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Government of Japan
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Government of Japan
Seal of the Government
Overview
State
Japan
Leader
Prime Minister
Appointed by
The Emperor
Main organ
Cabinet
Responsible to
National Diet
Headquarters
Chiyoda ward, Tokyo
Website
www.japan.go.jp
Japan
This article is part of a series on the
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Naruhito
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Imperial Household Agency
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National Diet
House of Representatives
Speaker
Tadamori Oshima
Vice-Speaker
Hirotaka Akamatsu
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President
Chuichi Date
Vice-President
Akira Gunji
Leader of the Opposition
Yukio Edano
Executive[show]
Prime Minister (list)
Shinzō Abe
Deputy Prime Minister
Tarō Asō
Government
Cabinet
Ministries
Administrative Agencies
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Chief Justice (list)
Itsurō Terada
Supreme Court
Intellectual Property High Court
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v
t
e
Government of Japan
Japanese name
Kanji
日本国政府
Hiragana
にっぽんこくせいふ(formal)
にほんこくせいふ(informal)
[show]Transcriptions
Romanization
Nipponkoku Seifu (formal)
Nihonkoku Seifu (informal)
The government of Japan is a constitutional monarchy in which the power of the Emperor is limited and is relegated primarily to ceremonial duties. As in many other states, the Government is divided into three branches: the Executive branch, the Legislative branch and the Judicial branch.
The Government runs under the framework established by the Constitution of Japan, adopted in 1947. It is a unitary state, containing forty-seven administrative divisions, with the Emperor as its head of state.[1] His role is ceremonial and he has no powers related to Government.[2] Instead, it is the Cabinet, composing of the Ministers of State and the Prime Minister, that directs and controls the Government. The Cabinet is the source of power of the Executive branch, and is formed by the Prime Minister, who is the head of government.[3][4] He or she is designated by the National Diet and appointed to office by the Emperor.[5][6]
The National Diet is the legislature, the organ of the Legislative branch. It is bicameral, consisting of two houses with the House of Councillors being the upper house, and the House of Representatives being the lower house. Its members are directly elected from the people, who are the source of sovereignty.[7] The Supreme Court and other inferior courts make up the Judicial branch, and they are independent from the executive and the legislative branches.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 The Emperor
3 Executive
3.1 Prime Minister
3.2 The Cabinet
3.3 Ministries
4 Legislative
4.1 House of Representatives
4.2 House of Councillors
5 Judicial
5.1 Supreme Court
5.2 High Courts
5.3 Penal system
6 Local Government
6.1 Local Authorities
6.2 Structure of Local Government
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
Prior to the Meiji Restoration, Japan was ruled by successive military shoguns. During this period, effective power of the government resided in the Shogun, who officially ruled the country in the name of the Emperor.[9] The Shoguns were the hereditary military governors, with their modern rank equivalent to a generalissimo. Although the Emperor was the sovereign who appointed the Shogun, his roles were ceremonial and he took no part in governing the country.[10] This is often compared to the present role of the Emperor, whose official role is to appoint the Prime Minister.[11]
The Meiji Restoration in 1868 led to the resignation of Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu, agreeing to "be the instrument for carrying out" the Emperor's orders.[12] This event restored the country to Imperial rule and the proclamation of the Empire of Japan. In 1889, the Meiji Constitution was adopted in a move to strengthen Japan to the level of western nations, resulting in the first parliamentary system in Asia.[13] It provided a form of mixed constitutional-absolute monarchy, with an independent judiciary, based on the Prussian model of the time.[14]
A new aristocracy known as the Kazoku was established. It merged the ancient court nobility of the Heian period, the Kuge, and the former Daimyo, feudal lords subordinate to the Shogun.[15] It also established the Imperial Diet, consisting of the House of Representatives and the House of Peers. Members of the House of Peers were made up of the Imperial Family, the Kazoku, and those nominated by the Emperor,[16] while members of the House of Representatives were elected by direct male suffrage.[17] Despite clear distinctions between powers of the executive branch and the Emperor in the Meiji Constitution, ambiguity and contradictions in the Constitution eventually led to a political crisis.[18] It also devalued the notion of civilian control over the military, which meant that the military could develop and exercise a great influence on politics.[19]
Following the end of World War II, the Constitution of Japan was adopted as an intention to replace the previous Imperial rule with a form of Western-style liberal democracy.[20]
The Emperor[edit]
Imperial Standard
The Emperor of Japan (天皇) is the head of the Imperial Family and the ceremonial head of state. He is defined by the Constitution to be "the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people".[7] However, he is not the nominal Chief Executive and he possesses only certain ceremonially important powers. He has no real powers related to the Government as stated clearly in article 4 of the Constitution.[21]
Article 6 of the Constitution of Japan delegates the Emperor the following ceremonial roles:
Appointment of the Prime Minister as designated by the Diet.
Appointment of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court as designated by the Cabinet.
While the Cabinet is the source of executive power and most of its power is exercised directly by the Prime Minister, several of its powers are exercised by the Emperor. The powers exercised via the Emperor, as stipulated by Article 7 of the Constitution, are:
Promulgation of amendments of the constitution, laws, cabinet orders and treaties.
Convocation of the Diet.
Dissolution of the House of Representatives.
Proclamation of general election of members of the Diet.
Attestation of the appointment and dismissal of Ministers of State and other officials as provided for by law, and of full powers and credentials of Ambassadors and Ministers.
Attestation of general and special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights.
Awarding of honors.
Attestation of instruments of ratification and other diplomatic documents as provided for by law.
Receiving foreign ambassadors and ministers.
Performance of ceremonial functions.
The Emperor is known to hold the nominal ceremonial authority. For example, the Emperor is the only person that has the authority to appoint the Prime Minister, even though the Diet has the power to designate the person fitted for the position. One such example can be prominently seen in the 2009 Dissolution of the House of Representatives. The House was expected to be dissolved on the advice of the Prime Minister, but was temporarily unable to do so for the next general election, as both the Emperor and Empress were visiting Canada.[22][23]
In this manner, the Emperor's modern role is often compared to those of the Shogunate period and much of Japan's history, whereby the Emperor held great symbolic authority but had little political power; which is often held by others nominally appointed by the Emperor himself. Today, a legacy has somewhat continued for a retired Prime Minister who still wields considerable power, to be called a Shadow Shogun (闇将軍).[24]
Unlike his European counterparts, the Emperor is not the source of sovereign power and the government does not act under his name. Instead, the Emperor represents the State and appoints other high officials in the name of the State, in which the Japanese people hold sovereignty.[25] Article 5 of the Constitution, in accordance with the Imperial Household Law, allows a regency to be established in the Emperor's name, should the Emperor be unable to perform his duties.[26]
Historically, the Imperial House of Japan is said to be the oldest continuing hereditary monarchy in the world.[27] According to the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, Japan was founded by the Imperial House in 660 BC by Emperor Jimmu (神武天皇).[28] Emperor Jimmu was the first Emperor of Japan and the ancestor of all of the Emperors that followed.[29] He is, according to Japanese mythology, the direct descendant of Amaterasu (天照大御神), the sun goddess of the native Shinto religion, through Ninigi, his great-grandfather.[30][31]
The Current Emperor of Japan (今上天皇) is Akihito. He was officially enthroned on November 12, 1990.[32][33] He is styled as His Imperial Majesty (天皇陛下), and his reign bears the era name of Heisei (平成). Naruhito, the Crown Prince of Japan, is the heir apparent to the Chrysanthemum Throne.
