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Ashvamedha
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Ashwamedha yagna of Yudhisthira
The Ashvamedha (Sanskrit: अश्वमेध aśvamedhá) is a horse sacrifice ritual followed by the Śrauta tradition of Vedic religion. It was used by ancient Indian kings to prove their imperial sovereignty: a horse accompanied by the king's warriors would be released to wander for a period of one year. In the territory traversed by the horse, any rival could dispute the king's authority by challenging the warriors accompanying it. After one year, if no enemy had managed to kill or capture the horse, the animal would be guided back to the king's capital. It would be then sacrificed, and the king would be declared as an undisputed sovereign.
Ashvameda is a forbidden rite for Kaliyuga, the current age.[1][2]
Contents
[hide]
1 The sacrifice
2 Similar sacrifices elsewhere
3 List of performers
4 In Hindu revivalism
5 Reception
6 See also
7 Footnotes
8 References
The sacrifice
A 19th-century painting, depicting the preparation of army to follow the sacrificial horse. Probably from a picture story depicting Lakshmisa's Jaimini Bharata
The Ashvamedha could only be conducted by a powerful victorious king (rājā).[3][4] Its object was the acquisition of power and glory, the sovereignty over neighbouring provinces, seeking progeny and general prosperity of the kingdom.[5]
The horse to be sacrificed must be a stallion. The horse is sprinkled with water, and the Adhvaryu, the priest and the sacrificer whisper mantras into its ear. The horse is then set loose towards the North-East, to roam around wherever it chooses, for the period of one year (or half a year, according to some commentators). The horse is associated with the Sun, and its yearly course. If the horse wanders into neighbouring provinces hostile to the sacrificer, they must be subjugated. The wandering horse is attended by a hundred young men, sons of princes or high court officials, charged with guarding the horse from all dangers and inconvenience. During the absence of the horse, an uninterrupted series of ceremonies is performed in the sacrificer's home.
After the return of the horse, more ceremonies are performed. The horse is yoked to a gilded chariot, together with three other horses, and Rigveda (RV) 1.6.1,2 (YajurVeda (YV) VSM 23.5,6) is recited. The horse is then driven into water and bathed. After this, it is anointed with ghee by the chief queen and two other royal consorts. The chief queen anoints the fore-quarters, and the others the barrel and the hind-quarters. They also embellish the horse's head, neck, and tail with golden ornaments. The sacrificer offers the horse the remains of the night's oblation of grain.
After this, the horse, a hornless he-goat, a wild ox (go-mrga, Bos gaurus) are bound to sacrificial stakes near the fire, and seventeen other animals are attached to the horse. A great number of animals, both tame and wild, are tied to other stakes, according to a commentator, 609 in total.[6]
The chief queen ritually calls on the king's fellow wives for pity. The queens walk around the dead horse reciting mantras. The chief queen then has to spend a night with the dead horse.[7]
On the next morning, the priests raise the queen from the place. One priest cuts the horse along the "knife-paths" while other priests start reciting the verses of Vedas, seeking healing and regeneration for the horse.[8]
The Laws of Manu refer to the Ashvamedha (V.53): "The man who offers a horse-sacrifice every day for a hundred years, and the man who does not eat meat, the two of them reap the same fruit of good deeds."[9]
Similar sacrifices elsewhere
Main article: Horse sacrifice
Many Indo-European branches show evidence for horse sacrifice, and comparative mythology suggests that they derive from a Proto-Indo-European ritual. The Ashvamedha is the clearest evidence preserved, but vestiges from Latin and Celtic traditions allow the reconstruction of a few common attributes.
A similar ritual is found in Celtic tradition in which the King in Ireland conducted a rite of symbolic marriage with a sacrificed horse.[7] Roman horse sacrifice tradition also coincide with Ashvamedha.[10]
Horse sacrifice were performed among the ancient Germans, Armenians, Iranians,[11] Chinese, Greeks,[12] among others.
