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Block (periodic table)
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A block of the periodic table of elements is a set of adjacent groups. The term appears to have been first used by Charles Janet.[1] The respective highest-energy electrons in each element in a block belong to the same atomic orbital type. Each block is named after its characteristic orbital; thus, the blocks are:
s-block
p-block
d-block
f-block
g-block (hypothetical)
The block names (s, p, d, f and g) are derived from the spectroscopic notation for the associated atomic orbitals: sharp, principal, diffuse and fundamental, and then g which follows f in the alphabet.
The following is the order for filling the "subshell" orbitals, according to the Aufbau principle, which also gives the linear order of the "blocks" (as atomic number increases) in the periodic table:
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p, ...
For discussion of the nature of why the energies of the blocks naturally appear in this order in complex atoms, see atomic orbital and electron configuration.
The "periodic" nature of the filling of orbitals, as well as emergence of the s, p, d and f "blocks" is more obvious, if this order of filling is given in matrix form, with increasing principal quantum numbers starting the new rows ("periods") in the matrix. Then, each subshell (composed of the first two quantum numbers) is repeated as many times as required for each pair of electrons it may contain. The result is a compressed periodic table, with each entry representing two successive elements:
1s
2s                                                 2p  2p  2p
3s                                                 3p  3p  3p
4s                             3d  3d  3d  3d  3d  4p  4p  4p
5s                             4d  4d  4d  4d  4d  5p  5p  5p
6s 4f  4f  4f  4f  4f  4f  4f  5d  5d  5d  5d  5d  6p  6p  6p
7s 5f  5f  5f  5f  5f  5f  5f  6d  6d  6d  6d  6d  7p  7p  7p
Contents
[hide]
1 Periodic table
1.1 s-block
1.2 p-block
1.2.1 Metals
1.2.2 Metalloids
1.2.3 Noble gases
1.2.4 Halogens
1.3 d-block
1.4 f-block
1.5 g-block
2 References
Periodic table[edit]
There is an approximate correspondence between this nomenclature of blocks, based on electronic configuration, and groupings of elements based on chemical properties. The s-block and p-block together are usually considered as the main group elements, the d-block corresponds to the transition metals, and the f-block are the lanthanides and the actinides. However, not everyone agrees on the exact membership of each set of elements, so that for example the group 12 elements Zn, Cd and Hg are considered as main group by some scientists and transition metals by others, because they are chemically and physically more similar to the p-block elements than the other d-block elements. Furthermore, the group 3 elements and the f-block are sometimes also considered main group elements due to their similarities to the s-block elements. Groups (columns) in the f-block (between groups 3 and 4) are not numbered.
Helium is coloured differently from the p-block elements surrounding it because is in the s-block, with its outer (and only) electrons in the 1s atomic orbital, although its chemical properties are more similar to the p-block noble gases due to its full shell. In addition to the blocks listed in this table, there is a hypothetical g-block which is not pictured here. The g-block elements can be seen in the expanded extended periodic table. Also, lanthanum and actinium are placed under scandium and yttrium to reflect their status as d-block elements, as they have no electrons in the 4f and 5f orbitals, respectively, while lutetium and lawrencium do.[2]
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Blocks in the periodic table
Group →
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
↓ Period
1
1
H
2
He
2
3
Li 4
Be
5
B 6
C 7
N 8
O 9
F 10
Ne
3
11
Na 12
Mg
13
Al 14
Si 15
P 16
S 17
Cl 18
Ar
4
19
K 20
Ca 21
Sc 22
Ti 23
V 24
Cr 25
Mn 26
Fe 27
Co 28
Ni 29
Cu 30
Zn 31
Ga 32
Ge 33
As 34
Se 35
Br 36
Kr
5
37
Rb 38
Sr 39
Y 40
Zr 41
Nb 42
Mo 43
Tc 44
Ru 45
Rh 46
Pd 47
Ag 48
Cd 49
In 50
Sn 51
Sb 52
Te 53
I 54
Xe
6
55
Cs 56
Ba 57
La 72
Hf 73
Ta 74
W 75
Re 76
Os 77
Ir 78
Pt 79
Au 80
Hg 81
Tl 82
Pb 83
Bi 84
Po 85
At 86
Rn
7
87
Fr 88
Ra 89
Ac 104
Rf 105
Db 106
Sg 107
Bh 108
Hs 109
Mt 110
Ds 111
Rg 112
Cn 113
Nh 114
Fl 115
Mc 116
Lv 117
Ts 118
Og
58
Ce 59
Pr 60
Nd 61
Pm 62
Sm 63
Eu 64
Gd 65
Tb 66
Dy 67
Ho 68
Er 69
Tm 70
Yb 71
Lu
90
Th 91
Pa 92
U 93
Np 94
Pu 95
Am 96
Cm 97
Bk 98
Cf 99
Es 100
Fm 101
Md 102
No 103
Lr
s-block p-block d-block f-block Background color shows the block of the periodic table
Primordial From decay Synthetic Border shows natural occurrence of the element
s-block[edit]
The s-block is on the left side of the periodic table and includes elements from the first two columns, the alkali metals (group 1) and alkaline earth metals (group 2), plus helium. Helium is a controversial element for the scientists as it can be placed in the second group of s block as well as the 18th group of p-block, but most scientists consider it to rest at the top of group 18 i.e. above neon (atomic number 10) as it has many properties similar to the group 18 elements.
