text:
Fountain of Youth Stakes
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Fountain of Youth Stakes
Grade II race
Location
Gulfstream Park
Hallandale Beach, Florida
Inaugurated
1945
Race type
Thoroughbred - Flat racing
Website
www.gulfstreampark.com
Race information
Distance
1 1⁄16 Miles (8 1/2 furlongs)
Surface
Dirt
Track
left-handed
Qualification
Three-year-olds
Weight
Assigned
Purse
$400,000
Bonuses
Usually run in late February
The Fountain of Youth Stakes is an American Thoroughbred horse race run annually at Gulfstream Park in Hallandale Beach, Florida in late February. A Grade II event open to three-year-olds willing to race one and one-sixteenth miles on the dirt, it currently offers a purse of $400,000. It is the final stakes prep to the Florida Derby and is an official prep race for the Kentucky Derby.
The race was named for the mythical Florida spring that granted eternal youth, it was sought by Spanish explorer Ponce de Leon who searched throughout the south eastern United States for it but never found the fountain.
Four colts, Tim Tam (1958), Kauai King (1966), Spectacular Bid (1979), and Thunder Gulch (1995) won this race then went on to become "Dual Classic Winners," the first three won the Kentucky Derby and the Preakness Stakes the last won the Derby and the Belmont Stakes. The 1985 winner, Proud Truth, won that year's Breeders' Cup Classic.
The Fountain of Youth Stakes was inaugurated in 1945 and run at various distances until 1953 when it was modified to 1 1⁄16 miles. In 2005, it was changed to a distance of 1 1⁄8 miles. In 2009, it was run at one mile. In 2012, Gulfstream added a second finish line so the Fountain of Youth and other dirt races could be contested at 1 1⁄16 miles.
The race was run twice in 1947 (at the beginning of the year for 3-year-olds and at the end of the year for 2-year-olds). The race was run in two divisions in 1953, 1983, 1986 and 1993.
Contents
[hide]
1 Records
2 Winners of the Fountain of Youth Stakes since 1972
3 Earlier winners
4 Special Bonus
5 See also
6 References
Records[edit]
Speed record:
1 1⁄8 miles - 1.48.87 - Eskendereya (2010)
1 mile - 1:35.01 - Quality Road (2009)
1 1⁄16 miles - 1.41.00 - Sensitive Prince (1978)
Most wins by an owner:
3 - Michael Tabor (1995, 2000 & 2007)
Most wins by a jockey:
4 - John Velazquez (2007, 2009, 2010, 2013)
4 - Jerry Bailey (1980, 1998, 2004 & 2005)
Most wins by a trainer:
3 - D. Wayne Lukas (1992, 1995 & 2000)
Winners of the Fountain of Youth Stakes since 1972[edit]
Year
Winner
Age
Jockey
Trainer
Owner
Distance
Time
Purse
Gr
2017 Gunnevera 3 Javier Castellano Antonio Sano Peacock Racing Stables 1 1⁄16 miles 1:44.25 $400,000 II
2016 Mohaymen 3 Junior Alvarado Kiaran McLaughlin Shadwell Stable 1 1⁄16 miles 1:42.84 $400,000 II
2015 Itsaknockout DQ 3 Luis Saez Todd A. Pletcher Starlight Racing 1 1⁄16 miles 1:46.28 $400,000 II
2014 Wildcat Red 3 Luis Saez Jose Garoffalo Honors Stable 1 1⁄16 miles 1:41.85 $400,000 II
2013 Orb 3 John Velazquez Shug McGaughey Janney/Phipps Stable 1 1⁄16 miles 1:42.24 $400,000 II
2012 Union Rags 3 Julien Leparoux Michael Matz Chadds Ford Stable 1 1⁄16 miles 1:42.68 $400,000 II
2011 Soldat 3 Alan Garcia Kiaran McLaughlin Clarke/Robertson 1 1⁄8 miles 1:50.23 $400,000 II
