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History of Southeast Asia
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Part of a series on the
History of Southeast Asia
Prehistory of Southeast Asia
Paleolithic
Mesolithic
Iron Age
Indianised and Buddhist kingdoms
Hinduism in Southeast Asia
Buddhism in Southeast Asia
Java and Sumatra
Srivijaya
Majapahit
Indochina
Angkor
Champa
Đại Việt
Lan Xang
Pagan
Sukhothai
Philippines
Rajahnate of Cebu
Decline of Hindu/Buddhist influence and sea trade
Silk Road
Spread of Islam
Islam in Southeast Asia
Arrival of European traders
Portuguese discoveries
Spanish discoveries
Dutch discoveries
Spread of Christianity
European colonialism
Spanish Philippines
Dutch Indonesia
British Burma, Malaya and Borneo
French Indochina
Thailand
Spanish–American War
Philippine–American War
American Philippines
World War II and decolonisation
Japanese conquests
Empire of Japan
End of World War II in Asia
Indonesian National Revolution
Cold War
Indochina Wars
Malayan Emergency
Thai insurgency
Second Malayan Emergency
Sarawak insurgency
Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation
Indonesian mass killings
Philippine rebellion
Contemporary Southeast Asia
Revolution and fall of Communism
ASEAN
Southeast Asia portal
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Southeast Asia
Borobudur in Java
The term Southeast Asia has been in use since World War II. The region has been further divided into two distinct sub-regions, Mainland Southeast Asia, also Indochina that comprises the modern states Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar (Burma) and West Malaysia and Maritime Southeast Asia, also Insular Southeast Asia that comprises the modern states Indonesia, East Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, East Timor, Brunei, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and the Christmas Island.[1][2]
Earliest Homo sapiens presence in Mainland Southeast Asia can be traced back to 50,000 years ago and to at least 40,000 years ago in Maritime Southeast Asia. As early as 10,000 years ago, Hoabinhian settlers have developed a tradition and culture of distinct artifact and tool production. During the Neolithic Austroasiatic peoples populated Indochina via land routes and sea-borne Austronesian immigrants preferably settled in insular Southeast Asia. The earliest agricultural societies that cultivate millet and wet-rice emerge around 1,700 BCE in the lowlands and riverine floodplains of Indochina.[3]
The Phung Nguyen culture (modern northern Vietnam) and the Ban Chiang site (modern Thailand) account for the earliest use of copper by around 2,000 BCE, followed by the Dong Son culture, who by around 500 BCE had developed a highly sophisticated industry of bronze production and processing. Around the same time the first Agrarian Kingdoms emerged where territory was abundant and favourable, such as Funan at the lower Mekong and Van Lang in the Red River delta.[4] Smaller and insular principalities increasingly engaged in and contributed to the rapidly expanding sea trade.
The history of Southeast Asia has been greatly influenced by its wide topographical diversity. Maritime Southeast Asia is apart from exceptions like Borneo and Sumatra a patchwork of recurring land-sea patterns on widely dispersed islands and archipelagos. A discontinuity,[5] that admitted moderately sized thalassocratic states indifferent to territorial ambitions where growth and prosperity was associated with sea trade. Mainland Southeast Asia with a continuous, but rugged and difficult terrain provided the basis for the early Khmer and Mon civilisations. However, an extensive coastline and the south—and south-eastbound major river systems of the Irrawaddy, Salween, Chao Phraya, Mekong, and Red River always have directed focus, local trade, socio-cultural and economic activities towards the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea.[6][7]
Since around 100 BCE the Southeast Asian archipelago occupied a central position at the crossroads of the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea trading routes which immensely stimulated the economy and the influx of ideas promoted societal organisation and advance. Most local trading polities selectively adopted Indian Hindu elements of statecraft, religion, culture and administration during the early centuries of the common era, which marked the beginning of recorded history and the continuation of a characteristic cultural development.
Buddhism, particularly in Indochina began to affect the political structure beginning in the 8th to 9th centuries. Islam ideas arrived in insular Southeast Asia as early as the 8th century, where the first Muslim societies[8] emerged by the 13th century.[9][10]
The era of European colonialism, early Modernity and the Cold War era revealed the reality of limited political significance for the various Southeast Asian polities. Post-World War II national survival and progress required a modern state and a strong national identity. Most modern Southeast Asian countries enjoy a historically unprecedented degree of political freedom and self-determination and have embraced the practical concept of intergovernmental cooperation within the Association of Southeast Asian Nations.[11]
Contents
[hide]
1 Name
2 Prehistory
2.1 Paleolithic
2.2 Neolithic Migrations
2.3 Early agricultural societies
2.4 Two layer hypothesis
2.5 Bronze Age Southeast Asia
2.6 Pottery Culture
3 Indianised kingdoms
4 Early relations with China
5 Buddhism in Southeast Asia
6 Islam in Southeast Asia
7 European colonisation
8 Japanese invasion and occupations
9 Post-war decolonisation
10 Contemporary Southeast Asia
11 See also
12 Notes
13 References
14 Bibliography
15 Further reading
16 External links
Name[edit]
There are numerous ancient historic Asian designations for Southeast Asia, none are geographically consistent with each other. Names include Suvarnabhumi or Sovannah Phoum (Golden Land) and Suvarnadvipa (Golden Islands) in Indian tradition, the Lands below the Winds[12] in Arabia and Persia, Nanyang (South Seas) to the Chinese and Nanyo in Japan.[13]
The term Southeast Asia has been coined to designate the area of operation (the South East Asia Command, SEAC) for Anglo-American forces in the Pacific Theater of World War II from 1941 to 1945.[14]
Prehistory[edit]
Paleolithic[edit]
Niah Cave entrance at sunset
Detail of Asia in Ptolemy's world map. Gulf of the Ganges left, Southeast Asian peninsula in the centre, China Sea right, with "Sinae" (China).
Anatomically modern human hunter-gatherer migration into Southeast Asia before 50,000 years ago has been confirmed by the combined fossil record of the region.[15] These immigrants might have, to a certain extent, merged and reproduced with members of the archaic population of Homo erectus, as the fossil discoveries in the Tam Pa Ling Cave suggest.[16] Data analysis of stone tool assemblages and fossil discoveries from Indonesia, Southern China, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and more recently Cambodia[17] and Malaysia[18] has established Homo erectus migration routes and episodes of presence as early as 120,000 years ago and even older isolated finds date back to 1.8 million years ago.[19][20] Java Man (Homo erectus erectus) and Homo floresiensis attest for a sustained regional presence and isolation, long enough for notable diversification of the species' specifics.
