towns in 1865; and Austria in 1866. By 1877, less than two decades after the Cobden Chevalier treaty and three decades after British Repeal, Germany “had virtually become a free trade country” (Bairoch, 41). Average duties on manufactured products had declined to 9–12 percent on the Continent, a far cry from the 50 percent British tariffs, and numerous prohibitions elsewhere, of the immediate post-Waterloo era (Bairoch, table 3, p. 6, and table 5, p. 42)."[33]
Some European powers did not liberalize during the 19th century, such as the Russian Empire and Austro-Hungarian Empire which remained highly protectionist. The Ottoman Empire also became increasingly protectionist.[36] In the Ottoman Empire's case, however, it previously had liberal free trade policies during the 18th to early 19th centuries, which British prime minister Benjamin Disraeli cited as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition" in the 1846 Corn Laws debate, arguing that it destroyed what had been "some of the finest manufactures of the world" in 1812.[37]
The countries of Western Europe began to steadily liberalize their economies after World War II and the protectionism of the interwar period.[32]
In Canada[edit]
Since 1971 Canada has protected producers of eggs, milk, cheese, chickens, and turkeys with a system of supply management. Though prices for these foods in Canada exceed global prices, the farmers and processors have had the security of a stable market to finance their operations. Since Canadian milk is free of bovine somatotropin, the program relates to public health and consumer protection.
In Quebec, the Federation of Quebec Maple Syrup Producers manages the supply of maple syrup.
In Latin America[edit]
According to one assessment, tariffs were "far higher" in Latin America than the rest of the world in the century prior to the Great Depression.[38][39]
Impact[edit]
There is a broad consensus among economists that protectionism has a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare, while free trade and the reduction of trade barriers has a positive effect on economic growth.[5][6][7][2][40][41]
Protectionism is frequently criticized by economists as harming the people it is meant to help. Mainstream economists instead support free trade.[17][42] The principle of comparative advantage shows that the gains from free trade outweigh any losses as free trade creates more jobs than it destroys because it allows countries to specialize in the production of goods and services in which they have a comparative advantage.[43] Protectionism results in deadweight loss; this loss to overall welfare gives no-one any benefit, unlike in a free market, where there is no such total loss. According to economist Stephen P. Magee, the benefits of free trade outweigh the losses by as much as 100 to 1.[44] Protectionists believe that there is a legitimate need for government restrictions on free trade in order to protect their country’s economic, and therefore political independence.[citation needed]
Living standards[edit]
A 2016 study found that "that trade typically favors the poor", as they spend a greater share of their earnings on goods, and as free trade reduces the costs of goods.[45] Other research found that China's entry to the WTO benefitted US consumers, as the price of Chinese goods were substantially reduced.[46] Harvard economist Dani Rodrik argues that while globalization and free trade does contribute to social problems, "a serious retreat into protectionism would hurt the many groups that benefit from trade and would result in the same kind of social conflicts that globalization itself generates. We have to recognize that erecting trade barriers will help in only a limited set of circumstances and that trade policies will rarely be the best response to the problems [of globalization]".[47]
Growth[edit]
According to economic historians Findlay and O'Rourke, there is a consensus in the economics literature that protectionist policies in the interwar period "hurt the world economy overall, although there is a debate about whether the effect was large or small."[32]
Economic historian Paul Bairoch argued that economic protection was positively correlated with economic and industrial growth during the 19th century. For example, GNP growth during Europe's "liberal period" in the middle of the century (where tariffs were at their lowest), averaged 1.7% per year, while industrial growth averaged 1.8% per year. However, during the protectionist era of the 1870s and 1890s, GNP growth averaged 2.6% per year, while industrial output grew at 3.8% per year, roughly twice as fast as it had during the liberal era of low tariffs and free trade.[48] One study found that tariffs imposed on manufactured goods increase economic growth in developing countries, and this growth impact remains even after the tariffs are repealed.[49]
According to Dartmouth economist Douglas Irwin, "that there is a correlation between high tariffs and growth in the late nineteenth century cannot be denied. But correlation is not causation... there is no reason for necessarily thinking that import protection was a good policy just because the economic outcome was good: the outcome could have been driven by factors completely unrelated to the tariff, or perhaps could have been even better in the absence of protection."[50] Irwin furthermore writes that "few observers have argued outright that the high tariffs caused such growth."[50]