List of performers
Sanskrit epics and Puranas mention numerous legendary performances of the horse sacrifice.[13] For example, according to the Mahabharata, Emperor Bharata performed a hundred Ashvamedha ceremonies on the banks of Yamuna, three hundred on the banks of Saraswati and four hundred on the banks of the Ganga. He again performed a thousand Ashvamedha on different locations and a hundred Rajasuya.[14] Following the vast empires ruled by the Gupta and Chalukya dynasties, the practice of the sacrifice diminished remarkably.[15]
The historical performers of Ashvamedha include:
Monarch
Reign
Dynasty
Source
Pushyamitra Shunga 185-149 BCE Shunga Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva and Malavikagnimitra of Kalidasa[16]
Sarvatata 1st century BCE Gajayana Ghosundi and Hathibada inscriptions.[16] Some scholars believe Sarvatata to be a Kanva king, but there is no definitive evidence for this.[17]
Devimitra 1st century BCE Unknown Musanagar inscription[16]
Satakarni I 1st or 2nd century CE Satavahana Nanaghat inscription mentions his second Ashvamedha[18][16]
Vasishthiputra Sri Santamula or Chantamula 3rd century CE Andhra Ikshvaku Records of his son and grandson[19]
Shilavarman 3rd century CE Varshaganya Jagatpur inscriptions mention his fourth Ashvamedha[16]
Bhavanaga 305-320 CE Nagas of Padmavati The inscriptions of Vakataka relatives of the Nagas credit them with 10 horse-sacrifices, although they do not name these kings.[16][19]
Vijaya-devavarman 300-350 CE Shalankayana Ellore inscription[20][21]
Shivaskanda Varman 4th century CE Pallava Hirahadagalli inscription[20]
Kumaravishnu 4th century CE Pallava Omgodu inscription of his great-grandson[20]
Samudragupta 355-375 CE Gupta Coins of the king and records of his descendants[20][22]
Kumaragupta I 414 – 455 CE Gupta [23]
Madhava Varmana 440-460 CE Vishnukundina [19]
Pravarasena II 5th century CE Vakataka Inscriptions of his descendants state that he performed four Ashvamedha sacrifices[20]
Dharasena 5th century CE Traikutaka [21]
Krishnavarman 5th century CE Kadamba [21]
Narayanavarman 494–518 CE Varman Legend of Bhaskaravarman's seals[24]
Bhutivarman 518–542 CE Varman Barganga inscription[24]
Pulakeshin I 543–566 Chalukyas of Vatapi [25]
Sthitavarman 565–585 CE Varman [26]
Pulakeshin II 610–642 CE Chalukyas of Vatapi [19]
Madhavaraja II (alias Madhavavarman or Sainyabhita) c. 620-670 CE Shailodbhava Inscriptions[27][24]
Simhavarman (possibly Narasimhavarman I) 630-668 CE Pallava The Sivanvayal pillar inscription states that he performed ten Ashvamedhas[20]
Adityasena 655-680 CE Later Gupta Vaidyanatha temple (Deoghar) inscription[24]
Madhyamaraja I (alias Ayashobhita II) c. 670-700 CE Shailodbhava Inscriptions;[28] one interpretation of the inscriptions suggests that he merely participated in the Ashvamedha performed by his father Madhavaraja II[24]
Dharmaraja (alias Manabhita) c. 726-727 CE Shailodbhava Inscriptions; one interpretation of the inscriptions suggests that he merely participated in the Ashvamedha performed by his grandfather Madhavaraja II[24]
Rajadhiraja Chola 1044–1052 CE Chola [29]
Jai Singh II 1699–1743 CE Kachwahas of Jaipur [30]
The Dhanadeva-Ayodhya inscription, 1st century BCE, mentions two Ashvamedha rituals by Pushyamitra in the city of Ayodhya.[31]
An Ashwamedha coin of Kumaragupta, who performed the sacrifice in 5th century CE
Coin of Samudragupta circa 335-380 CE. Ashvamedha type.
The Udayendiram inscription of the 8th century Pallava king Nandivarman II (alias Pallavamalla) states that his general Udayachandra defeated the Nishada ruler Prithvivyaghra, who, "desiring to become very powerful, was running after the horse of the Ashvamedha". The inscription does not clarify which king initiated this Ashvamedha campaign. Historian N. Venkataramanayya theorized that Prithvivyaghra was a feudatory ruler, who unsuccessfully tried to challenge Nandivarman's Ashvamedha camapign. However, historian Dineshchandra Sircar notes that no other inscriptions of Nandivarman or his descendants mention his performance of Ashvamedha; therefore, it is more likely that the Ashvamedha campaign was initiated by Prithvivyaghra (or his overlord), and Nandivarman's general foiled it.[32]
In Hindu revivalism
In the Arya Samaj reform movement of Dayananda Sarasvati, the Ashvamedha is considered an allegory or a ritual to get connected to the "inner Sun" (Prana)[33] According to Dayananda, no horse was actually to be slaughtered in the ritual as per the Yajurveda. Following Dayananda, the Arya Samaj disputes the very existence of the pre-Vedantic ritual; thus Swami Satya Prakash Saraswati claims that
the word in the sense of the Horse Sacrifice does not occur in the Samhitas [...] In the terms of cosmic analogy, ashva s the Sun. In respect to the adhyatma paksha, the Prajapati-Agni, or the Purusha, the Creator, is the Ashva; He is the same as the Varuna, the Most Supreme. The word medha stands for homage; it later on became synonymous with oblations in rituology, since oblations are offered, dedicated to the one whom we pay homage. The word deteriorated further when it came to mean 'slaughter' or 'sacrifice'.[34]
He argues that the animals listed as sacrificial victims are just as symbolic as the list of human victims listed in the Purushamedha.[34] (which is generally accepted as a purely symbolic sacrifice already in Rigvedic times).
All World Gayatri Pariwar since 1991 has organized performances of a "modern version" of the Ashvamedha where a statue is used in place of a real horse, according to Hinduism Today with a million participants in Chitrakoot, Madhya Pradesh on April 16 to 20, 1994.[35] Such modern performances are sattvika Yajnas where the animal is worshipped without killing it,[36] the religious motivation being prayer for overcoming enemies, the facilitation of child welfare and development, and clearance of debt,[37] entirely within the allegorical interpretation of the ritual, and with no actual sacrifice of any animal.
Reception
The earliest recorded criticism of the ritual comes from the Cārvāka, an atheistic school of Indian philosophy that assumed various forms of philosophical skepticism and religious indifference. A quotation of the Cārvāka from Madhavacharya's Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha states: "The three authors of the Vedas were buffoons, knaves, and demons. All the well-known formulae of the pandits, jarphari, turphari, etc. and all the obscene rites for the queen commanded in Aswamedha, these were invented by buffoons, and so all the various kinds of presents to the priests, while the eating of flesh was similarly commanded by night-prowling demons."[38]
This part of the ritual offended the Dalit reformer and framer of the Indian constitution B. R. Ambedkar and is frequently mentioned in his writings as an example of the perceived degradation of Brahmanical culture.[39]
While others such has Manohar L. Varadpande, praised the ritual as "social occasions of great magnitude".[40] Rick F. Talbott writes that "Mircea Eliade treated the Ashvamedha as a rite having a cosmogonic structure which both regenerated the entire cosmos and reestablished every social order during its performance."[41]
See also
Horse sacrifice
Ashva, horse in Vedic culture
October Horse in Roman religion
Footnotes
Jump up ^ Rosen, Steven. Holy Cow: The Hare Krishna Contribution to Vegetarianism and Animal Rights. Lantern Books. p. 212.
