text:
Fight-or-flight response
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Fight or Flight.
Fight or flight?
The fight-or-flight response (also called hyperarousal, or the acute stress response) is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival.[1] It was first described by Walter Bradford Cannon.[a][2] His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system, preparing the animal for fighting or fleeing.[3] More specifically, the adrenal medulla produces a hormonal cascade that results in the secretion of catecholamines, especially norepinephrine and epinephrine.[4] The hormones estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol, as well as the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin, also affect how organisms react to stress.[5]
This response is recognized as the first stage of the general adaptation syndrome that regulates stress responses among vertebrates and other organisms.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Physiology
1.1 Autonomic nervous system
1.1.1 Sympathetic nervous system
1.1.2 Parasympathetic nervous system
1.2 Reaction
1.3 Function of physiological changes
2 Emotional components
2.1 Emotion regulation
2.2 Emotional reactivity
3 Cognitive components
3.1 Content specificity
3.2 Perception of control
3.3 Social information processing
4 Other animals
4.1 Evolutionary perspective
4.2 Examples
4.3 Varieties of responses
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 Further reading
Physiology[edit]
Autonomic nervous system[edit]
See also: Autonomic nervous system
The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight response and its role is mediated by two different components: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.[7]
Sympathetic nervous system[edit]
See also: Sympathetic nervous system
The sympathetic nervous system originates in the spinal cord and its main function is to activate the physiological changes that occur during the fight-or-flight response. This component of the autonomic nervous system utilizes and activates the release of norepinephrine in the reaction.[8]
Parasympathetic nervous system[edit]
See also: Parasympathetic nervous system
The parasympathetic nervous system originates in the sacral spinal cord and medulla, physically surrounding the sympathetic origin, and works in concert with the sympathetic nervous system. Its main function is to activate the "rest and digest" response and return the body to homeostasis after the fight or flight response. This system utilizes and activates the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.[8]
Reaction[edit]
The fight-or-flight response
The reaction begins in the amygdala, which triggers a neural response in the hypothalamus. The initial reaction is followed by activation of the pituitary gland and secretion of the hormone ACTH.[9] The adrenal gland is activated almost simultaneously, via the sympathetic nervous system, and releases the hormone epinephrine. The release of chemical messengers results in the production of the hormone cortisol, which increases blood pressure, blood sugar, and suppresses the immune system.[10] The initial response and subsequent reactions are triggered in an effort to create a boost of energy. This boost of energy is activated by epinephrine binding to liver cells and the subsequent production of glucose.[11] Additionally, the circulation of cortisol functions to turn fatty acids into available energy, which prepares muscles throughout the body for response.[12] Catecholamine hormones, such as adrenaline (epinephrine) or noradrenaline (norepinephrine), facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent muscular action and :[13]
Acceleration of heart and lung action
Paling or flushing, or alternating between both
Inhibition of stomach and upper-intestinal action to the point where digestion slows down or stops
General effect on the sphincters of the body
Constriction of blood vessels in many parts of the body
Liberation of metabolic energy sources (particularly fat and glycogen) for muscular action
Dilation of blood vessels for muscles
Inhibition of the lacrimal gland (responsible for tear production) and salivation
Dilation of pupil (mydriasis)
Relaxation of bladder
Inhibition of erection
Auditory exclusion (loss of hearing)
Tunnel vision (loss of peripheral vision)
Disinhibition of spinal reflexes
Shaking.
Function of physiological changes[edit]
The physiological changes that occur during the fight or flight response are activated in order to give the body increased strength and speed in anticipation of fighting or running. Some of the specific physiological changes and their functions include:[14][15]
Increased blood flow to the muscles activated by diverting blood flow from other parts of the body.
Increased blood pressure, heart rate, blood sugars, and fats in order to supply the body with extra energy.
The blood clotting function of the body speeds up in order to prevent excessive blood loss in the event of an injury sustained during the response.
Increased muscle tension in order to provide the body with extra speed and strength.