Most s-block elements are highly reactive metals due to the ease with which their outer s-orbital electrons interact to form compounds. The first period elements in this block, however, are nonmetals. Hydrogen is highly chemically reactive, like the other s-block elements, but helium is a virtually unreactive noble gas.
S-block elements are unified by the fact that their valence electrons (outermost electrons) are in the s orbital. The s-orbital is a single spherical cloud which can contain only one pair of electrons; hence, the s-block consists of only two columns in the periodic table. Elements in column 1, with a single s-orbital valence electron, are the most reactive of the block. Elements in the second column have two s-orbital valence electrons, and, except for helium, are only slightly less reactive.
p-block[edit]
The p-block is on the right side of the periodic table and includes elements from the six columns beginning with column 13 and ending with column 18. Helium, though being in the top of group 18, is not included in the p-block.
The p-block is home to the biggest variety of elements and is the only block that contains all three types of elements: metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. Generally, the p-block elements are best described in terms of element type or group.
P-block elements are unified by the fact that their valence electrons (outermost electrons) are in the p orbital. The p orbital consists of six lobed shapes coming off a central point at evenly spaced angles. The p orbital can hold a maximum of six electrons, hence there are six columns in the p-block. Elements in column 13, the first column of the p-block, have one p-orbital electron. Elements in column 14, the second column of the p-block, have two p-orbital electrons. The trend continues this way until we reach column 18, which has six p-orbital electrons.
Metals[edit]
P-block metals have classic metal characteristics: they are shiny, they are good conductors of heat and electricity, and they lose electrons easily. Generally, these metals have high melting points and readily react with nonmetals to form ionic compounds. Ionic compounds form when a positive metal ion bonds with a negative nonmetal ion.
Of the p-block metals, several have fascinating properties. Gallium, in the 3rd row of column 13, is a metal that can melt in the palm of a hand. Tin, in the fourth row of column 14, is an abundant, flexible, and extremely useful metal. It is an important component of many metal alloys like bronze, solder, and pewter.
Sitting right beneath tin is lead, a toxic metal. Ancient people used lead for a variety of things, from food sweeteners to pottery glazes to eating utensils. It has been suspected that lead poisoning is related to the fall of Roman civilization,[3] but further research has shown this to be unlikely.[4][5] For a long time, lead was used in the manufacturing of paints. It was only within the last century that lead paint use has been restricted due to its toxic nature.
Metalloids[edit]
Metalloids have properties of both metals and nonmetals, but the term 'metalloid' lacks a strict definition. All of the elements that are commonly recognized as metalloids are in the p-block: boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium. Metalloids tend to have lower electrical conductivity than metals, yet often higher than nonmetals. They tend to form chemical bonds similarly to nonmetals, but may dissolve in metallic alloys without covalent or ionic bonding. Metalloid additives can improve properties of metallic alloys, sometimes paradoxically to their own apparent properties. Some may give a better electrical conductivity, higher corrosion resistance, ductility, or fluidity in molten state, etc. to the alloy.
Boron has many carbon-like properties, but is very rare. It has many uses, for example a P type semiconductor dopant.
Silicon is perhaps the most famous metalloid. It is the second most abundant element in Earth's crust and one of the main ingredients in glass. It is used to make semiconductor circuits, from large power switches and high current diodes to microchips for computers and other electronic devices. It is also used in certain metallic alloys, e.g. to improve casting properties of alumimium. So valuable is silicon to the technology industry that Silicon Valley in California is named after it.
