text:
Progressive Era
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
See also: History of the United States (1865–1918) § Progressive Era
Presidents Theodore Roosevelt, 1901–09 (left), William Howard Taft, 1909–13 (center), and Woodrow Wilson, 1913–21 (right) were the main Progressive presidents; their administrations saw intense social and political change in American society.
Part of a series on
Progressivism
History[show]
Atomic Age
Enlightenment
Industrial Age
Information Age
Jet Age
Machine Age
Progressive Era
Space Age
Ideas[show]
Economic development
Broad measures
Economic growth
Empirical evidence
Direct democracy
Freedom of movement
Human enhancement
Idea of Progress
Industrialisation
Linear history
Modernity
Philosophical progress
Progressive education
in Latin America
Progressive rationalism
Reform movement
Social organization
Social progress
List of countries
Scientific progress
Social change
Sustainable design
Ecological engineering
Self-determination
Scientific management
Scientific method
Sustainable development
Technological change
Techno-progressivism
Welfare
Women's suffrage
People[show]
Edith Abbott
Grace Abbott
Jane Addams
Sophonisba Breckinridge
William Jennings Bryan
Marquis de Condorcet
Charles Evans Hughes
Robert M. La Follette, Sr.
Immanuel Kant
John Stuart Mill
Theodore Roosevelt
Al Smith
William Howard Taft
Woodrow Wilson
Long Yun
By region[show]
In the Muslim world
In South Korea
In the United States
Philosophy portal
Politics portal
v
t
e
The Progressive Era was a period of widespread social activism and political reform across the United States, from the 1890s to the 1920s.[1] The main objectives of the Progressive movement were eliminating problems caused by industrialization, urbanization, immigration, and corruption in government.
The movement primarily targeted political machines and their bosses. By taking down these corrupt representatives in office a further means of direct democracy would be established. They also sought regulation of monopolies (Trust Busting) and corporations through antitrust laws. These antitrust laws were seen as a way to promote equal competition for the advantage of legitimate competitors.
Many progressives supported prohibition of alcoholic beverages, ostensibly to destroy the political power of local bosses based in saloons, but others out of a religious motivation.[2] At the same time, women's suffrage was promoted to bring a "purer" female vote into the arena.[3] A third theme was building an Efficiency Movement in every sector that could identify old ways that needed modernizing, and bring to bear scientific, medical and engineering solutions; a key part of the efficiency movement was scientific management, or "Taylorism".
Many activists joined efforts to reform local government, public education, medicine, finance, insurance, industry, railroads, churches, and many other areas. Progressives transformed, professionalized and made "scientific" the social sciences, especially history,[4] economics,[5] and political science.[6] In academic fields the day of the amateur author gave way to the research professor who published in the new scholarly journals and presses. The national political leaders included Theodore Roosevelt, Robert M. La Follette, Sr., and Charles Evans Hughes on the Republican side, and William Jennings Bryan, Woodrow Wilson and Al Smith on the Democratic side. Yet, leaders of the movement also existed far from presidential politics. Jane Addams, Grace Abbott, Edith Abbott and Sophonisba Breckinridge were among the most influential Progressive Era reformers.
Initially the movement operated chiefly at local levels; later, it expanded to state and national levels. Progressives drew support from the middle class, and supporters included many lawyers, teachers, physicians, ministers, and business people.[7] Some Progressives strongly supported scientific methods as applied to economics, government, industry, finance, medicine, schooling, theology, education, and even the family. They closely followed advances underway at the time in Western Europe[8] and adopted numerous policies, such as a major transformation of the banking system by creating the Federal Reserve System in 1913.[9] Reformers felt that old-fashioned ways meant waste and inefficiency, and eagerly sought out the "one best system".[10][11]
Contents
[hide]
1 Government reform
2 Muckraking: exposing corruption
3 Modernization
4 Women
4.1 Women's suffrage
5 Philanthropy
6 Democracy
7 Municipal reform
8 Rural reform
9 Race relations
10 Family and food
11 Eugenics
12 Constitutional change
13 Prohibition
14 Education
15 Medicine and law
16 Social sciences
17 Economic policy
17.1 Labor unions
17.2 Immigration
18 War
19 Decline
19.1 End of the Era
19.2 Business progressivism in 1920s
20 Notable progressive leaders
21 See also
22 References
23 Further reading
23.1 Overviews
23.2 Presidents and politics
23.3 State, local, gender, ethnic, business, labor, religion
23.4 Primary sources and year books
Government reform[edit]
"The Awakening" Suffragists were successful in the West; their torch awakens the women struggling in the East and South in this cartoon by Hy Mayer in Puck Feb. 20, 1915
Disturbed by the waste, inefficiency, stubbornness, corruption, and injustices of the Gilded Age, the Progressives were committed to changing and reforming every aspect of the state, society and economy. Significant changes enacted at the national levels included the imposition of an income tax with the Sixteenth Amendment, direct election of Senators with the Seventeenth Amendment, Prohibition with the Eighteenth Amendment, election reforms to stop corruption and fraud, and women's suffrage through the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.[12]
Muckraking: exposing corruption[edit]
Further information: Muckrakers and Mass media and American politics
Magazines were not a new medium but they became much more popular around 1900, some with circulations in the hundreds of thousands of subscribers. It was an age of Mass media. Thanks to the rapid expansion of national advertising, the cover price fell sharply to about 10 cents.[13] One cause was the heavy coverage of corruption in politics, local government and big business, especially by journalists and other writers who were labeled muckrakers. They wrote for popular magazines to expose social and political sins and shortcomings. They relied on their own investigative journalism reporting; muckrakers often worked to expose social ills and corporate and political corruption. Muckraking magazines–notably McClure's–took on corporate monopolies and crooked political machines while raising public awareness of chronic urban poverty, unsafe working conditions, and social issues like child labor.[14]
The journalists who specialized in exposing waste, corruption, and scandal operated at the state and local level, like Ray Stannard Baker, George Creel, and Brand Whitlock. Other like Lincoln Steffens exposed political corruption in many large cities; Ida Tarbell went after John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company. Samuel Hopkins Adams in 1905 showed the fraud involved in many patent medicines, Upton Sinclair's 1906 novel The Jungle gave a horrid portrayal of how meat was packed, and, also in 1906, David Graham Phillips unleashed a blistering indictment of the U.S. Senate. Roosevelt gave these journalists their nickname when he complained they were not being helpful by raking up all the muck.[15][16]
Modernization[edit]
The Progressives were avid modernizers, with a belief in science and technology as the grand solution to society's weaknesses. They looked to education as the key. Characteristics of Progressivism included a favorable attitude toward urban-industrial society, belief in mankind's ability to improve the environment and conditions of life, belief in an obligation to intervene in economic and social affairs, and a belief in the ability of experts and in the efficiency of government intervention.[17][18] Scientific management, as promulgated by Frederick Winslow Taylor, became a watchword for industrial efficiency and elimination of waste, with the stopwatch as its symbol.[19][20]
Women[edit]
Main article: History of women in the United States § Progressive era: 1900–1930
Across the nation, middle-class women organized on behalf of social reforms during the Progressive Era. Using the language of municipal housekeeping women were able to push such reforms as Prohibition, women's suffrage, child-saving, and public health.
Middle class women formed local clubs, which after 1890 were coordinated by the General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC). Historian Paige Meltzer puts the GFWC in the context of the Progressive Movement, arguing that its policies:
built on Progressive-era strategies of municipal housekeeping. During the Progressive era, female activists used traditional constructions of womanhood, which imagined all women as mothers and homemakers, to justify their entrance into community affairs: as "municipal housekeepers," they would clean up politics, cities, and see after the health and wellbeing of their neighbors. Donning the mantle of motherhood, female activists methodically investigated their community's needs and used their "maternal" expertise to lobby, create, and secure a place for themselves in an emerging state welfare bureaucracy, best illustrated perhaps by clubwoman Julia Lathrop's leadership in the Children's Bureau. As part of this tradition of maternal activism, the Progressive-era General Federation supported a range of causes from the pure food and drug administration to public health care for mothers and children to a ban on child labor, each of which looked to the state to help implement their vision of social justice.[21]
Women's suffrage[edit]
Main article: National American Woman Suffrage Association
The National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was an American women's rights organization formed in May 1890 as a unification of the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). The NAWSA set up hundreds of smaller local and state groups, with the goal of passing woman suffrage legislation at the state and local level. The NAWSA was the largest and most important suffrage organization in the United States, and was the primary promoter of women's right to vote. Carrie Chapman Catt was the key leader in the early 20th century. Like AWSA and NWSA before it, the NAWSA pushed for a constitutional amendment guaranteeing women's voting rights, and was instrumental in winning the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1920.[22][23] A breakaway group, the National Woman's Party, tightly controlled by Alice Paul, used civil disobedience to gain publicity and force passage of suffrage. Paul's members chained themselves to the White House fence in order to get arrested, then went on hunger strikes to gain publicity. While the British suffragettes stopped their protests in 1914 and supported the British war effort, Paul began her campaign in 1917 and was widely criticized for ignoring the war and attracting radical anti-war elements.[24]
Philanthropy[edit]
The number of rich families climbed exponentially, from 100 or so millionaires in the 1870s, to 4000 in 1892 and 16,000 in 1916. Many paid heed to Andrew Carnegie's The Gospel of Wealth that said they owed a duty to society that called for philanthropic giving to colleges, hospitals, medical research, libraries, museums, religion and social betterment.[25]
In the early 20th century, American philanthropy matured, with the development of very large, highly visible private foundations created by Rockefeller, and Carnegie. The largest foundations fostered modern, efficient, business-oriented operations (as opposed to "charity") designed to better society rather than merely enhance the status of the giver. Close ties were built with the local business community, as in the "community chest" movement.[26] The American Red Cross was reorganized and professionalized.[27] Several major foundations aided the blacks in the South, and were typically advised by Booker T. Washington. By contrast, Europe and Asia had few foundations. This allowed both Carnegie and Rockefeller to operate internationally with powerful effect.[28]