Emotional components[edit]
Emotion regulation[edit]
See also: Emotional self-regulation
In the context of the fight or flight response, emotional regulation is used proactively to avoid threats of stress or to control the level of emotional arousal.[16][17]
Emotional reactivity[edit]
During the reaction, the intensity of emotion that is brought on by the stimulus will also determine the nature and intensity of the behavioral response.[18] Individuals with higher levels of emotional reactivity may be prone to anxiety and aggression, which illustrates the implications of appropriate emotional reaction in the fight or flight response.[19][20]
Cognitive components[edit]
Content specificity[edit]
The specific components of cognitions in the fight or flight response seem to be largely negative. These negative cognitions may be characterized by: attention to negative stimuli, the perception of ambiguous situations as negative, and the recurrence of recalling negative words.[21] There also may be specific negative thoughts associated with emotions commonly seen in the reaction.[22]
Perception of control[edit]
See also: Control (psychology)
Perceived control relates to an individual's thoughts about control over situations and events.[23] Perceived control should be differentiated from actual control because an individual's beliefs about their abilities may not reflect their actual abilities. Therefore, overestimation or underestimation of perceived control can lead to anxiety and aggression.[24]
Social information processing[edit]
See also: Social information processing (cognition)
The social information processing model proposes a variety of factors that determine behavior in the context of social situations and preexisting thoughts.[25] The attribution of hostility, especially in ambiguous situations, seems to be one of the most important cognitive factors associated with the fight or flight response because of its implications towards aggression.[26]
Other animals[edit]
Evolutionary perspective[edit]
An evolutionary psychology explanation is that early animals had to react to threatening stimuli quickly and did not have time to psychologically and physically prepare themselves. The fight or flight response provided them with the mechanisms to rapidly respond to threats against survival.[27][28]
Examples[edit]
A typical example of the stress response is a grazing zebra. If the zebra sees a lion closing in for the kill, the stress response is activated as a means to escape its predator. The escape requires intense muscular effort, supported by all of the body’s systems. The sympathetic nervous system’s activation rarely provides for these needs. A similar example involving fight is of a cat about to be attacked by a dog. The cat shows accelerated heartbeat, piloerection (hair standing on end, normally to dissipate heat), and pupil dilation, all signs of sympathetic arousal.[13] Note that the zebra and cat still maintain homeostasis in all states.
Varieties of responses[edit]
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Bison hunted by dogs
Animals respond to threats in many complex ways. Rats, for instance, try to escape when threatened, but will fight when cornered. Some animals stand perfectly still so that predators will not see them. Many animals freeze or play dead when touched in the hope that the predator will lose interest.
Other animals have alternative self-protection methods. Some species of cold-blooded animals change color swiftly, to camouflage themselves.[29] These responses are triggered by the sympathetic nervous system, but, in order to fit the model of fight or flight, the idea of flight must be broadened to include escaping capture either in a physical or sensory way. Thus, flight can be disappearing to another location or just disappearing in place. And often both fight and flight are combined in a given situation.
The fight or flight actions also have polarity – the individual can either fight or flee against something that is threatening, such as a hungry lion, or fight for or fly towards something that is needed, such as the safety of the shore from a raging river.
A threat from another animal does not always result in immediate fight or flight. There may be a period of heightened awareness, during which each animal interprets behavioral signals from the other. Signs such as paling, piloerection, immobility, sounds, and body language communicate the status and intentions of each animal. There may be a sort of negotiation, after which fight or flight may ensue, but which might also result in playing, mating, or nothing at all. An example of this is kittens playing: each kitten shows the signs of sympathetic arousal, but they never inflict real damage.
See also[edit]
Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis
Coping (psychology)
Defense physiology
Emotional dysregulation
Freezing behavior
Escape distance
The Relaxation Response
Rest and digest
Vasoconstriction
Workplace bullying
Yerkes–Dodson law
Acute stress reaction
Anxiety
Anxiety disorder
Panic attack
Phobia
Social anxiety
Social anxiety disorder
Tend and befriend
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Some references say he first described the response in 1914 in The American Journal of Physiology. Others in the 1915 edition of Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage. Other sources say that he first used the term in 1929 or in 1932 edition of the same book. The issue needs further research.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Cannon, Walter (1932). Wisdom of the Body. United States: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393002055.
Jump up ^ Walter Bradford Cannon (1929). Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear, and rage. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Jump up ^ Jansen, A; Nguyen, X; Karpitsky, V; Mettenleiter, M (27 October 1995). "Central Command Neurons of the Sympathetic Nervous System: Basis of the Fight-or-Flight Response". Science Magazine. 5236 (270).
Jump up ^ Walter Bradford Cannon (1915). Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage: An Account of Recent Researches into the Function of Emotional Excitement. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Jump up ^ "Adrenaline, Cortisol, Norepinephrine: The Three Major Stress Hormones, Explained". Hufflington Post. April 19, 2014. Retrieved 16 August 2014.
Jump up ^ Gozhenko, A; Gurkalova, I.P.; Zukow, W; Kwasnik, Z (2009). PATHOLOGY – Theory. Medical Student's Library. Radom. pp. 270–275.