Germanium has properties very similar to silicon, yet this element is much more rare. It was once used for its semiconductor properties pretty much as silicon is now, and it has some superior properties at that, but is now a rare material in the industry.
Arsenic is a toxic metalloid that has been used throughout history as an additive to metal alloys, paints, and even makeup.
Antimony is used as a constituent in casting alloys such as printing metal.
Not always considered as metalloids:
Carbon, in the same column with silicon and germanium, electrically fairly conductive unlike most other nonmetals, and to an extent preferred as a trace constituent in certain metallic alloys such as steel
Phosphorus has metallurgical uses among others, e.g. a constituent of some copper alloys
Selenium, once used as a semiconductor material, and also used to improve properties of metallic alloys
Aluminium is generally considered a metal, but it has some metalloid/non-metal properties such as negative oxidation states
Polonium
Noble gases[edit]
Previously called inert gases, their name was changed as there are a few other gases that are inert but not noble gases, such as nitrogen. The noble gases are located in the far right column of the periodic table, also known as Group Zero or Group Eighteen. Noble gases are also called as aerogens but this nomenclature of the group is not officially accepted by the IUPAC.
All of the noble gases have full outer shells with eight electrons. However, at the top of the noble gases is helium, with a shell that is full with only two electrons. The fact that their outer shells are full means they rarely react with other elements, which led to their original title of "inert."
Because of their chemical properties, these gases are also used in the laboratory to help stabilize reactions that would usually proceed too quickly. As the atomic numbers increase, the elements become rarer. They are not just rare in nature, but rare as useful elements, too.
Helium is best known for its low density, used to safely produce buoyancy for zeppelins and balloons
Neon is notorious as the red to yellow glow medium of old low power signal lamps and signs
Argon is used as a protective gas in MIG and TIG welding
Xenon is used as a plasma medium in high intensity arc lamps with tungsten electrodes. Automotive xenon lights, however, are mostly mercury vapor bulbs with low pressure xenon to help striking the arc and producing light instantly.
Krypton has many uses like arc flash medium. Krypton filled incandescent bulbs were once the most efficient variety, before being replaced by halogen technology.
Radon is radioactive, and one of the densest elements to remain in gas state at room temperature
Halogens[edit]
The second column from the right side of the periodic table, group 17, is the halogen family of elements. These elements are all just one electron shy of having full shells. Because they are so close to being full, they have the trait of combining with many different elements and are very reactive. They are often found bonding with metals and elements from Group One, as these elements in each have one electron.
Not all halogens react with the same intensity. Fluorine is the most reactive and combines with most elements from around the periodic table. As with other columns, reactivity decreases as the atomic number increases.
When a halogen combines with another element, the resulting compound is called a halide. One of the best examples of a halide is sodium chloride (NaCl).
d-block[edit]
The d-block is on the middle of the periodic table and includes elements from columns 3 through 12. These elements are also known as the transition metals because they show a transitivity in their properties i.e. they show a trend in their properties in simple incomplete d orbitals. Transition basically means d orbital lies between s and p orbitals and shows a transition from properties of s to p.
The d-block elements are all metals which exhibit two or more ways of forming chemical bonds. Because there is a relatively small difference in the energy of the different d-orbital electrons, the number of electrons participating in chemical bonding can vary. This results in the same element exhibiting two or more oxidation states, which determines the type and number of its nearest neighbors in chemical compounds.
D-block elements are unified by having in their outermost electrons one or more d-orbital electrons but no p-orbital electrons. The d-orbitals can contain up to five pairs of electrons; hence, the block includes ten columns in the periodic table.
f-block[edit]
The f-block is in the center-left of a 32-column periodic table but in the footnoted appendage of 18-column tables. These elements are not generally considered as part of any group. They are often called inner transition metals because they provide a transition between the s-block and d-block in the 6th and 7th row (period), in the same way that the d-block transition metals provide a transitional bridge between the s-block and p-block in the 4th and 5th rows.
The known f-block elements come in two series, the lanthanides of period 6 and the radioactive actinides of period 7. All are metals. Because the f-orbital electrons are less active in determining the chemistry of these elements, their chemical properties are mostly determined by outer s-orbital electrons. Consequently, there is much less chemical variability within the f-block than within the s-, p-, or d-blocks.
