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Andreas Vesalius
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For the lunar impact crater, see Vesalius (crater).
Andreas Vesalius
A portrait of Vesalius from De humani corporis fabrica
Born
(1514-12-31)31 December 1514
Brussels, Habsburg Netherlands
(modern-day Belgium)
Died
15 October 1564(1564-10-15) (aged 49)
Zakynthos, Venetian Ionian Islands
(modern-day Greece)
Alma mater
University of Pavia
University of Padua
Known for
De humani corporis fabrica or "the structure of the human body"
Scientific career
Fields
Anatomy
Thesis
Paraphrasis in nonum librum Rhazae medici Arabis clarissimi ad regem Almansorem, de affectuum singularum corporis partium curatione (1537)
Doctoral advisor
Johannes Winter von Andernach
Gemma Frisius
Doctoral students
Matteo Realdo Colombo
Influences
Galen
Jacques Dubois
Jean Fernel
Influenced
Gabriele Falloppio
Andreas Vesalius (/vɪˈseɪliəs/;[1] 31 December 1514 – 15 October 1564) was a 16th-century Flemish anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the Fabric of the Human Body). Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy. He was born in Brussels, which was then part of the Habsburg Netherlands. He was professor at the University of Padua and later became Imperial physician at the court of Emperor Charles V.
Andreas Vesalius is the Latinized form of the Dutch Andries van Wesel. It was a common practice among European scholars in his time to Latinize their names. His name is also given as Andrea Vesalius, André Vésale, Andrea Vesalio, Andreas Vesal, André Vesalio and Andre Vesalepo.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life and education
2 Medical career and accomplishments
3 Imperial physician and death
4 Publications
4.1 De Humani Corporis Fabrica
4.1.1 Excerpts
4.2 Other publications
5 Scientific findings
5.1 Skeletal system
5.2 Muscular system
5.3 Vascular and circulatory systems
5.4 Nervous system
5.5 Abdominal organs
5.6 Heart
5.7 Other achievements
6 Scientific and historical impact
7 See also
8 References
9 Sources
10 External links
Early life and education[edit]
Vesalius was born as Andries van Wesel to his father Andries van Wesel and mother Isabel Crabbe on 31 December 1514 in Brussels, which was then part of the Habsburg Netherlands. His great grandfather, Jan van Wesel, probably born in Wesel, received a medical degree from the University of Pavia and taught medicine in 1528 at the University of Leuven. His grandfather, Everard van Wesel, was the Royal Physician of Emperor Maximilian, while his father, Anders van Wesel, served as apothecary to Maximilian, and later valet de chambre to his successor Charles V. Anders encouraged his son to continue in the family tradition, and enrolled him in the Brethren of the Common Life in Brussels to learn Greek and Latin prior to learning medicine, according to standards of the era.[citation needed]
In 1528 Vesalius entered the University of Leuven (Pedagogium Castrense) taking arts, but when his father was appointed as the Valet de Chambre in 1532, he decided instead to pursue a career in the military at the University of Paris, where he relocated in 1533. There he studied the theories of Galen under the auspices of Jacques Dubois (Jacobus Sylvius) and Jean Fernel. It was during this time that he developed an interest in anatomy, and he was often found examining excavated bones in the charnel houses at the Cemetery of the Innocents.
Vesalius was forced to leave Paris in 1536 owing to the opening of hostilities between the Holy Roman Empire and France and returned to Leuven. He completed his studies there under Johann Winter von Andernach and graduated the following year. His thesis, Paraphrasis in nonum librum Rhazae medici arabis clariss. ad regem Almansorum de affectuum singularum corporis partium curatione, was a commentary on the ninth book of Rhazes. He remained at Leuven only a short time before leaving after a dispute with his professor. After settling briefly in Venice in 1536, he moved to the University of Padua (Universitas artistarum) to study for his medical doctorate, which he received in 1537.