Ocean drops of up to 120 m (393.70 ft) below the present level during Pleistocene glacial periods revealed the vast lowlands known as Sundaland, enabling hunter-gatherer populations to freely access insular Southeast Asia via extensive terrestrial corridors. Modern human presence in the Niah cave on East Malaysia dates back to 40,000 years BP, although archaeological documentation of the early settlement period suggests only brief occupation phases.[21] However, author Charles Higham argues that, despite glacial periods modern humans were able to cross the sea barrier beyond Java and Timor, who around 45,000 years ago left traces in the Ivane Valley in eastern New Guinea "at an altitude of 2,000 m (6,561.68 ft) exploiting yams and pandanus, hunting, and making stone tools between 43,000 and 49,000 years ago."[22]
The oldest habitation discovered in the Philippines is located at the Tabon Caves and dates back to approximately 50,000 years BP. Items there found such as burial jars, earthenware, jade ornaments and other jewelry, stone tools, animal bones, and human fossils date back to 47,000 years BP. Unearthed human remains are approximately 24,000 years old.[23]
Signs of an early tradition are discernible in the Hoabinhian, the name given to an industry and cultural continuity of stone tools and flaked cobble artifacts that appears around 10,000 BP in caves and rock shelters first described in Hòa Bình, Vietnam, later also documented in Terengganu, Malaysia, Sumatra, Thailand, Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia and Yunnan, southern China. Research emphasises considerable variations in quality and nature of the artifacts, influenced by region-specific environmental conditions and proximity and access to local resources. Remarkable is nonetheless that the Hoabinhian culture accounts for the first verified ritual burials in Southeast Asia.[24][25]
Neolithic Migrations[edit]
Austronesian migration routes in the 4th edition of Meyers Konversations-Lexikon (1885–1892)
The earliest Homo sapiens immigrants, loosely identified as Australo-Melanesians, Aboriginal, Negritos and Hill Tribes are associated with the occupation of caves, rock shelters and isolated upland regions in Vietnam, Thailand and the Philippines or on remote islands, such as the Andaman Islands and although displaced from the coasts and plains they are present in all regions for at least 30,000 years.
Subsequent Neolithic immigration waves are intensely debated considered dynamic and complex, and research has resorted to linguistic terms and argumentation for group identification and classification.[26]
The Austroasiatic migration wave centred around the Mon and the Khmer, who originate in North-Eastern India arrive around 5000 BP and are identified with the settlement on the broad riverine floodplains of Burma, Indochina and Malaysia.[27]
The origin, period and settlement pattern of the Austronesian immigrants, whose elusive branches would eventually be dispersed all over the islands between Madagascar and Oceania, has been for a long time interpreted on a linguistic basis, although more recent genetic research contradicts these ideas.[28] Certain is, these marine migrants were accomplished seafarers, who arrived on boats around 4,000 BP and soon dominated maritime Southeast Asia, populated the lowlands and coasts and pushed indigenous people of Indonesia, the Philippines or New Guinea to the interior regions.[29][30][31][32]
Early agricultural societies[edit]
Hypothetical map of Văn Lang (early 3rd century BCE)
Territorial principalities in both Insular and Mainland Southeast Asia, characterised as Agrarian kingdoms[33] had by around 500 BCE developed an economy based on surplus crop cultivation and moderate coastal trade of domestic natural products. Several states of the Malayan-Indonesian "thalassian" zone[34] shared these characteristics with Indochinese polities like the Pyu city-states in the Irrawaddy river valley, Van Lang in the Red River delta and Funan around the lower Mekong.[4] Văn Lang, founded in the 7th century BCE endured until 258 BCE under the rule of the Hồng Bàng dynasty, as part of the Đông Sơn culture eventually sustained a dense and organised population, that produced an elaborate Bronze Age industry.[35][36]
Intensive wet-rice cultivation in an ideal climate enabled the farming communities to produce a regular crop surplus, that was used by the ruling elite to raise, command and pay work forces for public construction and maintenance projects such as canals and fortifications.[35][34]
Though millet and rice cultivation was introduced around 2000 BCE, hunting and gathering remained an important aspect of food provision, in particular in forested and mountainous inland areas. Many tribal communities of the aboriginal Australo-Melanesian settlers continued the lifestyle of mixed sustenance until the modern era.[37]
Two layer hypothesis[edit]
Between around 1,700 and 1,000 BC people settled in the Southeast Asian lowlands as wet-rice and millet farming techniques from the Yangtze River valley were adopted. Author and archaeologist Charles Higham suggests in his work "Hunter-Gatherers in Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to the Present" "the indigenous hunter-gatherers integrated with intrusive Neolithic communities and, while losing their cultural identity, contributed their genes to the present population of Southeast Asia." or alternatively the "hunter-gatherers withdrew to rainforest refugia and, through selective pressures inherent in such an environment, survived as the small-bodied, dark-skinned humans found to this day in the Philippines, Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand, and the Andaman Islands."[22] Unfortunately the Two layer hypothesis, based on the human occupation of mainland Southeast Asia during two distinct periods by two separate racial groups is only applicable when you know who really was involved in this integration process.[38] Immigration from China alongside the introduction of farming occurred and DNA testing calls for revision of Neolithic migrations.
