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Fight-or-flight response
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For other uses, see Fight or Flight.
Fight or flight?
The fight-or-flight response (also called hyperarousal, or the acute stress response) is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival.[1] It was first described by Walter Bradford Cannon.[a][2] His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system, preparing the animal for fighting or fleeing.[3] More specifically, the adrenal medulla produces a hormonal cascade that results in the secretion of catecholamines, especially norepinephrine and epinephrine.[4] The hormones estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol, as well as the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin, also affect how organisms react to stress.[5]
This response is recognised as the first stage of the general adaptation syndrome that regulates stress responses among vertebrates and other organisms.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Physiology
1.1 Autonomic nervous system
1.1.1 Sympathetic nervous system
1.1.2 Parasympathetic nervous system
1.2 Reaction
1.3 Function of physiological changes
2 Emotional components
2.1 Emotion regulation
2.2 Emotional reactivity
3 Cognitive components
3.1 Content specificity
3.2 Perception of control
3.3 Social information processing
4 Other animals
4.1 Evolutionary perspective
4.2 Examples
4.3 Varieties of responses
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 Further reading
Physiology[edit]
Autonomic nervous system[edit]
See also: Autonomic nervous system
The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight response and its role is mediated by two different components: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.[7]
Sympathetic nervous system[edit]
See also: Sympathetic nervous system
The sympathetic nervous system originates in the spinal cord and its main function is to activate the physiological changes that occur during the fight-or-flight response. This component of the autonomic nervous system utilises and activates the release of norepinephrine in the reaction.[8]
Parasympathetic nervous system[edit]
See also: Parasympathetic nervous system
The parasympathetic nervous system originates in the sacral spinal cord and medulla, physically surrounding the sympathetic origin, and works in concert with the sympathetic nervous system. Its main function is to activate the "rest and digest" response and return the body to homeostasis after the fight or flight response. This system utilises and activates the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.[8]
Reaction[edit]
The fight-or-flight response
The reaction begins in the amygdala, which triggers a neural response in the hypothalamus. The initial reaction is followed by activation of the pituitary gland and secretion of the hormone ACTH.[9] The adrenal gland is activated almost simultaneously, via the sympathetic nervous system, and releases the hormone epinephrine. The release of chemical messengers results in the production of the hormone cortisol, which increases blood pressure, blood sugar, and suppresses the immune system.[10] The initial response and subsequent reactions are triggered in an effort to create a boost of energy. This boost of energy is activated by epinephrine binding to liver cells and the subsequent production of glucose.[11] Additionally, the circulation of cortisol functions to turn fatty acids into available energy, which prepares muscles throughout the body for response.[12] Catecholamine hormones, such as adrenaline (epinephrine) or noradrenaline (norepinephrine), facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent muscular action and :[13]
Acceleration of heart and lung action
Paling or flushing, or alternating between both
Inhibition of stomach and upper-intestinal action to the point where digestion slows down or stops
General effect on the sphincters of the body
Constriction of blood vessels in many parts of the body
Liberation of metabolic energy sources (particularly fat and glycogen) for muscular action
Dilation of blood vessels for muscles
Inhibition of the lacrimal gland (responsible for tear production) and salivation
Dilation of pupil (mydriasis)
Relaxation of bladder
Inhibition of erection
Auditory exclusion (loss of hearing)
Tunnel vision (loss of peripheral vision)
Disinhibition of spinal reflexes
Shaking.
Function of physiological changes[edit]
The physiological changes that occur during the fight or flight response are activated in order to give the body increased strength and speed in anticipation of fighting or running. Some of the specific physiological changes and their functions include:[14][15]
Increased blood flow to the muscles activated by diverting blood flow from other parts of the body.
Increased blood pressure, heart rate, blood sugars, and fats in order to supply the body with extra energy.
The blood clotting function of the body speeds up in order to prevent excessive blood loss in the event of an injury sustained during the response.
Increased muscle tension in order to provide the body with extra speed and strength.