2010 Eskendereya 3 John Velazquez Todd A. Pletcher Zayat Stables 1 1⁄8 miles 1:48.87 $250,000 II
2009 Quality Road 3 John Velazquez James A. Jerkens Edward P. Evans 1 mile 1:35.01 $350,000 II
2008 Cool Coal Man 3 Kent Desormeaux Nick Zito Robert V. LaPenta 1 1⁄8 miles 1:50.07 $350,000 II
2007 Scat Daddy 3 John Velazquez Todd A. Pletcher Scatuorchio & Tabor 1 1⁄8 miles 1:49.11 $350,000 II
2006 First Samurai DQ 3 Edgar Prado Frank L. Brothers Bruce Lunsford/Robbins 1 1⁄8 miles 1:49.00 $300,000 II
2005 High Fly 3 Jerry D. Bailey Nick Zito Live Oak Racing 1 1⁄8 miles 1:49.70 $300,000 II
2004 Read the Footnotes 3 Jerry D. Bailey Richard Violette Klaravich Stables 1 1⁄16 miles 1:42.71 $250,000 II
2003 Trust n Luck 3 Cornelio Velasquez Ralph Ziadie Paul Robsham 1 1⁄16 miles 1:43.33 $200,000 I
2002 Booklet 3 Jorge Chavez John T. Ward, Jr. John C. Oxley 1 1⁄16 miles 1:44.49 $200,000 I
2001 Songandaprayer 3 Edgar Prado John F. Dowd Bobby Hurley 1 1⁄16 miles 1:43.48 $200,000 I
2000 High Yield 3 Pat Day D. Wayne Lukas M. Tabor & R & B Lewis 1 1⁄16 miles 1:42.56 $200,000 I
1999 Vicar 3 Shane Sellers Carl Nafzger James B. Tafel 1 1⁄16 miles 1:45.64 $200,000 I
1998 Lil's Lad 3 Jerry D. Bailey Neil J. Howard Durst/Farish/Centennial 1 1⁄16 miles 1:42.63 $200,000 II
1997 Pulpit 3 Shane Sellers Frank L. Brothers Claiborne Farm 1 1⁄16 miles 1:41.86 $200,000 II
1996 Built For Pleasure 3 Gary Boulanger Tommy Heard, Jr. Tommy Heard, Jr. 1 1⁄16 miles 1:43.64 $200,000 II
1995 Thunder Gulch 3 Mike E. Smith D. Wayne Lukas Michael Tabor 1 1⁄16 miles 1:43.21 $200,000 II
1994 Dehere 3 Craig Perret Reynaldo Nobles Due Process Stable 1 1⁄16 miles 1:44.70 $200,000 II
1993 # Duc d'Sligovil 3 Julie Krone Jeremy McNeill Ray McNeill 1 1⁄16 miles 1:45.16 $187,500 II
1993 # Storm Tower 3 Rick Wilson Ben Perkins, Jr. Charles Hesse 1 1⁄16 miles 1:44.98 $187,500 II
1992 Dance Floor 3 Chris Antley D. Wayne Lukas Oaktown Stable 1 1⁄16 miles 1:45.32 $250,000 II
1991 Fly So Free 3 Jose A. Santos Scotty Schulhofer T. & E. Valando 1 1⁄16 miles 1:44.30 $122,500 II
1990 Shot Gun Scott 3 Dave Penna Ronald J. Sarazin Jean Friedberg/Sco.Hamilton 1 1⁄16 miles 1:44.60 $130,000 II
1989 Dixieland Brass 3 Randy Romero Charles Peoples Bayard Sharp/Will Farish 1 1⁄16 miles 1:44.60 $130,000 II
1988 Forty Niner 3 Eddie Maple Woody Stephens Claiborne Farm 1 1⁄16 miles 1:43.20 $165,000 II
1987 Bet Twice 3 Craig Perret Warren Croll Blanche Levy/Cisley Stable 1 1⁄16 miles 1:43.40 $167,500 II
1986 # Ensighn Rhythm 3 Julio Pezua Leo Azpurua, Jr. Lushland Farm 1 1⁄16 miles 1:45.60 $130,000 II
1986 # MyPrince Charming 3 Jose A. Santos Newcome Green Don Aronow 1 1⁄16 miles 1:45.00 $130,000 II
1985 Proud Truth 3 Jorge Velasquez John M. Veitch Darby Dan Farm 1 1⁄16 miles 1:43.60 $175,000 II
1984 Darn That Alarm 3 Mike Venezia George Gianos Robert N. Caporella 1 1⁄16 miles 1:43.00 $95,000 II
1983 # Highland Park 3 Don Brumfield Anthony Basile Bwamazon Farm 1 1⁄16 miles 1:44.60 $75,500 II
1983 # Copelan 3 Laffit Pincay, Jr. Mitch Griffin Fred W. Hooper 1 1⁄16 miles 1:43.60 $75,500 II
1982 Star Gallant 3 Sandy Hawley Leonard Imperlo Buckram Oak Farm 1 1⁄16 miles 1:43.20 $91,000 II
1981 Akureyri 3 Eddie Maple Woody Stephens Hickory Tree Stable 1 1⁄16 miles 1:44.40 $80,000 III