Democracy[edit]
Many Progressives sought to enable the citizenry to rule more directly and circumvent machines, bosses and professional politicians. The initiative and referendum made it possible to pass laws by skirting the legislature. The recall allowed for the removal of bad officials. The direct primary let people vote for which candidates to nominate, avoiding the conventions that the professionals dominated. Thanks to the efforts of Oregon State Representative William S. U'Ren and his Direct Legislation League, voters in Oregon overwhelmingly approved a ballot measure in 1902 that created the initiative and referendum processes for citizens to directly introduce or approve proposed laws or amendments to the state constitution, making Oregon the first state to adopt such a system. U'Ren also helped in the passage of an amendment in 1908 that gave voters power to recall elected officials, and would go on to establish, at the state level, popular election of U.S. Senators and the first presidential primary in the United States. In 1911, California governor Hiram Johnson established the Oregon System of "Initiative, Referendum, and Recall" in his state, viewing them as good influences for citizen participation against the historic influence of large corporations on state lawmakers.[29] These Progressive reforms were soon replicated in other states, including Idaho, Washington, and Wisconsin, and today roughly half of U.S. states have initiative, referendum and recall provisions in their state constitutions.[30]
About 16 states began using primary elections to reduce the power of bosses and machines.[31] The Seventeenth Amendment was ratified in 1913, requiring that all senators be elected by the people (they were formerly appointed by state legislatures). The main motivation was to reduce the power of political bosses, who controlled the Senate seats by virtue of their control of state legislatures. The result, according to political scientist Henry Jones Ford, was that the United States Senate had become a "Diet of party lords, wielding their power without scruple or restraint, in behalf of those particular interests" that put them in office.[32]
Municipal reform[edit]
Further information: American urban history § Progressive era: 1890s–1920s
A coalition of middle-class reform-oriented voters, academic experts, and reformers hostile to the political machines started forming in the 1890s and introduced a series of reforms in urban America, designed to reduce waste and inefficiency and corruption, by introducing scientific methods, compulsory education and administrative innovations.
The pace was set in Detroit Michigan, where Republican mayor Hazen S. Pingree first put together the reform coalition.[33] Many cities set up municipal reference bureaus to study the budgets and administrative structures of local governments.
Progressive mayors took the lead in many key cities,[34] such as Cleveland, Ohio (especially Mayor Tom Johnson); Toledo, Ohio;[35] Jersey City, New Jersey;[36] Los Angeles;[37] Memphis, Tennessee;[38] Louisville, Kentucky;[39] and many other cities, especially in the western states. In Illinois, Governor Frank Lowden undertook a major reorganization of state government.[40] In Wisconsin, the stronghold of Robert La Follette Sr., the Wisconsin Idea used the state university as a major source of ideas and expertise.[41]
Rural reform[edit]
Further information: Country life movement
As late as 1920, half the population lived in rural areas. They experienced their own progressive reforms, typically with the explicit goal of upgrading country life.[42] By 1910 most farmers subscribed to a farm newspaper, where editors promoted efficiency as applied to farming.[43] Special efforts were made to reach the rural South and remote areas, such as the mountains of Appalachia and the Ozarks.[44]
The most urgent need was better transportation to get out of the mud. The railroad system was virtually complete; the need was for much better roads. The traditional method of putting the burden on maintaining roads on local landowners was increasingly inadequate. New York State took the lead in 1898, and by 1916 the old system had been discarded in every area. Demands grew for local and state government to take charge. With the coming of the automobile after 1910, urgent efforts were made to upgrade and modernize dirt roads designed for horse-drawn wagon traffic. The American Association for Highway Improvement was organized in 1910. Funding came from automobile registration, and taxes on motor fuels, as well as state aid. In 1916, federal-aid was first made available to improve post-roads, and promote general commerce. Congress appropriated $75 million over a five-year period, with the Secretary of Agriculture in charge through the Bureau of Public Roads, in cooperation with the state highway departments. There were 2.4 million miles of rural dirt rural roads in 1914; 100,000 miles had been improved with grading and gravel, and 3000 miles were given high quality surfacing. The rapidly increasing speed of automobiles, and especially trucks, made maintenance and repair a high priority. Concrete was first used in 1933, and expanded until it became the dominant surfacing material in the 1930s.[45][46] The South had fewer cars and trucks and much less money, but it worked through highly visible demonstration projects like the "Dixie Highway."[47]
Rural schools were often poorly funded, one room operations. Typically, classes were taught by young local women before they married, with only occasional supervision by county superintendents. The progressive solution was modernization through consolidation, with the result of children attending modern schools. There they would be taught by full-time professional teachers who had graduated from the states' teachers colleges, were certified, and were monitored by the county superintendents. Farmers complained at the expense, and also at the loss of control over local affairs, but in state after state the consolidation process went forward.[48][49]
Numerous other programs were aimed at rural youth, including 4-H clubs,[50] Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts. County fairs not only gave prizes for the most productive agricultural practices, they also demonstrated those practices to an attentive rural audience. Programs for new mothers included maternity care and training in baby care.[51]
The movement's attempts at introducing urban reforms to rural America often met resistance from traditionalists who saw the country-lifers as aggressive modernizers who were condescending and out of touch with rural life. The traditionalists said many of their reforms were unnecessary and not worth the trouble of implementing. Rural residents also disagreed with the notion that farms needed to improve their efficiency, as they saw this goal as serving urban interests more than rural ones. The social conservatism of many rural residents also led them to resist attempts for change led by outsiders. Most important, the traditionalists did not want to become modern, and did not want their children inculcated with alien modern values through comprehensive schools that were remote from local control.[52][53] The most successful reforms came from the farmers who pursued agricultural extension, as their proposed changes were consistent with existing modernizing trends toward more efficiency and more profit in agriculture.
Race relations[edit]
Across the South black communities developed their own Progressive reform projects.[54][55] Typical projects involved upgrading the schools, modernizing church operations, expanding business opportunities, fighting for a larger share of state budgets, and engaging in legal action to secure equal rights.[56] Reform projects were especially notable in rural areas, where the great majority of Southern blacks lived.[57]
George Washington Carver (1860-1943) was well known for his research projects, especially involving agriculture. He was also a leader in promoting environmentalism.[58]
Rural blacks were specially involved in environmental issues, in which they developed their own traditions and priorities.[59][60]
Although there were some achievements that improved conditions for African Americans and other non-white minorities, the Progressive Era was the nadir of American race relations. While white Progressives in principle believed in improving conditions for minority groups, there were wide differences in how this was to be achieved. Some, such as Lillian Wald, fought to ameliorate the plight of poor African Americans. Many, though, were concerned with enforcing, not eradicating, racial segregation. In particular, the mixing of black and white pleasure-seekers in 'black-and-tan' clubs troubled Progressive reformers.[61] The Progressive ideology espoused by many of the era attempted to correct societal problems created by racial integration following the Civil War by segregating the races and allowing each group to achieve its own potential. That is to say that most Progressives saw racial integration as a problem to be solved, rather than a goal to be achieved.[62][63][64] As white progressives sought to help the white working-class, clean-up politics, and improve the cities, the country instated the system of racial segregation known as Jim Crow.[65]
Legal historian Herbert Hovenkamp, argues that while many early progressives inherited the racism of the Jim Crow, as they begin to innovate their own ideas, they would embrace behaviorism, cultural relativism and marginalism which stress environmental influences on humans rather than inheritance. He states that ultimately progressives "were responsible for bringing scientific racism to an end".[66]
Family and food[edit]
Colorado judge Ben Lindsey a pioneer in the establishment of juvenile court systems.
Progressives believed that the family was the foundation stone of American society, and the government, especially municipal government, must work to enhance the family.[67] Local public assistance programs were reformed to try to keep families together. Inspired by crusading Judge Ben Lindsey of Denver, cities established juvenile courts to deal with disruptive teenagers without sending them to adult prisons.[68][69]
The purity of food, milk and drinking water became a high priority in the cities. At the state and national levels new food and drug laws strengthened urban efforts to guarantee the safety of the food system. The 1906 federal Pure Food and Drug Act, which was pushed by drug companies and providers of medical services, removed from the market patent medicines that had never been scientifically tested.[70]
With the decrease in standard working hours, urban families had more leisure time. Many spent this leisure time at movie theaters. Progressives advocated for censorship of motion pictures as it was believed that patrons (especially children) viewing movies in dark, unclean, potentially unsafe theaters, might be negatively influenced in witnessing actors portraying crimes, violence, and sexually suggestive situations. Progressives across the country influenced municipal governments of large urban cities, to build numerous parks where it was believed that leisure time for children and families could be spent in a healthy, wholesome environment, thereby fostering good morals and citizenship.[71]
Eugenics[edit]
Main article: Eugenics in the United States
Some Progressives sponsored eugenics as a solution to excessively large or underperforming families, hoping that birth control would enable parents to focus their resources on fewer, better children.[72] Progressive leaders like Herbert Croly and Walter Lippmann indicated their classically liberal concern over the danger posed to the individual by the practice of Eugenics.[73] The Catholics strongly opposed birth control proposals such as eugenics.[74]