Executive[edit]
The Executive branch of Japan is headed by the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister is the head of the Cabinet, and is designated by the legislative organ, the National Diet.[5] The Cabinet consists of the Ministers of State and may be appointed or dismissed by the Prime Minister at any time.[4] Explicitly defined to be the source of executive power, it is in practice, however, mainly exercised by the Prime Minister. The practice of its powers is responsible to the Diet, and as a whole, should the Cabinet lose confidence and support to be in office by the Diet, the Diet may dismiss the Cabinet en masse with a motion of no confidence.[34]
Prime Minister[edit]
Crest of the Prime Minister of Japan
The Prime Minister of Japan (内閣総理大臣) is designated by the National Diet and serves a term of four years or less; with no limits imposed on the number of terms the Prime Minister may hold. The Prime Minister heads the Cabinet and exercises "control and supervision" of the executive branch, and is the head of government and commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces.[35] The Prime Minister is vested with the power to present bills to the Diet, to sign laws, to declare a state of emergency, and may also dissolve the Diet's House of Representatives at will.[36] He or she presides over the Cabinet and appoints, or dismisses, the other Cabinet ministers.[4]
Both houses of the National Diet designates the Prime Minister with a ballot cast under the run-off system. Under the Constitution, should both houses not agree on a common candidate, then a joint committee is allowed to be established to agree on the matter; specifically within a period of ten days, exclusive of the period of recess.[37] However, if both houses still do not agree to each other, the decision made by the House of Representatives is deemed to be that of the National Diet.[37] Upon designation, the Prime Minister is presented with their commission, and then formally appointed to office by the Emperor.[6]
As a candidate designated by the Diet, he or she is required to report to the Diet whenever demanded.[38] The Prime Minister must also be both a civilian and a member of either house of the Diet.[39]
For a list of Prime Ministers prior to 2001, see List of Prime Ministers of Japan.
No.
Name (English)
Name (Japanese)
Gender
Took Office
Left Office
Term
Alma Mater
1 Junichiro Koizumi 小泉 純一郎 Male April 26, 2001 September 26, 2006 5 Years Keio University
University College London
2 Shinzō Abe 安倍 晋三 Male September 26, 2006 September 26, 2007 1 Year Seikei University
3 Yasuo Fukuda 福田 康夫 Male September 26, 2007 September 24, 2008 1 Year Waseda University
4 Taro Aso 麻生 太郎 Male September 24, 2008 September 16, 2009 1 Year Gakushuin University[40]
5 Yukio Hatoyama 鳩山 由紀夫 Male September 16, 2009 June 2, 2010 1 Year University of Tokyo
Stanford University
6 Naoto Kan 菅 直人 Male June 8, 2010 September 2, 2011 1 Year Tokyo Institute of Technology
7 Yoshihiko Noda 野田 佳彦 Male September 2, 2011 December 26, 2012 1 Year Waseda University
8 Shinzō Abe 安倍 晋三 Male December 26, 2012 Present - Seikei University
※ As of November 18, 2017
The Cabinet[edit]
Cabinet Office Building
2nd Building of the Central Government
The Cabinet of Japan (内閣) consists of the Ministers of State and the Prime Minister. The members of the Cabinet are appointed by the Prime Minister, and under the Cabinet Law, the number of members of the Cabinet appointed, excluding the Prime Minister, must be fourteen or less, but may only be increased to nineteen should a special need arise.[41][42] Article 68 of the Constitution states that all members of the Cabinet must be civilians and the majority of them must be chosen from among the members of either house of the National Diet.[43] The precise wording leaves an opportunity for the Prime Minister to appoint some non-elected Diet officials.[44] The Cabinet is required to resign en masse while still continuing its functions, till the appointment of a new Prime Minister, when the following situation arises:
The Diet's House of Representatives passes a non-confidence resolution, or rejects a confidence resolution, unless the House of Representatives is dissolved within the next ten (10) days.
When there is a vacancy in the post of the Prime Minister, or upon the first convocation of the Diet after a general election of the members of the House of Representatives.
Conceptually deriving legitimacy from the Diet, whom it is responsible to, the Cabinet exercises its power in two different ways. In practice, much of its power is exercised by the Prime Minister, while others are exercised nominally by the Emperor.[3]
Article 73 of the Constitution of Japan expects the Cabinet to perform the following functions, in addition to general administration:
Administer the law faithfully; conduct affairs of state.
Manage foreign affairs.
Conclude treaties. However, it shall obtain prior or, depending on circumstances, subsequent approval of the Diet.
Administer the civil service, in accordance with standards established by law.
Prepare the budget, and present it to the Diet.
Enact cabinet orders in order to execute the provisions of this Constitution and of the law. However, it cannot include penal provisions in such cabinet orders unless authorized by such law.
Decide on general amnesty, special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights.
Under the Constitution, all laws and cabinet orders must be signed by the competent Minister and countersigned by the Prime Minister, before being formally promulgated by the Emperor. Also, all members of the Cabinet cannot be subject to legal action without the consent of the Prime Minister; however, without impairing the right to take legal action.[45]
For an updated list of members of the Cabinet, see Current Cabinet of Japan.
Office
Incumbent
Prime Minister Shinzō Abe
Deputy Prime Minister
Minister of Finance
Minister of State for Financial Services
Minister in charge of Overcoming Deflation Tarō Asō
Minister of Internal Affairs and Communications
Minister of State for Women's Empowerment
Minister of State for the Social Security and Tax Number System Seiko Noda
Minister of Justice Yōko Kamikawa
Minister of Foreign Affairs Tarō Kōno
Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology
Minister in charge of Education Rebuilding Yoshimasa Hayashi
Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare
Minister for Working-style Reform
Minister in charge of the Abduction Issue
Minister of State for the Abduction Issue Katsunobu Katō
Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Ken Saitō
Minister of Economy, Trade and Industry
Minister of State for Industrial Competitiveness
Minister for Economic Cooperation with Russia
Minister in charge of the Response to the Economic Impact caused by the Nuclear Accident
Minister of State for the Nuclear Damage Compensation and Decommissioning Facilitation Corporation Hiroshige Sekō
Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism
Minister of State for Water Cycle Policy Keiichi Ishii
Minister of the Environment
Minister of State for Nuclear Emergency Preparedness Masaharu Nakagawa
Minister of Defense Itsunori Onodera
Chief Cabinet Secretary
Minister in charge of Alleviating the Burden of the Bases in Okinawa Yoshihide Suga
Minister of State for Reconstruction
Minister in charge of Comprehensive Policy Coordination for Revival from the Nuclear Accident at Fukushima Masayoshi Yoshino
Chairperson of the National Public Safety Commission
Minister in charge of Building National Resilience
Minister of State for Disaster Management Hachiro Okonogi
Minister of State for Okinawa and Northern Territories Affairs
Minister of State for Consumer Affairs and Food Safety
Minister of State for Ocean Policy
Minister in charge of Territorial Issues Tetsuma Esaki
Minister for Promoting Dynamic Engagement of All Citizens
Minister in charge of Information Technology Policy
Minister of State for Measures for Declining Birthrate
Minister of State for Gender Equality
Minister of State for the "Cool Japan" Strategy
Minister of State for the Intellectual Property Strategy
Minister of State for Science and Technology Policy
Minister of State for Space Policy Masaji Matsuyama
Minister in charge of Economic Revitalisation
Minister for Human Resources Development
Minister in charge of Total Reform of Social Security and Tax
Minister of State for Economic and Fiscal Policy Toshimitsu Motegi
Minister of State for Regional Revitalization
Minister of State for Regulatory Reform
Minister in charge of Regional Revitalization
Minister of State for Administrative Reform
Minister of State for Civil Service Reform Hiroshi Kajiyama
Minister of State for the Tokyo Olympic and Paralympic Games Shunichi Suzuki
※ As of November 18, 2017[46][47]
Ministries[edit]
Agency for Cultural Affairs Office Building
Politics of the Constitution of Japan
The Ministries of Japan (行政機関) consist of eleven ministries and the Cabinet Office. Each ministry is headed by a Minister of State, which are mainly senior legislators, and are appointed from among the members of the Cabinet by the Prime Minister. The Cabinet Office, formally headed by the Prime Minister, is an agency that handles the day-to-day affairs of the Cabinet. The ministries are the most influential part of the daily-exercised executive power, and since few ministers serve for more than a year or so necessary to grab hold of the organisation, most of its power lies within the senior bureaucrats.[48]
Cabinet Office
National Public Safety Commission
National Police Agency
Consumer Affairs Agency
Financial Services Agency
Fair Trade Commission
Food Safety Commission
Imperial Household Agency
※Manages the Imperial Household.
Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications
Environmental Dispute Coordination Commission
Fire and Disaster Management Agency
Ministry of Justice
Public Security Examination Commission
Public Security Intelligence Agency
Public Prosecutors Office
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Reconstruction Agency
Ministry of Finance
National Tax Agency
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)
Agency for Cultural Affairs
※Promotes Arts and Culture, manages copyrights, as well as funding for cultural events in music, theater, dance, art exhibitions, and film-making, and making improvements to the national language.
Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare
Pension Service
Central Labour Relations Commission
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
Fisheries Agency
Forestry Agency
Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI)
Agency for Natural Resources and Energy
Small and Medium Enterprise Agency
Patent Office
※Administers the laws relating to patents, utility models, designs, and trademarks.
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT)
Japan Transport Safety Board
Japan Tourism Agency
Japan Meteorological Agency
Japan Coast Guard
Ministry of the Environment
Nuclear Regulation Authority
Ministry of Defense
National Security Council
Self-Defense Forces (Ground / Maritime / Air)
※ As of November 18, 2017[49][50]
The Board of Audit (会計検査院) is the only unique body of the Government; in which, the Board is totally independent from the Diet and the Cabinet. It reviews government expenditures and submits an annual report to the Diet. Article 90 of the Constitution of Japan and the Board of Audit Act of 1947 gives this body substantial independence from both controls.[51]
Legislative[edit]
National Diet Building, Nagatachō, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo
Main article: National Diet
The Legislative branch organ of Japan is the National Diet (国会). It is a bicameral legislature, composing of a lower house, the House of Representatives, and an upper house, the House of Councillors. Empowered by the Constitution to be "the highest organ of State power" and the only "sole law-making organ of the State", its houses are both directly elected under a parallel voting system and is ensured by the Constitution to have no discrimination on the qualifications of each members; whether be it based on "race, creed, sex, social status, family origin, education, property or income". The National Diet, therefore, reflects the sovereignty of the people; a principle of popular sovereignty whereby the supreme power lies within, in this case, the Japanese people.[7][52]
The Diet responsibilities includes the making of laws, the approval of the annual national budget, the approval of the conclusion of treaties and the selection of the Prime Minister. In addition, it has the power to initiate draft constitutional amendments, which, if approved, are to be presented to the people for ratification in a referendum before being promulgated by the Emperor, in the name of the people.[53] The Constitution also enables both houses to conduct investigations in relation to government, demand the presence and testimony of witnesses, and the production of records, as well as allowing either house of the Diet to demand the presence of the Prime Minister or the other Minister of State, in order to give answers or explanations whenever so required.[38] The Diet is also able to impeach Court judges convicted of criminal or irregular conduct. The Constitution, however, does not specify the voting methods, the number of members of each house, and all other matters pertaining to the method of election of the each members, and are thus, allowed to be determined for by law.[54]
Under the provisions of the Constitution and by law, all adults aged over 18 are eligible to vote, with a secret ballot and a universal suffrage, and those elected have certain protections from apprehension while the Diet is in session.[55] Speeches, debates, and votes cast in the Diet also enjoy parliamentary privileges. Each house is responsible for disciplining its own members, and all deliberations are public unless two-thirds or more of those members present passes a resolution agreeing it otherwise. The Diet also requires the presence of at least one-third of the membership of either house in order to constitute a quorum.[56] All decisions are decided by a majority of those present, unless otherwise stated by the Constitution, and in the case of a tie, the presiding officer has the right to decide the issue. A member cannot be expelled, however, unless a majority of two-thirds or more of those members present passes a resolution therefor.[57]
Under the Constitution, at least one session of the Diet must be convened each year. The Cabinet can also, at will, convoke extraordinary sessions of the Diet and is required to, when a quarter or more of the total members of either house demands it.[58] During an election, only the House of Representatives is dissolved. The House of Councillors is however, not dissolved but only closed, and may, in times of national emergency, be convoked for an emergency session.[59] The Emperor both convokes the Diet and dissolves the House of Representatives, but only does so on the advice of the Cabinet.
For bills to become Law, they are to be first passed by both houses of the National Diet, signed by the Ministers of State, countersigned by the Prime Minister, and then finally promulgated by the Emperor; however, without specifically giving the Emperor the power to oppose legislation.
House of Representatives[edit]
Chamber of the House of Representatives
The House of Representatives of Japan (衆議院) is the Lower house, with the members of the house being elected once every four years, or when dissolved, for a four-year term.[60] As of November 18, 2017, it has 465 members. Of these, 176 members are elected from 11 multi-member constituencies by a party-list system of proportional representation, and 289 are elected from single-member constituencies. 233 seats are required for majority. The House of Representatives is the more powerful house out of the two, it is able to override vetoes on bills imposed by the House of Councillors with a two-thirds majority. It can, however, be dissolved by the Prime Minister at will.[36] Members of the house must be of Japanese nationality; those aged 18 years and older may vote, while those aged 25 years and older may run for office in the lower house.[55]
The legislative powers of the House of Representatives is considered to be more powerful than that of the House of Councillors. While the House of Councillors has the ability to veto most decisions made by the House of Representatives, some however, can only be delayed. This includes the legislation of treaties, the budget, and the selection of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister, and collectively his Cabinet, can in turn, however, dissolve the House of Representatives whenever intended.[36] While the House of Representatives is considered to be officially dissolved upon the preparation of the document, the House is only formally dissolved by the dissolution ceremony.[61] The dissolution ceremony of the House is as follows:
The document is rubber stamped by the Emperor, and wrapped in a purple silk cloth; an indication of a document of state act, done on behalf of the people.
The document is passed on to the Chief Cabinet Secretary at the House of Representatives President's reception room.
The document is taken to the Chamber for preparation by the General-Secretary.
The General-Secretary prepares the document for reading by the Speaker.
The Speaker of the House of Representatives promptly declares the dissolution of the House.
The House of Representatives is formally dissolved.