1980 Naked Sky 3 Jerry D. Bailey Neal Winick Maribel G. Blum 1 1⁄16 miles 1:43.80 $50,000 III
1979 Spectacular Bid 3 Ron Franklin Bud Delp Hawksworth Farm 1 1⁄16 miles 1:41.20 $60,000 III
1978 Sensitive Prince 3 Mickey Solomone H. Allen Jerkens Top the Marc Stable 1 1⁄16 miles 1:41.00 $37,500 III
1977 Ruthies Native 3 Craig Perret Eugene Jacobs Ruth A. Perlmutter 1 1⁄16 miles 1:42.00 $45,000 III
1976 Sonkisser 3 Braulio Baeza Stephen DiMauro Harold Snyder 1 1⁄16 miles 1:43.80 $37,500 III
1975 Greek Answer 3 Mickey Solomone Frank H. Merrill W. Preston Gilbride 1 1⁄16 miles 1:42.80 $37,500 III
1974 Green Gambados 3 Chuck Baltazar John W. Jacobs Harbor View Farm 1 1⁄16 miles 1:42.40 $77,400 III
1973 Shecky Greene 3 Braulio Baeza Lou M. Goldfine Joseph Kellman 1 1⁄16 miles 1:43.80 $37,650 III
1972 Gentle Smoke 3 David Sazer Forus Stable 1 1⁄16 miles 0:00.00 $35,000
A # designates that the race was run in two divisions in 1993, 1986 and 1983.
* DQ The horse won the race when the apparent winner was disqualified.
Earlier winners[edit]
1971 - Authorize
1970 - Corn Off The Cob
1969 - Al Hattab
1968 - Wise Exchange
1967 - In Reality
1966 - Kauai King
1965 - Maribeau
1964 - Dandy K
1963 - Cool Prince
1962 - Sharp Count
1961 - Beau Prince
1960 - Eagle Admiral
1959 - Easy Spur
1958 - Tim Tam
1957 - Gen Duke
1956 - Oh Johnny
1955 - Nance's Lad
1954 - Sea O Erin
1953 - Ram O War
1953 - Tribe
1952 - No race
1951 - Alerted
1950 - Black George (Owner: William H. Veeneman)
1949 - Count-A-Bit
1948 - No race
1947 - Atomic Power
1947 - Tight Squeeze (Owner: Rarco Stables)
1946 - No race
1945 - Twenty Thirty
Special Bonus[edit]
Paths to win the $5,500,000 Preakness Bonus: win Fountain of Youth Stakes + win the Florida Derby + win The Preakness Stakes
Paths to $550,000 XpressBet Consolation Bonus: run in Fountain of Youth Stakes + win, place or show in the Florida Derby or win, place or show in the Santa Anita Derby + win The Preakness Stakes
See also[edit]
Fountain of Youth Stakes top three finishers and starters
Road to the Kentucky Derby
References[edit]
February 21, 1990 New York Times article on the creation of the Preview Stakes
The Holy Bull Stakes at Pedigree Query
The Fountain of Youth Stakes at the NTRA
The Fountain of Youth Stakes at Pedigree Query
Ten Things You Should Know About the Fountain of Youth Stakes at Hello Race Fans!
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fountain_of_Youth_Stakes&oldid=828600781"
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1945 establishments in Florida
Horse races in Florida
Gulfstream Park
Flat horse races for three-year-olds
Triple Crown Prep Races
Graded stakes races in the United States
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Earthquake warning system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Earthquake Early Warning" redirects here. For the system in Japan, see Earthquake Early Warning (Japan).
Example of early warning issued by ShakeAlert[1]
An earthquake warning system is a system of accelerometers, seismometers, communication, computers, and alarms that is devised for regional notification of a substantial earthquake while it is in progress. This is not the same as earthquake prediction, which is currently incapable of producing decisive event warnings.