According to Oxford economic historian Kevin O'Rourke, "It seems clear that protection was important for the growth of US manufacturing in the first half of the 19th century; but this does not necessarily imply that the tariff was beneficial for GDP growth. Protectionists have often pointed to German and American industrialization during this period as evidence in favour of their position, but economic growth is influenced by many factors other than trade policy, and it is important to control for these when assessing the links between tariffs and growth."[51]
A prominent 1999 study by Jeffrey A. Frankel and David H. Romer found, contrary to free trade skeptics' claims, while controlling for relevant factors, that trade does indeed have a positive impact on growth and incomes.[52]
Developing world[edit]
See also: Infant industry argument
There is broad consensus among economists that free trade helps workers in developing countries, even though they are not subject to the stringent health and labour standards of developed countries. This is because "the growth of manufacturing—and of the myriad other jobs that the new export sector creates—has a ripple effect throughout the economy" that creates competition among producers, lifting wages and living conditions.[53] The Nobel laureates, Milton Friedman and Paul Krugman, have argued for free trade as a model for economic development.[5] Alan Greenspan, former chair of the American Federal Reserve, has criticized protectionist proposals as leading "to an atrophy of our competitive ability. ... If the protectionist route is followed, newer, more efficient industries will have less scope to expand, and overall output and economic welfare will suffer."[54]
Protectionists postulate that new industries may require protection from entrenched foreign competition in order to develop. This was Alexander Hamilton's argument in his "Report on Manufactures",[citation needed] and the primary reason why George Washington signed the Tariff Act of 1789.[citation needed] Mainstream economists do concede that tariffs can in the short-term help domestic industries to develop, but are contingent on the short-term nature of the protective tariffs and the ability of the government to pick the winners.[55][56] The problems are that protective tariffs will not be reduced after the infant industry reaches a foothold, and that governments will not pick industries that are likely to succeed.[56] Economists have identified a number of cases across different countries and industries where attempts to shelter infant industries failed.[57][58][59][60][61]
Economists such as Paul Krugman have speculated that those who support protectionism ostensibly to further the interests of workers in least developed countries are in fact being disingenuous, seeking only to protect jobs in developed countries.[62] Additionally, workers in the least developed countries only accept jobs if they are the best on offer, as all mutually consensual exchanges must be of benefit to both sides, or else they wouldn't be entered into freely. That they accept low-paying jobs from companies in developed countries shows that their other employment prospects are worse. A letter reprinted in the May 2010 edition of Econ Journal Watch identifies a similar sentiment against protectionism from 16 British economists at the beginning of the 20th century.[63]
Conflict[edit]
Protectionism has also been accused of being one of the major causes of war. Proponents of this theory point to the constant warfare in the 17th and 18th centuries among European countries whose governments were predominantly mercantilist and protectionist, the American Revolution, which came about ostensibly due to British tariffs and taxes, as well as the protective policies preceding both World War I and World War II. According to a slogan of Frédéric Bastiat (1801–1850), "When goods cannot cross borders, armies will."[64]
Current world trends[edit]
Protectionist measures taken since 2008 according to Global Trade Alert.[65]
Since the end of World War II, it has been the stated policy of most First World countries to eliminate protectionism through free trade policies enforced by international treaties and organizations such as the World Trade Organization[66] Certain policies of First World governments have been criticized as protectionist, however, such as the Common Agricultural Policy[67] in the European Union, longstanding agricultural subsidies and proposed "Buy American" provisions[68] in economic recovery packages in the United States.
Heads of the G20 meeting in London on 2 April 2009 pledged "We will not repeat the historic mistakes of protectionism of previous eras". Adherence to this pledge is monitored by the Global Trade Alert,[69] providing up-to-date information and informed commentary to help ensure that the G20 pledge is met by maintaining confidence in the world trading system, detering beggar-thy-neighbor acts, and preserving the contribution that exports could play in the future recovery of the world economy.
Although they were reiterating what they had already committed to, last November in Washington, 17 of these 20 countries were reported by the World Bank as having imposed trade restrictive measures since then. In its report, the World Bank says most of the world's major economies are resorting to protectionist measures as the global economic slowdown begins to bite. Economists who have examined the impact of new trade-restrictive measures using detailed bilaterally monthly trade statistics estimated that new measures taken through late 2009 were distorting global merchandise trade by 0.25% to 0.5% (about $50 billion a year).[70]
Since then however, then-President-elect Donald Trump announced in November 2016 that he would abandon the TPP (Trans-Pacific Partnership) deal, placing the protectionist policies reflected in Trumponomics very much on the table, despite the wishes of all the other G20 nations.