Medical career and accomplishments[edit]
On the day of his graduation he was immediately offered the chair of surgery and anatomy (explicator chirurgiae) at Padua. He also guest-lectured at the Bologna and the Pisa. Prior to taking up his position in Padua, Vesalius traveled through Italy, and assisted the future Pope Paul IV and Ignatius of Loyola to heal those afflicted by Hansen’s disease (leprosy). In Venice, he met the illustrator Johan van Calcar, a student of Titian. It was with van Calcar that Vesalius published his first anatomical text, Tabulae Anatomicae Sex, in 1538.[2] Previously these topics had been taught primarily from reading classical texts, mainly Galen, followed by an animal dissection by a barber–surgeon whose work was directed by the lecturer. No attempt was made to confirm Galen's claims, which were considered unassailable. Vesalius, in contrast, performed dissection as the primary teaching tool, handling the actual work himself and urging students to perform dissection themselves. Hands-on direct observation was, considered the only reliable resource, a huge break with medieval practice, which prohibited human dissection.
Vesalius created detailed illustrations of anatomy for students in the form of six large woodcut posters. When he found that some of them were being widely copied, he published them all in 1538 under the title Tabulae anatomicae sex. He followed this in 1539 with an updated version of Guinter's anatomical handbook, Institutiones anatomicae.
In 1539 he also published his Venesection letter on bloodletting. This was a popular treatment for almost any illness, but there was some debate about where to take the blood from. The classical Greek procedure, advocated by Galen, was to collect blood from a site near the location of the illness. However, the Muslim and medieval practice was to draw a smaller amount of blood from a distant location. Vesalius' pamphlet generally supported Galen's view, but with qualifications that rejected the infiltration of Galen.
In 1541 while in Bologna, Vesalius discovered that all of Galen's research had to be restricted to animals; since dissection had been banned in ancient Rome. Galen had dissected Barbary macaques instead, which he considered structurally closest to man. Even though Galen produced many errors due to the anatomical material available to him, he was a qualified examiner, but his research was weakened by stating his findings philosophically causing his facts to be based more on religion rather than science.[3] Vesalius contributed to the new Giunta edition of Galen's collected works and began to write his own anatomical text based on his own research. Until Vesalius pointed out Galen's substitution of animal for human anatomy, it had gone unnoticed and had long been the basis of studying human anatomy. However, some people still chose to follow Galen and resented Vesalius for calling attention to the difference.
Galen had assumed that arteries carried the purest blood to higher organs such as the brain and lungs from the left ventricle of the heart, while veins carried blood to the lesser organs such as the stomach from the right ventricle. In order for this theory to be correct, some kind of opening was needed to interconnect the ventricles, and Galen claimed to have found them. So paramount was Galen's authority that for 1400 years a succession of anatomists had claimed to find these holes, until Vesalius admitted he could not find them. Nonetheless, he did not venture to dispute Galen on the distribution of blood, being unable to offer any other solution, and so supposed that it diffused through the unbroken partition between the ventricles.[4]
Other famous examples of Vesalius disproving Galen's assertions were his discoveries that the lower jaw (mandible) was composed of only one bone, not two (which Galen had assumed based on animal dissection) and that humans lack the rete mirabile, a network of blood vessels at the base of the brain that is found in sheep and other ungulates.
