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Baseball statistics
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Baseball statistics play an important role in evaluating a player's and/or team's progress.
Since the flow of a baseball game has natural breaks to it, and normally players act individually rather than performing in clusters, the sport lends itself to easy record-keeping and statistics. Statistics have been kept for professional baseball since the creation of the National League and American League, now part of Major League Baseball.
Many statistics are also available from outside Major League Baseball, from leagues such as the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players and the Negro Leagues, although the consistency of whether these records were kept, of the standards with respect to which they were calculated, and of their accuracy varied.
Contents
[hide]
1 Development of statistics
2 Use of statistics
3 Commonly used statistics
3.1 Batting statistics
3.2 Baserunning statistics
3.3 Pitching statistics
3.4 Fielding statistics
3.5 Overall player value
3.6 General statistics
4 MLB statistical standards
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
Development of statistics[edit]
The practice of keeping records of player achievements was started in the 19th century by Henry Chadwick.[1] Based on his experience with the sport of cricket, Chadwick devised the predecessors to modern-day statistics including batting average, runs scored, and runs allowed.
Traditionally, statistics such as batting average (the number of hits divided by the number of at bats) and earned run average (the average number of earned runs allowed by a pitcher per nine innings) have dominated attention in the statistical world of baseball. However, the recent advent of sabermetrics has created statistics drawing from a greater breadth of player performance measures and playing field variables. Sabermetrics and comparative statistics attempt to provide an improved measure of a player's performance and contributions to his team from year to year, frequently against a statistical performance average.
Comprehensive, historical baseball statistics were difficult for the average fan to access until 1951, when researcher Hy Turkin published The Complete Encyclopedia of Baseball. In 1969, Macmillan Publishing printed its first Baseball Encyclopedia, using a computer to compile statistics for the first time. Known as "Big Mac", the encyclopedia became the standard baseball reference until 1988, when Total Baseball was released by Warner Books using more sophisticated technology. The publication of Total Baseball led to the discovery of several "phantom ballplayers", such as Lou Proctor, who did not belong in official record books and were removed.[2]
Use of statistics[edit]
Throughout modern baseball, a few core statistics have been traditionally referenced – batting average, RBI, and home runs. To this day, a player who leads the league in all of these three statistics earns the "Triple Crown." For pitchers, wins, ERA, and strikeouts are the most often-cited statistics, and a pitcher leading his league in these statistics may also be referred to as a "Triple Crown" winner. General managers and baseball scouts have long used the major statistics, among other factors and opinions, to understand player value. Managers, catchers and pitchers use the statistics of batters of opposing teams to develop pitching strategies and set defensive positioning on the field. Managers and batters study opposing pitcher performance and motions in attempting to improve hitting. Scouts will use stats when they are looking at a player who they may end up drafting or signing them to a contract.
Some sabermetric statistics have entered the mainstream baseball world that measure a batter's overall performance including on-base plus slugging, commonly referred to as OPS. OPS adds the hitter's on-base percentage (number of times reached base by any means divided by total plate appearances) to his slugging percentage (total bases divided by at-bats). Some argue that the OPS formula is flawed and that more weight should be shifted towards OBP (on-base percentage).[2] The statistic wOBA (weighted on-base average) attempts to correct for this.
OPS is also useful when determining a pitcher's level of success. "Opponent On-base Plus Slugging" (OOPS) is becoming a popular tool to evaluate a pitcher's actual performance. When analyzing a pitcher's statistics, some useful categories to consider include K/9IP (strikeouts per nine innings), K/BB (strikeouts per walk), HR/9 (Home runs per nine innings), WHIP (walks plus hits per inning pitched) and OOPS (opponent on-base plus slugging).
However, since 2001, more emphasis has been placed on Defense-Independent Pitching Statistics, including Defense-Independent ERA (dERA), in an attempt to evaluate a pitcher's performance regardless of the strength of the defensive players behind him.
All of the above statistics may be used in certain game situations. For example, a certain hitter's ability to hit left-handed pitchers might incline a manager to increase his opportunities to face left-handed pitchers. Other hitters may have a history of success against a given pitcher (or vice versa), and the manager may use this information to create a favorable match-up. Broadcast commentators often refer to this as "playing the percentages".
Commonly used statistics[edit]
Most of these terms also apply to softball. Commonly used statistics with their abbreviations are explained here. The explanations below are for quick reference and do not fully or completely define the statistic; for the strict definition, see the linked article for each statistic.
Batting statistics[edit]
1B – Single: hits on which the batter reaches first base safely without the contribution of a fielding error.
2B – Double: hits on which the batter reaches second base safely without the contribution of a fielding error.
3B – Triple: hits on which the batter reaches third base safely without the contribution of a fielding error.