See also[edit]
American System (economic plan)
Brexit
Developmentalism
Digital Millennium Copyright Act
Economic nationalism
Free trade debate
Globalization
Henry C. Carey
Imperial Preference
International trade
National Policy
Not Invented Here
Project Labor Agreement
Protected Geographical Status
Protection or Free Trade
Protectionism in the United States
Protective tariff
Rent seeking
Resistive economy
Tariff Reform League
United Kingdom general election, 1923
Voluntary export restraint
Washington Consensus
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Jump up ^ Williamson, Jeffrey G (1990-04-01). "The impact of the Corn Laws just prior to repeal". Explorations in Economic History. 27 (2): 123–156. doi:10.1016/0014-4983(90)90007-L.
Jump up ^ Daudin, Guillaume; O’Rourke, Kevin H.; Escosura, Leandro Prados de la (2008). "Trade and Empire, 1700–1870".
Jump up ^ Paul Bairoch (1995). Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes. University of Chicago Press. pp. 31–32.
Jump up ^ Blattman, Christopher; Clemens, Michael A.; Williamson, Jeffrey G. (2003-06-01). "Who Protected and Why? Tariffs the World Around 1870–1938". Rochester, NY.
Jump up ^ Coatsworth, John H.; Williamson, Jeffrey G. (2004). "The Roots of Latin American Protectionism: Looking Before the Great Depression". In Estevadeordal, A.; Rodrik, D.; Taylor, A.; Velasco, A. Integrating the Americas: FTAA and Beyond. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. doi:10.3386/w8999. ISBN 0-674-01484-7.
Jump up ^ William Poole, Free Trade: Why Are Economists and Noneconomists So Far Apart, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, September/October 2004, 86(5), pp. 1: "most observers agree that '[t]he consensus among mainstream economists on the desirability of free trade remains almost universal.'"
Jump up ^ "Trade Within Europe | IGM Forum". Igmchicago.org. Retrieved 2017-06-24.
Jump up ^ Krugman, Paul R. (1987). "Is Free Trade Passe?". The Journal of Economic Perspectives. 1 (2): 131–44. doi:10.1257/jep.1.2.131. JSTOR 1942985.
Jump up ^ Krugman, Paul (January 24, 1997). The Accidental Theorist. Slate.
Jump up ^ Magee, Stephen P. (1976). International Trade and Distortions In Factor Markets. New York: Marcel-Dekker.
Jump up ^ Fajgelbaum, Pablo D.; Khandelwal, Amit K. (2016-08-01). "Measuring the Unequal Gains from Trade". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 131 (3): 1113–80. doi:10.1093/qje/qjw013. ISSN 0033-5533.
Jump up ^ Amiti, Mary; Dai, Mi; Feenstra, Robert; Romalis, John (2017-06-28). "China's WTO entry benefits US consumers". VoxEU.org. Retrieved 2017-06-28.
Jump up ^ Rodrik, Dani. "Has Globalization Gone Too Far?" (PDF). Institute for International Economics.
Jump up ^ Bairoch, Paul (1993). Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 47.
Jump up ^ DeJong, David (2006). "Tariffs and Growth: an empirical exploration of contingent relationships". The Review of Economics and Statistics. 88: 625–40. doi:10.1162/rest.88.4.625.
^ Jump up to: a b Irwin, Douglas A. (2001-01-01). "Tariffs and Growth in Late Nineteenth Century America". World Economy. 24 (1): 15–30. doi:10.1111/1467-9701.00341. ISSN 1467-9701.
Jump up ^ H. O'Rourke, Kevin (2000-11-01). "British trade policy in the 19th century: a review article". European Journal of Political Economy. 16 (4): 829–42. doi:10.1016/S0176-2680(99)00043-9.
Jump up ^ Frankel, Jeffrey A; Romer, David (June 1999). "Does Trade Cause Growth?". American Economic Review. 89 (3): 379–99. doi:10.1257/aer.89.3.379. ISSN 0002-8282.
Jump up ^ Krugman, Paul (March 21, 1997). In Praise of Cheap Labor. Slate.
Jump up ^ Sicilia, David B. & Cruikshank, Jeffrey L. (2000). The Greenspan Effect, p. 131. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-134919-7.