Emotional components[edit]
Emotion regulation[edit]
See also: Emotional self-regulation
In the context of the fight or flight response, emotional regulation is used proactively to avoid threats of stress or to control the level of emotional arousal.[16][17]
Emotional reactivity[edit]
During the reaction, the intensity of emotion that is brought on by the stimulus will also determine the nature and intensity of the behavioral response.[18] Individuals with higher levels of emotional reactivity may be prone to anxiety and aggression, which illustrates the implications of appropriate emotional reaction in the fight or flight response.[19][20]
Cognitive components[edit]
Content specificity[edit]
The specific components of cognitions in the fight or flight response seem to be largely negative. These negative cognitions may be characterised by: attention to negative stimuli, the perception of ambiguous situations as negative, and the recurrence of recalling negative words.[21] There also may be specific negative thoughts associated with emotions commonly seen in the reaction.[22]
Perception of control[edit]
See also: Control (psychology)
Perceived control relates to an individual's thoughts about control over situations and events.[23] Perceived control should be differentiated from actual control because an individual's beliefs about their abilities may not reflect their actual abilities. Therefore, overestimation or underestimation of perceived control can lead to anxiety and aggression.[24]
Social information processing[edit]
See also: Social information processing (cognition)
The social information processing model proposes a variety of factors that determine behavior in the context of social situations and preexisting thoughts.[25] The attribution of hostility, especially in ambiguous situations, seems to be one of the most important cognitive factors associated with the fight or flight response because of its implications towards aggression.[26]
Other animals[edit]
Evolutionary perspective[edit]
An evolutionary psychology explanation is that early animals had to react to threatening stimuli quickly and did not have time to psychologically and physically prepare themselves. The fight or flight response provided them with the mechanisms to rapidly respond to threats against survival.[27][28]
Examples[edit]
A typical example of the stress response is a grazing zebra. If the zebra sees a lion closing in for the kill, the stress response is activated as a means to escape its predator. The escape requires intense muscular effort, supported by all of the body’s systems. The sympathetic nervous system’s activation rarely provides for these needs. A similar example involving fight is of a cat about to be attacked by a dog. The cat shows accelerated heartbeat, piloerection (hair standing on end, normally to dissipate heat), and pupil dilation, all signs of sympathetic arousal.[13] Note that the zebra and cat still maintain homeostasis in all states.
Varieties of responses[edit]
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Bison hunted by dogs
Animals respond to threats in many complex ways. Rats, for instance, try to escape when threatened, but will fight when cornered. Some animals stand perfectly still so that predators will not see them. Many animals freeze or play dead when touched in the hope that the predator will lose interest.
Other animals have alternative self-protection methods. Some species of cold-blooded animals change color swiftly, to camouflage themselves.[29] These responses are triggered by the sympathetic nervous system, but, in order to fit the model of fight or flight, the idea of flight must be broadened to include escaping capture either in a physical or sensory way. Thus, flight can be disappearing to another location or just disappearing in place. And often both fight and flight are combined in a given situation.
The fight or flight actions also have polarity – the individual can either fight or flee against something that is threatening, such as a hungry lion, or fight for or fly towards something that is needed, such as the safety of the shore from a raging river.
A threat from another animal does not always result in immediate fight or flight. There may be a period of heightened awareness, during which each animal interprets behavioral signals from the other. Signs such as paling, piloerection, immobility, sounds, and body language communicate the status and intentions of each animal. There may be a sort of negotiation, after which fight or flight may ensue, but which might also result in playing, mating, or nothing at all. An example of this is kittens playing: each kitten shows the signs of sympathetic arousal, but they never inflict real damage.
See also[edit]
Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis
Coping (psychology)
Defense physiology
Emotional dysregulation
Freezing behavior
Escape distance
The Relaxation Response
Rest and digest
Vasoconstriction
Workplace bullying
Yerkes–Dodson law
Acute stress reaction
Anxiety
Anxiety disorder
Panic attack
Phobia
Social anxiety
Social anxiety disorder
Tend and befriend
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Some references say he first described the response in 1914 in The American Journal of Physiology. Others in the 1915 edition of Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage. Other sources say that he first used the term in 1929 or in 1932 edition of the same book. The issue needs further research.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Cannon, Walter (1932). Wisdom of the Body. United States: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393002055.
Jump up ^ Walter Bradford Cannon (1929). Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear, and rage. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Jump up ^ Jansen, A; Nguyen, X; Karpitsky, V; Mettenleiter, M (27 October 1995). "Central Command Neurons of the Sympathetic Nervous System: Basis of the Fight-or-Flight Response". Science Magazine. 5236 (270).