F-block elements are unified by having one or more of their outermost electrons in the f-orbital but none in the d-orbital or p-orbital. The f-orbitals can contain up to seven pairs of electrons; hence, the block includes fourteen columns in the periodic table.
g-block[edit]
The g-block is a hypothetical block of elements in the extended periodic table whose outermost electrons are posited to have one or more g-orbital electrons but no f-, d- or p-orbital electrons.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Charles Janet, La classification hélicoïdale des éléments chimiques, Beauvais, 1928
Jump up ^ Lavelle, Laurence. "Lanthanum (La) and Actinium (Ac) Should Remain in the d-Block" (PDF). lavelle.chem.ucla.edu. Retrieved 9 November 2014.
Jump up ^ Wilford, John Noble (17 March 1983). "ROMAN EMPIRE'S FALL IS LINKED WITH GOUT AND LEAD POISONING". The New York Times. Retrieved 19 January 2016.
Jump up ^ Killgrove, Kristina (20 January 2012). "Lead Poisoning in Rome - The Skeletal Evidence". Powered by Osteons. Retrieved 19 January 2016.
Jump up ^ Sumner, Thomas (21 April 2014). "Did Lead Poisoning Bring Down Ancient Rome?". Science Magazine. Retrieved 19 January 2016.
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1
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18
1
H He
2
Li Be B C N O F Ne
3
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
6
Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
7
Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Lanthanide Actinide Transition metal Post-transition metal Metalloid Polyatomic nonmetal Diatomic nonmetal Noble gas Unknown
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text:
No-fault insurance
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (October 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In its broadest sense, no-fault insurance is any type of insurance contract under which insureds are indemnified for losses by their own insurance company, regardless of fault in the incident generating losses. In this sense, it is no different from first-party coverage. However, the term "no-fault" is most commonly used in the context of state/provincial automobile insurance laws in the United States, Canada, and Australia, in which a policyholder (and his/her passengers) are not only reimbursed by the policyholder’s own insurance company without proof of fault, but also restricted in the right to seek recovery through the civil-justice system for losses caused by other parties.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 Origins
3 Overview in United States
4 US states and Canadian provinces with no-fault laws
5 See also
6 External links
7 References
Description[edit]
No-fault systems generally exempt individuals from the usual liability for causing body injury if they do so in a car collision; when individuals purchase "liability" insurance under those regimes, the insurance covers bodily injury of the insured and the insured's passengers caused by a car collision, regardless of which party would be liable under ordinary common law tort rules. No-fault insurance has the goal of lowering premium costs by avoiding expensive litigation over the causes of the collision, while providing quick payments for injuries or loss of property. Further, no-fault systems often grant "set" or "fixed" compensation for certain injuries regardless of the unique aspects of the injury or the individual injured. Workers compensation funds typically are run as "no fault" systems with usually a fixed schedule for compensation for various injuries.
Proponents of no-fault insurance argue that automobile collisions are inevitable and that at-fault drivers are not necessarily higher risk and should not necessarily be punished; moreover, they note that the presence of liability insurance insulates reckless or negligent drivers from financial disincentives of litigation; also, uninsured motorists are often "judgment proof" (i.e., can't and won't end up paying for their liability anyway), so that in regions with high numbers of such uninsured motorists, no-fault systems may make more sense.
Critics of no-fault argue that dangerous drivers not paying for the damage they cause encourages excessive risky behavior, with only raised premiums and a higher risk rating as the potential consequence, and no jury awards or legal settlements. Detractors of no-fault also point out that legitimate victims with subtle handicaps find it difficult to seek recovery under no-fault. Another criticism is that some no-fault jurisdictions have among the highest automobile-insurance premiums in the country, but this may be more a matter of effect than cause (e.g., the financial savings from no-fault may simply make it more popular in areas with higher automobile-collision risk, or high insurance rates may cause more drivers to go uninsured, increasing the attraction of a no-fault system).