Jump up ^ "The Case for Protecting Infant Industries". Bloomberg.com. 2016-12-22. Retrieved 2017-06-24.
^ Jump up to: a b Baldwin, Robert E. (1969). "The Case against Infant-Industry Tariff Protection". Journal of Political Economy. 77 (3): 295–305. doi:10.1086/259517.
Jump up ^ O, Krueger, Anne; Baran, Tuncer (1982). "An Empirical Test of the Infant Industry Argument". American Economic Review. 72 (5).
Jump up ^ Choudhri, Ehsan U.; Hakura, Dalia S. (2000). "International Trade and Productivity Growth: Exploring the Sectoral Effects for Developing Countries". IMF Staff Papers. 47 (1): 30–53.
Jump up ^ Baldwin, Richard E.; Krugman, Paul (June 1986). "Market Access and International Competition: A Simulation Study of 16K Random Access Memories". NBER Working Paper No. 1936. doi:10.3386/w1936.
Jump up ^ Luzio, Eduardo; Greenstein, Shane (1995). "Measuring the Performance of a Protected Infant Industry: The Case of Brazilian Microcomputers". The Review of Economics and Statistics. 77 (4): 622–633. doi:10.2307/2109811.
Jump up ^ "US Tire Tariffs: Saving Few Jobs at High Cost". PIIE. 2016-03-02. Retrieved 2017-06-24.
Jump up ^ Krugman, Paul (November 21, 1997). A Raspberry for Free Trade. Slate.
Jump up ^ "Convictions Opposed to Certain Popular Opinions: The 1903 Anti-Protectionism Letter Supported by 16 British Economists". Econ Journal Watch 7(2): 157–61, May 2010. econjwatch.org
Jump up ^ DiLorenzo, T. J., Frederic Bastiat (1801–1850): Between the French and Marginalist Revolutions. accessed at [Ludwig Von Mises Institute] 2012-04-13
Jump up ^ "Independent monitoring of policies that affect world trade". Global Trade Alert. Retrieved 2016-12-16.
Jump up ^ Fouda, Regine (October 2012). "Protectionism and Free Trade: A Country's Glory or Doom?" (PDF). International Journal of Trade, Economics and Finance. 5. 3: 351. Retrieved 13 April 2014. .
Jump up ^ "A French Roadblock to Free Trade". The New York Times. 2003-08-31. Retrieved 2010-05-22.
Jump up ^ "Brussels Warns US on Protectionism". Dw-world.de. 2009-01-30. Retrieved 16 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Global Trade Alert". Globaltradealert.org. Retrieved 16 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Trade and the Crisis: Protect or Recover" (PDF). Imf.org. Retrieved 16 October 2017.
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text:
Las Vegas Stadium
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the stadium originally known as Las Vegas Stadium, see Sam Boyd Stadium.
Las Vegas Stadium
Artist's rendering showing the front of Las Vegas Stadium with the retractable windows and planned Al Davis memorial torch.
Former names
Raiders Stadium
(in early renderings)
Location
Paradise, Nevada
Coordinates
36°05′26.7″N 115°11′01.4″W / 36.090750°N 115.183722°W / 36.090750; -115.183722Coordinates: 36°05′26.7″N 115°11′01.4″W / 36.090750°N 115.183722°W / 36.090750; -115.183722
Owner
Las Vegas Stadium Authority
(Clark County Commission)
Operator
Las Vegas Raiders
Executive suites
100[1]
Capacity
65,000–72,000 (larger events)
Acreage
62 acres (25 ha)
Surface
Grass (Raiders)
Field Turf (UNLV)
Construction
Broke ground
November 13, 2017 (2017-11-13)
Construction cost
$1.9 billion (estimated)
Architect
MANICA Architecture
HNTB
Project manager
ICON Venue Group[2]
Structural engineer
ARUP[3]
Services engineer
Smith Seckman Reid, Inc.[4]
General contractor
Mortenson Construction
McCarthy Construction[5]
Tenants
Las Vegas Raiders (NFL) (2020–) planned
UNLV Rebels (NCAA) (2020–) planned
Las Vegas Bowl (NCAA) (2020–) planned
Website
lasvegasstadium.raiders.com
Las Vegas Stadium is the working name for a domed stadium under construction in Paradise, Nevada for the Las Vegas Raiders of the National Football League (NFL) and the UNLV Rebels football team from the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV). It is located on about 62 acres west of Mandalay Bay at Russell Road and Hacienda Avenue and between Polaris Avenue and Dean Martin Drive, just west of Interstate 15. Construction of the $1.9 billion stadium began in September 2017 and is expected to be completed in time for the 2020 NFL season.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 2016
1.2 2017
1.3 2018
2 Financing
3 Design
4 Tenants and events
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
2016[edit]
In January 2016, reports emerged that Las Vegas Sands was considering developing a stadium in conjunction with Majestic Realty and UNLV, on a 42-acre site owned by UNLV.[6] UNLV had been in the market to for a new stadium to replace Sam Boyd Stadium since at least 2011.[7] Raiders owner Mark Davis visited Las Vegas on January 29 to tour the site and meet with Sands chairman Sheldon Adelson and other local figures.[8] The Raiders, who had been trying to get a new, long term stadium built for the team since the 1980s had just missed out on relocating to Los Angeles that same month and were at an impasse in Oakland. In order for the team to relocate to Las Vegas a new stadium was required since Sam Boyd Stadium is undersized for the NFL and there are no other professional-caliber stadiums in Nevada.