Jump up ^ Walter Bradford Cannon (1915). Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage: An Account of Recent Researches into the Function of Emotional Excitement. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Jump up ^ "Adrenaline, Cortisol, Norepinephrine: The Three Major Stress Hormones, Explained". Hufflington Post. April 19, 2014. Retrieved 16 August 2014.
Jump up ^ Gozhenko, A; Gurkalova, I.P.; Zukow, W; Kwasnik, Z (2009). PATHOLOGY – Theory. Medical Student's Library. Radom. pp. 270–275.
Jump up ^ Schmidt, A; Thews, G (1989). "Autonomic Nervous System". In Janig, W. Human Physiology (2 ed.). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag. pp. 333–370. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Chudler, Eric. "Neuroscience For Kids". University of Washington. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Margioris, Andrew; Tsatsanis, Christos (April 2011). "ACTH Action on the Adrenal". Endotext.org. Archived from the original on 6 March 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Padgett, David; Glaser, R (August 2003). "How stress influences the immune response". Trends in Immunology. 24 (8): 444–448. doi:10.1016/S1471-4906(03)00173-X. PMID 12909458.
Jump up ^ King, Michael. "PATHWAYS: GLYCOGEN & GLUCOSE". Washington University, St. Louis.
Jump up ^ "HOW CELLS COMMUNICATE DURING THE FIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSE". University of Utah. Archived from the original on 8 August 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Henry Gleitman, Alan J. Fridlund and Daniel Reisberg (2004). Psychology (6 ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-97767-6.
Jump up ^ Stress Management for Health Course. "The Fight Flight Response". Retrieved 19 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Olpin, Michael. "The Science of Stress". Weber State University.
Jump up ^ Cistler, Josh; Bunmi O. Olatunji; Matthew T. Feldner; John P. Forsyth (2010). "Emotion Regulation and the Anxiety Disorders: An Integrative Review". Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment. 32 (1): 68–82. doi:10.1007/s10862-009-9161-1. PMC 2901125  . PMID 20622981.
Jump up ^ Gross, James (1998). "Sharpening the Focus: Emotion Regulation, Arousal, and Social Competence". Psychological Inquiry. 9 (4): 287–290. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0904_8.
Jump up ^ Avero, Pedro; Calvo, M (1 July 1999). "Emotional reactivity to social-evaluative stress: genderdifferences in response systems concordance". Personality and Individual Differences. 27 (1): 155–170. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00229-3.
Jump up ^ Carthy, T; Horesh N; Apter A; Edge MD; Gross JJ (May 2010). "Emotional reactivity and cognitive regulation in anxious children". Behavior Research and Therapy. 48 (5): 384–393. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.12.013.
Jump up ^ Valiente, C; Eisenberg N; Smith CL; Reiser M; Fabes RA; Losoya S; Guthrie IK; Murphy BC (December 2003). "The relations of effortful control and reactive control to children's externalising problems: A longitudinal assessment". Personality. 71 (6): 1171–1196. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.7106011. PMID 14633062.
Jump up ^ Reid, Sophie C.; Salmon, Karen; Peter F. Lovibond (October 2006). "Cognitive Biases in Childhood Anxiety, Depression, and Aggression: Are They Pervasive or Specific?". Cognitive Therapy and Research. 30 (5): 531–549. doi:10.1007/s10608-006-9077-y.
Jump up ^ Beck, Aaron (1979). Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. United States: Penguin Books.
Jump up ^ Weems, CF; Silverman, WK (April 2006). "An integrative model of control: implications for understanding emotion regulation and dysregulation in childhood anxiety". Journal of Affective disorders. 91 (2): 113–124. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2006.01.009.
Jump up ^ Brendgen, M; Vitaro F; Turgeon L; Poulin F; Wanner B (June 2004). "Is there a dark side of positive illusions? Overestimation of social competence and subsequent adjustment in aggressive and nonaggressive children". Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 32 (3): 305–320. doi:10.1023/B:JACP.0000026144.08470.cd. PMID 15228179.
Jump up ^ Crick, Nicki; Dodge, Kenneth (January 1994). "A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children's social adjustment". Psychological Bulletin. 115 (1): 74–101. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.74.