Bronze Age Southeast Asia[edit]
Dong Son drum
Earliest known copper and bronze production in Southeast Asia has been found at the site of Ban Chiang in North-east Thailand and among the Phung Nguyen culture of northern Vietnam around 2000 BCE.[39]
The Dong Son culture established a tradition of bronze production and the manufacture of ever more refined bronze and iron objects, such as plows, axes and sickles with shaft holes, socketed arrow and spearheads and small ornamented items. By about 500 BCE large and delicately decorated bronze drums of remarkable quality, that weighed more than 70 kg (150 lb) were produced in the laborious lost-wax casting process. This industry of highly sophisticated metal processing has been developed locally bare of Chinese or Indian influence. Historians relate these achievements to the presence of well organised, centralised and hierarchical communities and a large population.[40]
Pottery Culture[edit]
Buni clay pottery
Between 1,000 BCE and 100 CE the Sa Huỳnh culture flourished along the south-central coast of Vietnam.[41] Ceramic jar burial sites, that included grave goods have been discovered at various sites along the entire territory. Among large, thin-walled, terracotta jars, ornamented and colorised cooking pots, glass items, jade earrings and metal objects had been deposited near the rivers and at the coast.[42]
The Buni culture is the name given to another early independent centre of refined pottery production that has been well documented on the basis of excavated burial gifts, deposited between 400 BCE and 100 CE in coastal north-western Java.[43] The objects and artifacts of the Buni tradition are known for their originality and remarkable quality of incised and geometric decors.[44] Its resemblance to the Sa Huỳnh culture and the fact that it represents the earliest Indian Rouletted Ware recorded in Southeast Asia are subject of ongoing research.[45]
Indianised kingdoms[edit]
Further information: Greater India
Expansion of Hinduism in Southeast Asia
Major trading routes in the pre-colonial Eastern Hemisphere
the Laguna Copperplate Inscription, Philippines (c. 900 CE)
Shiva statue, Champa (modern Vietnam)
Angkor Wat, Khmer Empire (12th century)
Since around 500 B.C. Asia's expanding land and maritime trade had led to socio-economic interaction and cultural stimulation and diffusion of mainly Hindu beliefs into the regional cosmology of Southeast Asia.[46] Iron Age trade expansion caused regional geostrategic remodelling. Southeast Asia was now situated in the central area of convergence of the Indian and the East Asian maritime trade routes, the basis for economic and cultural growth. The concept of the Indianised kingdoms, a term coined by George Coedès, describes Southeast Asian principalities that since the early common era as a result of prolonged interaction had incorporated central aspects of Indian institutions, religion, statecraft, administration, culture, epigraphy, writing and architecture.[47]
The earliest Hindu kingdoms emerged in Sumatra and Java, followed by mainland polities such as Funan and Champa. Selective adoption of Indian civilisation elements and individual suitable adaption stimulated the emergence of centralised states and development of highly organised societies. Ambitious local leaders realised the benefits of Hindu worship. Rule in accord with universal moral principles represented in the concept of the devaraja was more appealing than the Chinese concept of intermediaries.[48][49]
The exact nature, process and extent of Indian influence upon the civilisations of the region is still fiercely debated by contemporary scholars. Debated are most claims over whether it was Indian merchants, Brahmins, nobles or Southeast Asian mariner-merchants who played a central role in bringing Indian conceptions to Southeast Asia. Debated is the depth of the influence of traditions for the people. Whereas early 20th-century scholars emphasised the thorough Indianisation of Southeast Asia, more recent authors argued that this influence was very limited and affected only a small section of the elite.[50][51]
Sea trade from China to India passed Champa, Funan at the Mekong Delta, proceeded along the coast to the Isthmus of Kra, portaged across the narrow and transhipped for distribution in India. This trading link boosted the development of Funan, its successor Chenla and the Malayan states of Langkasuka on the eastern and Kedah on the western coast.
Numbers of port towns in maritime Southeast Asia also began to receive Hindu and Buddhist influences from India, and developed to be a Hindu or Buddhist kingdoms ruled by native dynasties. Early Hindu kingdoms in Indonesia are 4th century Kutai that rose in East Kalimantan, Tarumanagara in West Java and Kalingga in Central Java.
Around the 6th century CE, merchants began sailing to Srivijaya where goods were transhipped directly on Sumatran ports. The limits of technology and contrary winds during parts of the year made it difficult for the ships of the time to proceed directly from the Indian Ocean to the South China Sea. The third system involved direct trade between the Indian and Chinese coasts.
The first dominant power to arise in the archipelago was Srivijaya in Sumatra. From the 5th century, the capital, Palembang, became a major seaport and functioned as an entrepot on the Spice Route between India and China. Srivijaya was also a notable centre of Vajrayana Buddhist learning and influence. Srivijaya's wealth and influence faded when changes in nautical technology in the 10th century enabled Chinese and Indian merchants to ship cargo directly between their countries and also enabled the Chola state in southern India to carry out a series of destructive attacks on Srivijaya's possessions, ending Palembang's entrepot function.
From the 7th to 15th centuries Sumatra was ruled by kaleidoscope of Buddhist kingdoms, from Kantoli, Srivijaya, Malayu, Pannai and Dharmasraya kingdom. Most of its history from the 6th to 13th centuries, Sumatra was dominated by Srivijaya empire.
After the fall of Tarumanagara, West Java was ruled by Sunda Kingdom. While Central and Eastern Java was dominated by a kaleidoscope of competing agrarian kingdoms including the Sailendras, Mataram, Kediri, Singhasari, and finally Majapahit. In the 8th to 9th centuries, the Sailendra dynasty that ruled Medang i Bhumi Mataram kingdom built numbers massive monuments in Central Java, includes Sewu and Borobudur temple.
In the Philippines, the Laguna Copperplate Inscription dating from 900 CE relates a granted debt from a Maginoo caste nobleman named Namwaran who lived in the Maynila area. This document mentions a leader of Medang in Java.
In mainland Southeast Asia, after the fall of Chenla, the Khmer Empire, centred on the plain north of Tonle Sap lake, flourished in 9th until 15th century to become a regional hegemon. The Khmers built numbers of massive monuments in and around Angkor. While on central plains of today Thailand the kingdom of Dvaravati arose since 6th to 13th century. By the 10th century, Dvaravati began to come under the influence of the Khmer Empire. Later the plains of Central Thailand was dominated by Sukhothai in the 13th century and later Ayutthaya Kingdom in the 14th century.
According to the Nagarakertagama, around the 13th century, Majapahit's vassal states spread throughout much of today's Indonesia, making it the largest empire ever to exist in Southeast Asia. The empire declined in the 15th century after the rise of Islamic states in coastal Java, Malay peninsula and Sumatra.