Jump up ^ The Vedas: With Illustrative Extracts. Book Tree. p. 62. horse sacrifice was prohibited in the Kali Yuga
Jump up ^ Mansingh, Surjit. Historical Dictionary of India. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 68.
Jump up ^ Talbott, Rick (2005). Sacred Sacrifice: Ritual Paradigms in Vedic Religion and Early Christianity. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 111.
Jump up ^ Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam, ed. India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 72.
Jump up ^ Glucklich, Ariel. The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective. Oxford University Press. p. 112.
^ Jump up to: a b Thomas V. Gamkrelidze; Vjaceslav V. Ivanov (1995). Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture. Part I: The Text. Part II: Bibliography, Indexes. Walter de Gruyter. p. 402-403.
Jump up ^ Talbott, Rick (2005). Sacred Sacrifice: Ritual Paradigms in Vedic Religion and Early Christianity. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 123.
Jump up ^ The Laws of Manu, translated by Wendy Doniger with Brian K. Smith, p.104. Penguin Books, London, 1991
Jump up ^ Thomas V. Gamkrelidze; Vjaceslav V. Ivanov (1995). Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture. Part I: The Text. Part II: Bibliography, Indexes. Walter de Gruyter. p. 70.
Jump up ^ Talbott, Rick (2005). Sacred Sacrifice: Ritual Paradigms in Vedic Religion and Early Christianity. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 142.
Jump up ^ Dalal, Roshen (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books.
Jump up ^ David M. Knipe 2015, p. 234.
Jump up ^ K M Ganguly 1883, pp. 130–131.
Jump up ^ Mansingh, Surjit. Historical Dictionary of India. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 68.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Dineshchandra Sircar 1971, p. 175.
Jump up ^ Dinesh Chandra Shukla (1978). Early history of Rajasthan. Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan. p. 30.
Jump up ^ David M. Knipe 2015, p. 8.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Jayantanuja Bandyopadhyaya 2007, p. 203.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Dineshchandra Sircar 1971, p. 176.
^ Jump up to: a b c Upinder Singh 2008, p. 510.
Jump up ^ David M. Knipe 2015, p. 9.
Jump up ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 139.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Dineshchandra Sircar 1971, p. 179.
Jump up ^ David M. Knipe 2015, p. 10.
Jump up ^ Karl J. Schmidt (20 May 2015). An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History. Taylor & Francis. p. 77. ISBN 978-1-317-47680-1.
Jump up ^ Snigdha Tripathy 1997, p. 67.
Jump up ^ Snigdha Tripathy 1997, pp. 74-75.
Jump up ^ Rama Shankar Tripathi (1942). History of Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 466. ISBN 978-81-208-0018-2.
Jump up ^ Yamini Narayanan (2014). Religion, Heritage and the Sustainable City: Hinduism and Urbanisation in Jaipur. Routledge. p. 106. ISBN 978-1-135-01269-4.
Jump up ^ Ayodhya Revisited by Kunal Kishore p.24 [1]
Jump up ^ Dineshchandra Sircar 1962, p. 263.
Jump up ^ as a bahuvrihi, saptāśva "having seven horses" is another name of the Sun, referring to the horses of his chariot.; akhandjyoti.org Archived September 29, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. glosses 'ashva' as "the symbol of mobility, valour and strength" and 'medha' as "the symbol of supreme wisdom and intelligence", yielding a meaning of 'ashvamedha' of "the combination of the valour and strength and illumined power of intellect"
^ Jump up to: a b The Critical and Cultural Study of the Shatapatha Brahmana by Swami Satya Prakash Saraswati, p. 415; 476
Jump up ^ Hinduism Today, June 1994 Archived December 13, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Ashwamedha Yagam in city". Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh. The Hindu. Oct 13, 2005. Retrieved 30 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Ashwamedhayagnam.org Archived September 29, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Madhavacarya, Sarvadarsana-sangraha, English translation by E. B. Cowell and A. E. Gough, 1904 quoted in Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya (ed.), Carvaka/Lokayata: An Anthology of Source Materials and Some Recent Studies (New Delhi: Indian Council of Philosophical Research, 1990)
Jump up ^ Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, Writings and Speeches. p. 1376.
Jump up ^ "History of Indian Theatre, Volume 1" by Manohar Laxman Varadpande, p.46
Jump up ^ "Sacred Sacrifice: Ritual Paradigms in Vedic Religion and Early Christianity" by Rick F. Talbott, p. 133
References
Ashvini Agrawal (1989). Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0592-7.
Charles Drekmeier (1962). Kingship and Community in Early India. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-0114-3.
David M. Knipe (2015). Vedic Voices: Intimate Narratives of a Living Andhra Tradition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dineshchandra Sircar (1962). Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, ed. The History and Culture of the Indian People: The classical age. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 263.
Dineshchandra Sircar (1971). Studies in the Religious Life of Ancient and Medieval India. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-2790-5.
Jayantanuja Bandyopadhyaya (2007). Class and Religion in Ancient India. Anthem. ISBN 978-1-84331-332-8.