AB – At bat: Plate appearances, not including bases on balls, being hit by pitch, sacrifices, interference, or obstruction.
AB/HR – At bats per home run: at bats divided by home runs.
BA – Batting average (also abbreviated AVG): hits divided by at bats (H/AB)
BB – Base on balls (also called a "walk"): hitter not swinging at four pitches called out of the strike zone and awarded first base.
BABIP – Batting average on balls in play: frequency at which a batter reaches a base after putting the ball in the field of play. Also a pitching category.
BB/K – Walk-to-strikeout ratio: number of bases on balls divided by number of strikeouts
BsR – Base runs: Another run estimator, like Runs Created; a favorite of writer Tom Tango
EQA – Equivalent average: a player's batting average absent park and league factors
FC – Fielder's choice: times reaching base safely because a fielder chose to try for an out on another runner
GO/AO – Ground ball fly ball ratio: number of ground ball outs divided by number of fly ball outs
GDP or GIDP – Ground into double play: number of ground balls hit that became double plays
GPA – Gross Production Average: 1.8 times on-base percentage plus slugging percentage, divided by four
GS – Grand Slam: a home run with the bases loaded, resulting in four runs scoring, and four RBI credited to the batter.
H – Hits: times reached base because of a batted, fair ball without error by the defense
HBP – Hit by pitch: times touched by a pitch and awarded first base as a result
HR – Home runs: hits on which the batter successfully touched all four bases, without the contribution of a fielding error.
ITPHR – Inside-the-park home run: hits on which the batter successfully touched all four bases, without the contribution of a fielding error or the ball going outside the ball park.
IBB – Intentional base on balls: times awarded first base on balls (see BB above) deliberately thrown by the pitcher. Also known as IW (intentional walk).
ISO – Isolated power: a hitter's ability to hit for extra bases, calculated by subtracting batting average from slugging percentage
K – Strike out (also abbreviated SO): number of times that a third strike is taken or swung at and missed, or bunted foul. Catcher must catch the third strike or batter may attempt to run to first base.
LOB – Left on base: number of runners neither out nor scored at the end of an inning.
OBP – On-base percentage: times reached base (H + BB + HBP) divided by at bats plus walks plus hit by pitch plus sacrifice flies (AB + BB + HBP + SF).
OPS – On-base plus slugging: on-base percentage plus slugging average
PA – Plate appearance: number of completed batting appearances
PA/SO – Plate appearances per strikeout: number of times a batter strikes out to their plate appearance
R – Runs scored: number of times a player crosses home plate
RC – Runs created: statistic that attempts to measure how many runs a player has contributed to his team
RP – Runs produced: statistic that attempts to measure how many runs a player has contributed
RBI – Run batted in: number of runners who score due to a batters' action, except when batter grounded into double play or reached on an error
RISP – Runner in scoring position: a breakdown of the batter's batting average with runners in scoring position, which include runners at second and third bases.
ROE - Reach on Error: Advance to a base due to a fielding error.
SF – Sacrifice fly: Fly balls hit to the outfield which although caught for an out, allow a baserunner to advance
SH – Sacrifice hit: number of sacrifice bunts which allow runners to advance on the basepaths
SLG – Slugging average: total bases achieved on hits divided by at-bats (TB/AB)
TA – Total average: total bases, plus walks, plus hit by pitch, plus steals, minus caught stealing divided by at bats, minus hits, plus caught stealing, plus grounded into double plays [(TB + BB + HBP + SB – CS)/(AB – H + CS + GIDP)]
TB – Total bases: one for each single, two for each double, three for each triple, and four for each home run [H + 2B + (2 × 3B) + (3 × HR)] or [1B + (2 × 2B) + (3 × 3B) + (4 × HR)]
TOB – Times on base: times reaching base as a result of hits, walks, and hit-by-pitches (H + BB + HBP)
XBH – Extra base hits: total hits greater than singles (2B + 3B + HR)
XR – Extrapolated runs: A linear run estimator developed by Jim Furtado
Baserunning statistics[edit]
SB – Stolen base: number of bases advanced by the runner while the ball is in the possession of the defense.
CS – Caught stealing: times tagged out while attempting to steal a base
SBA/ATT – Stolen base attempts: total number of times the player has attempted to steal a base (SB+CS)
SB% – Stolen base percentage: the percentage of bases stolen successfully. (SB) divided by (SBA) (stolen bases attempted).
DI – Defensive Indifference: if the catcher does not attempt to throw out a runner (usually because the base would be insignificant), the runner is not awarded a steal. Scored as a fielder's choice.