On March 21, 2016, when asked about Las Vegas, Davis said, "I think the Raiders like the Las Vegas plan," and "it's a very very very intriguing and exciting plan", referring to the stadium plan in Las Vegas. Davis also met with Nevada Governor Brian Sandoval about the stadium plan. On April 1, 2016, Davis toured Sam Boyd Stadium to evaluate whether UNLV could serve as a temporary home of the team and was with UNLV football coach Tony Sanchez, athletic director Tina Kunzer-Murphy, adviser Don Snyder and school president Len Jessup to further explore the possibility of the Raiders moving to Las Vegas.
On April 28, 2016, Davis said he wanted to move the Raiders to Las Vegas and pledged $500 million toward the construction of the proposed $2.4 billion domed stadium.[9][10] "Together we can turn the Silver State into the silver and black state," Davis said.[9][11]
In the spring of 2016, the board of directors of Las Vegas Sands rejected Adelson's stadium proposal. Adelson decided to move ahead with the stadium as an individual investment, pledging $650 million of his personal wealth to the project.[12]
The viability of the Tropicana Avenue site was called into serious question in June 2016, when Southwest Airlines objected to the location because its proximity to the northern end of one of McCarran Airport's runways could have a negative impact on the safety and capacity of air traffic at the airport.[13] The list of potential locations soon expanded to nine candidates, including the sites of the Wild Wild West casino, the Wynn golf course, the Riviera casino, the Las Vegas Festival Grounds, and Cashman Center.[14] By September, the list was narrowed to two possibilities: the Bali Hai Golf Club, south of Mandalay Bay, and a vacant lot on Russell Road, just west of Interstate 15.[15]
On August 25, 2016, the Raiders filed a trademark application for "Las Vegas Raiders" on the same day renderings of a proposed stadium design were released.[16] On September 15, 2016, the Southern Nevada Tourism Infrastructure Committee unanimously voted to recommend and approve $750 million for the Las Vegas stadium plan.[17]
Majestic Realty revealed in October 2016 that it had withdrawn from the stadium project.[18]
Sandoval called a special session of the Nevada Legislature to consider the stadium and other tourism-related proposals in October 2016.[19] The funding bill for the stadium was approved by a 16–5 vote in the Senate and by 28–13 in the Assembly, and was signed into law by Sandoval on October 17.[20][21][22][23] The bill increased a hotel tax to provide the $750 million in funding.[22]
2017[edit]
2015 view of the stadium site, adjacent to Mandalay Bay and Interstate 15
The Raiders filed relocation papers on January 19 to move from Oakland to Las Vegas.[24] On January 26, 2017, the Raiders submitted a proposed lease agreement for the stadium. It was reported that the Raiders had selected the Russell Road site as the stadium location, the team would pay one dollar in rent, and that they could control the naming rights for both the stadium and plaza and in addition keep signage sponsorship revenue.[25]
Days after the Raiders' announced proposal, Adelson dropped out of the stadium project, pulling his proposed $650 million contribution, and shortly after this announcement Goldman Sachs (one of the backers of stadium proposal) withdrew as well.[26] ESPN reported on January 30, 2017, that the Raiders were expected to increase their contribution from $500 million to $1.15 billion.[27]
On March 6, the Raiders revealed Bank of America would be replacing the Adelson portion of the funding.[28]
NFL owners voted to approve the move by a near unanimous margin of 31 to 1 on March 27. Only Stephen M. Ross, owner of the Miami Dolphins, voted against the relocation.[29][30][31] The next day, the Raiders and the Las Vegas Stadium Authority began accepting deposits for season tickets for the new stadium.[32] The Raiders announced that they planned to remain in Oakland until the stadium is complete.