Constitutional change[edit]
The Progressives fixed some of their reforms into law by adding amendments 16, 17, 18, and 19 to the US Constitution. The 16th amendment made an income tax legal (this required an amendment due to Article One, Section 9 of the Constitution, which required that direct taxes be laid on the States in proportion to their population as determined by the decennial census). The Progressives also made strides in attempts to reduce political corruption through the 17th amendment (direct election of U.S. Senators). The most radical and controversial amendment came during the anti-German craze of World War I that helped the Progressives and others push through their plan for prohibition through the 18th amendment (once the Progressives fell out of power the 21st amendment repealed the 18th in 1933). The ratification of the 19th amendment in 1920, which recognized women's suffrage was last amendment during the progressive era.[75] Another significant constitutional change that began during the progressive era was the incorporation of the Bill of Rights so that those rights would apply to the states. In 1920, Benjamin Gitlow was convicted under the Espionage Act of 1917 and the case went all the way to the Supreme Court, where the justices decided that the First Amendment applied to the states as well as the federal government. Prior to that time, the Bill of Rights was considered to apply only to the federal government, not the states.
Prohibition[edit]
Prohibition was the outlawing of the manufacture, sale and transport of alcohol. Drinking itself was never prohibited. Throughout the Progressive Era, it remained one of the prominent causes associated with Progressivism at the local, state and national level, though support across the full breadth of Progressives was mixed. It pitted the minority urban Catholic population against the larger rural Protestant element, and Progressivism's rise in the rural communities was aided in part by the general increase in public consciousness of social issues of the temperance movement, which achieved national success with the passage of the 18th Amendment by Congress in late 1917, and the ratification by three-fourths of the states in 1919. Prohibition was essentially a religious movement backed by the Methodists, Baptists, Congregationalists, Scandinavian Lutherans and other evangelical churches. Activists were mobilized by the highly effective Anti-Saloon League.[76] Timberlake (1963) argues the dries sought to break the liquor trust, weaken the saloon base of big-city machines, enhance industrial efficiency, and reduce the level of wife beating, child abuse, and poverty caused by alcoholism.[77]
Agitation for prohibition began during the Second Great Awakening in the 1840s when crusades against drinking originated from evangelical Protestants.[78] Evangelicals precipitated the second wave of prohibition legislation during the 1880s, which had as its aim local and state prohibition. During the 1880s, referendums were held at the state level to enact prohibition amendments. Two important groups were formed during this period. The Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was formed in 1874.[79] The Anti-Saloon League was formed in 1893, uniting activists from different religious groups.[80]
The third wave of prohibition legislation, of which national prohibition was the grand climax, began in 1907, when Georgia passed a statewide prohibition law. By 1917, two thirds of the states had some form of prohibition laws and roughly three quarters of the population lived in dry areas. In 1913, the Anti-Saloon League first publicly appealed for a prohibition amendment. They preferred a constitutional amendment over a federal statute because although harder to achieve, they felt it would be harder to change. In 1913, Congress passed the Webb-Kenyon Act, which forbade the transport of liquor into dry states. As the United States entered World War I, the Conscription Act banned the sale of liquor near military bases.[81] In August 1917, the Lever Food and Fuel Control Act banned production of distilled spirits for the duration of the war. The War Prohibition Act, November, 1918, forbade the manufacture and sale of intoxicating beverages (more than 2.75% alcohol content) until the end of demobilization.
The drys worked energetically to secure two-third majority of both houses of Congress and the support of three quarters of the states needed for an amendment to the federal constitution. Thirty-six states were needed, and organizations were set up at all 48 states to seek ratification. In late 1917, Congress passed the Eighteenth Amendment; it was ratified in 1919 and took effect in January 1920. It prohibited the manufacturing, sale or transport of intoxicating beverages within the United States, as well as import and export. The Volstead Act, 1919, defined intoxicating as having alcohol content greater than 0.5% and established the procedures for federal enforcement of the Act. The states were at liberty to enforce prohibition or not, and most did not try.[82]
Consumer demand, however, led to a variety of illegal sources for alcohol, especially illegal distilleries and smuggling from Canada and other countries. It is difficult to determine the level of compliance, and although the media at the time portrayed the law as highly ineffective, even if it did not eradicate the use of alcohol, it certainly decreased alcohol consumption during the period. The Eighteenth Amendment was repealed in 1933, with the passage of the Twenty-First Amendment, thanks to a well-organized repeal campaign led by Catholics (who stressed personal liberty) and businessmen (who stressed the lost tax revenue).[82]
Education[edit]
The Progressives sought to reform and modernize the schools at the local level. The era was notable for a dramatic expansion in the number of schools and students served, especially in the fast-growing metropolitan cities. After 1910 the smaller cities began building high schools. By 1940, 50% of young adults had earned a high school diploma. The result was the rapid growth of the educated middle class, who typically were the grass roots supporters of Progressive measures.[83] During the Progressive Era, many states began passing compulsory schooling laws.[84] An emphasis on hygiene and health was made in education, with physical and health education becoming more important and widespread.[85]
Medicine and law[edit]
The "Flexner Report" of 1910, sponsored by the Carnegie Foundation, professionalized American medicine by discarding the scores of local small medical schools and focusing national funds, resources, and prestige on larger, professionalized medical schools associated with universities.[86][87] Prominent leaders included the Mayo Brothers whose Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota, became world-famous for innovative surgery.[88]
In the legal profession, the American Bar Association set up in 1900 the Association of American Law Schools (AALS). It established national standards for law schools, which led to the replacement of the old system of young men studying law privately with established lawyers by the new system of accredited law schools associated with universities.[89]
Social sciences[edit]
Progressive scholars, based at the emerging research universities such as Harvard, Columbia, Johns Hopkins, Chicago, Michigan, Wisconsin and California, worked to modernize their disciplines. The heyday of the amateur expert gave way to the research professor who published in the new scholarly journals and presses. Their explicit goal was to professionalize and make "scientific" the social sciences, especially history,[4] economics,[5] and political science.[6] Professionalization meant creating new career tracks in the universities, with hiring and promotion dependent on meeting international models of scholarship.
Economic policy[edit]
President Wilson uses tariff, currency, and anti-trust laws to prime the pump and get the economy working.
The Progressive Era was one of general prosperity after the Panic of 1893—a severe depression—ended in 1897. The Panic of 1907 was short and mostly affected financiers. However, Campbell (2005) stresses the weak points of the economy in 1907–1914, linking them to public demands for more Progressive interventions. The Panic of 1907 was followed by a small decline in real wages and increased unemployment, with both trends continuing until World War I. Campbell emphasizes the resulting stress on public finance and the impact on the Wilson administration's policies. The weakened economy and persistent federal deficits led to changes in fiscal policy, including the imposition of federal income taxes on businesses and individuals and the creation of the Federal Reserve System.[90] Government agencies were also transformed in an effort to improve administrative efficiency.[91]
In the Gilded Age (late 19th century) the parties were reluctant to involve the federal government too heavily in the private sector, except in the area of railroads and tariffs. In general, they accepted the concept of laissez-faire, a doctrine opposing government interference in the economy except to maintain law and order. This attitude started to change during the depression of the 1890s when small business, farm, and labor movements began asking the government to intercede on their behalf.[91]
By the start of the 20th century, a middle class had developed that was leery of both the business elite and the radical political movements of farmers and laborers in the Midwest and West. The Progressives argued the need for government regulation of business practices to ensure competition and free enterprise. Congress enacted a law regulating railroads in 1887 (the Interstate Commerce Act), and one preventing large firms from controlling a single industry in 1890 (the Sherman Antitrust Act). These laws were not rigorously enforced, however, until the years between 1900 and 1920, when Republican President Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909), Democratic President Woodrow Wilson (1913–1921), and others sympathetic to the views of the Progressives came to power. Many of today's U.S. regulatory agencies were created during these years, including the Interstate Commerce Commission and the Federal Trade Commission. Muckrakers were journalists who encouraged readers to demand more regulation of business. Upton Sinclair's The Jungle (1906) was influential and persuaded America about the supposed horrors of the Chicago Union Stock Yards, a giant complex of meat processing that developed in the 1870s. The federal government responded to Sinclair's book and The Neill-Reynolds Report with the new regulatory Food and Drug Administration. Ida M. Tarbell wrote a series of articles against Standard Oil, which was perceived to be a monopoly. This affected both the government and the public reformers. Attacks by Tarbell and others helped pave the way for public acceptance of the breakup of the company by the Supreme Court in 1911.[91]
When Democrat Woodrow Wilson was elected President with a Democratic Congress in 1912 he implemented a series of Progressive policies in economics. In 1913, the Sixteenth Amendment was ratified, and a small income tax was imposed on high incomes. The Democrats lowered tariffs with the Underwood Tariff in 1913, though its effects were overwhelmed by the changes in trade caused by the World War that broke out in 1914. Wilson proved especially effective in mobilizing public opinion behind tariff changes by denouncing corporate lobbyists, addressing Congress in person in highly dramatic fashion, and staging an elaborate ceremony when he signed the bill into law.[92] Wilson helped end the long battles over the trusts with the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914. He managed to convince lawmakers on the issues of money and banking by the creation in 1913 of the Federal Reserve System, a complex business-government partnership that to this day dominates the financial world.[93]