R – Runs scored: times reached home plate legally and safely
UBR – Ultimate base running: a metric that assigns linear weights to every individual baserunning event in order to measure the impact of a player's baserunning skill
Pitching statistics[edit]
BB – Base on balls (also called a "walk"): times pitching four balls, allowing the batter to take first base
BB/9 – Bases on balls per 9 innings pitched: base on balls multiplied by nine, divided by innings pitched
BF – Total batters faced: opponent team's total plate appearances
BK – Balk: number of times pitcher commits an illegal pitching action while in contact with the pitching rubber as judged by umpire, resulting in baserunners advancing one base
BS – Blown save: number of times entering the game in a save situation, and being charged the run (earned or not) which eliminates his team's lead
CERA – Component ERA: an estimate of a pitcher's ERA based upon the individual components of his statistical line (K, H, 2B, 3B, HR, BB, HBP)
CG – Complete game: number of games where player was the only pitcher for his team
DICE – Defense-Independent Component ERA: an estimate of a pitcher's ERA based upon the defense-independent components of his statistical line (K, HR, BB, HBP) but which also uses number of outs (IP), which is not defense independent.
ER – Earned run: number of runs that did not occur as a result of errors or passed balls
ERA – Earned run average: total number of earned runs (see "ER" above), multiplied by 9, divided by innings pitched
ERA+ – Adjusted ERA+: earned run average adjusted for the ballpark and the league average
FIP – Fielding independent pitching: a metric, scaled to resemble an ERA, that focuses on events within the pitcher's control – home runs, walks, and strikeouts – but also uses in its denominator the number of outs the team gets (see IP), which is not entirely within the pitcher's control.
xFIP: This variant substitutes a pitcher's own home run percentage with the league average
FPOM – First pitch outs made: Number of outs earned where the batter ground or flies out on the first pitch.
G – Games (AKA "appearances"): number of times a pitcher pitches in a season
GF – Games finished: number of games pitched where player was the final pitcher for his team as a relief pitcher
GIDP – Double plays induced: number of double play groundouts induced
GIDPO - Double play opportunities: number of groundout induced double play opportunities
GIR - Games in relief: games as a non starting pitcher
GO/AO or G/F – Ground Out to Air Out ratio, aka Ground ball fly ball ratio: ground balls allowed divided by fly balls allowed
GS – Starts: number of games pitched where player was the first pitcher for his team
H – Hits allowed: total hits allowed
H/9 – Hits allowed per 9 innings pitched: hits allowed times nine divided by innings pitched (also known as H/9IP)
HB – Hit batsman: times hit a batter with pitch, allowing runner to advance to first base
HLD (or H) – Hold: number of games entered in a save situation, recorded at least one out, did not surrender the lead, and did not complete the game
HRA – Home runs allowed: total home runs allowed
IBB – Intentional base on balls allowed
IP – Innings pitched: the number of outs a team gets while a pitcher is pitching divided by 3
IP/GS – Average number of innings pitched per game started
IR – Inherited runners: number of runners on base when the pitcher enters the game
IRA – Inherited runs allowed: number of inherited runners allowed to score
K – Strikeout: number of batters who received strike three
K/9 – Strikeouts per 9 innings pitched: strikeouts times nine divided by innings pitched
K/BB – Strikeout-to-walk ratio: number of strikeouts divided by number of base on balls
L – Loss: number of games where pitcher was pitching while the opposing team took the lead, never lost the lead, and went on to win
LOB% – Left-on-base percentage: LOB% represents the percentage of baserunners a pitcher does not allow to score. LOB% tends to regress toward 70–72% over time, so unusually high or low percentages could indicate that pitcher's ERA could be expected to rise or lower in the future. An occasional exception to this logic is a pitcher with a very high strikeout rate.[3]
OBA (or just AVG) – Opponents batting average: hits allowed divided by at-bats faced
PC-ST – An individual pitcher's total game pitches [Pitch Count] and [ST] his no. of strikes thrown within that PC.
PIT – Pitches thrown (Pitch count)
PFR – Power finesse ratio: The sum of strikeouts and walks divided by innings pitched.
pNERD – Pitcher's NERD: expected aesthetic pleasure of watching an individual pitcher
QOP – Quality of pitch: comprehensive pitch evaluation statistic which combines speed, location and movement (rise, total break, vertical break and horizontal break) into a single numeric value
QS – Quality start: a game in which a starting pitcher completes at least six innings and permits no more than three earned runs
RA – Run average: number of runs allowed times nine divided by innings pitched
RRA – Relief run average: A function of how many inherited base runners a relief pitcher allowed to score.
SHO – Shutout: number of complete games pitched with no runs allowed
SO – Strikeout Also may be notated as "K".