It is customary that, upon the dissolution of the House, members will shout the Three Cheers of Banzai (萬歲).[61][62]
House of Councillors[edit]
Chamber of the House of Councillors
The House of Councillors of Japan (参議院) is the Upper house, with half the members of the house being elected once every three years, for a six-year term. As of November 18, 2017, it has 242 members. Of these, 73 are elected from the 47 prefectural districts, by single non-transferable votes, and 48 are elected from a nationwide list by proportional representation with open lists. The House of Councillors cannot be dissolved by the Prime Minister.[59] Members of the house must be of Japanese nationality; those aged 18 years and older may vote, while those aged 30 years and older may run for office in the upper house.[55]
As the House of Councillors can veto a decision made by the House of Representatives, the House of Councillors can cause the House of Representatives to reconsider its decision. The House of Representatives however, can still insist on its decision by overwriting the veto by the House of Councillors with a two-thirds majority of its members present. Each year, and when required, the National Diet is convoked at the House of Councillors, on the advice of the Cabinet, for an extra or an ordinary session, by the Emperor. A short speech is, however, usually first made by the Speaker of the House of Representatives before the Emperor proceeds to convoke the Diet with his Speech from the throne.[63]
Judicial[edit]
Supreme Court Building, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo
Tokyo High Court Building
Main article: Judicial system of Japan
The Judicial branch of Japan consist of the Supreme Court, and four other lower courts; the High Courts, District Courts, Family Courts and Summary Courts.[64] Divided into four basic tiers, the Court's independence from the executive and legislative branches are guaranteed by the Constitution, and is stated as: "no extraordinary tribunal shall be established, nor shall any organ or agency of the Executive be given final judicial power"; a feature known as the Separation of Powers.[8] Article 76 of the Constitution states that all the Court judges are independent in the exercise of their own conscience and that they are only bounded by the Constitution and the laws.[65] Court judges are removable only by public impeachment, and can only be removed, without impeachment, when they are judicially declared mentally or physically incompetent to perform their duties.[66] The Constitution also explicitly denies any power for executive organs or agencies to administer disciplinary actions against judges.[66] However, a Supreme Court judge may be dismissed by a majority in a referendum; of which, must occur during the first general election of the National Diet's House of Representatives following the judge's appointment, and also the first general election for every ten years lapse thereafter.[67] Trials must be conducted, with judgment declared, publicly, unless the Court "unanimously determines publicity to be dangerous to public order or morals"; with the exception for trials of political offenses, offenses involving the press, and cases wherein the rights of people as guaranteed by the Constitution, which cannot be deemed and conducted privately.[68] Court judges are appointed by the Cabinet, in attestation of the Emperor, while the Chief Justice is appointed by the Emperor, after being nominated by the Cabinet; which in practice, known to be under the recommendation of the former Chief Justice.[69]
The Legal system in Japan has been historically influenced by Chinese law; developing independently during the Edo period through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki.[70] It has, however, changed during the Meiji Restoration, and is now largely based on the European civil law; notably, the civil code based on the German model still remains in effect.[71] A quasi-jury system has recently came into use, and the legal system also includes a bill of rights since May 3, 1947.[72] The collection of Six Codes makes up the main body of the Japanese statutory law.[71]
All Statutory Laws in Japan are required to be rubber stamped by the Emperor with the Privy Seal of Japan (天皇御璽), and no Law can take effect without the Cabinet's signature, the Prime Minister's countersignature and the Emperor's promulgation.[73][74][75][76][77]
Supreme Court[edit]
The Supreme Court of Japan (最高裁判所) is the court of last resort and has the power of Judicial review; as defined by the Constitution to be "the court of last resort with power to determine the constitutionality of any law, order, regulation or official act".[78] The Supreme Court is also responsible for nominating judges to lower courts and determining judicial procedures. It also oversees the judicial system, overseeing activities of public prosecutors, and disciplining judges and other judicial personnel.[79]
High Courts[edit]
The High Courts of Japan (高等裁判所) has the jurisdiction to hear appeals to judgments rendered by District Courts and Family Courts, excluding cases under the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. Criminal appeals are directly handled by the High Courts, but Civil cases are first handled by District Courts. There are eight High Courts in Japan: the Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Hiroshima, Fukuoka, Sendai, Sapporo, and Takamatsu High Courts.[79]
Penal system[edit]
The Penal system of Japan (矯正施設) is operated by the Ministry of Justice. It is part of the criminal justice system, and is intended to resocialize, reform, and rehabilitate offenders. The ministry's Correctional Bureau administers the adult prison system, the juvenile correctional system, and three of the women's guidance homes,[80] while the Rehabilitation Bureau operates the probation and the parole systems.[81]
Local Government[edit]
Administrative divisions of Japan
Administrative divisions
of Japan
Prefectural
Prefectures
Sub-prefectural
Subprefectures
Districts
Municipal
Designated cities
Core cities
Special cities
Cities
Special wards (Tokyo)
Towns
Villages
Sub-municipal
Wards
v
t
e
The Local Governments of Japan (地方公共団体) are unitary, in which local jurisdictions largely depend on the national government both administratively and financially.[82] They are established as an act of devolution. Under the Constitution, all matters pertaining to the local self-government is allowed to be determined for by law; more specifically, the Local Autonomy Law.[83][84]
The Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications intervenes significantly in local government, as do other ministries. This is done chiefly financially because many local government jobs need funding initiated by national ministries. This is dubbed as the "thirty-percent autonomy".[82]
The result of this power is a high level of organizational and policy standardization among the different local jurisdictions allowing them to preserve the uniqueness of their prefecture, city, or town. Some of the more collectivist jurisdictions, such as Tokyo and Kyoto, have experimented with policies in such areas as social welfare that later were adopted by the national government.[82]
Local Authorities[edit]
Japan is divided into forty-seven administrative divisions, the prefectures are: one metropolitan district (Tokyo), two urban prefectures (Kyoto and Osaka), forty-three rural prefectures, and one "district", Hokkaidō. Large cities are subdivided into wards, and further split into towns, or precincts, or subprefectures and counties.
Cities are self-governing units administered independently of the larger jurisdictions within which they are located. In order to attain city status, a jurisdiction must have at least 500,000 inhabitants, 60 percent of whom are engaged in urban occupations. There are self-governing towns outside the cities as well as precincts of urban wards. Like the cities, each has its own elected mayor and assembly. Villages are the smallest self-governing entities in rural areas. They often consist of a number of rural hamlets containing several thousand people connected to one another through the formally imposed framework of village administration. Villages have mayors and councils elected to four-year terms.[85][86]
Structure of Local Government[edit]
Each jurisdiction has a chief executive, called a governor (知事, chiji) in prefectures and a mayor (市町村長, shichōsonchō) in municipalities. Most jurisdictions also have a unicameral assembly (議会, gikai), although towns and villages may opt for direct governance by citizens in a general assembly (総会, sōkai). Both the executive and assembly are elected by popular vote every four years.[87][88][89]
Local governments follow a modified version of the separation of powers used in the national government. An assembly may pass a vote of no confidence in the executive, in which case the executive must either dissolve the assembly within ten days or automatically lose their office. Following the next election, however, the executive remains in office unless the new assembly again passes a no confidence resolution.[84]
The primary methods of local lawmaking are local ordinance (条例, jōrei) and local regulations (規則, kisoku). Ordinances, similar to statutes in the national system, are passed by the assembly and may impose limited criminal penalties for violations (up to 2 years in prison and/or 1 million yen in fines). Regulations, similar to cabinet orders in the national system, are passed by the executive unilaterally, are superseded by any conflicting ordinances, and may only impose a fine of up to 50,000 yen.[85]
Local governments also generally have multiple committees such as school boards, public safety committees (responsible for overseeing the police), personnel committees, election committees and auditing committees.[90] These may be directly elected or chosen by the assembly, executive or both.[82]
All prefectures are required to maintain departments of general affairs, finance, welfare, health, and labor. Departments of agriculture, fisheries, forestry, commerce, and industry are optional, depending on local needs. The Governor is responsible for all activities supported through local taxation or the national government.[82][88]
See also[edit]
Government
Sovereignty
Sovereign state
Politics of Japan
Japanese honors system
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The World Factbook Japan". Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 5 September 2015.