In 1913, Henry Ford dramatically increased the efficiency of his factories by large-scale use of the moving assembly line, with each worker doing one simple task in the production of automobiles. Emphasizing efficiency, Ford more than doubled wages (and cut hours from 9 a day to 8), attracting the best workers and sharply reducing labor turnover and absenteeism. His employees could and did buy his cars, and by cutting prices over and over he made the Model T cheap enough for millions of people to buy in the U.S. and in every major country. Ford's profits soared and his company dominated the world's automobile industry. Henry Ford became the world-famous prophet of high wages and high profits.[94]
Labor unions[edit]
Labor unions, especially the American Federation of Labor (AFL), grew rapidly in the early 20th century, and had a Progressive agenda as well. After experimenting in the early 20th century with cooperation with business in the National Civic Federation, the AFL turned after 1906 to a working political alliance with the Democratic party. The alliance was especially important in the larger industrial cities. The unions wanted restrictions on judges who intervened in labor disputes, usually on the side of the employer. They finally achieved that goal with the Norris–La Guardia Act of 1932.[95]
Immigration[edit]
The level of immigration grew steadily after 1896, with most new arrivals unskilled workers from eastern and southern Europe, who found jobs working in the steel mills, slaughterhouses, and construction crews in the mill towns and industrial cities. The start of World War I in 1914 suddenly stopped most international movement, which only resumed after 1919. Starting in the 1880s, the labor unions aggressively promoted restrictions on immigration, especially restrictions on Chinese and other Asians.[96] The basic fear was that large numbers of unskilled, low-paid workers would defeat the union's efforts to raise wages through collective bargaining.[97] Other groups, such as the prohibitionists, opposed immigration because it was the base of strength of the saloon power, and the West generally. Rural Protestants distrusted the urban Catholics and Jews who comprised most of the immigrants after 1890.[98] On the other hand, the rapid growth of the industry called for large numbers of new workers, so large corporations generally opposed immigration restriction. By the early 1920s a consensus had been reached that the total influx of immigration had to be restricted, and a series of laws in the 1920s accomplished that purpose.[99] A handful of eugenics advocates were also involved in immigration restriction.[100] Immigration restriction continued to be a national policy until after World War II.
During World War I, the Progressives strongly promoted Americanization programs, designed to modernize the recent immigrants and turn them into model American citizens, while diminishing loyalties to the old country.[101] These programs often operated through the public school system, which expanded dramatically.[102]
War[edit]
Although the Progressive Era was characterized by public support for World War I under Woodrow Wilson, there was also a substantial opposition to World War I.
Decline[edit]
In the 1940s typically historians saw the Progressive Era as a prelude to the New Deal and dated it from 1901 (when Roosevelt became president) to the start of World War I in 1914 or 1917.[103] Historians have moved back in time emphasizing the Progressive reformers at the municipal[104] and state[105] levels in the 1890s.
End of the Era[edit]
Much less settled is the question of when the era ended. Some historians who emphasize civil liberties decry their suppression during World War I and do not consider the war as rooted in Progressive policy.[106] A strong anti-war movement headed by noted Progressives including Jane Addams, was suppressed after Wilson's 1916 re-election, a victory largely enabled by his campaign slogan, "He kept us out of the war." [107] The slogan was no longer accurate by April 6 of the following year, when Wilson surprised much of the Progressive base that twice elected him and asked a joint session of Congress to declare war on Germany. The Senate voted 82–6 in favor; the House agreed, 373–50. Some historians see the so-called "war to end all wars" as a globalized expression of the American Progressive movement, with Wilson's support for a League of Nations as its climax.[108]
The politics of the 1920s was unfriendly toward the labor unions and liberal crusaders against business, so many if not most historians who emphasize those themes write off the decade. Urban cosmopolitan scholars recoiled at the moralism of prohibition and the intolerance of the nativists of the KKK, and denounced the era. Richard Hofstadter, for example, in 1955 wrote that prohibition, "was a pseudo-reform, a pinched, parochial substitute for reform" that "was carried about America by the rural-evangelical virus".[109] However, as Arthur S. Link emphasized, the Progressives did not simply roll over and play dead.[110] Link's argument for continuity through the twenties stimulated a historiography that found Progressivism to be a potent force. Palmer, pointing to leaders like George Norris, says, "It is worth noting that progressivism, whilst temporarily losing the political initiative, remained popular in many western states and made its presence felt in Washington during both the Harding and Coolidge presidencies."[111] Gerster and Cords argue that, "Since progressivism was a 'spirit' or an 'enthusiasm' rather than an easily definable force with common goals, it seems more accurate to argue that it produced a climate for reform which lasted well into the 1920s, if not beyond."[112] Even the Klan has been seen in a new light, as social historians now see Klansmen as "ordinary white Protestants" primarily interested in purification of the system, which had long been a core Progressive goal.[113]
While some Progressive leaders became reactionaries, that usually happened in the 1930s, not in the 1920s, as exemplified by William Randolph Hearst,[114] Herbert Hoover, Al Smith and Henry Ford.[115][116]
Business progressivism in 1920s[edit]
What historians have identified as "business progressivism", with its emphasis on efficiency and typified by Henry Ford and Herbert Hoover[117] reached an apogee in the 1920s. Wik, for example, argues that Ford's "views on technology and the mechanization of rural America were generally enlightened, progressive, and often far ahead of his times."[118]
Tindall stresses the continuing importance of the Progressive movement in the South in the 1920s involving increased democracy, efficient government, corporate regulation, social justice, and governmental public service.[119][120] William Link finds political Progressivism dominant in most of the South in the 1920s.[121] Likewise it was influential in the Midwest.[122]
Historians of women and of youth emphasize the strength of the Progressive impulse in the 1920s.[123] Women consolidated their gains after the success of the suffrage movement, and moved into causes such as world peace,[124] good government, maternal care (the Sheppard–Towner Act of 1921),[125] and local support for education and public health.[126] The work was not nearly as dramatic as the suffrage crusade, but women voted[127] and operated quietly and effectively. Paul Fass, speaking of youth, says "Progressivism as an angle of vision, as an optimistic approach to social problems, was very much alive."[128] International influences that sparked many reform ideas likewise continued into the 1920s, as American ideas of modernity began to influence Europe.[129]
There is general agreement that the Era was over by 1932, especially since a majority of the remaining Progressives opposed the New Deal.[130]
Notable progressive leaders[edit]
Jane Addams, social reformer
Susan B. Anthony, suffragist
Robert P. Bass, New Hampshire politician
Charles A. Beard, historian and political scientist
Louis Brandeis, Supreme Court justice
William Jennings Bryan, Democratic presidential nominee in 1896, 1900, 1908; Secretary of State
Lucy Burns, suffragist
Andrew Carnegie, steel magnate, philanthropist
Carrie Chapman Catt, suffragist
Winston Churchill, author (not the British politician)
Herbert Croly, journalist
Clarence Darrow, lawyer
John Dewey, philosopher
W. E. B. Du Bois, Black scholar
Thomas Edison, inventor
Irving Fisher, economist
Abraham Flexner, education
Henry Ford, automaker
Henry George, writer on political economy
Charlotte Perkins Gilman, feminist
Susan Glaspell, playwright, novelist
Emma Goldman, anarchist, philosopher, writer
Lewis Hine, photographer
Charles Evans Hughes, statesman
William James, philosopher
Hiram Johnson, Governor of California
Mary Harris "Mother" Jones, union activist
Samuel M. Jones, politician, reformer
Florence Kelley, child advocate
Robert M. La Follette, Sr., Governor of Wisconsin
Fiorello LaGuardia, U.S. Congressman from New York; New York City mayor
Walter Lippmann, journalist
Mayo Brothers, medicine
Fayette Avery McKenzie, sociology
John R. Mott, YMCA leader
George Mundelein, Catholic leader
Alice Paul, suffragist
Ulrich B. Phillips, historian
Gifford Pinchot, conservationist
Walter Rauschenbusch, theologian of Social Gospel
Jacob Riis, reformer
John D. Rockefeller, Jr., philanthropist
Theodore Roosevelt, President
Elihu Root, statesman
Margaret Sanger, birth control activist
Anna Howard Shaw, suffragist
Upton Sinclair, novelist
Albion Small, sociologist
Ellen Gates Starr, sociologist
Lincoln Steffens, reporter
Henry Stimson, statesman
William Howard Taft, President and Chief Justice
Ida Tarbell, muckraker
Frederick Winslow Taylor, efficiency expert
Frederick Jackson Turner, historian
Thorstein Veblen, economist
Lester Frank Ward, sociologist
Woodrow Wilson, President
Ida B. Wells, Black leader
Burton Kendall Wheeler, Montana politician
See also[edit]
Trust-busting
Wisconsin Idea
Georgism
Edwardian era, for the United Kingdom
Woman's club movement
References[edit]
Jump up ^ John D. Buenker, John C. Burnham, and Robert M. Crunden, Progressivism (1986) pp 3–21
Jump up ^ James H. Timberlake, Prohibition and the progressive movement, 1900–1920 (1970) pp 1–7
Jump up ^ On purification, see David W. Southern, The Malignant Heritage: Yankee Progressives and the Negro Question, 1900–1915 (1968); Southern, The Progressive Era And Race: Reaction And Reform 1900–1917 (2005); Norman H. Clark, Deliver Us from Evil: An Interpretation of American Prohibition (1976) p 170; and Aileen Kraditor, The Ideas of the Woman Suffrage Movement: 1890–1920 (1967). 134–36
^ Jump up to: a b Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington (1968)
^ Jump up to: a b Joseph Dorfman, The economic mind in American civilization, 1918–1933 vol 3, 1969
^ Jump up to: a b Barry Karl, Charles E. Merriam and the Study of Politics (1975)
Jump up ^ George Mowry, The California Progressives (1963) p 91.
Jump up ^ Daniel T. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (1998)
Jump up ^ Michael Kazin; et al. (2011). The Concise Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political Turn up History. Princeton University Press. p. 181. ISBN 9781400839469.
Jump up ^ Lewis L. Gould, America in the Progressive Era, 1890–1914 (2000)
Jump up ^ David B. Tyack, The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (Harvard UP, 1974), p. 39
Jump up ^ David E. Kyvig, Explicit and authentic acts: amending the U.S. Constitution, 1776–1995 (Kansas UP, 1996) pp. 208–14;Hedwig Richter: TRANSNATIONAL REFORM AND DEMOCRACY: ELECTION REFORMS IN NEW YORK CITY AND BERLIN AROUND 1900, in: Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 15 (2016), 149-175 (URL: https://www.academia.edu/25338056/_TRANSNATIONAL_REFORM_AND_DEMOCRACY_ELECTION_REFORMS_IN_NEW_YORK_CITY_AND_BERLIN_AROUND_1900_in_Journal_of_the_Gilded_Age_and_Progressive_Era_15_2016_149-175