Contents
[hide]
1 Time lag and wave projection
2 Transit safety
3 Deployment
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Time lag and wave projection[edit]
An earthquake is caused by the release of stored elastic strain energy during rapid sliding along a fault. The sliding will start at some location and progress away from this hypocenter in each direction along the fault surface. The speed of the progression of this fault tear is slower than and distinct from the speed of the resultant pressure and shear waves, with the pressure wave traveling faster than the shear wave. The pressure wave will generate an abrupt shock while the shear waves can generate a periodic motion (at about 1 Hz) that is the most destructive in its effect upon structures, particularly buildings that have a similar resonant period, typically buildings around eight floors in height. These waves will be strongest at the ends of the slippage, and may project destructive waves well beyond the fault failure. The intensity of such remote effects are highly dependent upon local soils conditions within the region and these effects are considered in constructing a computer model of the region that determines appropriate responses to specific events.
Transit safety[edit]
Such systems are currently implemented to determine appropriate real-time response to an event in determining train operator response for urban rail systems such as BART (Bay Area Rapid Transit). The appropriate response will be highly dependent upon the warning time, the local right–of–way conditions, and the current speed of the train.
Warning time given by the earthquake warning system of the Earthquake Network project[2] during the May 2015 Nepal earthquake. The cross marker depicts the earthquake epicenter while the dot marker shows the detection location.
Deployment[edit]
The Earthquake Early Warning in Japan: When P-waves are detected, the readings are analyzed immediately and the warning information is distributed to advanced users such as; broadcasting stations and mobile phone companies, before the arrival of S-waves (lower).
As of 2016, Japan and Taiwan are two countries with comprehensive nationwide earthquake early warning systems. Other countries and regions have limited deployment of earthquake warning systems, including Mexico (the Mexican Seismic Alert System covers areas of central and southern Mexico including Mexico City and Oaxaca), limited regions of Romania (the Basarab bridge in Bucharest) and parts of the United States. The earliest automated earthquake pre-detection systems were installed in the 1990s; for instance, in California, the Calistoga fire station's system which can automatically trigger a citywide siren to alert the entire area's residents.[3] Some California fire departments use their warning systems to automatically open overhead doors of fire stations before the earthquake can disable them. While many of these efforts are governmental, several private companies also manufacture earthquake early warning systems to protect infrastructure such as elevators, gas lines and fire stations.
The Mexican Seismic Alert System began operations in 1991 and began publicly issuing alerts in 1993. Initially serving Mexico City with twelve sensors, the system now has 97 and is designed to protect life and property in several central and southern Mexican states.
Japan's Earthquake Early Warning system was put to practical use in 2006. Its scheme to warn the general public was installed on October 1, 2007.[4][5] It was modeled partly on the Urgent Earthquake Detection and Alarm System (UrEDAS) of Japan Railways, which was designed to enable automatic braking of bullet trains.[6]
In 2009, an early warning system called ShakeAlarm was installed and commissioned in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. It was placed to protect a piece of critical transportation infrastructure called the George Massey Tunnel, which connects the north and south banks of the Fraser River. In this application the system automatically closes the gates at the tunnel entrances if there is a dangerous seismic event inbound.[7] The success and the reliability of the system was such that as of 2015 there have been several additional installations on the west coast of Canada and the United States, and there are more being planned.
In January 2013, Francesco Finazzi of the University of Bergamo started the Earthquake Network research project which aims at developing and maintaining a crowdsourced earthquake warning system based on smartphone networks.[2][8] Smartphones are used to detect the ground shaking induced by an earthquake and a warning is issued as soon as an earthquake is detected. People living at a higher distance from the epicenter and the detection point may be alerted before they are reached by the damaging waves of the earthquake. People can take part in the project installing the Android application "Earthquake Network" which is also required to receive the alerts.
In December 2014, the United States Congress approved a $5 million allocation as part of the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014 in order to expand funding for development of the system.[9]
The USGS has investigated collaboration with the social networking site Twitter to allow for more rapid construction of ShakeMaps.[10][11] As of May 2015[update], USGS began testing an earthquake early warning app. QuakeAlert was developed by Early Warning Labs in partnership USGS.[12]
In July 2015, the USGS awarded $4 million in funding to the Berkeley Seismological Laboratory, the California Institute of Technology and the University of Washington, to turn the current ShakeAlert early warning prototype into a more robust system that could be used by "cities, industries, utilities and transportation networks in California, Oregon and Washington".[13]
Gravimetric data from the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake has been used to create a model for increased warning time compared to seismic models, as gravity fields travel faster than seismic waves.[14]
See also[edit]
Earthquake engineering
Earthquake preparedness
P-wave
Seismic retrofit
Earthquake Early Warning (Japan)
Mexican Seismic Alert System
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Burkett, Erin R.; Given, Douglas D.; Jones, Lucile M.; Jones, Erin R. Burkett, Douglas D. Given, and Lucile M. (2014-01-01). "ShakeAlert: an earthquake early warning system for the United States West Coast". U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2014–3083. doi:10.3133/fs20143083.