Origins[edit]
The number of traffic accidents causing fatalities and debilitating injuries had become by the mid-1960s the source of a litigation explosion that was "straining (and in some areas overwhelming) the judicial machinery."[1] Much legal thinking in academia was devoted to the question of whether the tort system should be replaced with another method of allocating risks of loss from accidents.[2] Empirical analyses were published showing the financial impact of automobile accidents.[3] The first comprehensive legislative proposal was put forward by Professors Robert E. Keeton of Harvard Law School and Jeffrey O'Connell, then of the University of Illinois, in a law review article published in the Harvard Law Review,[4] which consisted of two chapters of the book that they would publish the following year.[5] The Keeton-O'Connell plan provided that all automobile owners would be required to purchase a new form of insurance, called "basic protection coverage," under which a victim has recourse for his net economic loss against the insurer of his own car, his host's car or, if the victim is a pedestrian, any car involved. Fault is not required to be shown except for of damages in excess of $10,000 for bodily injury, the deductible of $100 for bodily injury and property damage. Recoverable loss under this type of policy does not include pain and suffering and is reduced by damages recovered form other sources. The proposal generated immense discussion in legal and insurance publications with some concluding it was too "revolutionary."[1]
In 1967 Massachusetts state representative Michael Dukakis, a 1960 graduate of Harvard Law School, introduced a modified version of the Keeton-O'Connell plan in the Massachusetts legislature. The scheme was adopted in 1970.[6] The law was challenged in court for claimed violations of numerous state and federal constitutional provisions. The scheme was defended by the state attorney general and also Harvard Law School professors Archibald Cox and Philip Heymann in an amicus curiae brief. The Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts overruled the objections in a unanimous decision.[7] The decision opened the way for widespread adoption of no-fault automobile insurance schemes, a development that was encouraged by the federal Department of Transportation.[6]
Overview in United States[edit]
Most U.S. states have a "traditional tort" liability system for auto insurance in which recovery is governed by principles of provable negligence. However, twelve U.S. states and the Commonwealth territory of Puerto Rico require policyholders to operate under a "no-fault" scheme in which individuals injured in automobile collisions are limited in their ability to seek recovery from other drivers or vehicle owners involved in a collision[8] and an additional 8 states have an "add-on" system in which the insureds retain the right to sue.[8] In 2012, RAND Corporation published a study which found that costs were higher in no-fault systems.[9] In the case of economic (medical and wage-loss) damages, most no-fault systems permit injured parties to seek recovery only for damages that are not covered by available first-party insurance benefits. In the case of non-economic (pain-and-suffering) damages, most no-fault systems permit injured parties to seek compensation only in cases of exceptionally "serious" injury, which can be defined in either of two ways:
A quantitative monetary threshold that sets a specific dollar (or other currency) amount that must be spent on medical bills before a tort is allowed. Disadvantages of this threshold are: (1) that it can encourage insureds (and their medical providers) to exaggerate medical costs through over-utilization, and (2) that, unless indexed, it can become ineffective over time because of inflationary effects on medical costs.
A qualitative verbal threshold that states what categories of injuries are considered sufficiently serious to permit a tort (e.g., death, or permanent disability or disfigurement). The advantage of the verbal threshold is that it removes any incentive to inflate damage amounts artificially to meet some preset monetary loss figure. The primary disadvantage is that broad interpretation by the courts of the threshold can lead to over-compensation.
In three U.S. states – Kentucky, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania – policyholders are permitted to choose between traditional tort and no-fault recovery regimes. Under such systems, known as “choice” or “optional” no-fault, policyholders must select between “full tort” and “limited tort” (no-fault) options at the time the policy is written or renewed; once the policy terms are set forth an insured may not change his/her mind without rewriting the policy. In both Kentucky and New Jersey, policyholders who do not make an affirmative choice in favor of either full tort or limited tort are assigned the no-fault option by default; whereas in Pennsylvania, the full-tort option is the default.
Several U.S. states have experimented with and repealed their no-fault laws. Twenty-four states originally enacted no-fault laws in some form between 1970 and 1975. Colorado repealed its no-fault system in 2003. Florida's no-fault system sunset on October 1, 2007, but the Florida legislature passed a new no-fault law which took effect January 1, 2008.
In terms of damages to vehicles and their contents, those claims are still based on fault. No-fault systems focus solely on issues of compensation for bodily injury. But it also works the other way: policies pay the medical bills for drivers and their companions independent of who was at-fault for the collision.