Jump up ^ Dodge, Kenneth (March 1980). "Social cognition and children's aggressive behavior". Journal of Child Development. 51 (1): 162–170. doi:10.2307/1129603.
Jump up ^ Grohol, John. "What's the purpose of the fight or flight response?". Retrieved 18 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Goldstein, David; Kopin, I (2007). "Evolution of concepts of stress". Stress. 10 (2): 109–20. doi:10.1080/10253890701288935. PMID 17514579.
Jump up ^ Gill, A.C. (2004). Revision of the Indo-Pacific dottyback fish subfamily Pseudochrominae (Perciformes: Pseudochromidae). Smithiana Monographs. pp. 1–123.
Further reading[edit]
Sapolsky, Robert M., 1994. Why Zebras Don't Get Ulcers. W.H. Freeman and Company.
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Government document "http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/chapter4/sec2_1.html".
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fight-or-flight_response&oldid=832446496"
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Gods and Generals (film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Gods and Generals
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Ronald F. Maxwell
Produced by
Moctesuma Esparza
Robert Katz
Mace Neufield
Robert Rehme
Screenplay by
Ronald F. Maxwell
Based on
Gods and Generals
by Jeff Shaara
Starring
Jeff Daniels
Stephen Lang
Robert Duvall
Music by
John Frizzell
Randy Edelman
Production
company
Ted Turner Pictures
Distributed by
Warner Bros. Pictures
Release date
February 21, 2003 (2003-02-21)
Running time
219 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$56 million
Box office
$12.8 million[1]
Gods and Generals is a 2003 American period war drama film written and directed by Ronald F. Maxwell.[2] It is an adaptation of the 1996 novel of the same name by Jeffrey Shaara[3] and prequel to Maxwell's 1993 film Gettysburg. The film stars Stephen Lang as Stonewall Jackson, Jeff Daniels as Lieutenant Colonel Joshua Chamberlain and Robert Duvall as General Robert E. Lee.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Director's cut
5 Soundtrack
6 Reception
6.1 Critical response
6.2 Historical response
6.3 Author's response
7 References
8 External links
Plot[edit]
Colonel Robert E. Lee resigns from the Union Army as the south secedes from the Union and both sides prepare for war. Major Jackson, who is a professor at Virginia Military Institute in Lexington at the outset of the war, leaves his family behind to do battle at Manassas Junction. Jackson is asked by a retreating General Barnard Bee for assistance against the Federal army who is pursuing them after a brief stand on Matthews Hill. In rallying his shaken troops, Bee launches the name of Stonewall into history and the Confederates rout the Federals at Henry House Hill. Jackson maintains steadfast discipline in his ranks during the battle despite suffering a wound to his left hand from a spent ball.
Meanwhile, Chamberlain makes his transition from teacher to military officer and practices drilling his soldiers, and is taught military tactics by Col. Adelbert Ames, the commander of the 20th Maine Volunteer Infantry Regiment. He is called to battle at the Union invasion of Fredericksburg. The Southern forces lead a fighting retreat as the Union army crosses the river and storms the town, and there are scenes of the subsequent looting of Fredricksburg by the Union Army. Outside the city, Lee, James Longstreet and Jackson have prepared an elaborate defense on Marye's Heights outside the town, and the movie focuses on Confederate defenses behind a formidable stone wall. Several Union brigades, including the Irish Brigade, attempt to cross an open field and attack the wall, but are thrown back with heavy losses by Confederate rifle and artillery fire. At one point, two Irish units are forced into battle against one another, to the anguish of a Southern Irishman who believes he is killing his kin. Chamberlain leads an unsuccessful attack against Longstreet's defenses, led by Brig. Gen. Lewis Armistead and finds his unit pinned down in the open field. He survives by shielding himself with a corpse until nightfall; eventually he and surviving members of 20th Maine are ordered to retreat and spend 2 nights on the battlefield, sleeping with the dead. Chamberlain and the defeated Union soldiers depart Fredericksburg. Jackson and Lee return to the city, and Lee is confronted by an angry citizen whose house has been destroyed by Union artillery.