SV – Save: number of games where the pitcher enters a game led by the pitcher's team, finishes the game without surrendering the lead, is not the winning pitcher, and either (a) the lead was three runs or fewer when the pitcher entered the game; (b) the potential tying run was on base, at bat, or on deck; or (c) the pitcher pitched three or more innings
SVO – Save opportunity: When a pitcher 1) enters the game with a lead of three or fewer runs and pitches at least one inning, 2) enters the game with the potential tying run on base, at bat, or on deck, or 3) pitches three or more innings with a lead and is credited with a save by the official scorer
W – Win: number of games where pitcher was pitching while his team took the lead and went on to win, also the starter needs to pitch at least 5 innings of work (also related: winning percentage)
W + S – Wins in relief + saves.
whiff rate: a term, usually used in reference to pitchers, that divides the number of pitches swung at and missed by the total number of swings in a given sample. If a pitcher throws 100 pitches at which batters swing, and the batters fail to make contact on 26 of them, the pitcher's whiff rate is 26%.
WHIP – Walks and hits per inning pitched: average number of walks and hits allowed by the pitcher per inning
WP – Wild pitches: charged when a pitch is too high, low, or wide of home plate for the catcher to field, thereby allowing one or more runners to advance or score
Fielding statistics[edit]
A – Assists: number of outs recorded on a play where a fielder touched the ball, except if such touching is the putout
CI – Catcher's Interference (e.g., catcher makes contact with bat)
DP – Double plays: one for each double play during which the fielder recorded a putout or an assist.
E – Errors: number of times a fielder fails to make a play he should have made with common effort, and the offense benefits as a result
FP – Fielding percentage: total plays (chances minus errors) divided by the number of total chances
INN – Innings: number of innings that a player is at one certain position
PB – Passed ball: charged to the catcher when the ball is dropped and one or more runners advance
PO – Putout: number of times the fielder tags, forces, or appeals a runner and he is called out as a result
RF – Range factor: 9*(putouts + assists)/innings played. Used to determine the amount of field that the player can cover
TC – Total chances: assists plus putouts plus errors
TP – Triple play: one for each triple play during which the fielder recorded a putout or an assist
UZR – Ultimate zone rating: the ability of a player to defend an assigned "zone" of the field compared to an average defensive player at his position
Overall player value[edit]
VORP – Value over replacement player: a statistic that calculates a player's overall value in comparison to a "replacement-level" player. There are separate formulas for players and pitchers
Win shares: a complex metric that gauges a player's overall contribution to his team's wins
WAR – Wins above replacement: a non-standard formula to calculate the number of wins a player contributes to his team over a "replacement-level player"
PWA - Player Win Average: performance of players is shown by how much they increase or decrease their team's chances of winning a specific game[4]
PGP - Player Game Percentage: defined as, "the sum of changes in the probability of winning the game for each play in which the player has participated" [4]
General statistics[edit]
G – Games played: number of games where the player played, in whole or in part
GS – Games started: number of games a player starts
GB – Games behind: number of games a team is behind the division leader
Pythagorean expectation: estimates a team's expected winning percentage based on runs scored and runs allowed.
MLB statistical standards[edit]
See also: Interleague play § Interleague statistics
It is difficult to determine quantitatively what is considered to be a "good" value in a certain statistical category, and qualitative assessments may lead to arguments. Using full-season statistics available at the Official Site of Major League Baseball[5] for the 2004 through 2015 seasons, the following tables show top ranges in various statistics, in alphabetical order. For each statistic, two values are given:
Top5: the top five players bettered this value in all of the reported seasons
Best: this is the best of all of the players for all of the reported seasons
Batting Statistics
Statistic
Top5
Best
BA
.322 .372
HR
41 73
RBI
116 156
SLG
.568 .812
SB
42 78
OPS
.974 1.422
Pitching Statistics
Statistic
Top5
Best
CG
4 11
ERA
2.38 1.66
G
89 94
GS
34 35
IP
227.2 255
K
245 301
SHO
2 6
SV
44 62
W
19 24
WHIP
0.98 0.84
See also[edit]
Baseball portal
Baseball awards
Cy Young Award winners
Glossary of baseball
Hank Aaron Award winners (best offensive performer)
List of MLB awards
MLB Most Valuable Player Award winners
MLB Rookie of the Year Award winners
Official Baseball Rules (OBR)
List of pitches
Rawlings Gold Glove Award winners
Retrosheet
Sabermetrics
Silver Slugger Award winners
Society for American Baseball Research (SABR)
Strike zone
Triple Crown in Major League Baseball
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Palmer, Pete; Paul Adomites; David Nemec; Matthew D. Greenberger; Dan Schlossberg; Dick Johnson; Mike Tully (2001). "Birth of the Game". Cooperstown: Hall of Fame Players. Lincolnwood, Illinois: Publications International. p. 21. ISBN 0-7853-4530-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Pete Palmer and Gary Gillette, ed. (2005). "Introduction". The 2005 ESPN Baseball Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Sterling. ISBN 1-4027-2568-X.