K M Ganguly (1896). The Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa. Sacred Texts.
Snigdha Tripathy (1997). Inscriptions of Orissa. I - Circa 5th-8th centuries A.D. Indian Council of Historical Research and Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1077-8.
Stephanie Jamison (1996). Sacrificed Wife / Sacrificer's Wife. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Upinder Singh (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India. Pearson Education India. ISBN 9788131711200.
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Economy of the Ming dynasty
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The Ming Empire around 1580
The economy of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) of China was the largest in the world during that period. It is regarded as one of China's three golden ages (the other two being the Han and Song periods). The period was marked by the increasing political influence of the merchants, the gradual weakening of imperial rule, and technological advances.
Contents
[hide]
1 Currency
2 Manufactures
2.1 Privatization
2.2 Emergence of wage labor
3 Early encouragement of agriculture under Hongwu
3.1 Emergence of commercial plantations
3.2 Rural markets during the Ming
4 Trade and investment
4.1 Taxation
4.2 Weakening of the state
4.3 Sprouts of capitalism
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Currency[edit]
Further information: Ming dynasty coinage
The early Ming dynasty attempted to use paper currency, with outflows of bullion limited by its ban on private foreign commerce.[1] Like its forebears, the currency experienced massive counterfeiting and hyperinflation. (In 1425, Ming notes were trading at about 0.014% of its original value under the Hongwu Emperor.)[2] The notes remained in circulation as late as 1573 but their printing was ended in 1450. Minor coins were minted in base metals, but trade mostly occurred using silver ingots. As their purity and exact weight varied, they were treated as bullion and measured in tael. These privately made "sycee" first came into use in Guangdong, spreading to the lower Yangtze sometime before 1423, the year it became acceptable for payment of tax obligations. In the mid-15th century, the paucity of circulating silver caused a monetary contraction and extensive reversion to barter.[3] The problem was met through smuggled, then legal, importation of Japanese silver (mostly through the Portuguese and Dutch) and Spanish silver from Potosí carried on the Manila galleons. Provincial taxes were required to be paid in silver in 1465; the salt tax, in 1475; and corvée exemptions, in 1485. By the late Ming, the amount of silver being used was extraordinary: at a time when English traders considered tens of thousands of pounds an exceptional fortune, the Zheng clan of merchants regularly engaged in transactions valued at millions of taels. However, a second silver contraction occurred in the mid-17th century when King Philip IV began enforcing laws limiting direct trade between Spanish South America and China at about the same time the new Tokugawa shogunate in Japan restricted most of its foreign exports, cutting off Dutch and Portuguese access to its silver. The dramatic spike in silver's value in China made payment of taxes nearly impossible for most provinces.[4] In extremis, the government even resumed use of paper currency amid Li Zicheng's rebellion.
Manufactures[edit]
Privatization[edit]
Another key feature of the Ming manufacturing industry was privatization. Unlike the Song, in which state-owned enterprises played a large role, the Ming reverted to the old laissez faire policies of the Han by privatizing the salt and tea industries. By the middle of the Ming dynasty, powerful groups of wealthy merchants had replaced the state as the dominant movers behind Chinese industry.
Emergence of wage labor[edit]
The Ming government abolished the mandatory forced labor by peasants used in early dynasties and replaced it with wage labor. A new class of wage laborers sprung up where none had existed before. In Jingde alone, it was reported that there were no less than 300 pottery factories, all operated by wage laborers.[5]
Early encouragement of agriculture under Hongwu[edit]
In order to recover from rule of the Mongols and the wars that followed them, the Hongwu Emperor enacted pro-agricultural policies. The state invested extensively in agricultural canals, reduced taxes on agriculture to 1/30 of the output, and later to 1.5% of agricultural output. Ming farmers also introduced many innovations such as water-powered plows, and new agricultural methods such as crop rotation. This led to a massive agricultural surplus that became the basis of a market economy.[5]
Emergence of commercial plantations[edit]
The Ming saw the rise of commercial plantations who produced crops suitable to their regions. Tea, fruits, paint and other goods were produced on a massive scale by these agricultural plantations. Regional patterns of production established during this period continued into the Qing dynasty.[5] The Columbian exchange brought crops such as corn with these foreign crops. During the Ming, specialized areas also popped up planting large numbers of cash crops that could be sold at markets. Large numbers of peasants abandoned the land to become artisans. The population of the Ming boomed; estimates for the population of the Ming range from 160 to 200 million.
Rural markets during the Ming[edit]
Ming agriculture was much changed from the earlier areas; firstly, gigantic areas, devoting and specializing in cash crops, sprung up to demand from the new market economy. Secondly, agricultural tools and carts, some water-powered, help to create a gigantic agricultural surplus which formed the basis of the rural economy. Besides rice, other crops were grown on a large scale.[5]
Although images of autarkic farmers who had no connection to the rest of China may have some merit for the earlier Han and T'ang dynasties, this was certainly not the case for the Ming dynasty. During the Ming dynasty, the increase in population and the decrease in quality land made it necessary that farmers make a living off cash crops. Many of these markets appeared in the rural countryside, where goods were exchanged and bartered.[6]
A second type of market that developed in China was the urban-rural type, in which rural goods were sold to urban dwellers. This was particular the case when landlords decided to reside in the cities, and use income coming from rural land holding to facilitate exchange in the cities. Another way this type of market was used was professional merchants who bought rural goods in large quantities.[6]
The third type of market was the "national market" which was developed during the Song dynasty but particularly enhanced during the Ming. This market involved not only the exchange described above, but also products produced directly for the market. Unlike earlier dynasties, many Ming peasants were no longer producing only products they needed; many of them produced products for the market, which then they sold at a profit.[6]
Trade and investment[edit]
Main article: Haijin
In the early Ming, after the devastation of the war which expelled the Mongols, the Hongwu Emperor imposed severe restrictions on trade (the "haijin"). Believing that agriculture was the basis of the economy, Hongwu favored that industry over all else, including that of merchants. After his death, most of his policies were reversed by his successors. By the late Ming, the state was losing power to the very merchants which Hongwu had wanted to restrict.