US states and Canadian provinces with no-fault laws[edit]
Pure no-fault
Manitoba[10]
Qualitative threshold
Florida[11]
Hawaii[12]
Kansas[13]
Kentucky[14]
Michigan[15][16]
Minnesota[17]
New Jersey[18]
New York[19]
North Dakota[17]
Ontario
Pennsylvania[20]
Quebec (only for bodily injury suffered in automobile collisions)[21]
Quantitative threshold
Kansas ($2000 Threshold)[13]
Kentucky ($1000 Threshold)[14]
Massachusetts ($2000 Threshold)
Minnesota ($4000 Threshold)[17]
North Dakota ($2500 Threshold)[22]
Saskatchewan ($90,000 threshold)[23]
Utah ($3000 Threshold)[24]
Choice no-fault
Kentucky[14]
New Jersey[citation needed]
Pennsylvania[20]
Saskatchewan[25][26]
See also[edit]
Accident Compensation Corporation in New Zealand
Transport Accident Commission in Victoria, Australia
No-fault liability
External links[edit]
Saskatchewan Government Insurance, Press Release - Choices in Auto Insurance.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Marryott, Franklin J. (July 1966). "The Tort System and Automobile Claims: Evaluating the Keeton-O'Connell Proposal". American Bar Association Journal. 52 (7): 639–43, 639. Retrieved September 13, 2016 – via HeinOnline. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ See, e.g., Calabresi, Guido (March 1961). "Some Thoughts on Risk Distribution and the Law of Torts". Yale Law Journal. 70 (4): 499–53. Retrieved September 13, 2016 – via HeinOnline. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ See, e.g., Morris, Clarence; Paul, James C. N. (May 1962). "Financial Impact of Automobile Accidents". University of Pennsylvania Law Review. 110 (7): 913–33. Retrieved September 13, 2016 – via HeinOnline. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ Keeton, Robert E.; O'Connell, Jeffrey (December 1964). "Basic Protection—A Proposal for Improving Automobile Claims Systems". Harvard Law Journal. 78 (2): 329–84. Retrieved September 13, 2016 – via HeinOnline. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ Keeton, Robert E.; O'Connell, Jeffrey (1965). Basic Protection for the Traffic Victim: A Blueprint for Reforming Automobile Insurance. Boston: Little, Brown. LCCN 65028434.
^ Jump up to: a b Ward, Greg (May 6, 1971). "No Fault Auto Insurance Faces Constitutionality Test Today". Harvard Law Record. 52 (10): 8–9, 15. Retrieved September 13, 2016 – via HeinOnline. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ Pinnick v. Cleary, 360 Mass. 1, 271 N.E.2d 592 (1971).
^ Jump up to: a b Is no-fault insurance finished?. MSN Money.
Jump up ^ Anderson et al. (2012). What Happened to No-Fault Automobile Insurance?. RAND Corporation.
Jump up ^ "Manitoba". Car Insurance Where You Live. Insurance Bureau of Canada. 2014. Retrieved 21 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "627.737 - Tort exemption; limitation on right to damages; punitive damages". 2013 Florida Statutes. State of Florida. Retrieved 21 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "Motor Vehicle Insurance Information". State of Hawaii, Department of Commerce and Consumer Affairs. Retrieved 21 June 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Filing a Motor Vehicle Accident Claim". State of Kansas, Insurance Department. Retrieved 21 June 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c "No Fault (PIP)". State of Kentucky, Department of Insurance. 2010. Retrieved 21 June 2014.
Jump up ^ A Consumer's Guide to No-Fault Automobile Insurance in Michigan (PDF). Lansing: Department of Insurance and Financial Services. 2013. p. 1.
Jump up ^ "Michigan's No Fault Insurance". State of Michigan.
^ Jump up to: a b c "65B.51 DEDUCTION OF COLLATERAL BENEFITS FROM TORT RECOVERY; LIMITATION ON RIGHT TO RECOVER DAMAGES". 2013 Minnesota Statutes. State of Minnesota. 2013. Retrieved 21 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "17:28-1.9. - Immunity from liability for certain auto insurance providers". New Jersey Permanent Statutes Database. State of New Jersey. 2014. Retrieved 21 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "Minimum Auto Insurance Requirements". Shopping For Auto Insurance. State of New York, Department of Financial Services. Retrieved 21 June 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Goguen, David (2014). "Pennsylvania No-Fault Car Insurance Laws". AllAboutCarAccidents.com. NOLO. Retrieved 21 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "Quebec". Car Insurance Where You Live. Insurance Bureau of Canada. 2014. Retrieved 21 June 2014.
Jump up ^ Goguen, David (2014). "North Dakota No-Fault Auto Insurance Laws". AllAboutCarAccidents.com. NOLO. Retrieved 21 June 2014.