Jump up ^ Slowinski, Steve (February 17, 2010). "LOB% : FanGraphs Sabermetrics Library". Fangraphs. Retrieved 28 June 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Bennett, Jay (November 1993). "Did Shoeless Joe Jackson Throw the 1919 World Series?". The American Statistician. 47: 241–242. doi:10.2307/2685280 – via JSTOR.
Jump up ^ Major League Baseball Historical Statistics
References[edit]
Albert, Jim, and Jay M. Bennett. Curve Ball: Baseball, Statistics, and the Role of Chance in the Game. New York: Copernicus Books, 2001. ISBN 0-387-98816-5. A book on new statistics for baseball. MLB Record Book by: MLB.com
Alan Schwarz, The Numbers Game: Baseball's Lifelong Fascination with Statistics (New York: St. Martin's, 2005). ISBN 0-312-32223-2.
The Official Site of Major League baseball – Baseball Basics: Abbreviations
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Ovulation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Ovulation
Following a surge of luteinizing hormone (LH), an oocyte (immature egg cell) will be released into the uterine tube, where it will then be available to be fertilized by a male's sperm. Ovulation marks the end of the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle and the start of the luteal phase.
Identifiers
MeSH
D010060
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
Ovulation is the release of eggs from the ovaries. In humans, this event occurs when the follicles rupture and release the secondary oocyte ovarian cells.[1] After ovulation, during the luteal phase, the egg will be available to be fertilized by sperm. In addition, the uterine lining (endometrium) is thickened to be able to receive a fertilized egg. If no conception occurs, the uterine lining as well as blood will be shed during menstruation.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 In humans
1.1 Follicular phase
1.2 Ovulation
1.3 Luteal phase
2 Clinical presentation
3 Disorders
4 Induction and suppression
4.1 Induced ovulation
4.2 Suppressed ovulation
5 See also
6 Notes
7 Further reading
In humans[edit]
Ovulation occurs about midway through the menstrual cycle, after the follicular phase, and is followed by the luteal phase. Note that ovulation is characterized by a sharp spike in levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), resulting from the peak of estrogen levels during the follicular phase.
This diagram shows the hormonal changes around the time of ovulation, as well as the inter-cycle and inter-female variabilities in its timing.
In humans, ovulation occurs about midway through the menstrual cycle, after the follicular phase. The few days surrounding ovulation (from approximately days 10 to 18 of a 28-day cycle), constitute the most fertile phase.[3][4][5][6] The time from the beginning of the last menstrual period (LMP) until ovulation is, on average, 14.6[7] days, but with substantial variation between females and between cycles in any single female, with an overall 95% prediction interval of 8.2 to 20.5[7] days.
The process of ovulation is controlled by the hypothalamus of the brain and through the release of hormones secreted in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).[8] In the preovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle, the ovarian follicle will undergo a series of transformations called cumulus expansion, which is stimulated by FSH. After this is done, a hole called the stigma will form in the follicle, and the secondary oocyte will leave the follicle through this hole. Ovulation is triggered by a spike in the amount of FSH and LH released from the pituitary gland. During the luteal (post-ovulatory) phase, the secondary oocyte will travel through the fallopian tubes toward the uterus. If fertilized by a sperm, the fertilized secondary oocyte or ovum may implant there 6–12 days later.[9]
Follicular phase[edit]
See also: Folliculogenesis
The follicular phase (or proliferative phase) is the phase of the menstrual cycle during which the ovarian follicles mature. The follicular phase lasts from the beginning of menstruation to the start of ovulation.[10][11]
For ovulation to be successful, the ovum must be supported by the corona radiata and cumulus oophorous granulosa cells. The latter undergo a period of proliferation and mucification known as cumulus expansion. Mucification is the secretion of a hyaluronic acid-rich cocktail that disperses and gathers the cumulus cell network in a sticky matrix around the ovum. This network stays with the ovum after ovulation and has been shown to be necessary for fertilization.[12][13]
An increase in cumulus cell number causes a concomitant increase in antrum fluid volume that can swell the follicle to over 20 mm in diameter. It forms a pronounced bulge at the surface of the ovary called the blister.[citation needed]
Ovulation[edit]
Estrogen levels peak towards the end of the follicular phase. This causes a surge in levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). This lasts from 24 to 36 hours, and results in the rupture of the ovarian follicles, causing the oocyte to be released from the ovary.[14]