Jump up ^ Peter C. Holloran et al. eds. (2009). The A to Z of the Progressive Era. Scarecrow Press. p. 266. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Herbert Shapiro, ed., The muckrakers and American society (Heath, 1968), contains representative samples as well as academic commentary.
Jump up ^ Robert Miraldi, ed. The Muckrakers: Evangelical Crusaders (Praeger, 2000)
Jump up ^ Harry H. Stein, "American Muckrakers and Muckraking: The 50-Year Scholarship," Journalism Quarterly, (1979) 56#1 pp. 9–17
Jump up ^ John D. Buenker, and Robert M. Crunden. Progressivism (1986); Maureen Flanagan, America Reformed: Progressives and Progressivisms, 1890–1920s (2007)
Jump up ^ Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift Scientific Management in the Progressive Era 1890–1920 (1964) 656
Jump up ^ Daniel Nelson, Frederick W. Taylor and the Rise of Scientific Management (1970).
Jump up ^ J.-C. Spender; Hugo Kijne (2012). Scientific Management: Frederick Winslow Taylor’s Gift to the World?. Springer. p. 63.
Jump up ^ Paige Meltzer, "The Pulse and Conscience of America" The General Federation and Women's Citizenship, 1945–1960," Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies (2009), Vol. 30 Issue 3, pp. 52–76. online
Jump up ^ Eleanor Flexner, Century of Struggle (1959), pp. 208–17.
Jump up ^ Corrine M. McConnaughy, The Woman Suffrage Movement in America: A Reassessment (2013).
Jump up ^ Nancy F. Cott, The Grounding of Modern Feminism (1989) pp. 51–82
Jump up ^ Olivier Zunz, Philanthropy in America: A History (2012) ch 1 excerpt and text search
Jump up ^ Nikki Mandell, "Allies or Antagonists? Philanthropic Reformers and Business Reformers in the Progressive Era," Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era (2012), 11#1 71–117.
Jump up ^ Branden Little. "Review of Jones, Marian Moser, The American Red Cross from Clara Barton to the New Deal" H-SHGAPE, H-Net Reviews. August, 2013, online
Jump up ^ Zunz, p. 42
Jump up ^ John M. Allswang, The initiative and referendum in California, 1898–1998, (2000) ch 1
Jump up ^ "State Initiative and Referendum Summary". State Initiative & Referendum Institute at USC. Archived from the original on 11 February 2016. Retrieved 27 November 2006.
Jump up ^ Alan Ware, The American direct primary: party institutionalization and transformation (2002)
Jump up ^ Christopher Hoebeke, The road to mass democracy: original intent and the Seventeenth Amendment (1995) p. 18
Jump up ^ Melvin G. Holli, Reform in Detroit: Hazen S. Pingree and Urban Politics (1969).
Jump up ^ Kenneth Finegold, "Traditional Reform, Municipal Populism, and Progressivism," Urban Affairs Review, (1995) 31#1 pp 20-42
Jump up ^ Arthur E. DeMatteo, "The Progressive As Elitist: 'Golden Rule' Jones And The Toledo Charter Reform Campaign of 1901," Northwest Ohio Quarterly, (1997) 69#1 pp 8–30
Jump up ^ Eugene M. Tobin, "The Progressive as Single Taxer: Mark Fagan and the Jersey City Experience, 1900–1917," American Journal of Economics & Sociology, (1974) 33#3 pp 287–298
Jump up ^ Martin J. Schiesl, "Progressive Reform in Los Angeles under Mayor Alexander, 1909–1913," California Historical Quarterly, (1975) 534#1, pp:37–56
Jump up ^ G. Wayne Dowdy, "'A Business Government by a Business Man': E. H. Crump as a Progressive Mayor, 1910–1915," Tennessee Historical Quarterly, (2001) 60#3 3, pp 162–175
Jump up ^ William E. Ellis, "Robert Worth Bingham and Louisville Progressivism, 1905–1910," Filson Club History Quarterly, (1980) 54#2 pp 169–195
Jump up ^ William Thomas Hutchinson, Lowden of Illinois: the life of Frank O. Lowden (1957) vol 2
Jump up ^ "Progressivism and the Wisconsin Idea". Wisconsin Historical Society. 2008.
Jump up ^ William L. Bowers, "Country-Life Reform, 1900–1920: A Neglected Aspect of Progressive Era History." Agricultural History 45#3 (1971): 211–21. in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Stuart W. Shulman, "The Progressive Era Farm Press," Journalism History (1999) 25#1 pp. 27–36.
Jump up ^ William A. Link, A Hard Country and a Lonely Place: Schooling, Society, and Reform in Rural Virginia, 1870–1920 (1986).
Jump up ^ Harold U. Faulkner, The Decline of Laissez Faire, 1897–1917 (1951) pp. 233–36.
Jump up ^ Charles Lee Dearing, American highway policy (1942).
Jump up ^ Tammy Ingram, Dixie Highway: Road Building and the Making of the Modern South, 1900–1930 (2014).
Jump up ^ David R. Reynolds, There goes the neighborhood: Rural school consolidation at the grass roots in early twentieth-century Iowa (University of Iowa Press, 2002).
Jump up ^ Danbom, David B. (April 1979). "Rural Education Reform and the Country Life Movement, 1900–1920". Agricultural History. 53 (2): 464–66. JSTOR 3742421.
Jump up ^ Ellen Natasha Thompson, " The Changing Needs of Our Youth Today: The Response of 4-H to Social and Economic Transformations in Twentieth-century North Carolina." (PhD Diss. University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 2012). online
Jump up ^ Marilyn Irvin Holt, Linoleum, Better Babies, and the Modern Farm Woman, 1890–1930 (1995).
Jump up ^ Danbom 1979, p. 473.
Jump up ^ Richard Jensen and Mark Friedberger, Education and Social Structure: An Historical Study of Iowa, 1870–1930 (Chicago: Newberry Library, 1976, online).
Jump up ^ John Dittmer, Black Georgia in the Progressive era, 1900–1920 (1980).
Jump up ^ David W. Southern, The Progressive Era and Race: Reaction and Reform, 1900–1917 (2005)
Jump up ^ Angela Jones, African American Civil Rights: Early Activism and the Niagara Movement (2011) online
Jump up ^ Debra Reid, "Rural African Americans and Progressive Reform," Agricultural History (2000) 74#2 pp. 322–41 on Texas.
Jump up ^ Mark D. Hersey, My Work Is That of Conservation: An Environmental Biography of George Washington Carver (2011) online
Jump up ^ Dianne D. Glave, "'A Garden so Brilliant With Colors, so Original in its Design': Rural African American Women, Gardening, Progressive Reform, and the Foundation of an African American Environmental Perspective." Environmental History 8#3 (2003): 395–411.
Jump up ^ Dianne D. Glave and Mark Stoll, eds., To Love the Wind and the Rain': African Americans and Environmental History. (2006).
Jump up ^ Keire, Mara L. (2001). "The Vice Trust: A Reinterpretation of the White Slavery Scare in the United States, 1907–1917". Journal of Social History. 35: 5–41.
Jump up ^ Durrheim, Kevin; Dixon, John (2005). Racial Encounter: The Social Psychology of Contact and Desegregation. Routledge. pp. 134–135. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Luebke, Paul (2000). Tar Heel Politics 2000. The University of North Carolina Press. p. 134.
Jump up ^ Noel, Hans (2014). Political Ideologies and Political Parties in America. Cambridge University Press. p. 147.
Jump up ^ Woodward, C. Vann (1955). The Strange Career of Jim Crow.
Jump up ^ Hovenkamp, H. 2017 [scholarship.law.upenn.edu/faculty_scholarship/1765/ The Progressives: Racism and Public Law] Public Law and Legal Theory Research Paper Series, 59 Ariz. L. Rev. 947
Jump up ^ Gwendoline Alphonso, "Hearth and Soul: Economics and Culture in Partisan Conceptions of the Family in the Progressive Era, 1900–1920," Studies in American Political Development, Oct 2010, Vol. 24 Issue 2, pp. 206–32
Jump up ^ D'Ann Campbell, "Judge Ben Lindsey and the Juvenile Court Movement, 1901–1904," Arizona and the West, 1976, Vol. 18 Issue 1, pp. 5–20
Jump up ^ James Marten, ed. Children and Youth during the Gilded Page and Progressive Era (2014)
Jump up ^ Marc T. Law, "The Origins of State Pure Food Regulation," Journal of Economic History, Dec 2003, Vol. 63 Issue 4, pp. 1103–31
Jump up ^ Black, Gregory D. Hollywood Censored: Morality Codes, Catholics, and the Movies. Cambridge University Press 1994
Jump up ^ Leonard, Thomas C. (2005) Retrospectives: Eugenics and Economics in the Progressive Era Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19(4): 207–24
Jump up ^ Nancy Cohen, The reconstruction of American liberalism, 1865–1914 (2002) p. 243
Jump up ^ Celeste Michelle Condit, The meanings of the gene: public debates about human heredity (1999) p. 51
Jump up ^ David E. Kyvig, Explicit and authentic acts: amending the U.S. Constitution, 1776–1995 (1996)
Jump up ^ K. Austin Kerr, Organized for Prohibition: A New History of the Anti-Saloon League (1985).
Jump up ^ James Timberlake, Prohibition and the Progressive Movement, 1900–1920 (Harvard UP, 1963)
Jump up ^ Jack S. Blocker, American Temperance Movements: Cycles of Reform (1989)
Jump up ^ Jed Dannenbaum, Drink and Disorder: Temperance Reform in Cincinnati from the Washingtonian Revival to the WCTU (1984)
Jump up ^ Kerr, Organized for Prohibition: A New History of the Anti-Saloon League (1985)
Jump up ^ S.J. Mennell, "Prohibition: A Sociological View," Journal of American Studies 3, no. 2 (1969): 159–75.
^ Jump up to: a b David E. Kyvig,Repealing National Prohibition (2000)
Jump up ^ David B. Tyack, The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (Harvard University Press, 1974)
Jump up ^ "State Compulsory School Attendance Laws". Infoplease.com. 1999-10-01. Retrieved 2012-07-01.
Jump up ^ Engs, Ruth C. (2003). The progressive era's health reform movement: a historical dictionary. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. pp. 20–22. ISBN 0-275-97932-6.
Jump up ^ Abraham Flexner, Flexner Report on Medical Education in the United States and Canada 1910 (new edition 1960)
Jump up ^ Lawrence Friedman and Mark McGarvie, Charity, philanthropy, and civility in American history (2003) p. 231
Jump up ^ W. Bruce Fye, "The Origins and Evolution of the Mayo Clinic from 1864 to 1939: A Minnesota Family Practice Becomes an International 'Medical Mecca'", Bulletin of the History of Medicine Volume 84, Number 3, Fall 2010 pp. 323–57 in Project MUSE
Jump up ^ Steven J. Diner, A Very Different Age: Americans of the Progressive Era (1998) p. 186
Jump up ^ Ballard Campbell, "Economic Causes of Progressivism," Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era, Jan 2005, Vol. 4 Issue 1, pp. 7–22
^ Jump up to: a b c Harold U. Faulkner, The Decline of Laissez Faire, 1897–1917 (1951)
Jump up ^ Vincent W. Howard, "Woodrow Wilson, The Press, and Presidential Leadership: Another Look at the Passage of the Underwood Tariff, 1913," CR: The Centennial Review, 1980, Vol. 24 Issue 2, pp. 167–14
Jump up ^ Arthur S. Link, Woodrow Wilson and the progressive Era, 1910–1917 (1954) pp. 25–80
Jump up ^ Faith Jaycox (2005). The Progressive Era: Eyewitness History. Infobase. p. 403. ISBN 9780816051595.
Jump up ^ Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881–1917 (1998)
Jump up ^ Robert D. Parmet, Labor and immigration in industrial America (1987) p. 146
Jump up ^ Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party and State, 1875–1920 (1990)
Jump up ^ Daniel J. Tichenor, Dividing lines: the politics of immigration control in America (2002) p. 71
Jump up ^ Claudia Golden, "The Political Economy of Immigration Restriction in the United States, 1890 to 1921," in Goldin, The regulated economy (1994) ch 7
Jump up ^ Thomas C. Leonard, "Retrospectives: Eugenics and Economics in the Progressive Era" Journal of Economic Perspectives, (2005) 19(4): 207–24
Jump up ^ James R. Barrett, "Americanization from the Bottom, Up: Immigration and the Remaking of the American Working Class, 1880–1930," Journal of American History 79 (December 1992): 996–1020. in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Christina A. Ziegler-McPherson, Americanization in the States: Immigrant Social Welfare Policy, Citizenship, and National Identity in the United States, 1908–1929 (2009)
Jump up ^ Eric Goldman, Rendezvous with Destiny: A History of Modern American Reform (1952)
Jump up ^ Melvin G. Holli, Reform in Detroit: Hazen S. Pingree and Urban Politics (1969)
Jump up ^ David P. Thelen, The New Citizenship: Origins of Progressivism in Wisconsin, 1885–1900 (1972)
Jump up ^ Paul L. Murphy, World War I and the Origin of Civil Liberties in the United States (1979)
Jump up ^ Jane Addams, Bread and Peace in Time of War (1922)
Jump up ^ John Milton Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations (2010)