The Ming dynasty also engaged in a thriving trade with both Europe and Japan. The amount of silver flowing into the Ming dynasty was estimated by Joseph Needham at 300 million taels, which is equivalent to more than 190 billion dollars in today's money. In addition to silver, the Ming also imported many European firearms, in order to ensure the modernness of their weapons.
Trade and commerce thrived in this liberalized economy, and was aided by the construction of canals, roads, and bridges by the Ming government. The Ming saw the rise of several merchant clans such as the Huai and Jin clans, who disposed of large amounts of wealth. The gentry and merchant classes started to fuse, and the merchants gained power at the expense of the state. Some merchants were reputed to have a treasure of 30 million taels.
Taxation[edit]
Ming taxation was light. Taxes on agriculture were only 1/30 of agricultural produce, and were later reduced to 1/50 of produce. Taxes on commerce amounted to 1/30 of commerce also, but was later reduced to 1.5%. These low taxes spurred trade, but severely weakened the state. Salt, as in earlier dynasties, was an important source of state revenue, but required constant and competent management. With the coming of the Little Ice Age in the 17th century, the state's low revenues and its inability to raise taxes caused massive deficits, and large numbers of Ming troops defected or rebelled because they had not been paid.[7]
Weakening of the state[edit]
During the Ming, the controls imposed on the economy were gradually relaxed. State monopolies on salt and iron ended as these and other industries were privatized. Taxes were reduced from the high levels under the Mongol Yuan, and the Ming had one of the lowest tax rates (per person) in the world. The entire foreign trade, which was estimated at up to 300 million taels, provided the Ming with a tax of only about 40,000 taels a year. When the Wanli Emperor sought to increase the salt tax, his measures were opposed by violence and the eunuchs he sent to collect the tax were beheaded by local officials.
Sprouts of capitalism[edit]
Investment and capital moved off the land and were poured into ventures. Continuing the trend from the Song, Ming investors poured large amounts of capital into ventures and reaped high profits. Many Chinese scholars believe the Ming was the dynasty in which the "sprouts of capitalism" emerged in China, only to be suppressed by the Qing Dynastry. This theory was widely promoted by Communist scholars during the Maoist period, and suffers from that period's general condemnation of the Manchu Qing, who were accused of mis-managing the Chinese state in the face of foreign encroachment.
See also[edit]
Economic history of China
Economy of the Han dynasty
Economy of the Song dynasty
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Von Glahn, Richard (1996), Fountain of Fortune: Money and Monetary Policy in China, 1000–1700, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 90–1, ISBN 0-520-20408-5 .
Jump up ^ Fairbank, John K.; et al. (2006), China: A New History (2nd ed.), Cambridge: Harvard University Press, p. 134, ISBN 0-674-01828-1 .
Jump up ^ Atwell, William S. (1998), "Ming China and the Emerging World Economy, c. 1470–1650", The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 8: The Ming Dynasty: 1368–1644, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 387, ISBN 0521243335 .
Jump up ^ Brook, Timothy (1998), The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China, Berkeley: University of California Press, p. 208, ISBN 0-520-22154-0 .
^ Jump up to: a b c d Li Bo, Zheng Yin, "5000 years of Chinese history", Inner Mongolian People's publishing corp, 2001, ISBN 7-204-04420-7, pp. 994–997.
^ Jump up to: a b c Twitchett, Denis; John K.Fairbank. the Ming dynasty part 2 (May 1987), The Cambridge History of China, ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8, pp. 497–498.