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^ Jump up to: a b Article 65, Section 5 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
^ Jump up to: a b c Article 68(1), Section 5 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
^ Jump up to: a b Article 67(1), Section 5 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
^ Jump up to: a b Article 6(1), Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
^ Jump up to: a b c Article 1, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
^ Jump up to: a b Article 76(2), Section 6 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
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Jump up ^ Koichi, Mori (December 1979). "The Emperor of Japan: A Historical Study in Religious Symbolism". Japanese Journal of Religious Studies. 6/4: 535–540. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Bob Tadashi, Wakabayashi (1991). "In Name Only: Imperial Sovereignty in Early Modern Japan". Journal of Japanese Studies. 7 (1): 25–57. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Satow, Ernest Mason (Aug 23, 2013). A Diplomat in Japan. Project Gutenberg. p. 282. Retrieved 5 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Asia's First Parliament". The New York Times. Retrieved 5 September 2015.
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Jump up ^ Lebra, Takie Sugiyama (1992). Japanese social organization (1 ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. p. 51. ISBN 9780824814205.
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Jump up ^ Skya, Walter A. (2009). Japan's holy war the ideology of radical Shintō ultranationalism. Durham: Duke University Press. p. 40. ISBN 9780822392460.
Jump up ^ Martin, Bernd (2006). Japan and Germany in the modern world (1. paperback ed.). New York [u.a.]: Berghahn Books. p. 31. ISBN 9781845450472.
Jump up ^ "The Constitution: Context and History" (PDF). Hart Publishing. Retrieved 5 September 2015.
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Jump up ^ "Did the Emperor of Japan really fall from being a ruler to a symbol" (PDF). Tsuneyasu Takeda. Instructor, Keio University. Retrieved 28 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "2009 Japanese Emperor and Empress Visited in Vancouver". Retrieved 18 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "A shadow of a shogun". The Economist. Retrieved 18 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "Fundamental Structure of the Government of Japan". Prime Minister's Official Residence Website. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Article 5, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
Jump up ^ "Japan's royal family pose for unusual New Year photo". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 18 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Kitagawa, Joseph M. (1987). On understanding Japanese religion. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. p. 145. ISBN 9780691102290.
Jump up ^ Smith, Robert J. (1974). Ancestor worship in contemporary Japan ([Repr.]. ed.). Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. pp. 8–9. ISBN 9780804708739.
Jump up ^ "Kojiki". Ō no Yasumaro. Retrieved 5 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Nihon Shoki" (PDF). Prince Toneri. Retrieved 5 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Enthronement and Ceremonies". Imperial Household Agency. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "The 20th Anniversary of His Majesty the Emperor's Accession to the Throne". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Article 69, Section 5 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
Jump up ^ Article 72, Section 5 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
^ Jump up to: a b c Article 7, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
^ Jump up to: a b Article 67(2), Section 5 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
^ Jump up to: a b Article 63, Section 4 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
Jump up ^ Article 66(2), Section 5 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
Jump up ^ http://japan.kantei.go.jp/97_abe/meibo/daijin/1208723_10042.html
Jump up ^ "内閣法". Government of Japan. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Toshiaki Endo appointed Olympics minister". The Japan Times. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Article 68, Section 5 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
Jump up ^ Article 68(2), Section 5 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
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Jump up ^ "第３次安倍内閣 閣僚等名簿". Prime Minister's Official Residence Website. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "CABINET PROFILES". The Japan Times. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Bureaucrats of Japan". Library of Congress Country Studies. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Links to Ministries and Other Organizations". Prime Minister's Official Residence Website. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Ministries and Agencies". Government of Japan Website. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Board of Audit of Japan". Board of Audit. Retrieved 5 September 2015.
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Jump up ^ Article 96, Section 9 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
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^ Jump up to: a b c "Diet enacts law lowering voting age to 18 from 20". The Japan Times. Retrieved 18 June 2015.
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Jump up ^ Article 55, Section 4 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
Jump up ^ Article 53, Section 4 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
^ Jump up to: a b Article 54(2), Section 4 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
Jump up ^ Article 45, Section 4 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
^ Jump up to: a b "解散と万歳". Democratic Party of Japan. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "小泉進次郎氏、衆議院解散でも万歳しなかった「なぜ今、解散か」". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "開会式". House of Councillors. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Overview of the Judicial System in Japan". Supreme Court of Japan. Retrieved 18 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Article 76, Section 6 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
^ Jump up to: a b Article 78, Section 6 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
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Jump up ^ Article 82(2), Section 6 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
Jump up ^ "Change at the top court's helm". The Japan Times. Retrieved 18 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Dean, Meryll (2002). Japanese legal system : text, cases & materials (2nd ed.). London: Cavendish. pp. 55–58. ISBN 9781859416730.
^ Jump up to: a b "Japanese Civil Code". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 18 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "MacArthur and the American Occupation of Japan". Retrieved 18 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Article 74, Section 5 of the Constitution of Japan (1947)
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Jump up ^ "II. The law-making process". Cabinet Legislation Bureau. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Privy Seal and State Seal". Imperial Household Agency. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Promulgation of Laws". National Printing Bureau. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
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^ Jump up to: a b "Overview of the Judicial System in Japan". Supreme Court of Japan. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Correction Bureau". Ministry of Justice. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Rehabilitation Bureau". Ministry of Justice. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e 三割自治 "Local Government". Retrieved 18 June 2015.
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^ Jump up to: a b "AUTHORITY OF THE NATIONAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS UNDER THE CONSTITUTION". Duke University School of Law. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Local Autonomy Law". Government of Japan. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Large City System of Japan" (PDF). National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
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^ Jump up to: a b "Local Autonomy in Japan Current Situation & Future Shape" (PDF). Council of Local Authorities for International Relations. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "An Outline of Local Government in Japan" (PDF). Council of Local Authorities for International Relations. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Organization of Local Government Administration in Japan" (PDF). National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
External links[edit]
Background notes of the US Department of State, Japan's Government
Search official Japanese Government documents and records
Facts about Japan by CIA's The World Factbook
Video of the Enthronement Ceremony of the Emperor
Video of the National Diet Convocation Ceremony
Video of the House of Representatives Dissolution Ceremony
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Resonance (chemistry)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Resonance (disambiguation).
Two of the contributing structures of nitrogen dioxide
In chemistry, resonance or mesomerism[1] is a way of describing delocalized electrons within certain molecules or polyatomic ions where the bonding cannot be expressed by one single Lewis structure. A molecule or ion with such delocalized electrons is represented by several contributing structures[2] (also called resonance structures or canonical structures).
Each contributing structure can be represented by a Lewis structure, with only an integer number of covalent bonds between each pair of atoms within the structure.[3] Several Lewis structures are used collectively to describe the actual molecular structure, which is an approximate intermediate between the canonical forms called a resonance hybrid.[4] Contributing structures differ only in the position of electrons, not in the position of nuclei.
Electron delocalization lowers the potential energy of the substance and thus makes it more stable than any of the contributing structures. The difference between the potential energy of the actual structure and that of the contributing structure with the lowest potential energy is called the resonance energy[5] or delocalization energy.
Resonance is distinguished from isomerization. An isomer is a molecule with the same chemical formula but with different arrangements of atoms in space. Resonance contributors of a molecule, on the contrary, can only differ by the arrangements of electrons. Therefore, the resonance hybrid cannot be represented by a combination of isomers.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 General characteristics of resonance
3 Misconception
4 Use of contributing structures
4.1 Resonance hybrids
4.2 Major and minor contributors
4.3 Contributing structures in diagrams
5 Examples
5.1 Ionic-covalent molecules
5.2 Aromatic molecules
5.3 Electron-deficient molecules
6 Reactive intermediates
7 Bond lengths
8 Resonance energy
8.1 Resonance energy of benzene
9 Resonance in valence bond (VB) theory
9.1 Comparison with molecular orbital (MO) theory
9.2 Coefficients
10 Charge delocalization
11 See also
12 External links
13 References
History[edit]
The concept first appeared in 1899 in Johannes Thiele's "Partial Valence Hypothesis" to explain the unusual stability of benzene which would not be expected from August Kekulé's structure proposed in 1865 with alternating single and double bonds. Benzene undergoes substitution reactions, rather than addition reactions as typical for alkenes. He proposed that the carbon-carbon bond in benzene is intermediate of a single and double bond.