^ Jump up to: a b Finazzi, Francesco; Fassò, Alessandro (2016). "A statistical approach to crowdsourced smartphone-based earthquake early warning systems". Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment. doi:10.1007/s00477-016-1240-8. Retrieved 31 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Podger, Pamela (July 2001). "Calistoga to get an earful of nation's first quake siren". napanet.
Jump up ^ "What is an Earthquake Early Warning?". Japan Meteorological Agency. Retrieved on 2008-06-29.
Jump up ^ "Overview of the Earthquake Early Warning System" (in Japanese). Japan Meteorological Agency. Archived from the original on 2008-03-12. Retrieved 2008-06-29.
Jump up ^ Kumagai, Jean (June 2007). "A BriefHistory of Earthquake Warnings". IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved 2009-05-09.
Jump up ^ Zaicenco, Anton; Weir-Jones, Iain (September 2012). "Lessons Learned from Operating an On-site Earthquake Early Warning System" (PDF). Proceedings, World Conference on Earthquake Engineering. 15th (2012): 10. Retrieved September 28, 2012.
Jump up ^ Finazzi, Francesco (2016). "The Earthquake Network Project: Toward a Crowdsourced Smartphone‐Based Earthquake Early Warning System". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. doi:10.1785/0120150354. Retrieved 10 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Lin II, Rong-Gong (December 14, 2014). "California receives U.S. funding for earthquake early-warning system". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2014-12-31.
Jump up ^ Mahalia Miller, Lynne Burks, and Reza Bosagh Zadeh Rapid Estimate of Ground Shaking Intensity by Combining Simple Earthquake Characteristics with Tweets, Tenth U.S. National Conference on Earthquake Engineering
Jump up ^ Zadeh, Reza (May 2, 2014). "Using Twitter to measure earthquake impact in almost real time". Twitter Engineering.
Jump up ^ Staff (May 27, 2015). "USGS Tests QuakeAlert App with 60-Second Warning". Geospatial Solutions.
Jump up ^ "Earthquake early warning system moves closer to reality". Retrieved 2015-08-23.
Jump up ^ "Prompt gravity signal induced by the 2011 Tohoku-Oki earthquake". doi:10.1038/ncomms13349.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Earthquake warning system.
Earthquake Early Warning – United States Geological Survey
Earthquake Early Warning – California Institute of Technology
Bayesian Networks for Earthquake Magnitude Classification in a Early Warning System
Earthquake Network - The Earthquake Network project website
Earthquake Early Warning for Developing Countries - Grillo website
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_warning_system&oldid=803143072"
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Civil Rights Act of 1957
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The Civil Rights Act of 1957, Pub.L. 85–315, 71 Stat. 634, enacted September 9, 1957, a federal voting rights bill, was the first federal civil rights legislation passed by the United States Congress since the Civil Rights Act of 1875. Its purpose was to show the federal government's support for racial equality after the US Supreme Court's 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka.
Opposition to the Act, including the longest one-person filibuster in US history, limited its immediate impact. The Act, however, paved the way for a series of more effective civil rights bills in the 1960s.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Passage
2.1 Filibuster
3 Content
4 Aftermath
5 Subsequent legislation
6 References
7 Sources
8 External links
Background[edit]
Following the Supreme Court ruling in Brown, which eventually led to the integration, also called desegregation, of public schools,[1] Southern whites began a campaign of "Massive Resistance." Violence against blacks rose; in Little Rock, Arkansas where US President Dwight D. Eisenhower had to order in federal troops to protect nine children integrating into a public school, the first time the US federal government ordered troops in the South since the Reconstruction era.[2] There had been continued physical assaults against suspected activists and bombings of schools and churches in the South. The Eisenhower administration proposed legislation to protect blacks' right to vote.