In 1543, Vesalius conducted a public dissection of the body of Jakob Karrer von Gebweiler, a notorious felon from the city of Basel, Switzerland. He assembled and articulated the bones, finally donating the skeleton to the University of Basel. This preparation ("The Basel Skeleton") is Vesalius' only well-preserved skeletal preparation, and also the world's oldest surviving anatomical preparation. It is still displayed at the Anatomical Museum of the University of Basel.[5]
In the same year Vesalius took residence in Basel to help Johannes Oporinus publish the seven-volume De humani corporis fabrica (On the fabric of the human body), a groundbreaking work of human anatomy that he dedicated to Charles V. Many believe it was illustrated by Titian's pupil Jan Stephen van Calcar, but evidence is lacking, and it is unlikely that a single artist created all 273 illustrations in a period of time so short. At about the same time he published an abridged edition for students, Andrea Vesalii suorum de humani corporis fabrica librorum epitome, and dedicated it to Philip II of Spain, the son of the Emperor. That work, now collectively referred to as the Fabrica of Vesalius, was groundbreaking in the history of medical publishing and is considered to be a major step in the development of scientific medicine. Because of this, it marks the establishment of anatomy as a modern descriptive science.[6]
Though Vesalius' work was not the first such work based on actual dissection, nor even the first work of this era, the production quality, highly detailed and intricate plates, and the likelihood that the artists who produced it were clearly present in person at the dissections made it an instant classic. Pirated editions were available almost immediately, an event Vesalius acknowledged in a printer's note would happen. Vesalius was 28 years old when the first edition of Fabrica was published.
Imperial physician and death[edit]
The Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, who was an important patron of Vesalius
Soon after publication, Vesalius was invited to become imperial physician to the court of Emperor Charles V. He informed the Venetian Senate that he would leave his post in Padua, which prompted Duke Cosimo I de' Medici to invite him to move to the expanding university in Pisa, which he declined. Vesalius took up the offered position in the imperial court, where he had to deal with other physicians who mocked him for being a mere barber surgeon instead of an academic working on the respected basis of theory.
In the 1540s, shortly after entering in service of the emperor, Vesalius married Anne van Hamme, from Vilvorde, Belgium. They had one daughter, named Anne, who died in 1588.[7]
Over the next eleven years Vesalius traveled with the court, treating injuries caused in battle or tournaments, performing postmortems, administering medication, and writing private letters addressing specific medical questions. During these years he also wrote the Epistle on the China root, a short text on the properties of a medical plant whose efficacy he doubted, as well as a defense of his anatomical findings. This elicited a new round of attacks on his work that called for him to be punished by the emperor. In 1551, Charles V commissioned an inquiry in Salamanca to investigate the religious implications of his methods. Although Vesalius' work was cleared by the board, the attacks continued. Four years later one of his main detractors and one-time professors, Jacobus Sylvius, published an article that claimed that the human body itself had changed since Galen had studied it.
After the abdication of Emperor Charles V, Vesalius continued at court in great favor with his son Philip II, who rewarded him with a pension for life by making him a count palatine. In 1555 he published a revised edition of De humani corporis fabrica.
In 1564 Vesalius went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, some said, after being accused of dissecting a living body. He sailed with the Venetian fleet under James Malatesta via Cyprus. When he reached Jerusalem he received a message from the Venetian senate requesting him again to accept the Paduan professorship, which had become vacant on the death of his friend and pupil Fallopius.
After struggling for many days with adverse winds in the Ionian Sea, he was shipwrecked on the island of Zakynthos.[8] Here he soon died, in such debt that a benefactor kindly paid for his funeral. At the time of his death he was scarcely fifty years of age. He was buried somewhere on the island of Zakynthos (Zante).[9]
For many years it was assumed that Vesalius's pilgrimage was due to pressures of the Inquisition. Today this assumption is generally considered to be without foundation[10] and is dismissed by modern biographers. It appears the story was spread by Hubert Languet, a diplomat under Emperor Charles V and then under the Prince of Orange, who claimed in 1565 that Vesalius had performed an autopsy on an aristocrat in Spain while the heart was still beating, leading to the Inquisition's condemning him to death. The story went on to claim that Philip II had the sentence commuted to a pilgrimage. The story re-surfaced several times over the next few years, living on until recent times.
Publications[edit]
De Humani Corporis Fabrica[edit]
Main article: De humani corporis fabrica
Vesalius's Fabrica contained many intricately detailed drawings of human dissections, often in allegorical poses.
In 1543, Vesalius asked Johannes Oporinus to publish the book De humani corporis fabrica (On the fabric of the human body), a groundbreaking work of human anatomy he dedicated to Charles V and which many believe was illustrated by Titian's pupil Jan Stephen van Calcar.