Early relations with China[edit]
Earliest attested trading contacts existed between Southeast Asia and the Chinese Shang dynasty (around 1600 BCE to around 1046 BCE), when cowry shells served as currency. Various natural products, such as ivory, rhinoceros horn, tortoise shells, pearls and birds’ feathers found their way to Luoyang the capital of the Zhou dynasty, that lasted from 1050 to 771 BCE. Although knowledge about port localities and shipping lanes is very limited, it is assumed that most of this exchange took place on land routes and only a small percentage was shipped "on coastal vessels crewed by Malay and Yue traders".[52]
Military conquests during the short lived Han dynasty (221 to 206 BCE) brought a number of foreign peoples within the Chinese empire when the Imperial Chinese tributary system began to evolve under Han rule. This tributary system was based on the Chinese worldview, that had developed under the Shang dynasty, in which China is deemed the center and apogee of culture and civilization, the Middle kingdom (Zhōngguó), surrounded by several layers of increasingly barbarous peoples.[53] Contact with Southeast Asia steadily increased by the end of the Han period.[52]
Buddhism in Southeast Asia[edit]
Main article: Buddhism in Southeast Asia
Borobudur stupa, central Java (9th century)
Local rulers have most benefited from the introduction of Hinduism during the early common era as it greatly enhanced the legitimacy of their reign. Historians increasingly argue, that the process of Hindu religious diffusion must be attributed to the initiative of the local chieftains. Buddhist teachings, that almost simultaneously arrived in SEA developed during the subsequent centuries an exalted distinction and eventually came to be perceived as more appealing to the demands of the general population, a belief system and philosophy that addresses concrete human affairs. Emperor Ashoka initiated the tradition to send trained monks and missionaries abroad who spread Buddhism, that includes a sizeable body of literature, oral traditions, iconography, art and offers guidance as it seeks to solve central existential questions with emphasis on individual effort and conduct.[54][55][56]
Islam in Southeast Asia[edit]
Main articles: Spread of Islam in Southeast Asia and Islam in Southeast Asia
Minaret of the Menara Kudus Mosque, a Majapahit-style red brick tower with Mogul-style building in the background
By the eight century, less than 200 years after the establishment of Islam in Arabia, the first traders and merchants who adhered to Mohammad's prophecies reportedly appeared in Maritime Southeast Asia. Certain is also, that Islam did not play a notable role anywhere in the archipelago or Indochina before the 13th century.[57] As it happened, widespread and gradual replacement of Hinduism by Theravada Buddhism reflected a popular desire for a more personal, introvert spirituality acquired through individual ritual activities and effort.[58][59]
In addressing the issue of how Islam was introduced into Southeast Asia, most historians have elaborated various scenarios along an Arabia to India and India to Southeast Asia sequence. Opinions vary on the identity and method of the agent. Either Arabian traders and scholars, who did not live or settle in India arrived directly in island Southeast Asia, or Arab traders, that had been settling in coastal India and Sri Lanka for generations. Muslim traders from India (Gujarat), converts of South Asian descend and ethnicity are variously considered as to have played a major role.[60]
A number of sources propose the South China Sea as another "route" of Islam introduction. Arguments for this hypothesis include:
Extensive trade between Arabia and China before the 10th century is well documented and has been corroborated by archaeological evidence (see: Belitung shipwreck).[61][62]
During the Mongol conquest and the subsequent rule of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) hundreds of thousands of Muslims entered China. In Yunnan Islam was propagated and commonly embraced.[63]
The Kufic Grave Stones in Champa are indices of an early and permanent Islamic community in Indochina.[64][65][66] The founder of the Demak Sultanate was of Sino-Javanese origin.[67][68]
Hui mariner Zheng He proposed ancient Chinese architecture as to be the stylistic basis for the oldest Javanese mosques during his 15th century visit of Demak, Banten and the Panjunan Masjid in Cirebon.[57]
In a 2013 EU publication of the European Commission Forum an inclusive attitude is being maintained: "Islam spread in Southeast Asia via Muslims of diverse ethnic and cultural origins, from Middle Easterners, Arabs and Persians, to Indians, and even Chinese, all of whom followed the great commercial routes of the epoch."[69]
Research has several answers as to what caused the distinct syncretic (its modern expression is cultural Islam, as opposed to Middle Eastern and North African political Islam) Islam in Southeast Asia, that allowed the continuation and inclusion of elements and ritual practices of Hinduism, Buddhism and ancient Pan-East Asian Animism. Most principalities had developed highly distinctive cultures as a result of centuries of active participation in the cultural interchange and by borrowing from the flow of ideas that criss-crossed the archipelago, coming from across the Indian Ocean in the west and the South China Sea in the east. Cultural and institutional adoption was a creative and selective process, in which foreign elements were incorporated into a local synthesis.[70]
Unlike virtually all other "Islamised" regions like North Africa, Iberia, the Middle East and later India, Islamic faith in Southeast Asia was not enforced in the wake of victorious territorial conquests of unstoppable Muslim armies under the command of pious and charismatic warlords.
The idea of equality (before God) for the Ummat (the people of God) and a personal religious effort through regular prayer was more appealing to the average person than the perceived fatalism[71] of the Hindu pandemonium. However, Islam also taught obedience and submission, which guaranteed that the social structure of a converted people or political entity hardly saw any fundamental changes.[52]
There are various records of lay Muslim missionaries, scholars and mystics, particularly Sufis who were most active in bringing about a peaceful proselytisation. Java, for example "received Islam by nine very active men", who were referred to as "Wali Sanga" (Nine Saints), although the historical identity of such people is almost impossible to determine. The foundation of the first Islamic kingdom in Sumatra, the Samudera Pasai Sultanate took place during the 13th century.
Nagore Shahul Hamid (1504–1570), the "Qadir Wali" was a popular protector of sailors and seafarers. A simple ritual practice was maintained by Tamil Muslims in his shrine on the coast south of Madras. He attracted pilgrims from Malaysia, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and anyone else who sought his aid.
Islam and its notion of exclusivity and finality is incompatible with all other religions and the Chinese concept of heavenly harmony and the Son of Heaven as the enforcer. The integration in the traditional East Asian tributary system with China at the centre Muslim Malays and Indonesians exacted a pragmatic approach of cultural Islam in diplomatic relations with China.[52]
The conversion of the Buddhist Srivijaya empire, that controlled trade in much of Southeast Asia and in particular the Strait of Malacca, marked a strategic turning point as this act turned the Strait into an Islamic water. With the fall of Srivijaya the way was open for effective and widespread proselytisation and the establishment of Muslim trading centres. Modern Malays view the Sultanate of Malacca, which existed from the 15th to the early 16th century as the first political entity of contemporary Malaysia.[72]
European colonisation[edit]
Main article: European colonisation of Southeast Asia
European colonisation of Southeast Asia.
Legend:
France
Netherlands
Portugal
Spain
United Kingdom
An early European to visit Southeast Asia was Niccolò de' Conti, who travelled here in the early 15th century. However, Europeans did not visit en masse until the 16th century.[citation needed] It was the lure of trade that brought Europeans to Southeast Asia while missionaries also tagged along the ships as they hoped to spread Christianity into the region.