The goal of the 1957 Civil Rights Act was to ensure that all Americans could exercise their right to vote. By 1957, only about 20% of blacks were registered to vote. Despite being the majority in numerous counties and congressional districts in the South, most blacks had been effectively disfranchised by discriminatory voter registration rules and laws in those states since the late 19th and early 20th centuries that were heavily instituted and propagated by Southern Democrats. Civil rights organizations had collected evidence of discriminatory practices, such as the administration of literacy and comprehension tests and poll taxes. While the states had the right to establish rules for voter registration and elections, the federal government found an oversight role in ensuring that citizens could exercise the constitutional right to vote for federal officers: electors for president and vice president and members of the US Congress.
Passage[edit]
The Democratic Senate Majority Leader, Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas, realized that the bill and its journey through Congress could tear apart his party, as its southern members opposed civil rights, and its northern members were more favorable. Southern senators occupied chairs of numerous important committees because of their long seniority. Johnson sent the bill to the Senate Judiciary Committee, led by Senator James Eastland of Mississippi, who drastically altered the bill. Senator Richard Russell, Jr., of Georgia had denounced the bill as an example of the federal government seeking to impose its laws on states. Johnson sought recognition from civil rights advocates for passing the bill as well as recognition from the mostly-Southern Democrats against civil rights for weakening the bill so much as to make it toothless.[3]
The bill passed 285-126 in the House of Representatives with a majority of both parties' support (Republicans 167–19, Democrats 118–107)[4] It then passed 72-18 in the Senate, again with a majority of both parties (Republicans 43–0, Democrats 29–18).[5][clarification needed] Eisenhower signed the bill on September 9, 1957.
Filibuster[edit]
Democratic Senator Strom Thurmond of South Carolina, an ardent segregationist, sustained the longest one-person filibuster in history in an attempt to keep the bill from becoming law.[6] His one-man filibuster lasted 24 hours and 18 minutes; he began with readings of every US state's election laws in alphabetical order. He later read from the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, and George Washington's Farewell Address.
To prevent a quorum call that could have relieved the filibuster by allowing the Senate to adjourn, cots were brought in from a nearby hotel for the legislators to sleep on while Thurmond discussed increasingly- irrelevant and obscure topics, including his grandmother's biscuit recipe.[citation needed] Other Southern senators, who had agreed as part of a compromise not to filibuster this bill, were upset with Thurmond. They believed his defiance made them look incompetent to their constituents. Other constituents were upset with their senators because they were seen as not helping Thurmond.[7]
Thurmond pointed out that there was already a federal statute that prosecuted citizens who denied or intimidated voters at voting booths under a fine and/or imprisonment but that the bill then under consideration could legally deny trial by jury to those that continued to do so.[8]
Democratic Representative Charles A. Boyle of Illinois, a member of the powerful Appropriations Subcommittee of Defense, pushed the bill through the House of Representatives.
Content[edit]
Section 101 set up a six-member Civil Rights Commission in the executive branch to gather information on citizens' deprivation of voting rights based on color, race, religion, or national origin as well as the legal background, the laws, and the policies of the federal government. The commission was to take testimony or written complaints from individuals on the difficulties in registering and voting. It would submit a final report to the President and the Congress within two years and then cease to exist.
Part IV, Section 131, banned intimidating, coercing or otherwise interfering with the rights of persons to vote for electors for President and members of Congress. The United States Attorney General was allowed to institute actions, including injunctions and charges of contempt of court, with fines not to exceed $1000 and six months imprisonment. Extensive safeguards for the rights of accused were provided by the statute. US federal judges were allowed to hear cases related to the Act with or without juries.
Not being able to vote in most of the South, blacks were then excluded from state juries there. Federal jury selection had been tied to state jury selection rules, thus in some instances excluding both blacks and women as federal jurors. Section 161 freed federal courts from state jury rules and specified qualifications for jurors in federal courts. "Any citizen" 21 years or older, literate in English, who had resided in the judicial district for a year, excluding convicts and persons with mental or physical infirmities severe enough to make them unable to serve, was eligible. Since neither race nor sex was listed among the qualifications, the provision allowed both blacks and women to serve on juries in trials in federal courts.
The final version of the act established both the Commission on Civil Rights and the office of Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights. Subsequently, on December 9, 1957, the Civil Rights Division was established within the Justice Department by order of US Attorney General William P. Rogers, giving the Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights a distinct division to command. Previously, civil rights lawyers had enforced Reconstruction-era civil rights laws from within the Department's Criminal Division.