Jump up ^ Schmidt, A; Thews, G (1989). "Autonomic Nervous System". In Janig, W. Human Physiology (2 ed.). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag. pp. 333–370. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Chudler, Eric. "Neuroscience For Kids". University of Washington. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Margioris, Andrew; Tsatsanis, Christos (April 2011). "ACTH Action on the Adrenal". Endotext.org. Archived from the original on 6 March 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Padgett, David; Glaser, R (August 2003). "How stress influences the immune response". Trends in Immunology. 24 (8): 444–448. doi:10.1016/S1471-4906(03)00173-X. PMID 12909458.
Jump up ^ King, Michael. "PATHWAYS: GLYCOGEN & GLUCOSE". Washington University, St. Louis.
Jump up ^ "HOW CELLS COMMUNICATE DURING THE FIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSE". University of Utah. Archived from the original on 8 August 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Henry Gleitman, Alan J. Fridlund and Daniel Reisberg (2004). Psychology (6 ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-97767-6.
Jump up ^ Stress Management for Health Course. "The Fight Flight Response". Retrieved 19 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Olpin, Michael. "The Science of Stress". Weber State University.
Jump up ^ Cistler, Josh; Bunmi O. Olatunji; Matthew T. Feldner; John P. Forsyth (2010). "Emotion Regulation and the Anxiety Disorders: An Integrative Review". Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment. 32 (1): 68–82. doi:10.1007/s10862-009-9161-1. PMC 2901125  . PMID 20622981.
Jump up ^ Gross, James (1998). "Sharpening the Focus: Emotion Regulation, Arousal, and Social Competence". Psychological Inquiry. 9 (4): 287–290. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0904_8.
Jump up ^ Avero, Pedro; Calvo, M (1 July 1999). "Emotional reactivity to social-evaluative stress: genderdifferences in response systems concordance". Personality and Individual Differences. 27 (1): 155–170. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00229-3.
Jump up ^ Carthy, T; Horesh N; Apter A; Edge MD; Gross JJ (May 2010). "Emotional reactivity and cognitive regulation in anxious children". Behavior Research and Therapy. 48 (5): 384–393. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.12.013.
Jump up ^ Valiente, C; Eisenberg N; Smith CL; Reiser M; Fabes RA; Losoya S; Guthrie IK; Murphy BC (December 2003). "The relations of effortful control and reactive control to children's externalizing problems: A longitudinal assessment". Personality. 71 (6): 1171–1196. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.7106011. PMID 14633062.
Jump up ^ Reid, Sophie C.; Salmon, Karen; Peter F. Lovibond (October 2006). "Cognitive Biases in Childhood Anxiety, Depression, and Aggression: Are They Pervasive or Specific?". Cognitive Therapy and Research. 30 (5): 531–549. doi:10.1007/s10608-006-9077-y.
Jump up ^ Beck, Aaron (1979). Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. United States: Penguin Books.
Jump up ^ Weems, CF; Silverman, WK (April 2006). "An integrative model of control: implications for understanding emotion regulation and dysregulation in childhood anxiety". Journal of Affective disorders. 91 (2): 113–124. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2006.01.009.
Jump up ^ Brendgen, M; Vitaro F; Turgeon L; Poulin F; Wanner B (June 2004). "Is there a dark side of positive illusions? Overestimation of social competence and subsequent adjustment in aggressive and nonaggressive children". Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 32 (3): 305–320. doi:10.1023/B:JACP.0000026144.08470.cd. PMID 15228179.
Jump up ^ Crick, Nicki; Dodge, Kenneth (January 1994). "A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children's social adjustment". Psychological Bulletin. 115 (1): 74–101. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.74.
Jump up ^ Dodge, Kenneth (March 1980). "Social cognition and children's aggressive behavior". Journal of Child Development. 51 (1): 162–170. doi:10.2307/1129603.
Jump up ^ Grohol, John. "What's the purpose of the fight or flight response?". Retrieved 18 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Goldstein, David; Kopin, I (2007). "Evolution of concepts of stress". Stress. 10 (2): 109–20. doi:10.1080/10253890701288935. PMID 17514579.
Jump up ^ Gill, A.C. (2004). Revision of the Indo-Pacific dottyback fish subfamily Pseudochrominae (Perciformes: Pseudochromidae). Smithiana Monographs. pp. 1–123.
Further reading[edit]
Sapolsky, Robert M., 1994. Why Zebras Don't Get Ulcers. W.H. Freeman and Company.
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Government document "http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/chapter4/sec2_1.html".