Jump up ^ Huang, Ray (1998), "The Ming fiscal administration", in Twitchett, Denis and Fairbank, John K. (eds.), The Ming Dynasty, 1 398–1644, Part 2, The Cambridge History of China, 8, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 106–172, ISBN 978-0-521-24333-9 CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
External links[edit]
China’s GDP in the Ming Dynasty Guan Hanhui David Daokui Li
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Mughal gardens
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Mughal gardens
Type
Public parks
Created
1526 (1526)
Status
Open year round
The Shalimar Gardens in Lahore, Pakistan, is among the most famous of all Mughal-era gardens
Mughal gardens are a group of gardens built by the Mughals in the Persian style of architecture. This style was heavily influenced by the Persian gardens particularly the Charbagh structure.[1] Significant use of rectilinear layouts are made within the walled enclosures. Some of the typical features include pools, fountains and canals inside the gardens.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Design and symbolism
3 Sites of Mughal gardens
3.1 Afghanistan
3.2 India
3.3 Pakistan
3.4 Bangladesh
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
History[edit]
Mughal Emperor Babur supervising the creation of a garden
The founder of the Mughal empire, Babur, described his favourite type of garden as a charbagh. They use the term bāgh, baug, bageecha or bagicha for garden. This word developed a new meaning in India, as Babur explains; India lacked the fast-flowing streams required for the Central Asian charbagh. The Agra garden, which was renamed after Partition of India as the Ram Bagh, since it lied in Hindu majority portion is thought to have been the first charbagh. India, Bangladesh and Pakistan have a number of Mughal gardens which differ from their Central Asian predecessors with respect to "the highly disciplined geometry". An early textual references about Mughal gardens are found in the memoirs and biographies of the Mughal emperors, including those of Babur, Humayun and Akbar. Later references are found from "the accounts of India" written by various European travellers (Bernier for example). The first serious historical study of Mughal gardens was written by Constance Villiers-Stuart, with the title Gardens of the Great Mughals (1913). Her husband was a Colonel in Britain's Indian army. This gave her a good network of contacts and an opportunity to travel. During their residence at Pinjore Gardens, Mrs. Villiers-Stuart also had an opportunity to direct the maintenance of an important Mughal garden. Her book makes reference to the forthcoming design of a garden in the Government House at New Delhi (now known as Rashtrapati Bhavan).[2] She was consulted by Edwin Lutyens, and this may have influenced his choice of Mughal style for this project. Recent scholarly work on the history of Mughal gardens has been carried out under the auspicious guidance of Dumbarton Oaks (including Mughal Gardens: Sources, Places, Representations, and Prospects edited by James L. Wescoat, Jr. and Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahn) and the Smithsonian Institution. Some examples of Mughal gardens are Shalimar Gardens (Lahore), Lalbagh Fort at Dhaka, and Shalimar Bagh (Srinagar).
Mughal gardens at the Taj Mahal
From the beginnings of the Mughal Empire, the construction of gardens was a beloved imperial pastime.[3] Babur, the first Mughal conqueror-king, had gardens built in Lahore and Dholpur. Humayun, his son, does not seem to have had much time for building—he was busy reclaiming and increasing the realm—but he is known to have spent a great deal of time at his father’s gardens.[4] Akbar built several gardens first in Delhi,[5] then in Agra, Akbar’s new capital.[6] These tended to be riverfront gardens rather than the fortress gardens that his predecessors built. Building riverfront rather than fortress gardens influenced later Mughal garden architecture considerably.
Akbar’s region, Jahangir, did not build as much, but he helped to lay out the famous Shalimar garden and was known for his great love for flowers.[7] Indeed, his trips to Kashmir are believed to have begun a fashion for naturalistic and abundant floral design.[8]
Jahangir's son, Shah Jahan, marks the apex of Mughal garden architecture and floral design. He is famous for the construction of the Taj Mahal, a sprawling funereal paradise in memory of his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal.[9] He is also responsible for the Red Fort at Delhi which contains the Mahtab Bagh, a night garden that was filled with night-blooming jasmine and other pale flowers.[10] The pavilions within are faced with white marble to glow in the moonlight. This and the marble of the Taj Mahal are inlaid with semiprecious stone depicting scrolling naturalistic floral motifs, the most important being the tulip, which Shah Jahan adopted as a personal symbol.[11]
Design and symbolism[edit]
Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar, Kashmir
Mughal gardens design derives primarily from the medieval Islamic garden, although there are nomadic influences that come from the Mughals’ Turkish-Mongolian ancestry. Julie Scott Meisami describes the medieval Islamic garden as “a hortus conclusus, walled off and protected from the outside world; within, its design was rigidly formal, and its inner space was filled with those elements that man finds most pleasing in nature. Its essential features included running water (perhaps the most important element) and a pool to reflect the beauties of sky and garden; trees of various sorts, some to provide shade merely, and others to produce fruits; flowers, colorful and sweet-smelling; grass, usually growing wild under the trees; birds to fill the garden with song; the whole is cooled by a pleasant breeze. The garden might include a raised hillock at the center, reminiscent of the mountain at the center of the universe in cosmological descriptions, and often surmounted by a pavilion or palace.”[12] The Turkish-Mongolian elements of the Mughal garden are primarily related to the inclusion of tents, carpets and canopies reflecting nomadic roots. Tents indicated status in these societies, so wealth and power were displayed through the richness of the fabrics as well as by size and number.[13]
The Mughals were obsessed with symbol and incorporated it into their gardens in many ways. The standard Quranic references to paradise were in the architecture, layout, and in the choice of plant life; but more secular references, including numerological and zodiacal significances connected to family history or other cultural significance, were often juxtaposed. The numbers eight and nine were considered auspicious by the Mughals and can be found in the number of terraces or in garden architecture such as octagonal pools.[14]
Sites of Mughal gardens[edit]
Pinjore Gardens in Haryana
Humayun's Tomb, Delhi, India
Afghanistan[edit]
Bagh-e Babur (Kabul)
India[edit]
Humayun's Tomb, Nizamuddin East, Delhi
Taj Mahal, Agra
Aarm Bagh, Agra
Mehtab Bagh, Agra
Safdarjung's Tomb
Shalimar Bagh (Srinagar), Jammu and Kashmir
Nishat Gardens, Jammu and Kashmir
Yadavindra Gardens, Pinjore
Khusro Bagh, Allahabad
Roshanara Bagh
Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi (1911-1931)
Vernag
Chashma Shahi
Pari Mahal
Achabal Gardens
Qudsia Bagh
Pune-Okayama Friendship Garden-Phase_II
Pakistan[edit]
Chauburji
Lahore Fort
Shahdara Bagh
Shalimar Gardens (Lahore)
Tomb of Jahangir, Lahore
Hazuri Bagh
Hiran Minar (Sheikhupura)
Mughal Garden Wah
Bangladesh[edit]
Lalbagh Fort
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mughal gardens.