The mechanism of resonance was introduced into quantum mechanics by Werner Heisenberg in 1926 in a discussion of the quantum states of the helium atom. He compared the structure of the helium atom with the classical system of resonating coupled harmonic oscillators.[4][7] In the classical system, the coupling produces two modes, one of which is lower in frequency than either of the uncoupled vibrations; quantum mechanically, this lower frequency is interpreted as a lower energy. Linus Pauling used this mechanism to explain the partial valence of molecules in 1928, and developed it further in a series of papers in 1931-33.[8][9] The alternative term mesomerism popular in German and French publications with the same meaning was introduced by C. K. Ingold in 1938, but did not catch on in the English literature. The current concept of mesomeric effect has taken on a related but different meaning. The double headed arrow was introduced by the German chemist Fritz Arndt who preferred the German phrase zwischenstufe or intermediate stage.
In the Soviet Union, resonance theory – especially as developed by Pauling – was attacked in the early 1950s as being contrary to the Marxist principles of dialectical materialism, and in June 1951 the Soviet Academy of Sciences under the leadership of Alexander Nesmeyanov convened a conference on the chemical structure of organic compounds, attended by 400 physicists, chemists, and philosophers, where "the pseudo-scientific essence of the theory of resonance was exposed and unmasked".[10]
General characteristics of resonance[edit]
Molecules and ions with resonance (also called mesomerism) have the following basic characteristics:
Contributing structures of the carbonate ion
They can be represented by several correct Lewis formulas, called "contributing structures", "resonance structures" or "canonical forms". The real structure is an intermediate of these structures represented by a resonance hybrid.
The contributing structures are not isomers. They differ only in the position of electrons, not in the position of nuclei.
Each Lewis formula must have the same number of valence electrons (and thus the same total charge), and the same number of unpaired electrons, if any.[11]
Bonds that have different bond orders in different contributing structures do not have typical bond lengths. Measurements reveal intermediate bond lengths.
The real structure has a lower total potential energy than each of the contributing structures would have. This means that it is more stable than each separate contributing structure would be.
Misconception[edit]
It is a common misconception that resonance structures are actual transient states of the molecule, with the molecule oscillating between them or existing as an equilibrium between them. However these individual contributors cannot be observed in the actual resonance-stabilized molecule. Any molecule or ion exists in only one form – the resonance hybrid. Due to confusion with the physical meaning of the word resonance, as no elements actually appear to be resonating, it has been suggested that the term resonance be abandoned in favor of delocalization.[12] Resonance energy would thus become delocalization energy and a resonance structure becomes a contributing structure. The double headed arrows would be replaced by commas to illustrate a set of structures rather than suggesting that there is a reaction that converts among them.
Use of contributing structures[edit]
In Lewis formulas, electrons are paired between atoms to form covalent bonds. Each single bond is made by two valence electrons, localized between the two bonded atoms. Each double bond has two additional localized π electrons, while each triple bond has four additional π electrons (two pairs) between the bonded atoms.
In molecules or ions that have a combination of one or more single and multiple bonds, often the exact position of the respective bonds cannot be indicated by a single Lewis structure. The π electrons appear to be in an intermediate position. To solve this problem, the concept of resonance is used, and the molecule is represented by several contributing structures, each showing a possible distribution of single and multiple bonds. The actual structure has a lowered overall energy and an intermediate bond order.
Resonance hybrids[edit]
The actual structure of a molecule or ion in the normal quantum state has the lowest possible value of total energy. This structure is called the "resonance hybrid" of that molecule. The resonance hybrid is the approximate intermediate of the contributing structures, but the overall energy is lower than each of the contributors, due to the resonance energy.[4]
Major and minor contributors[edit]
One contributing structure may resemble the actual molecule more than another (in the sense of energy and stability). Structures with a low value of potential energy are more stable than those with high values and resemble the actual structure more. The most stable contributing structures are called major contributors. Energetically unfavourable and therefore less probable structures are minor contributors. Major contributors are generally structures:
that obey as much as possible the octet rule (8 valence electrons around each atom rather than having deficiencies or surplus)
that have a maximum number of covalent bonds
that carry a minimum of charged atoms. If unlike charges are present their separation must be least while for like charges the separation must be maximum.[citation needed]
with negative charge, if any, on the most electronegative atoms and positive charge, if any, on the most electropositive.
The greater the number of contributing structures, the more stable the molecule. This is because the more states at lower energy are available to the electrons in a particular molecule, the more stable the electrons are. Also the more volume electrons can occupy at lower energy the more stable the molecule is. We can also understand this concept by borrowing a concept of physics. As we know that charge dispersed is directly proportional to stability. Here, electrons can be termed as charged bodies and the more volume they occupy, more the charge gets dispersed ultimately leading to stability.[citation needed]
Equivalent contributors contribute equally to the actual structure; those with low potential energy (the major contributors) contribute more to the resonance hybrid than the less stable minor contributors. Especially when there is more than one major contributor, the resonance stabilization is high. High values of resonance energy are found in aromatic molecules.
Contributing structures in diagrams[edit]
[ S = C = N ⊖ ⟷ ⊖ S − C ≡ N ] {\displaystyle {\ce {[S=C=N^{\ominus }<->\ ^{\ominus }\!S-C{\equiv }N]}}}
Contributing structures of the thiocyanate ion,
enclosed in square brackets.
Hybrid of the nitrate ion
Hybrid of benzene.
In diagrams, contributing structures are typically separated by double-headed arrows (↔). The arrow should not be confused with the right and left pointing equilibrium arrow (⇌). All structures together may be enclosed in large square brackets, to indicate they picture one single molecule or ion, not different species in a chemical equilibrium.
Alternatively to the use of resonance structures in diagrams, a hybrid diagram can be used. In a hybrid diagram, pi bond that are involved in resonance are usually pictured as curves [13] or dashed lines, indicating that these are partial rather than normal complete pi bonds. In benzene and other aromatic rings, the delocalized pi-electrons are sometimes pictured as a solid circle.[14]
Examples[edit]
Ionic-covalent molecules[edit]
The ozone molecule is represented by two resonance structures. In reality the two terminal oxygen atoms are equivalent and the hybrid structure is drawn on the right with a charge of −1⁄2 on both oxygen atoms and partial double bonds with a full and dashed line and bond order 1 1⁄2.[15][16]
For hypervalent molecules such as xenon difluoride, the rationalization described above can be applied to generate resonance structures to explain the bonding in such molecules. This has been shown by quantum chemical calculations to be the correct description instead of the common expanded octet model.[citation needed]
[ F − XeF − ⟷ F − Xe − F ] {\displaystyle {\ce {[{\mathsf {F-XeF^{-}<->F^{-}Xe-F}}]}}}
Aromatic molecules[edit]
Main article: Aromaticity
In benzene the two cyclohexatriene Kekulé structures, first proposed by Kekulé, are taken together as contributing structures to represent the total structure. In the hybrid structure on the right, the dashed hexagon replaces three double bonds, and represents six electrons in a set of three molecular orbitals of π symmetry, with a nodal plane in the plane of the molecule.
In furan a lone pair of the oxygen atom interacts with the π orbitals of the carbon atoms. The curved arrows depict the permutation of delocalized π electrons, which results in different contributors.