Portugal was the first European power to establish a bridgehead on the lucrative maritime Southeast Asia trade route, with the conquest of the Sultanate of Malacca in 1511. The Netherlands and Spain followed and soon superseded Portugal as the main European powers in the region. In 1599, Spain began to colonise the Philippines. In 1619, acting through the Dutch East India Company, the Dutch took the city of Sunda Kelapa, renamed it Batavia (now Jakarta) as a base for trading and expansion into the other parts of Java and the surrounding territory. In 1641, the Dutch took Malacca from the Portuguese.[note 1] Economic opportunities attracted Overseas Chinese to the region in great numbers. In 1775, the Lanfang Republic, possibly the first republic in the region, was established in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, as a tributary state of the Qing Empire; the republic lasted until 1884, when it fell under Dutch occupation as Qing influence waned.[note 2]
Englishmen of the United Kingdom, in the guise of the Honourable East India Company led by Josiah Child, had little interest or impact in the region, and were effectively expelled following the Siam–England war (1687). Britain, in the guise of the British East India Company, turned their attention to the Bay of Bengal following the Peace with France and Spain (1783). During the conflicts, Britain had struggled for naval superiority with the French, and the need of good harbours became evident. Penang Island had been brought to the attention of the Government of India by Francis Light. In 1786, the settlement of George Town was founded at the northeastern tip of Penang Island by Captain Francis Light, under the administration of Sir John Macpherson; this marked the beginning of British expansion into the Malay Peninsula.[73][note 3]
Portrait of Afonso de Albuquerque, the first European to conquer a part of Southeast Asia of Malacca.
The British also temporarily possessed Dutch territories during the Napoleonic Wars; and Spanish areas in the Seven Years' War. In 1819, Stamford Raffles established Singapore as a key trading post for Britain in their rivalry with the Dutch. However, their rivalry cooled in 1824 when an Anglo-Dutch treaty demarcated their respective interests in Southeast Asia. British rule in Burma began with the first Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826).
Early United States entry into what was then called the East Indies (usually in reference to the Malay Archipelago) was low key. In 1795, a secret voyage for pepper set sail from Salem, Massachusetts on an 18-month voyage that returned with a bulk cargo of pepper, the first to be so imported into the country, which sold at the extraordinary profit of seven hundred per cent.[74] In 1831, the merchantman Friendship of Salem returned to report the ship had been plundered, and the first officer and two crewmen murdered in Sumatra. The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 obligated the Dutch to ensure the safety of shipping and overland trade in and around Aceh, who accordingly sent the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army on the punitive expedition of 1831. President Andrew Jackson also ordered America's first Sumatran punitive expedition of 1832, which was followed by a punitive expedition in 1838. The Friendship incident thus afforded the Dutch a reason to take over Ache; and Jackson, to dispatch diplomatist Edmund Roberts,[75] who in 1833 secured the Roberts Treaty with Siam. In 1856 negotiations for amendment of this treaty, Townsend Harris stated the position of the United States:
The United States does not hold any possessions in the East, nor does it desire any. The form of government forbids the holding of colonies. The United States therefore cannot be an object of jealousy to any Eastern Power. Peaceful commercial relations, which give as well as receive benefits, is what the President wishes to establish with Siam, and such is the object of my mission.[76]
From the end of the 1850s onwards, while the attention of the United States shifted to maintaining their union, the pace of European colonisation shifted to a significantly higher gear.
This phenomenon, denoted New Imperialism, saw the conquest of nearly all Southeast Asian territories by the colonial powers. The Dutch East India Company and British East India Company were dissolved by their respective governments, who took over the direct administration of the colonies. Only Thailand was spared the experience of foreign rule, though Thailand, too, was greatly affected by the power politics of the Western powers. The Monthon reforms of the late 19th Century continuing up till around 1910, imposed a Westernised form of government on the country's partially independent cities called Mueang, such that the country could be said to have successfully colonised itself.[77] Western powers did, however, continue to interfere in both internal and external affairs.[78][79]
By 1913, the British had occupied Burma, Malaya and the northern Borneo territories, the French controlled Indochina, the Dutch ruled the Netherlands East Indies while Portugal managed to hold on to Portuguese Timor. In the Philippines, the 1872 Cavite Mutiny was a precursor to the Philippine Revolution (1896–1898). When the Spanish–American War began in Cuba in 1898, Filipino revolutionaries declared Philippine independence and established the First Philippine Republic the following year. In the Treaty of Paris of 1898 that ended the war with Spain, the United States gained the Philippines and other territories; in refusing to recognise the nascent republic, America effectively reversed her position of 1856. This led directly to the Philippine–American War, in which the First Republic was defeated; wars followed with the Republic of Zamboanga, the Republic of Negros and the Republic of Katagalugan, all of which were also defeated.
Colonial rule had had a profound effect on Southeast Asia. While the colonial powers profited much from the region's vast resources and large market, colonial rule did develop the region to a varying extent. Commercial agriculture, mining and an export based economy developed rapidly during this period. The introduction Christianity bought by the colonist also have profound effect in the societal change.
Increased labour demand resulted in mass immigration, especially from British India and China, which brought about massive demographic change. The institutions for a modern nation state like a state bureaucracy, courts of law, print media and to a smaller extent, modern education, sowed the seeds of the fledgling nationalist movements in the colonial territories. In the inter-war years, these nationalist movements grew and often clashed with the colonial authorities when they demanded self-determination.
Japanese invasion and occupations[edit]
Further information: Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, List of territories occupied by Imperial Japan, South-East Asian theatre of World War II, and Pacific War
Japanese imperial army entering Manila, January 1942.
In September 1940, following the Fall of France and pursuant to the Pacific war goals of Imperial Japan, the Japanese Imperial Army invaded Vichy French Indochina, which ended in the abortive Japanese coup de main in French Indochina of 9 March 1945. On 5 January 1941, Thailand launched the Franco-Thai War, ended on 9 May 1941 by a Japanese-imposed treaty signed in Tokyo.[80] On 7/8 December, Japan's entry into World War II began with the invasion of Thailand, the only invaded country to maintain nominal independence, due to her political and military alliance with the Japanese—on 10 May 1942, her northwestern Payap Army invaded Burma during the Burma Campaign. From 1941 until war's end, Japanese occupied Cambodia and Malaya, which ended in independence movements. Japanese occupation of the Philippines led to the forming of the Second Philippine Republic, formally dissolved in Tokyo on 17 August 1945. Also on 17 August, a proclamation of Indonesian Independence was read at the conclusion of Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies since March 1942.