Through a signal transduction cascade initiated by LH, proteolytic enzymes are secreted by the follicle that degrade the follicular tissue at the site of the blister, forming a hole called the stigma. The secondary oocyte leaves the ruptured follicle and moves out into the peritoneal cavity through the stigma, where it is caught by the fimbriae at the end of the fallopian tube. After entering the fallopian tube, the oocyte is pushed along by cilia, beginning its journey toward the uterus.[8]
By this time, the oocyte has completed meiosis I, yielding two cells: the larger secondary oocyte that contains all of the cytoplasmic material and a smaller, inactive first polar body. Meiosis II follows at once but will be arrested in the metaphase and will so remain until fertilization. The spindle apparatus of the second meiotic division appears at the time of ovulation. If no fertilization occurs, the oocyte will degenerate between 12 and 24 hours after ovulation.[15] Approximately 1-2% of ovulations release more than one oocyte. This tendency increases with maternal age. Fertilization of two different oocytes by two different spermatozoa results in fraternal twins.[8]
The mucous membrane of the uterus, termed the functionalis, has reached its maximum size, and so have the endometrial glands, although they are still non-secretory.[citation needed]
Luteal phase[edit]
Main article: Luteal phase
The follicle proper has met the end of its lifespan. Without the oocyte, the follicle folds inward on itself, transforming into the corpus luteum (pl. corpora lutea), a steroidogenic cluster of cells that produces estrogen and progesterone. These hormones induce the endometrial glands to begin production of the proliferative endometrium and later into secretory endometrium, the site of embryonic growth if implantation occurs. The action of progesterone increases basal body temperature by one-quarter to one-half degree Celsius (one-half to one degree Fahrenheit). The corpus luteum continues this paracrine action for the remainder of the menstrual cycle, maintaining the endometrium, before disintegrating into scar tissue during menses.[16]
Clinical presentation[edit]
Further information: Concealed ovulation, Fertility awareness, and Mittelschmerz
The start of ovulation can be detected by signs. Because the signs are not readily discernible by people other than the female, humans are said to have a concealed ovulation. In many animal species there are distinctive signals indicating the period when the female is fertile. Several explanations have been proposed to explain concealed ovulation in humans.
Females near ovulation experience changes in the cervical mucus, and in their basal body temperature. Furthermore, many females experience secondary fertility signs including Mittelschmerz (pain associated with ovulation) and a heightened sense of smell, and can sense the precise moment of ovulation.[17][18]
Many females experience heightened sexual desire in the several days immediately before ovulation.[19] One study concluded that females subtly improve their facial attractiveness during ovulation.[20]
Chance of fertilization by day relative to ovulation.[21]
Symptoms related to the onset of ovulation, the moment of ovulation and the body's process of beginning and ending the menstrual cycle vary in intensity with each female but are fundamentally the same. The charting of such symptoms — primarily basal body temperature, mittelschmerz and cervical position — is referred to as the sympto-thermal method of fertility awareness, which allow auto-diagnosis by a female of her state of ovulation. Once training has been given by a suitable authority, fertility charts can be completed on a cycle-by-cycle basis to show ovulation. This gives the possibility of using the data to predict fertility for natural contraception and pregnancy planning.
The moment of ovulation has been photographed.[22]
Disorders[edit]
Disorders of ovulation are classified as menstrual disorders and include oligoovulation and anovulation:
Oligoovulation is infrequent or irregular ovulation (usually defined as cycles of greater than 36 days or fewer than 8 cycles a year)
Anovulation is absence of ovulation when it would be normally expected (in a post-menarchal, premenopausal female). Anovulation usually manifests itself as irregularity of menstrual periods, that is, unpredictable variability of intervals, duration, or bleeding. Anovulation can also cause cessation of periods (secondary amenorrhea) or excessive bleeding (dysfunctional uterine bleeding).
The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed the following classification of ovulatory disorders:[23]
WHO group I: Hypothalamic–pituitary-gonadal axis failure
WHO group II: Hypothalamic–pituitary-gonadal axis dysfunction. WHO group II is the most common cause of ovulatory disorders, and the most common causative member is polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).[24]
WHO group III: Ovarian failure
WHO group IV: Hyperprolactinemia
Induction and suppression[edit]
Induced ovulation[edit]
Main article: Ovulation induction
Ovulation induction is a promising assisted reproductive technology for patients with conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and oligomenorrhea. It is also used in in vitro fertilization to make the follicles mature before egg retrieval. Usually, ovarian stimulation is used in conjunction with ovulation induction to stimulate the formation of multiple oocytes.[25] Some sources[25] include ovulation induction in the definition of ovarian stimulation.