Electron-deficient molecules[edit]
Main article: Electron deficiency
The diborane molecule is described by resonance structures, each with electron-deficiency on different atoms. This reduces the electron-deficiency on each atom and stabilizes the molecule. Below are the resonance structures of an individual 3c-2e bond in diborane.
The allyl cation has two contributing structures with a positive charge on the terminal carbon atoms. In the hybrid structure their charge is +1⁄2. The full positive charge can also be depicted as delocalized among three carbon atoms.
Reactive intermediates[edit]
Main article: Reactive intermediate
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Often, reactive intermediates such as carbocations and free radicals have more delocalized structure than their parent reactants, giving rise to unexpected products. The classical example is allylic rearrangement. When 1 mole of HCl adds to 1 mole of 1,3-butadiene, in addition to the ordinarily expected product 3-chloro-1-butene, we also find 1-chloro-2-butene. Isotope labelling experiments have shown that what happens here is that the additional double bond shifts from 1,2 position to 2,3 position in some of the product. This and other evidence (such as NMR in superacid solutions) shows that the intermediate carbocation must have a highly delocalized structure, different from its mostly classical (delocalization exists but is small) parent molecule. This cation (an allylic cation) can be represented using resonance, as shown above.
This observation of greater delocalization in less stable molecules is quite general. The excited states of conjugated dienes are stabilised more by conjugation than their ground states, causing them to become organic dyes.
A well-studied example of delocalization that does not involve π electrons (hyperconjugation) can be observed in the non-classical 2-Norbornyl cation. Other examples are diborane (see above) and methanium (CH+
5). These can be viewed as containing three-center two-electron bonds and are represented either by contributing structures involving rearrangement of σ electrons or by a special notation, a Y that has the three nuclei at its three points.
Delocalized electrons are important for several reasons; a major one is that an expected chemical reaction may not occur because the electrons delocalize to a more stable configuration, resulting in a reaction that happens at a different location. An example is the Friedel–Crafts alkylation of benzene with 1-chloro-2-methylpropane; the carbocation rearranges to a tert-butyl group stabilized by hyperconjugation, a particular form of delocalization. Delocalization leads to lengthening of wavelength of electron therefore decreases the energy.
Bond lengths[edit]
Resonance structures of benzene
Comparing the two contributing structures of benzene, all single and double bonds are interchanged. Bond lengths can be measured, for example using X-ray diffraction. The average length of a C–C single bond is 154 pm; that of a C=C double bond is 133 pm. In localized cyclohexatriene, the carbon–carbon bonds should be alternating 154 and 133 pm. Instead, all carbon–carbon bonds in benzene are found to be about 139 pm, a bond length intermediate between single and double bond. This mixed single and double bond (or triple bond) character is typical for all molecules in which bonds have a different bond order in different contributing structures. Bond lengths can be compared using bond orders. For example, in cyclohexane the bond order is 1 while that in benzene is 1 + (3 ÷ 6) = 1 1⁄2. Consequently, benzene has more double bond character and hence has a shorter bond length than cyclohexane.
Resonance energy[edit]
Every structure is associated with a certain quantity of energy, which determines the stability of the molecule or ion (the lower energy, the greater stability). A resonance hybrid has a structure that is intermediate between the contributing structures; the total quantity of potential energy, however, is lower than the intermediate and the molecule is said to be "stabilized by resonance" or "resonance-stabilized". Hybrids are therefore always more stable than any of the contributing structures would be.[17] The difference between the potential energy of the actual structure (the resonance hybrid) and that of the contributing structure with the lowest potential energy is called the "resonance energy".[5]
Resonance energy of benzene[edit]
Resonance (or delocalization) energy is the amount of energy needed to convert the true delocalized structure into that of the most stable contributing structure. The empirical resonance energy can be estimated by comparing the enthalpy change of hydrogenation of the real substance with that estimated for the contributing structure.
The complete hydrogenation of benzene to cyclohexane via 1,3-cyclohexadiene and cyclohexene is exothermic; 1 mole of benzene delivers 208.4 kJ (49.8 kcal).
Hydrogenation of one mole of double bonds delivers 119.7 kJ (28.6 kcal), as can be deduced from the last step, the hydrogenation of cyclohexene. In benzene, however, 23.4 kJ (5.6 kcal) are needed to hydrogenate one mole of double bonds. The difference, being 143.1 kJ (34.2 kcal), is the empirical resonance energy of benzene. Because 1,3-cyclohexadiene also has a small delocalization energy (7.6 kJ or 1.8 kcal/mol) the net resonance energy, relative to the localized cyclohexatriene, is a bit higher: 151 kJ or 36 kcal/mol. [18]
This measured resonance energy is also the difference between the hydrogenation energy of three 'non-resonance' double bonds and the measured hydrogenation energy:
(3 × 119.7) − 208.4 = 150.7 kJ/mol (36 kcal).[19]
Resonance in valence bond (VB) theory[edit]
VB mixing diagram of benzene.[20] The A1g and B2u labels define the symmetries of the two states, as defined by the character table for the D6h symmetry group.
Electronic structure methods
Valence bond theory
Generalized valence bond
Modern valence bond
Resonance
Molecular orbital theory
Hartree–Fock method
Semi-empirical quantum chemistry methods
Møller–Plesset perturbation theory
Configuration interaction
Coupled cluster
Multi-configurational self-consistent field
Quantum chemistry composite methods
Quantum Monte Carlo
Linear combination of atomic orbitals
Electronic band structure
Nearly free electron model
Tight binding
Muffin-tin approximation
Density functional theory
k·p perturbation theory
Empty lattice approximation
Book
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Resonance has a deeper significance in the mathematical formalism of valence bond theory (VB). Quantum mechanics requires that the wavefunction of a molecule obeys its observed symmetry. If a single contributing structure does not achieve this, resonance is invoked.
For example, in benzene, valence bond theory begins with the two Kekulé structures and constructs the actual wave function of the molecule as a linear superposition of the wave functions representing the two structures. As both Kekulé structures have equal energy, they are equal contributors to the overall structure – the superposition is an equally weighted average, or a 1:1 linear combination of the two – but this need not be the case. The symmetric combination gives the ground state while the antisymmetric combination gives the first excited state as shown.
In general, the superposition is written with undetermined coefficients, which are then variationally optimized to find the lowest possible energy for the given set of basis wave functions. When more contributing structures are included, the molecular wave function becomes more accurate and more excited states can be derived from different combinations of the contributing structures.
Comparison with molecular orbital (MO) theory[edit]
In molecular orbital theory, the main alternative to valence bond theory, the equivalent of the symmetry-adapted linear combination role of resonance is the linear combination of atomic orbitals. In MO theory, the molecular orbitals (MOs) are approximated as sums of all the atomic orbitals (AOs) on all the atoms; there are as many MOs as AOs. Each AOi has a weighting coefficient ci that indicates the AO's contribution to a particular MO. For example, in benzene, the MO model gives us 6 π MOs which are combinations of the 2pz AOs on each of the 6 C atoms. Thus, each π MO is delocalized over the whole benzene molecule and any electron occupying an MO will be delocalized over the whole molecule. This MO interpretation has inspired the picture of the benzene ring as a hexagon with a circle inside. When describing benzene, the VB concept of localized sigma 'bonds' and the MO concept of 'delocalized' π electrons are frequently combined in elementary chemistry courses.
The resonance structures in the VB model are particularly useful in predicting the effect of substituents on π systems such as benzene. They lead to the models of resonance structures for an electron-withdrawing group and electron-releasing group on benzene. The utility of MO theory is that a quantitative indication of the charge from the π system on an atom can be obtained from the squares of the weighting coefficient ci on atom Ci. Charge qi ≈ c2
i. The reason for squaring the coefficient is that if an electron is described by an AO, then the square of the AO gives the electron density. The AOs are adjusted (normalized) so that AO2 = 1, and qi ≈ (ciAOi)2 ≈ c2
i. In benzene, qi = 1 on each C atom. With an electron-withdrawing group qi < 1 on the ortho and para C atoms and qi > 1 for an electron-releasing group.