Aftermath[edit]
Although the Act's passage through seemed to indicate a growing federal commitment to the cause of civil rights, the legislation was limited. Alterations to the bill made the Act difficult to enforce; by 1960, black voting had increased by only 3%.[2] Its passage showed varying degrees of willingness to support civil rights.
Martin Luther King Jr., then 28, was a developing leader in the Civil Rights Movement and spoke out against white supremacists. Segregationists had burned black churches, which were centers of education and organizing for voter registration, and physically attacked black activists, including women. King sent a telegram to Eisenhower to make a speech to the South and asked him to use "the weight of your great office to point out to the people of the South the moral nature of the problem." Eisenhower responded, "I don't know what another speech would do about the thing right now."
Disappointed, King sent another telegram to Eisenhower stating that the latter's comments were "a profound disappointment to the millions of Americans of goodwill, north and south, who earnestly are looking to you for leadership and guidance in this period of inevitable social change." He tried to set up a meeting with the President but was given a two-hour meeting with Vice President Richard Nixon. It is reported that Nixon was impressed with King and told Eisenhower that he might enjoy meeting King later.[9]
Subsequent legislation[edit]
The Civil Rights Act of 1960 addressed some of the shortcomings of the 1957 Act by expanding the authority of federal judges to protect voting rights and by requiring local authorities to maintain comprehensive voting records for review so that the government could determine if there were patterns of discrimination against certain populations.[10]
The Civil Rights Movement continued to expand, with protesters leading nonviolent demonstrations to mark their cause. Now president, John F. Kennedy, called for a new bill in his televised Civil Rights Address of June 11, 1963,[11] in which he asked for legislation "giving all Americans the right to be served in facilities which are open to the public—hotels, restaurants, theaters, retail stores, and similar establishments" as well as "greater protection for the right to vote." Kennedy delivered the speech after a series of civil rights protests, most notably the Birmingham campaign, which concluded in May 1963.
In the summer of 1963, various parts of the civil rights movement collaborated to run voter education and voter registration drives in Mississippi. During the 1964 Freedom Summer, hundreds of students from the North came to participate in voter drives and community organizing. Media coverage, especially of the violent backlash exemplified by the murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner near Philadelphia, Mississippi, contributed to national support for civil rights legislation.
After the Kennedy assassination, now-President Lyndon Johnson helped secure passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which made racial discrimination and segregation illegal,[12] and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which abolished the poll tax and other means of keeping blacks and the poor from registering to vote and from voting, established record-keeping and oversight, and provided for federal enforcement in areas with documented patterns of discrimination or low voter turnout.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ McNeese, Tim (2008). The Civil Rights Movement: Striving for Justice. New York: Infobase Publishing.
^ Jump up to: a b James A. Miller, "An inside look at Eisenhower's civil rights record" Archived 2012-01-07 at the Wayback Machine. The Boston Globe at boston.com, 21 November 2007, accessed 28 October 2011
Jump up ^ Caro, Robert, Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson, Chapter 39
Jump up ^ HR 6127. CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1957. PASSED. YEA SUPPORTS PRESIDENT'S POSITION. http://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/85-1957/h42
Jump up ^ HR. 6127. CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1957. PASSED. http://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/85-1957/s75
Jump up ^ Senate.gov web site
Jump up ^ Caro, Robert (2002). Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson. New York: Knopf. ISBN 0-394-52836-0.
Jump up ^ https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/Thurmond_filibuster_1957.pdf
Jump up ^ Nichols, David. A. (2007). A Matter of Justice: Eisenhower and the Beginning of the Civil Rights Revolution. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 9781416541509. OCLC 123968070.
Jump up ^ Civil Rights Act of 1960 Archived 2008-10-24 at Archive.is
Jump up ^ "Transcript from the JFK library". the JFK library. 1963-06-11. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2011-10-28.
Jump up ^ Civil Rights Act of 1964
Sources[edit]
Finley, Keith M. (2008). Delaying the Dream: Southern Senators and the Fight Against Civil Rights, 1938–1965. Baton Rouge: LSU Press. ISBN 9780807134610. OCLC 791398684.
External links[edit]
Civil Rights Act of 1957 Text
Senate filibuster history
Documents regarding the Civil Rights Act of 1957, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
Civil Rights Act of 1957, Civil Rights Digital Library.
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White America, Inc.
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Emmett Till
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1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom
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Civil Rights Act of 1957
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1960–1963
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1964–1968
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Civil Rights Act of 1964
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[show]
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Dwight D. Eisenhower
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