Post-war decolonisation[edit]
Combat operations at Ia Drang Valley, during Vietnam War, November 1965.
With the rejuvenated nationalist movements in wait, the Europeans returned to a very different Southeast Asia after World War II. Indonesia declared independence on 17 August 1945 and subsequently fought a bitter war against the returning Dutch; the Philippines was granted independence by the United States in 1946; Burma secured their independence from Britain in 1948, and the French were driven from Indochina in 1954 after a bitterly fought war (the Indochina War) against the Vietnamese nationalists. The newly established United Nations provided a forum both for nationalist demands and for the newly demanded independent nations.
During the Cold War, countering the threat of communism was a major theme in the decolonisation process. After suppressing the communist insurrection during the Malayan Emergency from 1948 to 1960, Britain granted independence to Malaya and later, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak in 1957 and 1963 respectively within the framework of the Federation of Malaysia. In one of the most bloody single incidents of violence in Cold War Southeast Asia, General Suharto seized power in Indonesia in 1965 and initiated a massacre of approximately 500,000 alleged members of the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).
Following the independence of the Indochina states with the battle of Dien Bien Phu, North Vietnamese attempts to conquer South Vietnam resulted in the Vietnam War. The conflict spread to Laos and Cambodia and heavy intervention from the United States. By the war's end in 1975, all these countries were controlled by communist parties. After the communist victory, two wars between communist states—the Cambodian–Vietnamese War of 1975–89 and the Sino-Vietnamese War of 1979—were fought in the region. The victory of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia resulted in the Cambodian Genocide.[81][82]
In 1975, Portuguese rule ended in East Timor. However, independence was short-lived as Indonesia annexed the territory soon after. However, after more than 20 years of fighting Indonesia, East Timor won its independence and was recognised by the UN in 2002. Finally, Britain ended its protectorate of the Sultanate of Brunei in 1984, marking the end of European rule in Southeast Asia.
Contemporary Southeast Asia[edit]
ASEAN members' flags in Jakarta.
Modern Southeast Asia has been characterised by high economic growth by most countries and closer regional integration. Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand have traditionally experienced high growth and are commonly recognised as the more developed countries of the region. As of late, Vietnam too had been experiencing an economic boom. However, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos and the newly independent East Timor are still lagging economically.
On 8 August 1967, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was founded by Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines. Since Cambodian admission into the union in 1999, East Timor is the only Southeast Asian country that is not part of ASEAN, although plans are under way for eventual membership. The association aims to enhance co-operation among Southeast Asian community. ASEAN Free Trade Area has been established to encourage greater trade among ASEAN members. ASEAN has also been a front runner in greater integration of Asia-Pacific region through East Asia Summits.
See also[edit]
Buddhism in Southeast Asia
Hinduism in Southeast Asia
Islam in Southeast Asia
Greater India
Two Layer hypothesis
History of Brunei
History of Cambodia
History of East Timor
History of Indonesia
History of Laos
History of Malaysia
History of Myanmar
History of the Philippines
History of Singapore
History of Thailand
History of Vietnam
History of Asia
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ For fifty or sixty years, the Portuguese enjoyed the exclusive trade to China and Japan. In 1717, and again in 1732, the Chinese government offered to make Macao the emporium for all foreign trade, and to receive all duties on imports; but, by a strange infatuation, the Portuguese government refused, and its decline is dated from that period. (Roberts, 2007 PDF image 173 p. 166)
Jump up ^ Other experiments in republicanism in adjacent regions were the Japanese Republic of Ezo (1869) and the Republic of Taiwan (1895).
Jump up ^ Company agent John_Crawfurd used the census taken in 1824 for a statistical analysis of the relative economic prowess of the peoples there, giving special attention to the Chinese: The Chinese amount to 8595, and are landowners, field-labourers, mechanics of almost every description, shopkeepers, and general merchants. They are all from the two provinces of Canton and Fo-kien, and three-fourths of them from the latter. About five-sixths of the whole number are unmarried men, in the prime of life : so that, in fact, the Chinese population, in point of effective labour, may be estimated as equivalent to an ordinary population of above 37,000, and, as will afterwards be shown, to a numerical Malay population of more than 80,000! (Crawfurd image 48. p.30)
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Bibliography[edit]
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Reid, Anthony (9 May 1990). Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680: The Lands Below the Winds. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-04750-9.
Further reading[edit]
Daigorō Chihara (1996). Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast Asia. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-10512-3.
Peter Church (3 February 2012). A Short History of South-East Asia. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-35044-7.
George Cœdès (1968). The Indianized States of South-East Asia. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-0368-1.
Charles Alfred Fisher (1964). South-east Asia: a social, economic, and political geography. Methuen.
Bernard Philippe Groslier (1962). The art of Indochina: including Thailand, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. Crown Publishers.
D.G.E. Hall (1966). A History of South-East Asia.
Daniel George Edward Hall; Phút Tấn Nguyễn (1968). Đông Nam Á sử lược. Pacific Northwest Trading Company.
Kenneth R. Hall (28 December 2010). A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100–1500. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7425-6762-7.
Virginia Matheson Hooker (2003). A Short History of Malaysia: Linking East and West. Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-86448-955-2.
Michael C. Howard (23 February 2012). Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-Border Trade and Travel. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-9033-2.
Victor T. King (2008). The Sociology of Southeast Asia: Transformations in a Developing Region. NIAS Press. ISBN 978-87-91114-60-1.
Paul Michel Munoz (2006). Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula. National Book Network. ISBN 978-981-4155-67-0.
D. R. SarDesai (2003). Southeast Asia, Past and Present. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-4143-9.
Heidhues, Mary Somer. "'Southeast Asia: A Concise History" ISBN 0-500-28303-6
Majumdar, R.C. (1979). India and South-East Asia. I.S.P.Q.S. History and Archaeology Series Vol. 6. ISBN 81-7018-046-5.
Ooi, Keat Gin, ed. (2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, Volume 1 (illustrated ed.). ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1576077705. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
Guy, John (1986). Guy, John, ed. Oriental trade ceramics in South-East Asia, ninth to sixteenth centuries: with a catalogue of Chinese, Vietnamese and Thai wares in Australian collections (illustrated, revised ed.). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
David G. Marr; Anthony Crothers Milner (1986). Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-9971-988-39-5.