Jump up ^ Your Guide to No Fault Coverage (PDF). Regina: Saskatchewan Government Insurance. 2014. pp. 2, 21.
Jump up ^ Ryskamp, Dani Alexis (2014). "Utah No-Fault Auto Insurance Laws & Regulations". AllAboutCarAccidents.com. NOLO. Retrieved 21 June 2014.
Jump up ^ Right-to-sue part of SGI's no-fault plan: [Final Edition] Ehrkamp, Andrew. Star - Phoenix [Saskatoon, Sask] 29 May 2002
Jump up ^ "Saskatchewan". Car Insurance Where You Live. Insurance Bureau of Canada. 2014. Retrieved 21 June 2014.
Insurance Information Institute [1]
Jost, K. (1992, May 22). Too many lawsuits?. CQ Researcher, 2, 433-456
Randall R. Bovbjerg & Frank A. Sloan, No-Fault For Medical Injury: Theory and Evidence, 67 U. Cin. L. Rev. 53 (1998)
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text:
List of U.S. states by coastline
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
It has been suggested that Coastal states be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since November 2017.
States shaded dark blue have ocean coastline.
States shaded light blue have only Great Lakes coast
States shaded white have no coastline.
This is a list of U.S. states ranked by their coastline length. States with no coastline are not included.
Two separate measurements are used: method 1 only includes states with ocean coastline and excludes tidal inlets; method 2 includes Great Lake coastline and the extra length from tidal inlets. For example, method 2 counts the Great Bay as part of New Hampshire's coastline, but method 1 does not. The figures suffer from the inaccuracy inherent in all attempts at measuring coastlines but are nevertheless useful for comparison.
The data for method 1 were retrieved from a CRS Report for Congress [1] using data from U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, The Coastline of the United States, 1975. This is based on measurements made using large-scale nautical charts. The figure for Connecticut was arrived at separately and may not reflect the correct comparative distance. These numbers exclude the Great Lakes coastlines.
The data for method 2 are from a list maintained by the Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The state coastline lengths were computed by an unspecified method that includes tidal areas not included in the first method.[2] These numbers also include the Great Lakes coastlines, which do not have similar tidal areas.
Contents
[hide]
1 Table
2 See also
3 References
4 External links
Table[edit]
State
Method 1 (CRS)
Method 2 (NOAA)
Ratio
(M2÷M1)
Area
[3] (mi2)
Coast/area ratio (ft/mi2)
Coastline
Rank
Coastline
Rank
Method 1
Method 2
Alaska 7007106860441600000♠6,640 mi (10,690 km) 7000100000000000000♠1 7007545631989760000♠33,904 mi (54,563 km) 7000100000000000000♠1 5.11 665384 53 270
Florida 7006217261440000000♠1,350 mi (2,170 km) 7000200000000000000♠2 7007135764259840000♠8,436 mi (13,576 km) 7000200000000000000♠2 6.25 65758 110 680
California 7006135184896000000♠840 mi (1,350 km) 3 7006551522188800000♠3,427 mi (5,515 km) 7000500000000000000♠5 4.08 163695 27 110
Hawaii 7006120700800000000♠750 mi (1,210 km) 4 7006169302988800000♠1,052 mi (1,693 km) 7001180000000000000♠18 1.40 10932 360 510
Louisiana 7005638909568000000♠397 mi (639 km) 5 7007124257450240000♠7,721 mi (12,426 km) 7000300000000000000♠3 19.4 52378 40 780
Texas 7005590629248000000♠367 mi (591 km) 6 7006540578649600000♠3,359 mi (5,406 km) 7000700000000000000♠7 9.15 268596 7.2 66
North Carolina 7005484412544000000♠301 mi (484 km) 7000700000000000000♠7 7006543153600000000♠3,375 mi (5,432 km) 7000600000000000000♠6 11.2 53819 30 330
Oregon 7005476365824000000♠296 mi (476 km) 7000800000000000000♠8 7006226917504000000♠1,410 mi (2,270 km) 7001170000000000000♠17 4.76 98379 16 76