Jump up ^ Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform (1955) p. 287
Jump up ^ Arthur S. Link, "What Happened to the Progressive Movement in the 1920s?," American Historical Review Vol. 64, No. 4 (Jul., 1959), pp. 833–51 in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Niall A. Palmer, The Twenties in America: Politics and History (2006) p. 176
Jump up ^ Patrick Gerster and Nicholas Cords, Myth in American History (1977) p. 203
Jump up ^ Stanley Coben, "Ordinary white Protestants: The KKK of the 1920s," Journal of Social History, (1994) 28#1 pp. 155–65
Jump up ^ Rodney P. Carlisle, Hearst and the New Deal: The Progressive as Reactionary (1979)
Jump up ^ T. H. Watkins (2000). The Hungry Years: A Narrative History of the Great Depression in America. p. 313.
Jump up ^ Steven Watts (2009). The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century. Knopf Doubleday. p. 430.
Jump up ^ Joan Hoff Wilson, Herbert Hoover: Forgotten Progressive (1975)
Jump up ^ Reynold M. Wik, "Henry Ford's Science and Technology for Rural America," Technology & Culture, July 1962, Vol. 3 Issue 3, pp. 247–57
Jump up ^ George B. Tindall, "Business Progressivism: Southern Politics in the Twenties," South Atlantic Quarterly 62 (Winter 1963): 92–106.
Jump up ^ George B. Tindall, The Emergence of the New South, 1913–1945 (1970)
Jump up ^ William A. Link, The Paradox of Southern Progressivism, 1880–1930 (1997) p. 294
Jump up ^ Judith Sealander, Grand Plans: Business Progressivism and Social Change in Ohio's Miami Valley, 1890–1929 (1991)
Jump up ^ Maureen A. Flanagan, America Reformed: Progressives and Progressivisms, 1890s–1920s (2006)
Jump up ^ Susan Zeiger, "Finding a cure for war: Women's politics and the peace movement in the 1920s," Journal of Social History, Fall 1990, Vol. 24 Issue 1, pp. 69–86 in JSTOR
Jump up ^ J. Stanley Lemons, "The Sheppard-Towner Act: Progressivism in the 1920s," Journal of American History Vol. 55, No. 4 (Mar., 1969), pp. 776–86 in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Jayne Morris-Crowther, "Municipal Housekeeping: The Political Activities of the Detroit Federation of Women's Clubs in the 1920s," Michigan Historical Review, March 2004, Vol. 30 Issue 1, pp. 31–57
Jump up ^ Kristi Andersen, After suffrage: women in partisan and electoral politics before the New Deal (1996)
Jump up ^ Paula S. Fass, The damned and the beautiful: American youth in the 1920s (1977) p. 30
Jump up ^ Daniel T. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (2000) ch 9
Jump up ^ Otis L. Graham, An Encore for Reform: The Old Progressives and the New Deal (1968)
Further reading[edit]
Overviews[edit]
Buenker, John D., John Chynoweth Burnham, and Robert Morse Crunden. Progressivism (Schenkman Books, 1977). online
Buenker, John D., and Edward R. Kantowicz, eds. Historical dictionary of the Progressive Era, 1890–1920 (Greenwood, 1988).
Cocks, Catherine, Peter C. Holloran and Alan Lessoff. Historical Dictionary of the Progressive Era (2009)
Dawley, Alan. Changing the World: American Progressives in War and Revolution (2003) excerpt and text search
Diner, Steven J. A Very Different Age: Americans of the Progressive Era (1998)
Flanagan, Maureen. America Reformed: Progressives and Progressivisms, 1890s–1920s (2007)
Glad, Paul W. "Progressives and the Business Culture of the 1920s," Journal of American History, Vol. 53, No. 1. (June 1966), pp. 75–89. in JSTOR
Gould, Lewis L. America in the Progressive Era, 1890–1914" (2000)
Gould Lewis L. ed., The Progressive Era (1974)
Hays, Samuel P. The Response to Industrialism, 1885–1914 (1957),
Hofstadter, Richard, The Age of Reform (1954), Pulitzer Prize
Jensen, Richard. "Democracy, Republicanism and Efficiency: The Values of American Politics, 1885–1930," in Byron Shafer and Anthony Badger, eds, Contesting Democracy: Substance and Structure in American Political History, 1775–2000 (U of Kansas Press, 2001) pp. 149–80; online version
Kennedy, David M. ed., Progressivism: The Critical Issues (1971), readings
Kloppenberg, James T. Uncertain victory: social democracy and progressivism in European and American thought, 1870–1920 1986 online at ACLS e-books
Lasch, Christopher. The True and Only Heaven: Progress and its Critics (1991)
Lears, T. J. Jackson. Rebirth of a Nation: The Remaking of Modern America, 1877-1920 (2009) excerpt and text search
Leuchtenburg, William E. "Progressivism and Imperialism: The Progressive Movement and American Foreign Policy, 1898–1916," The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 39#3 (1952), pp. 483–504. JSTOR
Link, William A. The Paradox of Southern Progressivism, 1880–1930 (1992) online
Mann, Arthur. ed., The Progressive Era (1975) excerpts from scholars and from primary sources
McGerr, Michael. A Fierce Discontent: The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in America, 1870–1920 (2003) excerpt and text search
Mowry, George. The Era of Theodore Roosevelt and the Birth of Modern America, 1900–1912. (1954) general survey of era
Noggle, Burl. "The Twenties: A New Historiographical Frontier," The Journal of American History, Vol. 53, No. 2. (Sep., 1966), pp. 299–314. in JSTOR
Painter, Nell Irvin. Standing at Armageddon: The United States, 1877-1919 (1987) excerpt and text search
Pease, Otis, ed. The Progressive Years: The Spirit and Achievement of American Reform (1962), primary documents
Rodgers, Daniel T. Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (2000). stresses links with Europe online edition
Solty, Ingar. "Social Imperialism as Trasformismo: A Political Economy Case Study on the Progressive Era, the Federal Reserve Act, and the U.S.'s Entry into World War One, 1890–1917", in M. Lakitsch, Ed., Bellicose Entanglements 1914: The Great War as a Global War (LIT, 2015), pp. 91–121.
Thelen, David P. "Social Tensions and the Origins of Progressivism," Journal of American History 56 (1969), 323–41 online at JSTOR
Wiebe, Robert. The Search For Order, 1877–1920 (1967).
Young, Jeremy C. The Age of Charisma: Leaders, Followers, and Emotions in American Society, 1870-1940 (2017) excerpt and text search
Presidents and politics[edit]
Beale Howard K. Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power. (1956).
Blum, John Morton. The Republican Roosevelt. (1954). Series of essays that examine how TR did politics
Brands, H.W. Theodore Roosevelt (2001).
Clements, Kendrick A. The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson (1992).
Coletta, Paolo. The Presidency of William Howard Taft (1990).
Cooper, John Milton The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt. (1983).
Cooper, John Milton Woodrow Wilson: A Biography (2009)
Dalton, Kathleen. "Changing interpretations of Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive era." in Christopher M. Nichols and Nancy C. Unger, eds A Companion to the Gilded Age and Progressive Era (2017): 296-307.
Gould, Lewis L. The Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt (1991).
Harbaugh, William Henry. Power and Responsibility The Life and Times of Theodore Roosevelt (1961), a standard scholarly biography emphasizing politics. online
Harrison, Robert. Congress, Progressive Reform, and the New American State (2004).
Hofstadter, Richard. The American Political Tradition (1948), ch. 8–9–10.
Kolko, Gabriel (1963). The Triumph of Conservatism: A Reinterpretation of American History, 1900-1916. New York, NY: The Free Press.
Link, Arthur S. Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910–1917 (1972) standard political history of the era online
Morris, Edmund Theodore Rex. (2001), biography of T. Roosevelt covers 1901–1909
Mowry, George E. Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive Movement. (1946).
Pestritto, R.J. "Woodrow Wilson and the Roots of Modern Liberalism." (2005).
Rothbard, Murray N. The Progressive Era (2017), libertarian interpretation online excerpt
Sanders, Elizabeth. Roots of Reform: Farmers, Workers and the American State, 1877–1917 (1999).
Wilson, Joan Hoff. Herbert Hoover, Forgotten Progressive (1965).
State, local, gender, ethnic, business, labor, religion[edit]
Abell, Aaron I. American Catholicism and Social Action: A Search for Social Justice, 1865–1950 (1960).
Bruce, Kyle and Chris Nyland. "Scientific Management, Institutionalism, and Business Stabilization: 1903–1923" Journal of Economic Issues, Vol. 35, 2001. in JSTOR
Buenker, John D. Urban Liberalism and Progressive Reform (1973).
Buenker, John D. The History of Wisconsin, Vol. 4: The Progressive Era, 1893–1914 (1998).
Feffer, Andrew. The Chicago Pragmatists and American Progressivism (1993).
Frankel, Noralee and Nancy S. Dye, eds. Gender, Class, Race, and Reform in the Progressive Era (1991).
Hahn, Steven. A Nation under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration (2003).
Huthmacher, J. Joseph. "Urban Liberalism and the Age of Reform" Mississippi Valley Historical Review 49 (1962): 231–41, in JSTOR; emphasized urban, ethnic, working class support for reform
Link, William A. The Paradox of Southern Progressivism, 1880–1930 (1992).
Maxwell, Robert S. La Follette and the Rise of the Progressives in Wisconsin. Madison, Wis.: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1956.
Montgomery, David. The Fall of the House of Labor: The workplace, the state, and American labor activism, 1865–1925 (1987).
Muncy, Robyn. Creating A Feminine Dominion in American Reform, 1890–1935 (1991).
Lubove, Roy. The Progressives and the Slums: Tenement House Reform in New York City, 1890–1917 Greenwood Press: 1974.
Pollack, Norman (1962). The Populist Response to Industrial America: Midwestern Populist Thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Recchiuti, John Louis. Civic Engagement: Social Science and Progressive-Era Reform in New York City (2007).
Stromquist, Shelton. Reinventing 'The People': The Progressive Movement, the Class Problem, and the Origins of Modern Liberalism, (U. of Illinois Press, 2006). ISBN 0-252-07269-3.
Thelen, David. The New Citizenship, Origins of Progressivism in Wisconsin, 1885–1900 (1972).
Wesser, Robert F. Charles Evans Hughes: politics and reform in New York, 1905–1910 (1967).
Wiebe, Robert. "Business Disunity and the Progressive Movement, 1901–1914," The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 44#4 (1958), pp. 664–85. in JSTOR
Primary sources and year books[edit]
New International year book: 1909
[show]
v
t
e
History of the United States
Timeline
Prehistory
Pre-Columbian
Colonial
America's Critical Period
1776–89
1789–1849
1849–65
1865–1918
1918–45
1945–64
1964–80
1980–91
1991–2008
2008–present
Topics
American Century
Cities
Constitution
Demographic
Diplomatic
Economic
Education
Immigration
Medical
Merchant Marine
Military
Musical
Religious
Slavery
Southern
Technological and industrial
Territorial acquisitions
Territorial evolution
Voting rights
Women
Category
Portal
[show]
v
t
e
United States articles
History
By event
Timeline of U.S. history
Pre-Columbian era
Colonial era
Thirteen Colonies
military history
Continental Congress
American Revolution
War
American frontier
America's Critical Period
Drafting and ratification of Constitution
Federalist Era
War of 1812
Territorial acquisitions
Territorial evolution
Mexican–American War
Civil War
Reconstruction Era
Indian Wars
Gilded Age
Progressive Era
African-American civil rights movement 1865–1896 / 1896–1954 / 1954–1968
Spanish–American War
Imperialism
World War I
Roaring Twenties
Great Depression
World War II
home front
Nazism in the United States
American Century
Cold War
Korean War
Space Race
Feminist Movement
Vietnam War
Post-Cold War (1991–2008)
War on Terror
War in Afghanistan
Iraq War
Recent events (2008–present)
By topic
Outline of U.S. history
Demographic
Discoveries
Economic
debt ceiling
Inventions
before 1890
1890–1945
1946–91
after 1991
Military
Postal
Technological and industrial
Geography
Territory
counties
federal district
federal enclaves
Indian reservations
insular zones
minor outlying islands
populated places
states
Earthquakes
Extreme points
Islands
Mountains
peaks
ranges
Appalachian
Rocky
National Park Service
National Parks
Regions
East Coast