Charbagh gardens
Lal Bagh
Indo-Persian culture
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Penelope Hobhouse; Erica Hunningher; Jerry Harpur (2004). Gardens of Persia. Kales Press. pp. 7–13.
Jump up ^ Villiers-Stuart, C. M. (1913). The Gardens of the Great Mughals. Adam and Charles Black, London.
Jump up ^ Jellicoe, Susan. "The Development of the Mughal Garden", MacDougall, Elisabeth B.; Ettinghausen, Richard. The Islamic Garden, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington D.C. (1976). p109
Jump up ^ Hussain, Mahmood; Rehman, Abdul; Wescoat, James L. Jr. The Mughal Garden: Interpretation, Conservation and Implications, Ferozsons Ltd., Lahore (1996). p 207
Jump up ^ Neeru Misra and Tanay Misra, Garden Tomb of Humayun: An Abode in Paradise, Aryan Books International, Delhi, 2003
Jump up ^ Koch, Ebba. “The Char Bagh Conquers the Citadel: an Outline of the Development if the Mughal Palace Garden,” Hussain, Mahmood; Rehman, Abdul; Wescoat, James L. Jr. The Mughal Garden: Interpretation, Conservation and Implications, Ferozsons Ltd., Lahore (1996). p. 55
Jump up ^ With his son Shah Jahan. Jellicoe, Susan “The Development of the Mughal Garden” MacDougall, Elisabeth B.; Ettinghausen, Richard. The Islamic Garden, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington D.C. (1976). p 115
Jump up ^ Moynihan, Elizabeth B. Paradise as Garden in Persia and Mughal India, Scholar Press, London (1982)p 121-123.
Jump up ^ Villiers-Stuart, C. M. (1913). The Gardens of the Great Mughals. Adam and Charles Black, London. p. 53.
Jump up ^ Jellicoe, Susan “The Development of the Mughal Garden” MacDougall, Elisabeth B.; Ettinghausen, Richard. The Islamic Garden, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington D.C. (1976). p 121
Jump up ^ Tulips are metaphorically considered to be “branded by love” in Persian poetry. Meisami, Julie Scott. “Allegorical Gardens in the Persian Poetic Tradition: Nezami, Rumi, Hafez,” International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 17, No. 2 (May, 1985), p. 242
Jump up ^ Meisami, Julie Scott. “Allegorical Gardens in the Persian Poetic Tradition: Nezami, Rumi, Hafez,” International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 17, No. 2 (May, 1985), p. 231; The Old Persian word pairideaza (transliterated to English as paradise) means “walled garden”. Moynihan, Elizabeth B. Paradise as Garden in Persia and Mughal India, Scholar Press, London (1982), p. 1.
Jump up ^ Allsen, Thomas T. Commodity and Exchange n the Mongol Empire: A Cultural History of Islamic Textiles, Cambridge University Press (1997). p 12-26
Jump up ^ Moynihan, Elizabeth B. Paradise as Garden in Persia and Mughal India, Scholar Press, London (1982). p100
Further reading[edit]
Crowe, Sylvia (2006). The gardens of Mughul India: a history and a guide. Jay Kay Book Shop. ISBN 978-8-187-22109-8.
Lehrman, Jonas Benzion (1980). Earthly paradise: garden and courtyard in Islam. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-04363-4.
Ruggles, D. Fairchild (2008). Islamic Gardens and Landscapes. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-4025-1.
Wescoat, James L.; Wolschke-Bulmahn, Joachim (1996). Mughal gardens: sources, places, representations, and prospects. Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 978-0-884-02235-0.
मुगल गॉर्डन: बसंत ऋतु में मानों धरती का स्वर्ग: श्रवण शुक्ल की रिपोर्ट
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/295862115_Diversification_Through_Floriculture_in_Kashmir_Valley
External links[edit]
Gardens of the Mughal Empire, Smithsonian Institution
The Herbert Offen Research Collection of the Phillips Library at the Peabody Essex Museum
मुगल गॉर्डन: बसंत ऋतु में मानों धरती का स्वर्ग: श्रवण शुक्ल की रिपोर्ट
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Modern
Moorish
Moroccan
Mudéjar
Mughal
Ottoman
Razi
Seljuk
Somali
Sudano-Sahelian
Tatar
Timurid
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Vernacular Persian
Yemenite
elements
structural
Ablaq
Chahartaq
Chhajja
Hasht-Bihisht
Hypostyle
Iwan
Jharokha
Kucheh
Liwan
Mashrabiya
Moroccan riad
Qadad
Riwaq
Sahn
Semi-dome
Shabestan
Squinch
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Voussoir
Windcatcher
Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem
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styles
Discharging arch
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Dome (Arabic dome / Onion dome / Persian dome / South Asian dome)
Guldasta
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religious
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decorations
Arabesque
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Girih tiles
Islamic calligraphy
Islamic geometric patterns
Islamic interlace patterns
Jali
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Mosque lamp