A low dose of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) may be injected after completed ovarian stimulation. Ovulation will occur between 24–36 hours after the HCG injection.[25]
By contrast, induced ovulation in some animal species occurs naturally, ovulation can be stimulated by coitus.[26]
Suppressed ovulation[edit]
Contraception can be achieved by suppressing the ovulation.[citation needed]
The majority of hormonal contraceptives and conception boosters focus on the ovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle because it is the most important determinant of fertility. Hormone therapy can positively or negatively interfere with ovulation and can give a sense of cycle control to the female.[citation needed]
Estradiol and progesterone, taken in various forms including combined oral contraceptive pills, mimics the hormonal levels of the menstrual cycle and engage in negative feedback of folliculogenesis and ovulation.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Anovulatory cycle
Corpus luteum
Folliculogenesis
Menstrual cycle
Oogenesis
Mittelschmerz
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Ovulation Test at Duke Fertility Center. Retrieved July 2, 2011
Jump up ^ Young, Barbara (2006). Wheater's Functional Histology: A Text and Colour Atlas (5th ed.). Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 359. ISBN 9780443068508. Retrieved 2013-11-09.
Jump up ^ Chaudhuri, S.K. (2007). "Natural Methods of Contraception". Practice of Fertility Control: A Comprehensive Manual, 7/e. Elsevier India. p. 49. ISBN 9788131211502. Retrieved 2013-11-09.
Jump up ^ Allen, Denise (2004). Managing Motherhood, Managing Risk: Fertility and Danger in West Central Tanzania. University of Michigan Press. pp. 132–133. ISBN 9780472030279. Retrieved 2013-11-09.
Jump up ^ Rosenthal, Martha (2012). Human Sexuality: From Cells to Society. Cengage Learning. p. 322. ISBN 9780618755714. Retrieved 2013-11-09.
Jump up ^ Nichter, Mark; Nichter, Mimi (1996). "Cultural Notions of Fertility in South Asia and Their Influence on Sri Lankan Family Planning Practices". In Nichter, Mark; Nichter, Mimi. Anthropology & International Health: South Asian Case Studies. Psychology Press. pp. 8–11. ISBN 9782884491716. Retrieved 2013-11-09. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link) CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Geirsson RT (1991). "Ultrasound instead of last menstrual period as the basis of gestational age assignment". Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1 (3): 212–9. doi:10.1046/j.1469-0705.1991.01030212.x. PMID 12797075. [1]
^ Jump up to: a b c Marieb, Elaine (2013). Anatomy & physiology. Benjamin-Cummings. p. 915. ISBN 9780321887603.
Jump up ^ Wilcox AJ, Baird DD, Weinberg CR (1999). "Time of implantation of the Conceptus and loss of pregnancy". New England Journal of Medicine. 340 (23): 1796–1799. doi:10.1056/NEJM199906103402304. PMID 10362823.
Jump up ^ Littleton, Lynna A.; Engebretson, Joan C. Maternity Nursing Care. Cengage Learning. p. 195. ISBN 9781401811921. Retrieved 2013-11-09.
Jump up ^ Gupta, Ramesh C. (2011). Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology. Academic Press. p. 22. ISBN 9780123820334. Retrieved 2013-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Can You Get Pregnant after Ovulation?". coveville.com. Retrieved 3 Feb 2015.
Jump up ^ "Fertilization: your pregnancy week by week". medicalnewstoday.com. Retrieved 15 Feb 2016.
Jump up ^ Watson, Stephanie & Stacy, Kelli Miller (2010). "The Endocrine System". In McDowell, Julie. Encyclopedia of Human Body Systems. Greenwood. pp. 201–202. ISBN 9780313391750. Retrieved 2013-11-09. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Depares J, Ryder RE, Walker SM, Scanlon MF, Norman CM. "Ovarian ultrasonography highlights precision of symptoms of ovulation as markers of ovulation". Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 292: 1562. doi:10.1136/bmj.292.6535.1562. PMC 1340563  . PMID 3087519. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Usually, it occurs between the 10th and 20th day of your menstrual cycle". momjunction. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Navarrete-Palacios E, Hudson R, Reyes-Guerrero G, Guevara-Guzmán R (July 2003). "Lower olfactory threshold during the ovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle". Biol Psychol. 63 (3): 269–79. doi:10.1016/S0301-0511(03)00076-0. PMID 12853171.
Jump up ^ Beckmann, Charles R.B., ed. (2010). Obstetrics and Gynecology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 306–307. ISBN 9780781788076. Retrieved 2013-11-09.
Jump up ^ Susan B. Bullivant; Sarah A. Sellergren; Kathleen Stern; et al. (February 2004). "Female's sexual experience during the menstrual cycle: identification of the sexual phase by noninvasive measurement of luteinizing hormone". Journal of Sex Research. 41 (1): 82–93 (in online article, see pp.14–15, 18–22). doi:10.1080/00224490409552216. PMID 15216427. Archived from the original on July 28, 2007.
Jump up ^ Roberts S, Havlicek J, Flegr J, Hruskova M, Little A, Jones B, Perrett D, Petrie M (August 2004). "Female facial attractiveness increases during the fertile phase of the menstrual cycle". Proc Biol Sci. 271 (Suppl 5:S): 270–2. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2004.0174. PMC 1810066  . PMID 15503991.