West Coast
Great Plains
Gulf
Mid-Atlantic
Midwestern
New England
Pacific
Central
Eastern
Northern
Northeastern
Northwestern
Southern
Southeastern
Southwestern
Western
Rivers
Colorado
Columbia
Mississippi
Missouri
Ohio
Rio Grande
Yukon
Time
Water supply and sanitation
Politics
Federal
Executive
Cabinet
Civil service
Executive departments
Executive Office
Independent agencies
Law enforcement
President of the United States
Public policy
Legislative
House of Representatives
current members
Speaker
Senate
current members
President pro tempore
Vice President
Judicial
Courts of appeals
District courts
Supreme Court
Law
Bill of Rights
civil liberties
Code of Federal Regulations
Constitution
federalism
preemption
separation of powers
Federal Reporter
United States Code
United States Reports
Intelligence
Central Intelligence Agency
Defense Intelligence Agency
Federal Bureau of Investigation
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
National Reconnaissance Office
National Security Agency
Office of the Director of National Intelligence
Uniformed
Armed Forces
Army
Marine Corps
Navy
Air Force
Coast Guard
National Guard
NOAA Corps
Public Health Service Corps
51st state
political status of Puerto Rico
District of Columbia statehood movement
Elections
Electoral College
Foreign relations
Foreign policy
Hawaiian sovereignty movement
Ideologies
anti-Americanism
exceptionalism
nationalism
Local government
Parties
Democratic
Republican
Third parties
Red states and blue states
Purple America
Scandals
State government
governor
state legislature
state court
Uncle Sam
Economy
By sector
Agriculture
Banking
Communications
Energy
Insurance
Manufacturing
Mining
Tourism
Trade
Transportation
Companies
by state
Currency
Exports
Federal budget
Federal Reserve System
Financial position
Labor unions
Public debt
Social welfare programs
Taxation
Unemployment
Wall Street
Society
Culture
Americana
Architecture
Cinema
Cuisine
Dance
Demography
Education
Family structure
Fashion
Flag
Folklore
Languages
American English
Indigenous languages
ASL
Black American Sign Language
HSL
Plains Sign Talk
Arabic
Chinese
French
German
Italian
Russian
Spanish
Literature
Media
Journalism
Internet
Newspapers
Radio
Television
Music
Names
People
Philosophy
Public holidays
Religion
Sexuality
Sports
Theater
Visual art
Social class
Affluence
American Dream
Educational attainment
Homelessness
Home-ownership
Household income
Income inequality
Middle class
Personal income
Poverty
Professional and working class conflict
Standard of living
Wealth
Issues
Ages of consent
Capital punishment
Crime
incarceration
Criticism of government
Discrimination
affirmative action
antisemitism
intersex rights
islamophobia
LGBT rights
racism
same-sex marriage
Drug policy
Energy policy
Environmental movement
Gun politics
Health care
abortion
health insurance
hunger
obesity
smoking
Human rights
Immigration
illegal
International rankings
National security
Mass surveillance
Terrorism
Separation of church and state
Outline
Index
Book
Category
Portal
[show]
v
t
e
Theodore Roosevelt
26th President of the United States, 1901–1909
25th Vice President of the United States, 1901
33rd Governor of New York, 1899–1900
Assistant Secretary of the Navy, 1897–1898
New York City Police Commissioner, 1895–1897
New York State Assemblyman, 1882
1883
1884
Presidency
First inauguration
historic site
Second inauguiration
"Square Deal"
Booker T. Washington dinner
Conservation
Newlands Reclamation Act
Transfer Act of 1905
Antiquities Act
Pelican Island
Devils Tower National Monument
Muir Woods National Monument
Other National Monuments
United States Forest Service,
United States Reclamation Service
National Wildlife Refuge System
Roosevelt Arch
Conference of Governors
Northern Securities Company breakup
court case
Coal strike of 1902
Pure Food and Drug Act
Food and Drug Administration
Meat Inspection Act
Expediting Act
Elkins Act
Hepburn Act
Aldrich–Vreeland Act
Federal Employers Liability Act
Kinkaid Act
Big Stick ideology
Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty
Panama Canal Zone
Panama Canal
Venezuelan crisis
Roosevelt Corollary
Occupation of Cuba
Russo-Japanese War
Treaty of Portsmouth
1906 Nobel Peace Prize
Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907
College football meetings
Bureau of Investigation
Department of Commerce and Labor
Bureau of Corporations
Keep Commission
Inland Waterways Commission
Bureau of the Census
Great White Fleet
Perdicaris incident
Cabinet
White House West Wing
State of the Union Address, 1901
1906
1908
White House desk
Federal judiciary appointments
Other
events
Spanish–American War
Rough Riders
Battle of Las Guasimas
Battle of San Juan Hill
"Bull Moose" Progressive Party
New Nationalism
Assassination attempt
Boone and Crockett Club
Smithsonian–Roosevelt African Expedition
"River of Doubt" Amazonian expedition
Life and
homes
Birthplace, boyhood home replica
Sagamore Hill Home and Museum
Oyster Bay
Elkhorn Ranch
Maltese Cross Cabin
Pine Knot cabin
Gravesite
Writings
and speeches
Theodore Roosevelt bibliography
The Naval War of 1812 (1882 book)
"The Strenuous Life" (1899 speech)
"Citizenship in a Republic" (1910 speech)
"I have just been shot" (1912 speech)
Theodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography (1913 book)
The Forum magazine articles
Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia
Archival collections
Elections
New York state election, 1898
Republican National Convention, 1900
1904
1912
1916
United States presidential election, 1900
1904
1912
Legacy
Mount Rushmore
Theodore Roosevelt Center and Digital Library
White House Roosevelt Room
Theodore Roosevelt National Park
Theodore Roosevelt Wilderness
Theodore Roosevelt Island
Roosevelt National Forest
Roosevelt Study Center
Theodore Roosevelt Association
Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Park
Monument Assemblage
Roosevelt River
Theodore Roosevelt Award
Roosevelt Road
U.S. Postage stamps
Theodore Roosevelt, Rough Rider sculpture
Equestrian statue
Popular
culture
Teddy bear
"Speak softly, and carry a big stick"
Books
Films
Roosevelt in Africa 1910 documentary
The Roosevelts 2014 documentary
Related
Political positions
"Bully pulpit"
Ananias Club
"Nature fakers"
Progressive Era
A Guest of Honor
Porcellian Club
"Muckraker"
National Collegiate Athletic Association
"Roosevelt Republican"
Family
Alice Hathaway Lee (first wife)
Edith Kermit Carow (second wife)
Alice Lee Roosevelt (daughter)
Theodore Roosevelt III (son)
Kermit Roosevelt (son)
Ethel Carow Roosevelt (daughter)
Archibald Roosevelt (son)
Quentin Roosevelt (son)
Theodore Roosevelt Sr. (father)
Martha Stewart Bulloch (mother)
Anna Roosevelt (sister)
Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt (brother)
Corinne Roosevelt (sister)
Cornelius Roosevelt (grandfather)
James Stephens Bulloch (grandfather)
James A. Roosevelt (uncle)
Robert Roosevelt (uncle)
James Dunwoody Bulloch (half-uncle)
Irvine Bulloch (uncle)
Theodore Douglas Robinson (nephew)
Corinne Robinson (niece)
Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (niece)
Hall Roosevelt (nephew)
← William McKinley
William Howard Taft →
Category
[show]
v
t
e
William Howard Taft
10th Chief Justice of the United States (1921–1930)
27th President of the United States (1909–1913)
3rd Provisional Governor of Cuba (1904)
42nd United States Secretary of War (1904–1908)
Governor-General of the Philippines (1901-1904)
6th Solicitor General of the United States (1890–1892)
Presidency
1909 inauguration
Dollar diplomacy
Income Tax amendment
Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act
Mann–Elkins Act
Defense Secrets Act of 1911
Commission on Economy and Efficiency
U.S. occupation of Nicaragua
United States Chamber of Commerce
Ceremonial first pitch
State of the Union Address 1912
Cabinet
Judicial appointments
Supreme Court
First Oval Office
Chief Justice,
Supreme Court
Supreme Court career
Judiciary Act of 1925
Creation of the Supreme Court Building
Taft Court cases
Other actions
Taft Commission
Insular Government of the Philippine Islands
Philippines Civil Governor, 1901–1904
Taft–Katsura agreement
1906–1909 Occupation of Cuba
League to Enforce Peace
National War Labor Board
Life and legacy
Early life
Birthplace, home, and historic site
Woodbury Point
Taft Bridge
Bibliography
U.S. Postage stamps
Elections
1908 Republican National Convention
1908 U.S. presidential election
1912 Republican National Convention
1912 U.S. presidential election
Family
Helen Herron Taft (wife)
Robert Taft (son)
Helen Taft Manning (daughter)
Charles Phelps Taft II (son)
Robert Taft Jr. (grandson)
William Howard Taft III (grandson)
Seth Taft (grandson)
Alphonso Taft (father)
Louise Taft (mother)
Charles Phelps Taft (brother)
Henry Waters Taft (brother)
Horace Dutton Taft (brother)
Peter Rawson Taft (paternal grandfather)
Related
Progressive Era
← Theodore Roosevelt
Woodrow Wilson →
Category
[show]
v
t
e
Woodrow Wilson
28th President of the United States (1913–1921)
34th Governor of New Jersey (1911–1913)
13th President of Princeton University (1902–1910)
Presidency
1913 inauguration
Suffrage Parade
1917 inauguration
The New Freedom
Clayton Antitrust Act
Farm Loan Act
Federal Employees' Compensation Act
Federal Reserve System
Federal Reserve Act
Federal Income Tax amendment
Federal Trade Commission Act
Federal Trade Commission
Revenue Act of 1913
Flag Day
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
Occupation of Haiti
Bryan–Chamorro Treaty
Philippine Autonomy Act
World War I
entry
campaigns
home front
Committee on Public Information
Espionage Act of 1917
Selective Service Act of 1917
Four Minute Men
Sedition Act of 1918
National War Labor Board
The Inquiry
American Commission to Negotiate Peace
Paris Peace Conference, 1919
Treaty of Versailles
The Big Four
Fourteen Points
League of Nations
charter
1919 Nobel Peace Prize
Wilsonian Armenia
Silent Sentinels
Women's Suffrage amendment
Roosevelt desk
Judicial appointments
Supreme Court
Cabinet
State of the Union Address 1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1920
Life
Birthplace and Presidential Library
papers and manuscripts
Boyhood home in Georgia
Boyhood home in South Carolina
Princeton University president
Summer White House (Harlakenden
Shadow Lawn)
Woodrow Wilson House
Gravesite
Books
Congressional Government
When a Man Comes to Himself
The New Freedom (1913)
Elections
New Jersey gubernatorial election, 1910
1912 Democratic National Convention
1912 U.S. presidential election
1916 Democratic National Convention
1916 U.S. presidential election
Legacy
Wilsonianism
Woodrow Wilson Foundation
Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars
Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs
Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial
Woodrow Wilson Bridge
Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation
U.S. Postage stamps
U.S. Currency
Popular
culture
Wilson (1944 film)
Profiles in Courage (1965 series)
Wilson (2013 book)
Woodrow Wilson and the Birth of the American Century (2002 documentary)
Family
Joseph Ruggles Wilson (father)
Jessie Janet Woodrow (mother)
Ellen Axson Wilson (wife, 1885–1914; death)
Edith Bolling Wilson (wife, 1915–1924)
Margaret Wilson (daughter)
Jessie Wilson Sayre (daughter)
Eleanor Wilson McAdoo (daughter)
William McAdoo (son-in-law)
Francis Sayre, Jr. (grandson)
James Woodrow (maternal uncle)
Related
Progressive Era
Jefferson Literary and Debating Society
← William Howard Taft
Warren G. Harding →
Category
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Era&oldid=819534006"
Categories:
American political philosophy
Eras of United States history
Progressivism in the United States
Progressive Era in the United States
Social ethics
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list
CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list
Use dmy dates from November 2011
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Bân-lâm-gú
Dansk
فارسی
Français
한국어
日本語
Polski
Русский
සිංහල
Svenska
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 9 January 2018, at 22:13.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