Muqarnas
Nagash painting
Qashani
Shabaka
Socarrat
Yeseria
Zellige
rooms
Andaruni
Harem
Qa’a
Zenana
garden
Bagh
Charbagh
Islamic garden
Mughal gardens
Ottoman gardens
Paradise garden
Persian gardens
Reflecting pool
outdoor
objects
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Howz
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types
religious
Dargah
Gongbei
Jama Masjid
Jama'at Khana
Khanqah
Külliye
Madrasa
Maqam
Maqbara
Mazar
Mosque
Musalla
Qubba
Rauza
Surau
Tekyeh
Türbe
Zawiya
civilian
Baradari
Bazaar
Caravanserai
Dar al-Shifa
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Mahal
Medina quarter
Souq
Turkish bath
Well house
military
Alcázar
Amsar
Bab
Kasbah
Ksar
Qalat
Ribat
resources
Aga Khan Award for Architecture
ArchNet
influences
Indo-Saracenic Revival
Influences on Western architecture
Moorish Revival
Part of Islamic arts
[show]
v
t
e
Islamic art
Architecture
Regional styles
Ayyubid
Azerbaijani
Chinese
Indo-Islamic
Indonesian
Moorish
Moroccan
Mudéjar
Mughal
Ottoman
Pakistani
Persian
Somali
Sudano-Sahelian
Tatar
Timurid
Umayyad
Elements
Ablaq
Banna'i
Iwan
Jali
Mashrabiya
Mihrab
Minaret
Mocárabe
Muqarnas
Yeseria
See also Decoration
Arts
Regional styles
Persian (Early, Qajar, Safavid)
Turkish (Ottoman)
Carpets
Gul
Kilim
Motifs
Persian
Turkish
Prayer
Pottery
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İznik
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Chinese influence
Textiles
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Ikat
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Soumak
Suzani
Woodwork
Khatam
Minbar
Other media
Brass
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Glass
Hardstone carving
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Stained glass
Shabaka
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the book
Miniatures
Arabic
Mughal
Ottoman
Persian
Calligraphy
Arabic
Diwani
Kufic
Muhaqqaq
Naskh
Nastaʿlīq
Persian
Sini
Taʿlīq
Thuluth
Tughra
Other arts
Muraqqa
Hilya
Ottoman illumination
Decoration
Arabesque
Geometric patterns
Girih (tiles)
Zellige
The garden
Charbagh
Mughal
Ottoman
Paradise
Persian
Museums
Berlin
Cairo
Doha
Ghazni
Istanbul (Arts, Calligraphy Art)
Jerusalem (Islamic Museum, L. A. Mayer Institute)
Kuala Lumpur
London (British Museum, V&A)
Los Angeles
Marrakech (Museum, Majorelle Garden)
Melbourne
Paris (Arab World Institute, Louvre)
Singapore
Toronto (Aga Khan)
Tripoli
Principles,
influences
Islamic Art: Mirror of the Invisible World
Aniconism in Islam
Indo-Saracenic Revival
Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe
Influences on Western art
Grotesque
Moresque
Mathematics and architecture
Moorish Revival
Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting
Pseudo-Kufic
Stilfragen
Topkapı Scroll
[show]
v
t
e
Mughal Empire
Emperors
Babur
Humayun
Akbar
Jahangir
Shah Jahan
Aurangzeb (Alamgir)
Muhammad Azam Shah
Bahadur Shah I
Jahandar Shah
Farrukhsiyar
Rafi ud-Darajat
Shah Jahan II
Muhammad Shah
Ahmad Shah Bahadur
Alamgir II
Shah Jahan III
Shah Alam II
Akbar II
Bahadur Shah II
Battles and
conflicts
Battle of Panipat (1526)
Gujarat conquest
Battle of Khanwa
Battle of Ghaghra
Siege of Sambhal
Battle of Panipat (1556)
Battle of Thanesar
Siege of Chittorgarh
Siege of Ranthambore
Battle of Tukaroi
Battle of Raj Mahal
Battle of Haldighati
Battle of Bhuchar Mori
Siege of Kandahar
Mughal–Safavid War (1622–23)
Siege of Orchha
Mughal–Safavid War (1649–53)
Battle of Samugarh
Battle of Khajwa
Suppression of Tilpat rebellion
Ahom–Mughal conflicts
Siege of Purandhar
Tibet–Ladakh–Mughal War
Mughal–Maratha Wars
Siege of Bijapur
Siege of Jinji
Child's War
Siege of Golconda
Battle of Karnal
Third Battle of Panipat
Battle of Buxar
Siege of Delhi
Architecture
Taj Mahal
Gardens of Babur
Fatehpur Sikri
Tomb of Salim Chishti
Humayun's Tomb
Red Fort
Lahore Fort
Jahangir Mahal
Lalbagh Fort
Akbar's Tomb
Agra Fort
Chawk Mosque
Shalimar Gardens
Achabal Gardens
Jahangir's Tomb
Bibi Ka Maqbara
Badshahi Mosque
Shahi Bridge
Shah Jahan Mosque, Thatta
Sheesh Mahal
Sunehri Masjid
Tipu Sultan Mosque
Wazir Khan Mosque
more
Adversaries
Ibrahim Lodi
Rana Sanga
Sher Shah Suri
Hemu
Maharana Pratap
Malik Ambar
Gokula
Pratapaditya
Shivaji
Lachit Borphukan
Khushal Khattak
Sir Josiah Child
Guru Gobind Singh
Henry Every
Bajirao I
Nader Shah
Hector Munro
Provinces
Bengal Subah
Gujarat Subah
See also
Art
Cuisine
Culture
Flag
Gardens
Language
Military
Painting
Persians
Tribe
Weapons
Timurid dynasty
family tree
Successor states
Maratha Empire
Rajput states
Jats
Sikh Empire
Nawabs of Bengal
Awadh
Nizam of Hyderabad
Carnatic
Kingdom of Mysore
Rohilkhand
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mughal_gardens&oldid=809032089"
Categories:
Mughal gardens
Islamic gardens
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