Jump up ^ Dunson, D.B.; Baird, D.D.; Wilcox, A.J.; Weinberg, C.R. (1999). "Day-specific probabilities of clinical pregnancy based on two studies with imperfect measures of ovulation". Human Reproduction. 14 (7): 1835–1839. doi:10.1093/humrep/14.7.1835. ISSN 1460-2350.
Jump up ^ "article in BBC News". BBC. 2008-06-12.
Jump up ^ Page 54 in: Guillebaud, John; Enda McVeigh; Roy Homburg (2008). Oxford handbook of reproductive medicine and family planning. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-920380-6.
Jump up ^ "Health and fertility in World Health Organization group 2 anovulatory female". Human Reproduction Update. 18 (5): 586–599. 2012. doi:10.1093/humupd/dms019. PMID 22611175.
^ Jump up to: a b c IVF.com > Ovulation Induction Retrieved on Mars 7, 2010
Jump up ^ Bakker, J.; Baum, M. J. (July 2000). "Neuroendocrine regulation of GnRH release in induced ovulators". Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology. 21 (3): 220–262. doi:10.1006/frne.2000.0198. ISSN 0091-3022. PMID 10882541.
Further reading[edit]
Baerwald AR, Adams GP, Pierson RA (July 2003). "A new model for ovarian follicular development during the human menstrual cycle". Fertil. Steril. 80 (1): 116–22. doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(03)00544-2. PMID 12849812.
Chabbert Buffet N, Djakoure C, Maitre SC, Bouchard P (July 1998). "Regulation of the human menstrual cycle". Front Neuroendocrinol. 19 (3): 151–86. doi:10.1006/frne.1998.0167. PMID 9665835.
Fortune JE (February 1994). "Ovarian follicular growth and development in mammals". Biol. Reprod. 50 (2): 225–32. doi:10.1095/biolreprod50.2.225. PMID 8142540. Archived from the original on 2014-11-02.
Guraya SS, Dhanju CK (November 1992). "Mechanism of ovulation—an overview". Indian J. Exp. Biol. 30 (11): 958–67. PMID 1293040.
Klowden, Marc J. (2009). "Oviposition Behavior". In Resh, Vincent H. & Carde, Ring T. Encyclopedia of Insects. Academic Press. ISBN 9780080920900. Retrieved 2013-11-09. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Ovulation Calculator== External links ==
Human egg makes accidental debut on camera
Ovulation moment caught on camera
[show]
v
t
e
Human physiology of sexual reproduction
Menstrual cycle
Menarche
Menstruation
Follicular phase
Ovulation
Luteal phase
Gametogenesis
Spermatogenesis (spermatogonium
spermatocyte
spermatid
sperm)
Oogenesis (oogonium
oocyte
ootid
ovum)
Germ cell (gonocyte
gamete)
Human sexual behavior
Sexual arousal
Sexual intercourse
Masturbation
Erection
Orgasm
Ejaculation
Insemination
Fertilisation/Fertility
Implantation
Pregnancy
Postpartum period
Mechanics of sex
Life span
Prenatal development/Sexual dimorphism/Sexual differentiation (Feminization
Virilization)
Puberty (Gonadarche
Pubarche
Menarche
Spermarche
Adrenarche)
Maternal age / Paternal age
Climacteric (Menopause
Late-onset hypogonadism)
Tanner scale
Egg
Ovum
Oviposition
Oviparity
Ovoviviparity
Vivipary
Reproductive endocrinology
and infertility
Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis
Hypothalamic–pituitary–prolactin axis
Andrology
Hormone
Breast
Thelarche
Breast development
Lactation
Breastfeeding
[show]
v
t
e
Menstrual cycle
Events and phases
Menstruation
Follicular phase
Ovulation
Luteal phase
Life stages
Menarche
Menopause
Tracking
Signs
Basal body temperature
Cervical mucus
Mittelschmerz
Systems
Fertility awareness
Calendar-based methods
Billings Ovulation Method
Creighton Model
Suppression
Extended cycle combined hormonal contraceptive
Lactational amenorrhea
Disorders
Amenorrhea
Anovulation
Dysmenorrhea
Hypomenorrhea
Irregular menstruation
Menometrorrhagia
Menorrhagia
Metrorrhagia
Oligomenorrhea
Related events
Folliculogenesis
Menstrual synchrony
Premenstrual syndrome / Premenstrual dysphoric disorder
Sexual activity
In culture and religion
Chhaupadi
Menstrual taboo
Niddah
Authority control
NDL: 00575224
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ovulation&oldid=829393580"
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Human reproduction
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Theriogenology
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