Jackson spends the rest of the winter at a local plantation, Moss Neck Manor, where he develops a friendship with a girl who lives there. Later, Jackson discovers the child has died from scarlet fever and he begins to cry. A soldier asks why he weeps for this child but not for the thousands of dead soldiers, and another soldier states that Jackson is weeping for everyone. Jackson is soon reunited with his wife and newborn child just before the Battle of Chancellorsville.
Outside Chancellorsville, Lee identifies that the southern army faces an opposing force almost twice their size. Jackson calls upon his chaplain, Beverly Tucker Lacy who knows the area, and asks him to find a route by which the southern forces can infiltrate in secret. Jackson then leads his forces in a surprise attack on an unprepared Union 11th Corps. Although his men initially rout the opponents, they quickly become confused in the melee, and Jackson's attack is stalled. While scouting a path at night, Jackson is caught in no-mans-land between the 2 armies and badly wounded by his own men, who had mistaken him and his staff for Union cavalry. During his evacuation, his litter bearers are targeted by artillery and drop Jackson on the ground. He is then taken to a field hospital where his arm is amputated. Lee remarks that while Jackson has lost his left arm, he (Lee) has lost his right. Jackson dies shortly after, of pneumonia he had contracted during recovery. Jackson's body is returned to Lexington, accompanied by VMI Cadets and covered by the new Confederate flag.
Cast[edit]
Stephen Lang as Lieutenant General Stonewall Jackson (CSA)
Jeff Daniels as Lieutenant Colonel Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain (20th Maine, USA)
Robert Duvall as General Robert E. Lee (CSA)
Kevin Conway as Sergeant Buster Kilrain (20th Maine)
C. Thomas Howell as Lieutenant Thomas Chamberlain (20th Maine)
Jeremy London as Captain Alexander "Sandie" Pendleton (CSA)
Matt Letscher as Colonel Adelbert Ames (20th Maine)
Brian Mallon as Major General Winfield Scott Hancock (USA)
Bo Brinkman as Major Walter H. Taylor (CSA)
Bruce Boxleitner as Lieutenant General James Longstreet (CSA)
William Sanderson as Major General A.P. Hill (CSA)
Billy Campbell as Major General George Pickett (CSA)
Alex Hyde-White as Major General Ambrose E. Burnside (USA)
Joseph Fuqua as Major General J.E.B. Stuart (CSA)
John Prosky as Brigadier General Lewis A. Armistead (CSA)
Royce D. Applegate as Brigadier General James L. Kemper (CSA)
Patrick Gorman as Major General John Hood (CSA)
W. Morgan Sheppard as Major General Isaac R. Trimble (CSA)
James Patrick Stuart as Colonel Edward Porter Alexander (CSA)
Jonathon Demers as Brigadier General Richard S. Ewell (CSA)
Andrew Prine as Brigadier General Richard B. Garnett (CSA)
James Garrett as Brigadier General John C. Caldwell (USA)
J. Scott Watkins as Brigadier General Raleigh E. Colston (CSA)
Fred Griffith as Brigadier General Robert Rodes (CSA)
Tim O'Hare as Colonel St. Clair Augustine Mulholland (USA)
John Castle as Brigadier General William N. Pendleton (CSA)
Matt Lindquist as Prussian Lieutenant Colonel Heros von Borcke (CSA)
Ted Turner as Lieutenant Colonel Waller T. Patton (CSA)
Lester Kinsolving as Brigadier General William Barksdale (CSA)
Cooper Huckabee as Henry Thomas Harrison
Mira Sorvino as Fanny Chamberlain
Kali Rocha as Anna Jackson
Donzaleigh Abernathy as Martha
Karen Hochstetter as Roberta Corbin
Martin Clark as Dr. George Junkin
Christie Lynn Smith as Catherine Corbin
Production[edit]
Ted Turner has a cameo in the film as Colonel Waller T. Patton. Colonel Patton, the great uncle of George S. Patton, was mortally wounded at Gettysburg, a scene depicted in the movie Gettysburg. United States Senators George Allen (R-Virginia) and Robert Byrd (D-West Virginia) also have cameo roles, both playing Confederate officers, Phil Gramm (R-Texas) appears as a member of the Virginia Legislature early in the film and Congressman Ed Markey (D-Massachusetts) also appeared as an Irish Brigade officer. Most of the extras were American Civil War reenactors, who provided their own equipment and worked without pay. In exchange, Ted Turner agreed to donate $500,000 to Civil War battlefield preservation.