Maine 7005366930432000000♠228 mi (367 km) 7000900000000000000♠9 7006559729843200000♠3,478 mi (5,597 km) 7000400000000000000♠4 15.3 35380 34 520
Massachusetts 7005308994048000000♠192 mi (309 km) 7001100000000000000♠10 7006244459353600000♠1,519 mi (2,445 km) 7001160000000000000♠16 7.91 10554 96 760
South Carolina 7005300947328000000♠187 mi (301 km) 7001110000000000000♠11 7006462847334400000♠2,876 mi (4,628 km) 7001120000000000000♠12 15.4 32020 31 470
Washington 7005252667008000000♠157 mi (253 km) 7001120000000000000♠12 7006486987494400000♠3,026 mi (4,870 km) 7001110000000000000♠11 19.3 71298 12 220
New Jersey 7005209214720000000♠130 mi (210 km) 7001130000000000000♠13 7006288394444800000♠1,792 mi (2,884 km) 7001150000000000000♠15 13.8 8723 79 1,100
New York 7005204386688000000♠127 mi (204 km) 7001140000000000000♠14 7006422452800000000♠2,625 mi (4,225 km) 7001130000000000000♠13 20.7 54555 12 250
Virginia 7005180246528000000♠112 mi (180 km) 7001150000000000000♠15 7006533497536000000♠3,315 mi (5,335 km) 7000800000000000000♠8 29.6 42775 14 410
Georgia 7005160934400000000♠100 mi (160 km) 7001160000000000000♠16 7006377230233600000♠2,344 mi (3,772 km) 7001140000000000000♠14 23.4 59425 8.9 210
Connecticut 7005154497024000000♠96 mi (154 km) 7001170000000000000♠17 7005994574592000000♠618 mi (995 km) 7001200000000000000♠20 6.44 5543 91 590
Alabama 7004852952320000000♠53 mi (85 km) 7001180000000000000♠18 7005976871808000000♠607 mi (977 km) 7001210000000000000♠21 11.5 52420 5.3 61
Mississippi 7004708111360000000♠44 mi (71 km) 7001190000000000000♠19 7005577754496000000♠359 mi (578 km) 7001240000000000000♠24 8.16 48432 4.8 39
Rhode Island 7004643737600000000♠40 mi (64 km) 7001200000000000000♠20 7005617988096000000♠384 mi (618 km) 7001220000000000000♠22 9.60 1545 140 1,300
Maryland 7004498896640000000♠31 mi (50 km) 7001210000000000000♠21 7006513380736000000♠3,190 mi (5,130 km) 7001100000000000000♠10 103 12406 13 1,400
Delaware 7004450616320000000♠28 mi (45 km) 7001220000000000000♠22 7005613160064000000♠381 mi (613 km) 7001230000000000000♠23 13.6 2489 59 810
New Hampshire 7004209214720000000♠13 mi (21 km) 7001230000000000000♠23 7005210824064000000♠131 mi (211 km) 7001280000000000000♠28 10.1 9349 7.3 74
Michigan – – 7006518852505600000♠3,224 mi (5,189 km) 7000900000000000000♠9 – 96714 – 180
Wisconsin – – 7006131966208000000♠820 mi (1,320 km) 7001190000000000000♠19 – 65496 – 66
Ohio – – 7005502115328000000♠312 mi (502 km) 7001250000000000000♠25 – 44826 – 37
Minnesota – – 7005304166016000000♠189 mi (304 km) 7001260000000000000♠26 – 86936 – 11
Pennsylvania – – 7005225308160000000♠140 mi (230 km) 7001270000000000000♠27 – 46054 – 16
Illinois – – 7005101388672000000♠63 mi (101 km) 7001290000000000000♠29 – 57914 – 5.7
Indiana – – 7004724204800000000♠45 mi (72 km) 7001300000000000000♠30 – 36420 – 6.5
Total
7007200830037760000♠12,479 mi (20,083 km)
7008151474675968000♠94,122 mi (151,475 km)
See also[edit]
Coastline paradox
List of countries by length of coastline
List of countries by coast/area ratio
How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "U.S. International Borders: Brief Facts", Congressional Research Service, November 9, 2006
Jump up ^ "NOAA Office for Coastal Management | States and Territories Working on Ocean and Coastal Management". coast.noaa.gov. NOAA Office for Coastal Management. 14 October 2016. Retrieved 2016-10-27.
Jump up ^ "United States Summary: 2010, Population and Housing Unit Counts, 2010 Census of Population and Housing" (PDF) (PDF). United States Census Bureau. September 2012. pp. V–2, 1 & 41 (Tables 1 & 18). Retrieved March 22, 2014.
External links[edit]
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