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fight-or-flight_response&oldid=816975993"
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The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the 1975 film, see Rime of the Ancient Mariner (film). For the 1925 silent film, see The Ancient Mariner (film).
The mariner up on the mast in a storm. One of the wood-engraved illustrations by Gustave Doré of the poem.
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (originally The Rime of the Ancyent Marinere) is the longest major poem by the English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, written in 1797–98 and published in 1798 in the first edition of Lyrical Ballads. Some modern editions use a revised version printed in 1817 that featured a gloss.[citation needed] Along with other poems in Lyrical Ballads, it is often considered a signal shift to modern poetry and the beginning of British Romantic literature.[citation needed]
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (1800 edition)
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The Rime of the Ancient Mariner relates the experiences of a sailor who has returned from a long sea voyage. The mariner stops a man who is on the way to a wedding ceremony and begins to narrate a story. The wedding-guest's reaction turns from bemusement to impatience to fear to fascination as the mariner's story progresses, as can be seen in the language style: Coleridge uses narrative techniques such as personification and repetition to create a sense of danger, the supernatural, or serenity, depending on the mood in different parts of the poem.
Contents
[hide]
1 Synopsis
2 Inspiration for the poem
3 Coleridge's comments
4 Wordsworth's comments
5 Early criticisms
6 Interpretations
7 In popular culture
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
Synopsis[edit]
The mariner's tale begins with his ship departing on its journey. Despite initial good fortune, the ship is driven south by a storm and eventually reaches Antarctic waters. An albatross appears and leads them out of the ice jam where they are stuck, but even as the albatross is praised by the ship's crew, the mariner shoots the bird:
With my cross-bow,
I shot the albatross.
The crew is angry with the mariner, believing the albatross brought the south wind that led them out of the Antarctic. However, the sailors change their minds when the weather becomes warmer and the mist disappears:
'Twas right, said they, such birds to slay,
That bring the fog and mist.
They soon find that they made a grave mistake in supporting this crime, as it arouses the wrath of spirits who then pursue the ship "from the land of mist and snow"; the south wind that had initially led them from the land of ice now sends the ship into uncharted waters near the equator, where it is becalmed.
Day after day, day after day,
We stuck, nor breath nor motion;
As idle as a painted ship
Upon a painted ocean.
Water, water, every where,
And all the boards did shrink;
Water, water, every where,
Nor any drop to drink.
The very deep did rot – Oh Christ!
That ever this should be.
Yea, slimy things did crawl with legs,
Upon the slimy sea.
Engraving by Gustave Doré for an 1876 edition of the poem. "The Albatross," depicts 17 sailors on the deck of a wooden ship facing an albatross. Icicles hang from the rigging.
The sailors change their minds again and blame the mariner for the torment of their thirst. In anger, the crew forces the mariner to wear the dead albatross about his neck, perhaps to illustrate the burden he must suffer from killing it, or perhaps as a sign of regret:
Ah! Well a-day! What evil looks
Had I from old and young!
Instead of the cross, the albatross
About my neck was hung.
Eventually, the ship encounters a ghostly hulk. On board are Death (a skeleton) and the "Night-mare Life-in-Death", a deathly-pale woman, who are playing dice for the souls of the crew. With a roll of the dice, Death wins the lives of the crew members and Life-in-Death the life of the mariner, a prize she considers more valuable. Her name is a clue to the mariner's fate: he will endure a fate worse than death as punishment for his killing of the albatross.
One by one, all of the crew members die, but the mariner lives on, seeing for seven days and nights the curse in the eyes of the crew's corpses, whose last expressions remain upon their faces. Eventually, this stage of the mariner's curse is lifted after he appreciates the sea creatures swimming in the water. Despite his cursing them as "slimy things" earlier in the poem, he suddenly sees their true beauty and blesses them ("a spring of love gush'd from my heart, and I bless'd them unaware"); suddenly, as he manages to pray, the albatross falls from his neck and his guilt is partially expiated. The bodies of the crew, possessed by good spirits, rise again and help steer the ship. In a trance, the mariner hears two spirits discussing his voyage and penance, and learns that the ship is being powered preternaturally:
The air is cut away before,
And closes from behind.
Finally the mariner comes in sight of his homeland, but is initially uncertain as to whether or not he is hallucinating.
Oh! Dream of joy! Is this indeed
The light-house top I see?
Is this the hill? Is this the kirk?
Is this mine own countree?
We drifted o'er the harbour-bar,
And I with sobs did pray—
O let me be awake, my God!
Or let me sleep alway.