Coefficients[edit]
Weighting of the resonance structures in terms of their contribution to the overall structure can be calculated in multiple ways, using "Ab initio" methods derived from Valence Bond theory, or else from the Natural Bond Orbitals (NBO) approaches of Weinhold NBO5, or finally from empirical calculations based on the Hückel method. A Hückel method-based software for teaching resonance is available on the HuLiS Web site.
Charge delocalization[edit]
In the case of ions it is common to speak about delocalized charge (charge delocalization). An example of delocalized charge in ions can be found in the carboxylate group, wherein the negative charge is centered equally on the two oxygen atoms. Charge delocalization in anions is an important factor determining their reactivity (generally: the higher the extent of delocalization the lower the reactivity) and, specifically, the acid strength of their conjugate acids. As a general rule, the better delocalized is the charge in an anion the stronger is its conjugate acid. For example, the negative charge in perchlorate anion (ClO−
4) is evenly distributed among the symmetrically oriented oxygen atoms (and a part of it is also kept by the central chlorine atom). This excellent charge delocalization combined with the high number of oxygen atoms (four) and high electronegativity of the central chlorine atom leads to perchloric acid being one of the strongest known acids with a pKa value of −10.[21] The extent of charge delocalization in an anion can be quantitatively expressed via the WAPS (weighted average positive sigma) parameter[22] parameter and an analogous WANS (weighted average negative sigma)[23][24] parameter is used for cations.
WAPS values of anions of common acids and WANS values of cations of common bases
Compound
WAPS × 105
Compound
WANS × 105
(C2F5SO2)2NH 2.0[25] Triphenylphosphine 2.1[23]
(CF3)3COH 3.6[25] Phenyl tetramethylguanidine 2.5[23]
Picric acid 4.3[22] Tripropylamine 2.6[23]
2,4-Dinitrophenol 4.9[22] MTBD (7-Methyl-triazabicyclodecene) 2.9[24]
Benzoic acid 7.1[22] DBU (1,8-Diazabicycloundec-7-ene) 3.0[24]
Phenol 8.8[25] TBD (Triazabicyclodecene) 3.5[24]
Acetic acid 16.1[22] N,N-Dimethylaniline 4.7[23]
HI 21.9[25] Pyridine 7.2[23]
HBr 29.1[25] Aniline 8.2[23]
HCl 35.9[22] Propylamine 8.9[23]
WAPS and WANS values are given in e/Å4. Larger values indicate more localized charge in the corresponding ion.
See also[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Resonance (chemistry)
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mesomerism.
Aromaticity
Conjugated system
Delocalization
Hyperconjugation
Tautomerism
Avoided crossing
External links[edit]
Goudard, N.; Carissan, Y.; Hagebaum-Reignier, D.; Humbel, S. (2008). "HuLiS : Java Applet − Simple Hückel Theory and Mesomery − program logiciel software" (in French). Retrieved 29 October 2010.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "Mesomerism".
Jump up ^ IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "Resonance".
Jump up ^ IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "contributing structure".
^ Jump up to: a b c Pauling, Linus (1960). "The Concept of Resonance". The Nature of the Chemical Bond – An Introduction to Modern Structural Chemistry (3rd ed.). Cornell University Press. pp. 10–13.
^ Jump up to: a b IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "resonance energy".
Jump up ^ "Resonance Forms". UCDavis Chem Wiki. UCDavis. Retrieved 7 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Pauling, Linus, Resonance, p. 1
Jump up ^ "The Science and Humanism of Linus Pauling". Archived from the original on 2012-03-31. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) See last paragraph of section 1.
Jump up ^ Pauling, L. (1960). The Nature of the Chemical Bond (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 184. In this source, Pauling first mentions related papers by Slater and Hückel in 1931, and then cites his own key papers: J. Am. Chem. Soc. 53 (1367): 3225. 1931. Missing or empty |title= (help) and subsequent papers in 1932–33.
Jump up ^ Moore, Barrington, Jr. (1954). Terror and Progress USSR: Some Sources of Change and Stability in the Soviet Dictatorship. pp. 142–143.
Jump up ^ Pauling, Linus (July 29, 1946), Resonance (Manuscript for publication in Encyclopædia Britannica), p. 13
Jump up ^ Kerber, Robert C. (2006). "If It's Resonance, What Is Resonating?". J. Chem. Educ. 83: 223. Bibcode:2006JChEd..83..223K. doi:10.1021/ed083p223.
Jump up ^ "Graphical representation for chemical structure diagrams" (PDF), IUPAC Recommendations 2008, IUPAC, p. 387 (GR-8)
Jump up ^ "Graphical representation for chemical structure diagrams" (PDF), IUPAC Recommendations 2008, IUPAC, pp. 379–382 (GR–6)
Jump up ^ Wade, G. Organic Chemistry (6th ed.). [ISBN missing]
Jump up ^ Bruice, Paula Y. Organic Chemistry (4th ed.). [ISBN missing]
Jump up ^ Morrison, Robert; Boyd, Robert (1989). "Chapter 10". Organic Chemistry (5th ed.). Prentice Hall of India. p. 372. ISBN 0-87692-560-3. The resonance hybrid is more stable than any of the contributing structures.
Jump up ^ Wiberg; Nakaji; Morgan (1993). "Heat of hydrogenation of a cis imine. An experimental and theoretical study". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 115 (9): 3527–3532. doi:10.1021/ja00062a017.
Jump up ^ Sherman, J. (February 1939). "The heats of hydrogenation of unsaturated hydrocarbons". J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 16 (2): 28. doi:10.1007/BF02543208.
Jump up ^ Shaik, Sason S.; Hiberty, Phillipe C. (2008). A Chemist's Guide to Valence Bond Theory. New Jersey: Wiley-Interscience. pp. 200–203. ISBN 978-0-470-03735-5.
Jump up ^ Sellers, Kathleen; Weeks, Katherine; Alsop, William R.; Clough, Stephen R.; Hoyt, Marilyn; Pugh, Barbara (2006). Perchlorate: Environmental problems and solutions. CRC Press. p. 16. ISBN 0-8493-8081-2.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Kaupmees, K.; Kaljurand, I.; Leito, I. (2010). "Influence of Water Content on the Acidities in Acetonitrile. Quantifying Charge Delocalization in Anions". J. Phys. Chem. A. 114: 11788–11793. Bibcode:2010JPCA..11411788K. doi:10.1021/jp105670t.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Kaupmees, K.; Kaljurand, I.; Leito, I. (2014). "Influence of Water Content on Basicities in Acetonitrile". J. Sol. Chem. 43: 1270–1281. doi:10.1007/s10953-014-0201-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Kaupmees, K.; Trummal,, A.; Leito, I. (2014). "Basicities of Strong Bases in Water: A Computational Study". Croat. Chem. Acta. 87: 385–395. doi:10.5562/cca2472.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Raamat, E.; Kaupmees, K.; Ovsjannikov, G.; Trummal, A.; Kütt, A.; Saame, J.; Koppel, I.; Kaljurand, I.; Lipping, L.; Rodima, T.; Pihl, V.; Koppel, I. A.; Leito, I. (2013). "Acidities of strong neutral Brønsted acids in different media". J. Phys. Org. Chem. 26: 162–170. doi:10.1002/poc.2946.
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This page was last edited on 6 January 2018, at 19:02.
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