About the same time he published another version of his great work, entitled De humani corporis fabrica librorum epitome (Abridgement of the Structure of the Human Body) more commonly known as the Epitome, with a stronger focus on illustrations than on text, so as to help readers, including medical students, to easily understand his findings. The actual text of the Epitome was an abridged form of his work in the Fabrica, and the organization of the two books was quite varied. He dedicated it to Philip II of Spain, son of the Emperor.[11]
The Fabrica emphasized the priority of dissection and what has come to be called the "anatomical" view of the body, seeing human internal functioning as a result of an essentially corporeal structure filled with organs arranged in three-dimensional space. His book contains drawings of several organs on two leaves. This allows for the creation of three-dimensional diagrams by cutting out the organs and pasting them on flayed figures.[6] This was in stark contrast to many of the anatomical models used previously, which had strong Galenic/Aristotelean elements, as well as elements of astrology. Although modern anatomical texts had been published by Mondino and Berenger, much of their work was clouded by reverence for Galen and Arabian doctrines.
Besides the first good description of the sphenoid bone, he showed that the sternum consists of three portions and the sacrum of five or six, and described accurately the vestibule in the interior of the temporal bone. He not only verified Estienne's observations on the valves of the hepatic veins, but also described the vena azygos, and discovered the canal which passes in the fetus between the umbilical vein and the vena cava, since named the ductus venosus. He described the omentum and its connections with the stomach, the spleen and the colon; gave the first correct views of the structure of the pylorus; observed the small size of the caecal appendix in man; gave the first good account of the mediastinum and pleura and the fullest description of the anatomy of the brain up to that time. He did not understand the inferior recesses, and his account of the nerves is confused by regarding the optic as the first pair, the third as the fifth, and the fifth as the seventh.
In this work, Vesalius also becomes the first person to describe mechanical ventilation.[12] It is largely this achievement that has resulted in Vesalius being incorporated into the Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists college arms and crest.
Excerpts[edit]
When I undertake the dissection of a human pelvis I pass a stout rope tied like a noose beneath the lower jaw and through the zygomas up to the top of the head... The lower end of the noose I run through a pulley fixed to a beam in the room so that I may raise or lower the cadaver as it hangs there or turn around in any direction to suit my purpose; ... You must take care not to put the noose around the neck, unless some of the muscles connected to the occipital bone have already been cut away.[13]
Other publications[edit]
In 1538, Vesalius wrote Epistola, docens venam axillarem dextri cubiti in dolore laterali secandam (A letter, teaching that in cases of pain in the side, the axillary vein of the right elbow be cut), commonly known as the Venesection Letter, which demonstrated a revived venesection, a classical procedure in which blood was drawn near the site of the ailment. He sought to locate the precise site for venesection in pleurisy within the framework of the classical method. The real significance of the book is his attempt to support his arguments by the location and continuity of the venous system from his observations rather than appeal to earlier published works. With this novel approach to the problem of venesection, Vesalius posed the then striking hypothesis that anatomical dissection might be used to test speculation.
In 1546, three years after the Fabrica, he wrote his Epistola rationem modumque propinandi radicis Chynae decocti, commonly known as the Epistle on the China Root. Ostensibly an appraisal of a popular but ineffective treatment for gout, syphilis, and stone, this work is especially important as a continued polemic against Galenism and a reply to critics in the camp of his former professor Jacobus Sylvius, now an obsessive detractor.
In February 1561, Vesalius was given a copy of Gabriele Fallopio's Observationes anatomicae, friendly additions and corrections to the Fabrica. Before the end of the year Vesalius composed a cordial reply, Anatomicarum Gabrielis Fallopii observationum examen, generally referred to as the Examen. In this work he recognizes in Fallopio a true equal in the science of dissection he had done so much to create. Vesalius' reply to Fallopio was published in May 1564, a month after Vesalius' death on the Greek island of Zante (now called Zakynthos).