The rotten remains of the ship sink in a whirlpool, leaving only the mariner behind. A hermit on the mainland had seen the approaching ship and had come to meet it with a pilot and his boy, in a boat. When they pull him from the water, they think he is dead, but when he opens his mouth, the pilot has a fit. The hermit prays, and the mariner picks up the oars to row. The pilot's boy goes crazy and laughs, thinking the mariner is the devil, and cries, "The Devil knows how to row". As penance for shooting the albatross, the mariner, driven by guilt, is forced to wander the earth, telling his story over and over, and teaching a lesson to those he meets:
He prayeth best, who loveth best
All things both great and small;
For the dear God who loveth us,
He made and loveth all.
After relaying the story, the mariner leaves, and the wedding guest returns home, and wakes the next morning "a sadder and a wiser man".
The poem received mixed reviews from critics, and Coleridge was once told by the publisher that most of the book's sales were to sailors who thought it was a naval songbook. Coleridge made several modifications to the poem over the years. In the second edition of Lyrical Ballads, published in 1800, he replaced many of the archaic words.
Inspiration for the poem[edit]
Commemorative statue at Watchet, Somerset: the albatross hangs on a rope looped around the ancient mariner's neck.
"Ah ! well a-day ! what evil looks
Had I from old and young!
Instead of the cross, the Albatross
About my neck was hung."
The poem may have been inspired by James Cook's second voyage of exploration (1772–1775) of the South Seas and the Pacific Ocean; Coleridge's tutor, William Wales, was the astronomer on Cook's flagship and had a strong relationship with Cook. On this second voyage Cook crossed three times into the Antarctic Circle to determine whether the fabled great southern continent existed.[1] Critics have also suggested that the poem may have been inspired by the voyage of Thomas James into the Arctic.[2]
According to William Wordsworth, the poem was inspired while Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Wordsworth's sister Dorothy were on a walking tour through the Quantock Hills in Somerset.[3] The discussion had turned to a book that Wordsworth was reading, A Voyage Round The World by Way of the Great South Sea (1726) by Captain George Shelvocke. In the book, a melancholy sailor, Simon Hatley, shoots a black albatross:
We all observed, that we had not the sight of one fish of any kind, since we were come to the Southward of the streights of le Mair, nor one sea-bird, except a disconsolate black Albatross, who accompanied us for several days ... till Hattley, (my second Captain) observing, in one of his melancholy fits, that this bird was always hovering near us, imagin'd, from his colour, that it might be some ill omen ... He, after some fruitless attempts, at length, shot the Albatross, not doubting we should have a fair wind after it.
As they discussed Shelvocke's book, Wordsworth proffers the following developmental critique to Coleridge, which importantly contains a reference to tutelary spirits: "Suppose you represent him as having killed one of these birds on entering the south sea, and the tutelary spirits of these regions take upon them to avenge the crime."[3] By the time the trio finished their walk, the poem had taken shape.
Bernard Martin argues in The Ancient Mariner and the Authentic Narrative that Coleridge was also influenced by the life of Anglican clergyman John Newton, who had a near-death experience aboard a slave ship.[citation needed]
The poem may also have been inspired by the legends of the Wandering Jew, who was forced to wander the earth until Judgement Day for a terrible crime, found in Charles Maturin's Melmoth the Wanderer, M.G. Lewis' The Monk (a novel Coleridge reviewed) and the Flying Dutchman.[4][5]
It is claimed that the harbour at Watchet in Somerset was the primary inspiration for the poem, although some time before, John Cruikshank, a local acquaintance of Coleridge’s, had related a dream about a skeleton ship manned by spectral sailors.[6] In September 2003, a commemorative statue, by Alan B Herriot of Penicuik, Scotland, was unveiled at Watchet harbour.[7]
Coleridge's comments[edit]
"The Albatross about my Neck was Hung," etching by William Strang. Poem illustration published 1896.