Osborne, Milton. Southeast Asia. An introductory history. ISBN 1-86508-390-9
Jan M. Pluvier (1995). Historical Atlas of South-East Asia. E.J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10238-5.
Anthony Reid (1 August 2000). Charting the Shape of Early Modern Southeast Asia. Silkworm Books. ISBN 978-1-63041-481-8.
Scott, James C., The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia (Yale Agrarian Studies Series), 464 pages, Yale University Press (30 September 2009), ISBN 0300152280, ISBN 978-0300152289
Tarling, Nicholas (ed). The Cambridge history of Southeast Asia Vol I-IV. ISBN 0-521-66369-5
Paul Michel Munoz (2006). Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula. Editions Didier Millet. ISBN 981-4155-67-5.
Reid, Anthony (1993). Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680: Expansion and crisis, Volume 2. Volume 2 of Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680 (illustrated ed.). Yale University Press. ISBN 0300054122. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
Reid, Anthony; Alilunas-Rodgers, Kristine, eds. (1996). Sojourners and Settlers: Histories of Southeast China and the Chinese. Contributor Kristine Alilunas-Rodgers (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0824824466. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
Edward H. Schafer (1963). The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of Tʻang Exotics. University of California Press. GGKEY:XZ70D3XUH9A.
Paz, Victor; Solheim, II, Wilhelm G., eds. (2004). Southeast Asian Archaeology: Wilhelm G. Solheim II Festschrift (illustrated ed.). University of the Philippines Press. ISBN 9715424511. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
Yule, Paul. The Bronze Age Metalwork of India. Prähistorische Bronzefunde XX,8, Munich, 1985, ISBN 3 406 30440 0.
Demeter, F.; Shackelford, L. L.; Bacon, A.-M.; Duringer, P.; Westaway, K.; Sayavongkhamdy, T.; Braga, J.; Sichanthongtip, P.; Khamdalavong, P.; Ponche, J.-L.; Wang, H.; Lundstrom, C.; Patole-Edoumba, E.; Karpoff, A.-M. (20 August 2012). "Anatomically modern human in Southeast Asia (Laos) by 46 ka". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (36): 14375–14380. doi:10.1073/pnas.1208104109.
Marwick, Ben (January 2008). "Stone artefacts and recent research in the archaeology of mainland Southeast Asian hunter-gatherers". Before Farming. 2008 (4): 1–19. doi:10.3828/bfarm.2008.4.1.
The South East Asian Review. Institute of South East Asian Studies. 1995.
Southeast Asia. Lonely Planet. 15 September 2010. ISBN 978-1-74220-377-5.
Tri thức Đông Nam Á. Nhà xuá̂t bản Chính trị quó̂c gia. 2008. pp. 208–.
Thailandia. Touring Editore. 2005. ISBN 978-88-365-3327-5.
External links[edit]
A Short History of China and Southeast Asia.pdf
Ancient Southeast Asia Throbbing Blood Tube
Wikiversity - Department of Southeast Asian History
雲南・東南アジアに関する漢籍史料
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Lunar Flag Assembly
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Buzz Aldrin salutes the first American flag erected on the Moon, July 21, 1969
The Lunar Flag Assembly (LFA) was a kit containing a flag of the United States designed to be planted by astronauts on the Moon during the Apollo program. Six such flag assemblies were planted on the Moon. The nylon flags were hung on telescoping staffs and horizontal bars constructed of one-inch anodized aluminum tubes. The flags were carried on the outside of the Apollo Lunar Module, most of them on the descent ladder inside a thermally insulated tubular case to protect them from exhaust gas temperatures calculated to reach 2,000 °F (1,090 °C). The assembly was designed and supervised by Jack Kinzler, head of technical services at the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, Texas. Six of the flags were ordered from a government supply catalog and measured 3 by 5 feet (0.91 by 1.52 m); the last one planted on the Moon was the slightly larger, 6-foot (1.8 m)-wide flag which had hung in the Mission Operations Control Room in the Manned Spacecraft Center for most of the Apollo program.
Contents
[hide]
1 Political background
2 Design
3 Flags deployed
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
Political background[edit]
In January 1969, President Richard M. Nixon set an international tone for the Apollo program in his inaugural address[1]:
As we explore the reaches of space, let us go to the new worlds together -- not as new worlds to be conquered, but as a new adventure to be shared.
This inspired an idea, discussed within NASA, of having the astronauts plant a United Nations flag on the first landing.[2][3] Acting NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine appointed a Committee on Symbolic Activities for the First Lunar Landing on February 25, which he instructed to select symbolic activities that would not jeopardize crew safety or interfere with mission objectives; that would "signalize [sic] the first lunar landing as an historic forward step of all mankind that has been accomplished by the United States" and that would not give the impression that the United States was "taking possession of the moon" in violation of the Outer Space Treaty of 1967. The committee considered several options, including leaving the UN flag, a United States flag, a set of miniature flags of all nations, and another commemorative marker on the surface.[4][5][6] The committee recommended leaving the U.S. flag along with a commemorative plaque bearing the inscription: "Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon July 1969, A.D. We came in peace for all mankind." The memorial would be attached to the Lunar Module descent stage and left on the Moon.