The Raiders closed the purchase of the land for the stadium at the Russell Road site on May 1. The purchase price was reported at $77.5 million.[33] In a Las Vegas Stadium Authority meeting on May 11, it was announced that in a joint venture Mortenson Construction and McCarthy Construction will be the developers for the stadium. Mortenson Construction previously worked on U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis for the Minnesota Vikings. The stadium authority approved a stadium lease with the Raiders on May 18.[34] The lease is for 30 years with four successive extension options of five years each.[35]
On September 18, construction activity began on the stadium site with site preparation.[36] The Raiders officially broke ground for the new stadium on November 13.[37][38] The ceremony featured NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell, Raiders owner Mark Davis, his mother Carol Davis, various Raiders legends including Howie Long, Jim Plunkett, Tom Flores, and Ray Guy, Las Vegas and Nevada politicians such as Governor Brian Sandoval, Las Vegas Mayor Carolyn Goodman, Clark County Commissioner Steve Sisolak and stadium authority head Steve Hill. The event was hosted by George Lopez and included other celebrities like Carlos Santana, longtime Vegas icon Wayne Newton, and Howie D and Nick Carter of the Backstreet Boys. There was also a tribute to the victims of the 2017 Las Vegas shooting that happened nearby by with Judith Hill and the Las Vegas House of Blues Gospel Choir performing ‘Rise up’ while 58 beams of light for the 58 people shot and killed lit up.[39]
2018[edit]
In January, construction crews began blasting caliche rock with dynamite to excavate and create the stadium bowl.[40]
Financing[edit]
The budget for development of the stadium is estimated at $1.9 billion. Of this, an estimated $375 million is to be spent on land and infrastructure costs, $1.35 billion on construction, and $100 million on a Raiders practice facility, with the remaining $100 million as a contingency allowance for unexpected costs.[41][42][43]
The financing for the project is expected to come in the form of $750 million in public funding, $500 million from the Raiders, and $650 million lent by Bank of America.[42] The public portion of the funding will come from municipal bonds issued by Clark County, backed by the proceeds of a special tax on hotel rooms in the Las Vegas area, which was initiated in March 2017.[44] The Raiders' contribution is expected to include a $200 million loan from the NFL's stadium upgrade program, $250 million from sales of personal seat licenses at the stadium, and $50 million from cash reserves.[45]
Local government cannot receive any rent or revenue sharing from the stadium, because such an arrangement would not be compatible with the tax-exempt status of the bonds.[46] Proponents instead argued that the public financing would be justified by increased economic activity and tax revenue related to the stadium.[47] Critics have argued that the economic projections were based on overly optimistic assumptions.[48][49]
Design[edit]
For Las Vegas Stadium, Mark Davis retained the same architecture firm, MANICA Architecture, that had designed the previously proposed Carson Stadium near Los Angeles.[50][51] The stadium as proposed is a 10 level domed stadium with a clear ETFE roof, silver and black exterior and large retractable curtain-like side windows facing the Las Vegas Strip.[52] There is a large torch in one end that would house a flame in honor of Al Davis, the late long-time owner of the Raiders.[53]
Updated renderings released after the relocation vote passed show the stadium with a roll-in natural grass field similar to the one at University of Phoenix Stadium in Glendale, Arizona.[54] In an August 17, 2017 Las Vegas Stadium Authority meeting it was revealed that the stadium will have a designated pickup/drop off loop for ride sharing services such as Uber and Lyft, a first for a stadium in the NFL.