In Biographia Literaria, Coleridge wrote:
The thought suggested itself (to which of us I do not recollect) that a series of poems might be composed of two sorts. In the one, incidents and agents were to be, in part at least, supernatural, and the excellence aimed at was to consist in the interesting of the affections by the dramatic truth of such emotions, as would naturally accompany such situations, supposing them real. And real in this sense they have been to every human being who, from whatever source of delusion, has at any time believed himself under supernatural agency. For the second class, subjects were to be chosen from ordinary life...In this idea originated the plan of the 'Lyrical Ballads'; in which it was agreed, that my endeavours should be directed to persons and characters supernatural, or at least Romantic; yet so as to transfer from our inward nature a human interest and a semblance of truth sufficient to procure for these shadows of imagination that willing suspension of disbelief for the moment, which constitutes poetic faith. ... With this view I wrote the 'Ancient Mariner'.[8]
In Table Talk, Coleridge wrote:
Mrs Barbauld once told me that she admired The Ancient Mariner very much, but that there were two faults in it -- it was improbable, and had no moral. As for the probability, I owned that that might admit some question; but as to the want of a moral, I told her that in my own judgement the poem had too much; and that the only, or chief fault, if I might say so, was the obtrusion of the moral sentiment so openly on the reader as a principle or cause of action in a work of such pure imagination. It ought to have had no more moral than the Arabian Nights' tale of the merchant's sitting down to eat dates by the side of a well, and throwing the shells aside, and lo! a genie starts up, and says he must kill the aforesaid merchant, because one of the date shells had, it seems, put out the eye of the genie's son.[9]
Wordsworth's comments[edit]
Wordsworth wrote to Joseph Cottle in 1799:
From what I can gather it seems that the Ancient Mariner has upon the whole been an injury to the volume, I mean that the old words and the strangeness of it have deterred readers from going on. If the volume should come to a second Edition I would put in its place some little things which would be more likely to suit the common taste.
However, when Lyrical Ballads was reprinted, Wordsworth included it despite Coleridge's objections, writing:
The Poem of my Friend has indeed great defects; first, that the principal person has no distinct character, either in his profession of Mariner, or as a human being who having been long under the control of supernatural impressions might be supposed himself to partake of something supernatural; secondly, that he does not act, but is continually acted upon; thirdly, that the events having no necessary connection do not produce each other; and lastly, that the imagery is somewhat too laboriously accumulated. Yet the Poem contains many delicate touches of passion, and indeed the passion is every where true to nature, a great number of the stanzas present beautiful images, and are expressed with unusual felicity of language; and the versification, though the metre is itself unfit for long poems, is harmonious and artfully varied, exhibiting the utmost powers of that metre, and every variety of which it is capable. It therefore appeared to me that these several merits (the first of which, namely that of the passion, is of the highest kind) gave to the Poem a value which is not often possessed by better Poems.
Early criticisms[edit]
Illustration by Gustave Doré, 1878
Upon its release, the poem was criticized for being obscure and difficult to read. The use of archaic spelling of words was seen as not in keeping with Wordsworth's claims of using common language. Criticism was renewed again in 1815–16, when Coleridge added marginal notes to the poem that were also written in an archaic style. These notes or glosses, placed next to the text of the poem, ostensibly interpret the verses much like marginal notes found in the Bible. There were many opinions on why Coleridge inserted the gloss.[10] Charles Lamb, who had deeply admired the original for its attention to "Human Feeling", claimed that the gloss distanced the audience from the narrative, weakening the poem's effects. The entire poem was first published in the collection of Lyrical Ballads. Another version of the poem was published in the 1817 collection entitled Sibylline Leaves[11] (see 1817 in poetry).
Interpretations[edit]
On a surface level the poem explores a violation of nature and the resulting psychological effects on the mariner and on all those who hear him. According to Jerome McGann the poem is like a salvation story. The poem's structure is multi-layered text based on Coleridge's interest in Higher Criticism. "Like the Iliad or Paradise Lost or any great historical product, the Rime is a work of transhistorical rather than so-called universal significance. This verbal distinction is important because it calls attention to a real one. Like The Divine Comedy or any other poem, the Rime is not valued or used always or everywhere or by everyone in the same way or for the same reasons."[12]
George Whalley, in his 1946–47 essay, "The Mariner and the Albatross", suggests that the Ancient Mariner is an autobiographical portrait of Coleridge himself, comparing the mariner's loneliness with Coleridge's own feelings of loneliness expressed in his letters and journals.[13]
In popular culture[edit]
Main article: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner in popular culture
In addition to being referred to in several other notable works, due to the popularity of the poem the phrase "albatross around one's neck" has become an English language idiom referring to "a heavy burden of guilt that becomes an obstacle to success".[14]
The phrase "Water, water, every where, | Nor any drop to drink" has appeared widely in popular culture, but usually given in a more natural modern phrasing as "Water, water, everywhere | But not a drop to drink"; some such appearances have, in turn, played on the frequency with which these lines are misquoted.[15]
The poem is referenced in the script of the 1939 film The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes.[16]
The Iron Maiden song "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" from their fifth studio album Powerslave, was inspired by and based on the poem.[17]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Andrew C. F. David, ‘Cook, James (1728–1779)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Jan 2008:'On 26 January 1774 he crossed into the Antarctic Circle for the third time (having done so a second time the previous month) and four days later, at 71°10' S, 106°54' W, achieved his farthest south.'