value: mw-page-base noprint

value: mw-head-base noprint

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: History of the United States (1865–1918)

value:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: font-size: 105%; padding: 0px 0px 0.4em; text-align: center; display: none;

value:
/wiki/Idea_of_Progress
mw-redirect
Idea of Progress

value: List of countries by Social Progress Index

value:
/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette,_Sr.
mw-redirect
Robert M. La Follette, Sr.

value: Liberalism and progressivism in the Muslim world

value: padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;

value: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

value:
/wiki/Bar_(establishment)
mw-redirect
Bar (establishment)

value: History of the Republican Party (United States)

value: History of the Democratic Party (United States)

value: Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

value: Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

value: Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

value: Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

value: Edit section: Muckraking: exposing corruption

value:
/wiki/Social_issues
mw-redirect
Social issues

value:
/wiki/Child_labor
mw-redirect
Child labor

value:
/wiki/Standard_Oil_Company
mw-redirect
Standard Oil Company

value: Municipal housekeeping (page does not exist)

value: National American Woman Suffrage Association

value:
/wiki/Presidential_primary
mw-redirect
Presidential primary

value:
/wiki/Cleveland,_Ohio
mw-redirect
Cleveland, Ohio

value:
/wiki/Frank_Lowden
mw-redirect
Frank Lowden

value:
/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette_Sr.
mw-redirect
Robert M. La Follette Sr.

value:
/wiki/Bureau_of_Public_Roads
mw-redirect
Bureau of Public Roads

value: Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution

value:
/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin
mw-redirect
University of Wisconsin

value:
/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Act
mw-redirect
Interstate Commerce Act

value: The Neill-Reynolds Report (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Ida_M._Tarbell
mw-redirect
Ida M. Tarbell

value:
/wiki/Clayton_Antitrust_Act
mw-redirect
Clayton Antitrust Act

value: Edit section: Business progressivism in 1920s

value: Edit section: Notable progressive leaders

value:
/wiki/Fiorello_LaGuardia
mw-redirect
Fiorello LaGuardia

value:
/wiki/John_R._Mott
mw-redirect
John R. Mott

value:
/wiki/Ulrich_B._Phillips
mw-redirect
Ulrich B. Phillips

value:
/wiki/John_D._Rockefeller,_Jr.
mw-redirect
John D. Rockefeller, Jr.

value:
/wiki/Albion_Small
mw-redirect
Albion Small

value:
/wiki/Henry_Stimson
mw-redirect
Henry Stimson

value:
/wiki/Burton_Kendall_Wheeler
mw-redirect
Burton Kendall Wheeler

value:
/wiki/Aileen_Kraditor
mw-redirect
Aileen Kraditor

value:
/wiki/David_B._Tyack
mw-redirect
David B. Tyack

value: Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era

value: Category:CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3741982

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/3742421

value:
nofollow
external text
http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED125982

value: Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/pss/2080796

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1905118

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/pss/3787631

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1900152

value: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

value:
nofollow
https://www.amazon.com/dp/0691122350/
external text

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/pss/1893931

value:
nofollow
external text
http://www.uic.edu/~rjensen/rj0025.htm

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.amazon.com/dp/0060747501

value: The Mississippi Valley Historical Review

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/pss/1895006

value:
nofollow
https://www.amazon.com/dp/0195183657/
external text

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/pss/1894201

value:
nofollow
https://www.amazon.com/dp/0393305880/
external text

value:
nofollow
https://www.amazon.com/dp/1107114624/
external text

value:
/wiki/Cooper,_John_Milton
mw-redirect
Cooper, John Milton

value: Edit section: State, local, gender, ethnic, business, labor, religion

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/pss/4227725

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/pss/1888628

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/pss/1886602

value: Edit section: Primary sources and year books

value: History of the United States (1789–1849)

value: History of the United States (1991–2008)

value: History of the United States (2008–present)

value: Category:Histories of cities in the United States

value: History of the United States Constitution

value: Demographic history of the United States

value: Timeline of United States diplomatic history

value: History of education in the United States

value: History of immigration to the United States

value: History of medicine in the United States

value: History of the United States Merchant Marine

value: History of religion in the United States

value: Technological and industrial history of the United States

value: Territorial evolution of the United States

attr: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

value: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value: Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution

value: African-American civil rights movement (1865–1896)

value: African-American civil rights movement (1896–1954)

value: African-American civil rights movement (1954–1968)

value: Military history of the United States during World War II

value: United States home front during World War II

value: Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890)

value: Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)

value: Timeline of United States inventions (1946–91)

value: Timeline of United States inventions (after 1991)

value: Postage stamps and postal history of the United States

value: Lists of populated places in the United States

value: List of earthquakes in the United States

value: List of extreme points of the United States

value: List of mountain peaks of the United States

value: List of areas in the United States National Park System

value: Drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States

value: United States federal executive departments

value: Executive Office of the President of the United States

value: Independent agencies of the United States government

value: Federal law enforcement in the United States

value: Current members of the United States House of Representatives

value: Speaker of the United States House of Representatives

value: Current members of the United States Senate

value: President pro tempore of the United States Senate

value: Separation of powers under the United States Constitution

value: United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps

value: Political ideologies in the United States

value: List of federal political scandals in the United States

value: List of companies of the United States by state

value: Chinese language and varieties in the United States

value: Educational attainment in the United States

value: Professional and working class conflict in the United States

value: Criticism of the United States government

value: Federal drug policy of the United States

value: Environmental movement in the United States

value: Illegal immigration to the United States

value: International rankings of the United States

value: Separation of church and state in the United States

value:
/wiki/Book:United_States
mw-redirect
Book:United States

value: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

value: List of Vice Presidents of the United States

value: First inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt

value: Theodore Roosevelt Inaugural National Historic Site

value: Second inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt

value: Booker T. Washington dinner at the White House

value: List of National Monuments of the United States

value: History of the National Wildlife Refuge System

value: Northern Securities Co. v. United States

value: National Collegiate Athletic Association

value: United States Department of Commerce and Labor

value: List of federal judges appointed by Theodore Roosevelt

value: Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace National Historic Site

value: Theodore Roosevelt's Maltese Cross Cabin

value: United States presidential election, 1900

value: United States presidential election, 1904

value: United States presidential election, 1912

value:
/wiki/Roosevelt_Study_Center
mw-redirect
Roosevelt Study Center

value: Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps

value: Political positions of Theodore Roosevelt

value: List of federal judges appointed by William Howard Taft

value:
navbox-image
7
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

value: List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Taft Court

value: Insular Government of the Philippine Islands

value: William Howard Taft National Historic Site

value: United States presidential election, 1908

value:
/wiki/Woman_Suffrage_Parade_of_1913
mw-redirect
Woman Suffrage Parade of 1913

value:
/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission_Act
mw-redirect
Federal Trade Commission Act

value: National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

value: List of federal judges appointed by Woodrow Wilson

value: United States presidential election, 1916

value: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars

value: Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial

value: Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation

value: Large denominations of United States currency

value: Woodrow Wilson and the Birth of the American Century

value:
/wiki/Francis_Bowes_Sayre,_Jr.
mw-redirect
Francis Bowes Sayre, Jr.

value:
/wiki/James_Woodrow_(Professor)
mw-redirect
James Woodrow (Professor)

value: Category:Progressivism in the United States

value: Category:Progressive Era in the United States

value: Category:Use dmy dates from November 2011

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value:
/wiki/Progressive_Era
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

value:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

value: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

value: Permanent link to this revision of the page

value: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

value: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

value: Chìn-pō͘-chú-gī Sî-tāi – Chinese (Min Nan)

value: عصر ترقی‌خواهی – Persian

value: 進歩主義時代 (アメリカ合衆国) – Japanese

value: Эра прогрессивизма – Russian

value: ප්‍රගතිශීලී යුගය – Sinhala

value: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

value: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Progressive_Era rootpage-Progressive_Era skin-vector action-view