Tenants and events[edit]
The stadium will replace Sam Boyd Stadium and will serve as the home of both the Raiders and the UNLV Rebels football program. In addition, it will host various events now held at Sam Boyd, such as the Las Vegas Bowl.[55]
Stadium backers project 20 to 25 additional events per year, with plausible possibilities including the Super Bowl, the Pro Bowl, the NFL Draft, the NCAA Final Four, the USA Sevens rugby tournament, the Monster Jam World Finals, boxing matches, Ultimate Fighting Championship events, neutral-site college football games, international soccer matches, concerts, and corporate shows.[56][57]
The stadium has also been cited as the possible home for a Major League Soccer expansion team owned by David Beckham.[58]
See also[edit]
National Football League portal
College Football portal
Las Vegas portal
Las Vegas Ballpark
Sports in the Las Vegas metropolitan area
T-Mobile Arena
Oakland Raiders relocation to Las Vegas
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Stadium Proposal" (PDF). Southern Nevada Tourism Infrastructure Committee. Retrieved January 20, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Clark County Stadium Authority Financing Plan Discussion Materials" (PDF). Las Vegas Stadium Authority. August 17, 2017. Retrieved December 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Las Vegas Stadium | Procurement Package 1a &" (PDF). July 12, 2017. Retrieved December 15, 2017. Unknown parameter |civil engineer= ignored (help)
Jump up ^ "Las Vegas Stadium | Procurement Package 2a" (PDF). September 12, 2017. Retrieved December 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ Halter, Nick (May 12, 2017). "Report: Mortenson will build football stadium for Raiders in Las Vegas (slideshow)". Minneapolis–St. Paul Business Journal. Retrieved July 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ Stutz, Howard (January 28, 2016). "Las Vegas Sands proposes $1B domed stadium; Adelson to meet with Raiders owner". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Bleakley, Caroline (2011-02-01). "Details of New UNLV Stadium Project Released". LASVEGASNOW. Retrieved 2018-01-14.
Jump up ^ Bradley, Bill (February 1, 2016). "Raiders owner Mark Davis says 'brand would do well' in Las Vegas". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Raiders owner willing to give $20M toward Las Vegas stadium". National Football League. Associated Press. April 28, 2016. Retrieved April 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ Gutierrez, Paul (April 28, 2016). "Raiders owner Mark Davis says he wants to move team to Las Vegas". ESPN.com. ESPN. Retrieved April 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Oakland Raiders owner willing to spend $500 million to move team to Vegas". Fox News Channel. Associated Press. April 28, 2016. Retrieved April 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ Velotta, Richard N. (August 28, 2016). "Adelson commits personal wealth to back stadium plan". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Rindels, Michelle (July 1, 2016). "Southwest Airlines doesn't want stadium next to airport". Las Vegas Sun. Associated Press. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Morris, J.D. (July 15, 2016). "Scouting report: Examining the pros, cons of potential NFL stadium sites". Las Vegas Sun. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Valley, Jackie (September 7, 2016). "As Las Vegas' NFL stadium marches toward reality, burning questions remain". Las Vegas Sun. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Perez, A.J. (August 25, 2016). "Oakland Raiders file to trademark 'Las Vegas Raiders' name". USA Today. Retrieved August 25, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Stadium plan to lure Raiders to Las Vegas passes vote". National Football League. Associated Press. September 15, 2016. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Velotta, Richard N. (October 6, 2016). "Majestic Realty bows out of Las Vegas stadium development team". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Special session kicks off to consider NFL stadium funding". Las Vegas Sun. October 10, 2016. Retrieved January 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Chereb, Sandra; Whaley, Sean (October 11, 2016). "Raiders stadium project for Las Vegas clears Nevada Senate in 16-5 vote". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved October 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Las Vegas stadium plan gains approval from Nevada Legislature". National Football League. Associated Press. October 14, 2016. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Nevada governor signs bill to approve Las Vegas stadium plan". National Football League. Associated Press. October 17, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ Spousta, Tom (October 17, 2016). "Gov. Brian Sandoval signs Raiders stadium bill — VIDEO". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved October 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ Around the NFL staff (January 19, 2017). "Oakland Raiders file Las Vegas relocation paperwork". National Football League. Retrieved January 20, 2017.
Jump up ^ Damien, Levi (January 26, 2017). "Las Vegas stadium proposal details revealed: Raiders get naming rights, one dollar rent, pick preferred site, more". Silver and Black Pride. Retrieved July 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ Velotta, Richard N. (January 30, 2017). "Adelsons withdraw investment from proposed Raiders stadium in Las Vegas". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved January 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Raiders boost Vegas commitment to $1.2 billion, operations, risk". espn.com. ESPN. January 30, 2017. Retrieved January 31, 2017.
Jump up ^ Saraceno, Jon (March 6, 2017). "Raiders' Las Vegas Stadium Gets Boost from Bank of America". Las Vegas Review Journal. Retrieved March 26, 2017.