Jump up ^ Cooke, Alan (2000). "Thomas James". Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. Retrieved 5 March 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Keach, William (ed.): "The Complete Poems / Samuel Taylor Coleridge", pages 498–99. Penguin, 1997.
Jump up ^ Fulmer, O. Bryan (October 1969). "The Ancient Mariner and the Wandering Jew". Studies in Philology. 66 (5): 797–815. JSTOR 4173656. (pay site)
Jump up ^ John Clute and John Grant, eds. (1999). The encyclopedia of fantasy. Macmillan. p. 210. ISBN 978-0-312-19869-5. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link) Excerpt available at Google Books.
Jump up ^ "Samuel Taylor Coleridge". poetryfoundation.org. 11 December 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Coleridge and Watchet – Watchet Museum". watchetmuseum.co.uk. Retrieved 12 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. "Chapter XIV". Biographia Literaria. Retrieved 12 May 2013.
Jump up ^ TableTalks, p. 106 "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 15 April 2014. Retrieved 1 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Duncan Wu, A Companion to Romanticism, Blackwell Publishing, 1998, p 137. ISBN 0-631-21877-7
Jump up ^ "GradeSaver: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner-Study Guide – About The Rime of the Ancient Mariner".
Jump up ^ McGann, Jerome J. The Beauty of Inflections: Clarendon Press, 1985.
Jump up ^ Whalley, George (July 1947). "The Mariner and the Albatross". The University of Toronto Quarterly. 16: 381–398. doi:10.3138/utq.16.4.381. Reprinted in Kathleen Coburn, eds. (1967). Coleridge: A Collection of Critical Essays. Prentice-Hall. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ "albatross around one's neck". Houghton Mifflin. 1997.
Jump up ^ "Ten literary quotes we all get wrong". The Telegraph. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ [2]
References[edit]
Gardner, Martin, The Annotated Ancient Mariner, New York: Clarkson Potter, 1965; Reprinted by Prometheus Books, 19??, ISBN 1-59102-125-1
John Livingston Lowes, The Road to Xanadu – A Study in the Ways of the Imagination, Houghton Mifflin, 1927
Scott, Grant F. "'The Many Men so Beautiful': Gustave Doré's Illustrations to 'The Rime of the Ancient Mariner,'" Romanticism 16.1 (2010): 1–24.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
Wikiquote has quotations related to: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Rime of the Ancient Mariner.
Illustrations from The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, Gustave Doré illustrations from the University at Buffalo Libraries’ Rare & Special Books collection
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, text from Project Gutenberg
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, audiobook (Jane Aker) from Project Gutenberg
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner: Critical Analysis and Summary
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner public domain audiobook at LibriVox
Abstracts of literary criticism of The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
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Currencies of the European Union
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EU GDP by currency group[1]
Eurozone (72.9%)
Non-Eurozone (Minus UK) (12%)
United Kingdom (15.1%)
There are eleven currencies of the European Union as of 2015[update] used officially by member states. The euro accounts for the majority of the member states with the remainder operating independent monetary policies. Those European Union states that have adopted it are known as the eurozone and share the European Central Bank (ECB). The ECB and the national central banks of all EU countries, including those who operate an independent currency, are part of the European System of Central Banks.
Contents
[hide]
1 Euro
2 Current currencies
3 Historic currencies
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
Euro[edit]
Further information: Eurozone, Opt-outs in the European Union, and Enlargement of the eurozone
The euro is the result of the European Union's project for economic and monetary union which came fully into being on 1 January 2002 and it is now the currency used by the majority of European Union's member states, with all but two bound to adopt it. It is the currency used by the institutions of the European Union and in the failed European Constitution it was to be included with the symbols of Europe as the formal currency of the European Union. The euro is also widely used by other states outside the EU.