The movie was filmed in Virginia's Shenandoah Valley, western Maryland and in the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia.[5] Actual historic locations in the film include Virginia Military Institute and Washington & Lee University, known as Washington College during the Civil War.
Russell Crowe was the original choice to play Stonewall Jackson, but scheduling conflicts prevented his availability in the summer and fall of 2001 when the movie was filmed. Stephen Lang had begun to reprise his role as George Pickett, but instead was asked to fill in the role of Jackson. Billy Campbell, who had played a 44th New York lieutenant in Gettysburg was called in to hastily replace Lang in the role of Pickett.[6] Although Tom Berenger desired to reprise his Gettysburg role as James Longstreet (which he called his favorite role) he was unavailable because of scheduling difficulties. Bruce Boxleitner was instead cast in the role. Darius N. Couch was portrayed by actor Carsten Norgaard. Martin Sheen was prevented from reprising his role as Lee due to contractual obligations to The West Wing.
During post-production, Maxwell, Warner Bros. executives and Turner debated on whether to release the film as two parts over two years or as a single film.[7] Maxwell decided to focus on Stonewall Jackson's history in one film.[7]
God and Generals closes with an ending sequence stating that the Civil War story will be concluded with a third film Last Full Measure. As of 2015, there have been no efforts to produce this final feature film.
Director's cut[edit]
The director's cut was released for Blu-ray Disc on May 24, 2011.[citation needed]
Among the footage edited includes a sub-plot which follows John Wilkes Booth, the famous actor who would eventually assassinate President Abraham Lincoln. One scene towards the end of the extended cut of the film features Chamberlain and his wife, Fanny, attending a production of Shakespeare's Julius Caesar in which Booth plays Marcus Junius Brutus. Chamberlain and his wife have a conversation with Booth and his fellow actors following the end of the play. Another scene cut from the film features a performance in Washington, D.C. in which Booth plays the role of Macbeth, which is being seen by President Lincoln. When he gives the famous "dagger of the mind" soliloquy, he looks directly at Lincoln while reciting it. Later, when Booth is offered the chance to meet with Lincoln, he refuses.
A sequence dealing with the Battle of Antietam was removed from the film. The battle was seen mostly from the perspectives of Jackson (who played a major strategic role in the battle) and Chamberlain (whose corps was held in reserve). In the Director's Cut the entire sequence at Antietam is shown; the Antietam battle scenes mostly depict the fighting in Miller's Cornfield, where soldiers from the opposite sides fired at each other from just a few meters away.
Soundtrack[edit]
In 2003, the film score was composed by John Frizzell, with some minor contributions by Randy Edelman, who composed the score for the previous Gettysburg. The soundtrack is notable for containing a new song commissioned for the movie and written and performed by Bob Dylan, Cross the Green Mountain. The track was later included on the compilation album The Bootleg Series Vol. 8: Tell Tale Signs.
Reception[edit]
Critical response[edit]
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes lists an 8% approval rating while Metacritic lists a score of 30, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".[8] The critical consensus on Rotten Tomatoes reads, "Filled with two-dimensional characters and pompous self-righteousness, Gods and Generals is a long, tedious sit. Some may also take offense at the pro-Confederate slant."[9] Film critic Roger Ebert gave the film 1.5 out of 4 stars. He described it as "a Civil War movie that Trent Lott might enjoy" and said of its Lost Cause themes, "If World War II were handled this way, there'd be hell to pay." He also faulted the film for its music and "pithy quotations."[10]
Historical response[edit]
Gods and Generals is widely viewed as championing the Lost Cause ideology by creating a presentation more favorable to the Confederacy.[11][12] Writing in the Journal of American History, historian Steven E. Woodworth derided the movie as a modern-day telling of Lost Cause mythology.[11] Woodworth called the movie "the most pro-Confederate film since Birth of a Nation, a veritable celluloid celebration of slavery and treason." He summed up his reasons for disliking the movie by saying:
Gods and Generals brings to the big screen the major themes of Lost Cause mythology that professional historians have been working for half a century to combat. In the world of Gods and Generals, slavery has nothing to do with the Confederate cause. Instead, the Confederates are nobly fighting for, rather than against, freedom, as viewers are reminded again and again by one white southern character after another.[11]