Scientific findings[edit]
Skeletal system[edit]
Vesalius believed the skeletal system to be the framework of the human body. It was in this opening chapter or book of De fabrica that Vesalius made several of his strongest claims against Galen's theories and writings which he had put in his anatomy books. In his extensive study of the skull, Vesalius claimed that the mandible consisted of one bone, whereas Galen had thought it to be two separate bones. He accurately described the vestibule in the interior of the temporal bone of the skull.
In Galen's observation of the ape, he had discovered that their sternum consisted of seven parts which he assumed also held true for humans. Vesalius discovered that the human sternum consisted of only three parts.
He also disproved the common belief that men had one rib fewer than women and noted that the fibula and tibia bones of the leg were indeed larger than the humerus bone of the arm, unlike Galen's original findings.
Muscular system[edit]
Vesalius' most impressive contribution to the study of the muscular system may be the illustrations that accompany the text in De fabrica, which would become known as the "muscle men". He describes the source and position of each muscle of the body and provides information on their respective operation.
Vascular and circulatory systems[edit]
Vesalius' work on the vascular and circulatory systems was his greatest contribution to modern medicine. In his dissections of the heart, Vesalius became convinced that Galen's claims of a porous Interventricular septum were false. This fact was previously described by Michael Servetus, a fellow of Vesalius, but never reached the public, for it was written down in the "Manuscript of Paris",[14] in 1546, and published later in his Christianismi Restitutio (1553), a book regarded as heretical by the Inquisition. Only three copies survived, but these remained hidden for decades, the rest having been burned shortly after publication. In the second edition Vesalius published that the septum was indeed waterproof, discovering (and naming), the mitral valve to explain the blood flow.
Vesalius believed that cardiac systole is synchronous with the arterial pulse.
He not only verified Estienne's findings on the valves of the hepatic veins, but also described the azygos vein, and discovered the canal which passes into the fetus between the umbilical vein and vena cava.
Nervous system[edit]
Vesalius defined a nerve as the mode of transmitting sensation and motion and thus refuted his contemporaries' claims that ligaments, tendons and aponeuroses were three types of nerve units.
He believed that the brain and the nervous system are the center of the mind and emotion in contrast to the common Aristotelian belief that the heart was the center of the body. He correspondingly believed that nerves themselves do not originate from the heart, but from the brain.
Upon studying the optic nerve, Vesalius came to the conclusion that nerves were not hollow.
Abdominal organs[edit]
In De fabrica, he corrected an earlier claim he made in Tabulae about the right kidney being set higher than the left. Vesalius claimed that the kidneys were not a filter device for urine to pass through, but rather that the kidneys serve to filter blood as well, and that excretions from the kidneys travelled through the ureters to the bladder.
He described the omentum, and its connections with the stomach, the spleen and the colon gave the first correct views of the structure of the pylorus.
He also observed the small size of the caecal appendix in man and gave the first good account of the mediastinum and pleura.
Vesalius admitted that due to a lack of pregnant cadavers he was unable to come to a significant understanding of the reproductive organs. However, he did find that the uterus had been falsely identified as having two distinct sections.
Heart[edit]
Through his work with muscles, Vesalius believed that a criterion for muscles was their voluntary motion. On this claim, he deduced that the heart was not a true muscle due to the obvious involuntary nature of its motion.
He identified two chambers and two atria. The right atrium was considered a continuation of the inferior and superior venae cavae, and the left atrium was considered a continuation of the pulmonary vein.
Interestingly, he also addressed the controversial issue of the heart being the centre of the soul. He wished to avoid drawing any conclusions due to possible conflict with contemporary religious beliefs.
Base of the brain, showing the optic chiasma, cerebellum, olfactory bulbs, etc.
Against Galen's theory and many beliefs he also discovered that there was no hole in the septum or heart.
Other achievements[edit]
Vesalius disproved Galen's assertion that men have more teeth than women.[8]
Vesalius introduced the notion of induction of the extraction of empyema through surgical means.