Jump up ^ Rosenthal, Gregg (March 27, 2017). "NFL team owners approve Raiders' move to Las Vegas". National Football League. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Raiders Media Relations (March 27, 2017). "Raiders Receive NFL Approval For Las Vegas Relocation". Oakland Raiders. Retrieved March 28, 2017.
Jump up ^ Michael David Smith (March 27, 2017). "Raiders' move to Las Vegas approved". Profootballtalk.com. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Gutierrez, Paul (March 28, 2017). "Raiders already taking deposits for season tickets in Las Vegas". ESPN. Retrieved March 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ Velotta, Richard N. (May 1, 2017). "Raiders close purchase on 62-acre stadium site in Las Vegas". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved July 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ Polacek, Scott (May 18, 2017). "Raiders' Vegas Lease Agreement Unanimously Approved by Stadium Authority Board". Bleacher Report. Retrieved July 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Stadium Lease Agreement between Clark County Stadium Authority and [Raiders Stadium Events Company]" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Construction activity begins at Las Vegas Raiders stadium site – VIDEO". 18 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Raiders breaking ground on new Las Vegas stadium — LIVESTREAM". Las Vegas Review-Journal. 2017-11-14. Retrieved 2017-11-14.
Jump up ^ "Raiders break ground on new stadium in Las Vegas". NFL. Retrieved November 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Mark Davis plays ceremonial shovel like guitar, other highlights, quotes, pics from Raiders Las Vegas stadium ground breaking". Silver And Black Pride. Retrieved 2017-11-14.
Jump up ^ Sapienza, Vince. "Rock blasting begins on Raiders stadium site". Retrieved 2018-01-12.
Jump up ^ Saraceno, Jon Mark; Graney, Ed (February 4, 2017). "How much money do Raiders really need to build Las Vegas stadium?". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Candee, Adam (March 8, 2017). "What's behind the $1.9 billion price tag for NFL stadium in Las Vegas?". Las Vegas Sun. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Manley, Bridget (March 15, 2017). "New financing rejuvenates Las Vegas stadium". Venues Today. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Candee, Adam (March 17, 2017). "Room-tax money for NFL stadium starts to flow before Raiders' move finalized". Las Vegas Sun. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Candee, Adam (March 24, 2017). "Las Vegas stadium loans could leave Raiders feeling financial squeeze". Las Vegas Sun. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Velotta, Richard N. (March 7, 2017). "Details of lease agreement between Las Vegas officials, Raiders emerging". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Messerly, Megan; Valley, Jackie (October 5, 2016). "Digging into economic projections tied to a Raiders move to Las Vegas". Las Vegas Sun. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Hobson, Will (January 24, 2017). "To lure Raiders, Nevada officials willing to bet big — with public money". The Washington Post. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Nocera, Joe (October 21, 2016). "N.F.L. Stadium in Las Vegas May Be an Ego Boost, but Not an Economic One". The New York Times. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Nusca, Andrew. "This Is the Stunning $2 Billion Stadium Where the Las Vegas Raiders Will Play". Fortune.com. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Schwab, Frank (August 25, 2016). "Raiders apply for 'Las Vegas Raiders' trademark; stadium renderings". Yahoo! Sports. Retrieved August 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ Velotta, Richard (15 August 2017). "First look at details of new Raiders stadium in Las Vegas may answer questions". Las Vegas Review-Journal.
Jump up ^ "Oakland Raiders pitch a $1.9 billion Las Vegas stadium - Archpaper.com". archpaper.com. Retrieved October 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ Damien, Levi (March 27, 2017). "New video, pics of Raiders Las Vegas stadium renderings". Silver and Black Pride. Retrieved July 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ Bonagura, Kyle (March 31, 2017). "Can Las Vegas become a new destination in college football?". ESPN. Retrieved July 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ Candee, Adam (March 31, 2017). "Beyond the pigskin: What events are needed for stadium's long-term viability". Las Vegas Sun. Retrieved April 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ Weissberg, Brad (March 29, 2017). "Raiders brand, Vegas brand unite". Venues Today. Retrieved April 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ Straus, Brian (December 12, 2016). "Time ticking on Beckham's Miami MLS team amid deadline, Las Vegas speculation". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved April 17, 2017.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Las Vegas Stadium.
Official website
Proposed Las Vegas Stadium Virtual Tour from the National Football League (NFL)'s official YouTube channel
Construction page for stadium from Mortenson | McCarthy
Las Vegas Stadium Authority
Stadium webcam
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Preceded by
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