Except for the two states with opt outs, all current and future members of the EU are obliged to adopt the Euro as their currency, thus replacing their current ones.[2] The relationship between euro and non-euro states has been on debate both during the UK's membership (as a large opt-out state) and in light of withdrawal from the EU and how that impacts the balance of power between those in and out of the euro; namely avoiding a eurozone caucus out-voting non-euro states. The UK had called for the EU treaties to recognise the EU as a "multicurrency union", which sparked concerns about undermining euro adoption in remaining countries.[1] [3][4][5]
Current currencies[edit]
Map of currencies used within the EU and dates of Euro adoption
States which used the euro from 1999 (currency entered circulation 2002)
States which subsequently adopted the euro
States using other currencies
The following are official and unofficial currencies used within the borders of the European Union;
Currency
Region
Symbol
ISO
Peg
Notes
Bulgarian lev Bulgaria лв BGN Currency board
British pound sterling
Gibraltar pound United Kingdom
Gibraltar £ GBP
GIP Floating
Pegged to pound sterling
Croatian kuna Croatia kn HRK Floating
Czech koruna Czech Republic Kč CZK Floating
Danish krone Denmark kr DKK ERM II
Euro
Eurozone[show]
Austria
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France
Germany
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Malta
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Portugal
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Slovenia
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€ EUR Floating Also used by EU institutions
Hungarian forint Hungary Ft HUF Floating
Polish złoty Poland zł PLN Floating
Romanian leu Romania Leu RON Floating
Swedish krona Sweden kr SEK Floating
Swiss franc Campione d'Italia (Italy)[6]
Büsingen am Hochrhein (Germany)[7] Fr. CHF Floating Swiss franc is issued by Switzerland.
Turkish lira Northern Cyprus (Cyprus)[8] TL TRY Floating Turkish lira is issued by Turkey
Note that there are other currencies used in overseas territories of member states. Those territories however are not part of the European Union proper (legally subject to all its law) so are not listed here.
Historic currencies[edit]
Further information: History of the euro
Currency
State
Symbol
ISO
Completely Yielded
on
Rate to
euro
Notes
Austrian schilling Austria S or öS (ATS) 1999/2002 13.7603
Belgian franc Belgium fr. (BEF) 1999/2002 40.3399 Interchangeable with Luxembourgian franc (BLEU)
Cypriot pound Cyprus £ (CYP) 2008 0.585274
Dutch guilder Netherlands ƒ or fl. (NLG) 1999/2002 2.20371
Estonian kroon Estonia Kr (EEK) 2011 15.6466
Finnish markka Finland mk (FIM) 1999/2002 5.94573
French franc France ₣, F or FF (FRF) 1999/2002 6.55957 Linked to Monegasque franc,[9] both valid in France, Andorra and Monaco.
German mark Germany DM (DEM) 1999/2002 1.95583
Greek drachma Greece Δρχ., Δρ. or ₯ (GRD) 2001/2002 340.75
Irish pound Ireland £ (IEP) 1999/2002 0.787564
Italian lira Italy ₤, L. or LIT (ITL) 1999/2002 1,936.27 Linked to Sammarinese & Vatican lira,[10] all valid in Italy, San Marino and the Vatican City.
Latvian lats Latvia Ls (LVL) 2014 0.702804
Lithuanian litas Lithuania Lt (LTL) 2015 3.4528
Luxembourgian franc Luxembourg fr. or F (LUF) 1999/2002 40.3399 Interchangeable with Belgian franc (BLEU).
Maltese lira Malta ₤ or Lm (MTL) 2008 0.4293
Portuguese escudo Portugal S ‖ {\displaystyle \mathrm {S} \!\!\!\Vert } or $ (PTE) 1999/2002 200.482
Slovak koruna Slovakia Sk (SKK) 2009 30.126
Slovenian tolar Slovenia SIT (SIT) 2007 239.64
Spanish peseta Spain ₧ (ESP) 1999/2002 166.386
European Currency Unit Accounting only ₠, ECU or XEU (XEU) 1999/2002 1 Accounting currency alongside national currencies until the euro introduction.
See also[edit]
Economy of the European Union
List of currencies in Europe
Notes[edit]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b The Eurozone seeks a post-Brexit balance, European Data Journalism Network 15 December 2017
Jump up ^ The euro, European Commission
Jump up ^ UK call for ‘multicurrency’ EU triggers ECB alarm, Financial Times 4 December 2015
Jump up ^ The Great British Euro Conundrum, Handelsblatt 20 June 2016
Jump up ^ What a fair relationship between ‘euro ins’ and ‘euro outs’ could look like, London School of Economics 26 January 2016
Jump up ^ Swiss franc is the official currency and euro is widely accepted.
Jump up ^ The euro is the official currency but the Swiss franc is more widely used due to it being a Swiss enclave.
Jump up ^ EU law is suspended in Northern Cyprus, and the Turkish Cypriot government who use the Turkish lira are not recognised as the legitimate government of the region. Nevertheless, the euro does circulate widely.
Jump up ^ Replaced alongside French franc with euro
Jump up ^ Replaced alongside Italian lira with euro
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