Some Americans anticipated possible controversy over planting the United States flag on the Moon, since territorial claims to any extraterrestrial body were prohibited by the Outer Space Treaty.[2] But since it was made clear the United States had no intention of making a territorial claim to the Moon, no serious controversy materialized. In fact, the United States Congress passed a bill in November 1969, which was signed into law by President Nixon, stating:
The flag of the United States, and no other flag, shall be implanted or otherwise placed on the surface of the moon, or on the surface of any planet, by members of the crew of any spacecraft ... as part of any mission ... the funds for which are provided entirely by the Government of the United States. ... this act is intended as a symbolic gesture of national pride in achievement and is not to be construed as a declaration of national appropriation by claim of sovereignty.[2]
Design[edit]
The first Lunar Flag Assembly, carried on Apollo 11, prior to packing and mounting on the Apollo Lunar Module ladder
About three months prior to the July 1969 Apollo 11 mission, Robert Gilruth, Director of the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) and a member of the Committee on Symbolic Activities, still needed to select someone to design the flag assembly. He asked Jack Kinzler, head of technical services at MSC and also known as "Mr. Fix It" for the task. Inspired by the memory of his mother hanging curtains during his childhood, Kinzler came up with the idea of inserting a horizontal pole through a hemmed pocket in the top of the flag to support it and make it appear to fly on the airless Moon as it would in the wind on Earth.[7] He worked out the details over several days, assisted by Deputy Division Chief Dave McCraw. Kinzler also suggested, designed, and oversaw the creation of the commemorative plaques affixed to all the Apollo Lunar Modules.[7]
Though the flag itself was a simple, government supply 3-by-5-foot (0.91 by 1.52 m) nylon flag altered only by sewing the top hem, its packaging, tolerance of environmental conditions, and means of deployment presented minor engineering challenges. The horizontal and vertical poles were each made of one-inch aluminum tubes in two telescoping parts, anodized with a gold color. Due to the limits of the astronauts' spacesuits, the total height of the flagpole was limited to their 28-inch (71 cm) minimum and 66-inch (170 cm) maximum reach. The flag cost $5.50 and the tubing cost $75.[2]
Apollo 12 flag with faulty latch mechanism
The flag assembly was stored immediately behind the left side of the LM ladder. Due to the exhaust from the descent engine, the temperatures were calculated to be 250 °F (121 °C) for most of the landing, however the temperatures would increase to 2,000 °F (1,090 °C) during the final 13 seconds at touchdown. To insulate the flag from these extreme temperatures, it had to be packed inside a dual-walled protective shroud consisting of a stainless steel outer case separated from an aluminum layer by Thermoflex insulation, with several layers of Kapton thermal insulation foil between the inner case and the flag. The insulation limited the temperature to which the flag was subjected to 180 °F (82 °C). The shroud was estimated to cost several hundred dollars.[2]
The complete package needed to be as light as possible so as not to cut into the lunar payload, and weighed 9 pounds 7 ounces (4.3 kg).
The Apollo 12 crew could not get the horizontal pole to latch at the proper 90° angle.
The crew of Apollo 12, Charles P. "Pete" Conrad and Alan Bean, had trouble with the latch mechanism which was supposed to keep the supporting pole horizontal, so the flag they deployed drooped at an angle. In response to this, the assembly was improved to include a double-latch locking mechanism for subsequent missions.
The flags deployed on the last three landing flights were carried in the Modular Equipment Stowage Assembly (MESA, an equipment drawer which opened from the side of the Lunar Module) rather than on the ladder. This eliminated the need for the thermal protection shroud.
The flag which had hung in the Mission Operations Control Room (MOCR) in the Mission Control Center through all the prior Apollo landings was flown to the Moon for the final mission, Apollo 17. This flag measured 20% wider and higher than the others, therefore it required a 6-foot (1.8 m) long horizontal pole.[8] Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt carried a second, identical flag to the Moon and back, and presented it to flight controller Gene Kranz after the flight to replace the one left on the Moon.
Flags deployed[edit]
Harrison Schmitt poses by the American flag deployed on Apollo 17, December 11, 1972. The Earth is visible above the flag, which used to hang on the wall in the Mission Operations Control Room.
Mission
Date
Location
Erected by
Apollo 11 July 21, 1969 Sea of Tranquility Neil Armstrong
Buzz Aldrin
Apollo 12 November 19, 1969 Ocean of Storms Charles "Pete" Conrad
Alan Bean
Apollo 14 February 5, 1971 Fra Mauro formation Alan Shepard
Edgar Mitchell
Apollo 15 August 1, 1971 Hadley–Apennine David Scott
James Irwin
Apollo 16 April 21, 1972 Descartes Highlands John Young
Charles Duke
Apollo 17 December 11, 1972 Taurus–Littrow Eugene Cernan
Harrison Schmitt
Buzz Aldrin reported that the Apollo 11 flag, placed about 27 feet (8.2 m) from the centerline of the Eagle landing craft, was blown over by the blast of the rocket exhaust during takeoff.[9] Because of this, care was taken by subsequent crews to place the flags at greater distances from the Lunar Module.
The landing on Apollo 13 was aborted due to a major spacecraft malfunction encountered before reaching the Moon. The flag carried on that flight was destroyed with the Lunar Module Aquarius when it reentered the Earth's atmosphere.
A review of photographs taken by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) indicates that flags placed during the Apollo 12, Apollo 16, and Apollo 17 missions were still standing as of 2012.[9] Some experts theorize that the colors of some flags may have turned white due to sunlight and space radiation, or that the fabric might have disintegrated entirely.[10]
See also[edit]
List of man-made objects on the Moon
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Nixon, Richard M. (1969). "Inaugural Address, January 20, 1969". Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Richard M. Nixon, 1969. Best Books. ISBN 9781623769130.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Platoff 1993.
Jump up ^ Low 1969.
Jump up ^ Jaffe 1969.
Jump up ^ Shapley 1969.
Jump up ^ Paine 1969.
^ Jump up to: a b Johnson, Sandra L. (Fall 2008). "Red, White & Blue: U.S. Flag at Home on the Moon" (PDF). Houston History Magazine. 6 (1): 60. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Fincannon, James; Jones, Eric M., "Apollo 15 Flag Deployment", Apollo Lunar Surface Journal
^ Jump up to: a b Fincannon, James (Apr 12, 2012). "Six Flags on the Moon: What is Their Current Condition?". Apollo Lunar Surface Journal. NASA. Retrieved 1 Aug 2012.
Jump up ^ Beatty, Kelly (July 30, 2012). "Viewing the Flags of Apollo". Sky & Telescope. Retrieved 1 Aug 2012.
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flag of the United States on the Moon.
Jaffe, Leonard, Director for Space Science and Applications Programs, memo to the Associate Administrator for Space Science and Applications, 13 March 1969, on file at the NASA HQ History Office.
Low, George M., memo to Director of JSC, 23 January 1969, on file at the JSC History Office.
Nixon, Richard, "Inaugural Address, January 20, 1969," in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Richard Nixon—Containing the Public Messages, Speeches, and Statements of the President 1969 (Washington, D.C.: USGPO, 1971).
Paine, Thomas O., memo to Associate and Assistant Administrators and Center Directors, 25 February 1969, on file at the NASA Headquarters (HQ) History Office.
Platoff, Anne M (1993). "Where No Flag Has Gone Before: Political and Technical Aspects of Placing a Flag on the Moon". Contractor Report (188251). NASA
Willis H. Shapley, NASA Associate Deputy Administrator and Chairman of the Committee on Symbolic Activities, memos to Dr. Mueller of the Apollo Program Office, 19 April 1969 and 2 July 1969, and memo to the Administrator of NASA, n.d., on file at the NASA HQ History Office.
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