Woodworth criticized the portrayal of slaves as being "generally happy" with their condition. He also criticizes the relative lack of attention given to the motivations of Union soldiers fighting in the war. He excoriates the film for allegedly implying, in agreement with Lost Cause mythology, that the South was more "sincerely Christian." Woodworth concludes that the film, through "judicial omission," presents "a distorted view of the Civil War."[11]
Historian William B. Feis similarly criticized the director's decision "to champion the more simplistic-and sanitized-interpretations found in post-war "Lost Cause" mythology".[12]
Author's response[edit]
Author Jeff Shaara originally liked the movie,[13] but his opinion on it has since changed. He said, "It's enormously different, it's radically different from the book. There are characters in the film that do not exist in the book, and a great many characters in the book that never made it to the film. It's just an entirely different story, and I have to tell you, I've heard from literally thousands of people through my website, and I get emails every day and try to be as accessible as I can, and the overwhelming percentage of those that wrote me said, 'How could you let them butcher your book like that?' I have no answer to that because I had no control or power to change what came up on the screen."[14]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Gods and Generals". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved May 28, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Gods and Generals". Turner Classic Movies. Retrieved June 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ Shaara, Jeffrey (1998). Gods and Generals: A Novel of the Civil War (Civil War Trilogy). New York City: Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0345422477.
Jump up ^ Robert Duvall claimed that he is related to Robert E. Lee on his mother's side of the family (Interview on CNN, February 15, 2003).
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-04-20. Retrieved 2013-07-15.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2010-12-04. Retrieved 2010-12-14.
^ Jump up to: a b Wertz, Jay (December 27, 2011). "Ron Maxwell Interview - 'Gods and Generals' Extended Directors Cut". Historynet. Weider Media Group. Retrieved October 29, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Gods and Generals". metacritic.com. Retrieved 4 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "GODS AND GENERALS (2003)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved August 4, 2016.
Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger. "Gods and Generals". Retrieved June 9, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Woodworth, Steven E. "Film Review: Gods and Generals". Teaching History. Retrieved June 9, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Feis, William B. ""Movie Review: Gods and Generals"". The Society for Military History.
Jump up ^ "In Depth with Jeff Shaara". In Depth with Jeff Shaara. C-Span. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Caggiano, Greg. "Interview with Best-Selling Author Jeff Shaara". Reel to Real. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Gods and Generals (film)
Gods and Generals at AllMovie
Gods and Generals on IMDb
Gods and Generals at Rotten Tomatoes
Gods and Generals at Box Office Mojo
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Films directed by Ronald F. Maxwell
Verna: USO Girl (1978)
Little Darlings (1980)
The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia (1981)
Kidco (1984)
The Parent Trap II (1986)
Gettysburg (1993)
Gods and Generals (2003)
Copperhead (2013)
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To the nines
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see To the nines (disambiguation).
"To the nines" is an English idiom meaning "to perfection" or "to the highest degree" or to dress "buoyantly and high class". In modern English usage, the phrase most commonly appears as "dressed to the nines" or "dressed up to the nines".[1][2]
Origin[edit]
The phrase is said to be Scots in origin.[2] The earliest written example of the phrase is from the 1719 Epistle to Ramsay by the Scottish poet William Hamilton:[3]
The bonny Lines therein thou sent me,
How to the nines they did content me.
Robert Burns' "Poem on Pastoral Poetry", published posthumously in 1800, also uses the phrase:[citation needed]
Thou paints auld nature to the nines,
In thy sweet Caledonian lines.
The phrase may have originally been associated with the Nine Worthies or the nine Muses. A poem from a 17th century collection of works by John Rawlet contains the following lines:[3]
The learned tribe whose works the World do bless,
Finish those works in some recess;
Both the Philosopher and Divine,
And Poets most who still make their address
In private to the Nine.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Evans, Bergen; Corneli Evans (1957). A Dictionary of Contemporary American Usage. Random House. p. 145.
^ Jump up to: a b "'Dressed to the nines' comes from old Scottish phrase". Deseret News. April 13, 1997. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "'Dressed to the nines' - the meaning and origin of this phrase". Phrasefinder. Retrieved 12 April 2018.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=To_the_nines&oldid=836126697"
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