Due to his impressive study of the human skull and the variations in its features he is said to have been responsible for the launch of the study of physical anthropology.
Vesalius always encouraged his students to check their findings, and even his own findings, so that they could better understand the structure of the human body.
In addition to his continual efforts to study anatomy he also worked on medicinal remedies and came to such conclusions as treating syphilis with chinaroot.
Vesalius claimed that medicine had three aspects: drugs, diet, and 'the use of hands'—mainly suggesting surgery and the knowledge of anatomy and physiology gained through dissection.
Vesalius was a supporter of 'parallel dissections' in which an animal cadaver and a human cadaver are dissected simultaneously in order to demonstrate the anatomical differences and thus correct Galenic errors.
Scientific and historical impact[edit]
The influence of Vesalius' plates representing the partial dissections of the human figure posing in a landscape setting is apparent in the anatomical plates prepared by the Baroque painter Pietro da Cortona (1596–1669), who executed anatomical plates with figures in dramatic poses, most of them with architectural or landscape backdrops.[15]
During the 20th century, the American artist, Jacob Lawrence created his Vesalius Suite based on the anatomical drawings of Andreas Vesalius.
"De Fabrica received a mixed reception when it first appeared; strict Galenists deplored its attacks on their master, while other anatomists, particularly in Italy, praised it as an important contribution—the reaction that was ultimately to carry the day," concludes Katharine Park her Commentary in the 1998 De Fabrica.[16]
Like Darwin three centuries later, Vesalius was going up against the towering authority of a tradition stretching back to the ancients—here specifically the work of Galen — with only his experience on his side. He knew what his eyes saw and his hands felt, and concluded that traditional belief was wrong. In his publications we see Vesalius doing everything he can think of to bolster his authoritative image: publishing a huge monument to himself, but presenting the work using Galen’s own flowchart; presenting himself as personal physician to the emperor and having himself depicted in a commanding position on the title page of the book; augmenting his words with illustration after illustration and recommending the experiential road to all his students far and wide. His guarantee: if you doubt what I say and show here, do your own anatomy, see for yourself and your experience will be like mine. The authority of experience won out against the authority of ancient sources and a new era dawned upon Europe.
Simultaneously Vesalius’s work was part of one of the earliest known public health programs. The Council of Doges in Venice responded to the Bubonic Plague in the mid-14th century by directing the University of Padua Medical School to devote itself to discovering the causes of plague, how it spreads, how it develops in the individual, and if possible how victims might be cured. It ultimately took three centuries to find the solution, but with Venice leading the way plague was eventually eliminated as a major killer across Europe.[16][17]
See also[edit]
Physician writer
Timeline of medicine and medical technology
Galen
Medical Renaissance
Brain Renaissance
University of Padua
InVesalius
Vesalius College
References[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Andreas Vesalius
Jump up ^ "Vesalius". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
Jump up ^ "Vesalius at 500". The Physician's Palette.
Jump up ^ O'Malley, Charles Donald. Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564. Berkeley : University of California Press, 1964.
Jump up ^ Bonnier Corporation (May 1872). Popular Science. Bonnier Corporation. pp. 95–100. ISSN 0161-7370.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 2009-10-10.
^ Jump up to: a b Harcourt, Glenn (1987-01-01). "Andreas Vesalius and the Anatomy of Antique Sculpture". Representations. 17: 28–61. doi:10.2307/3043792. ISSN 0734-6018.
Jump up ^ O'Malley, Charles Donald. Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564. Berkeley : University of California Press, 1964. pp. 203, 314.
^ Jump up to: a b Lambert Teuwissen (31 December 2014). "'Vesalius was belangrijker dan Copernicus'" (in Dutch). Nederlandse Publieke Omroep. Retrieved 5 February 2015.
Jump up ^ O'Malley, Charles Donald. Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564. Berkeley : University of California Press, 1964. p. 311.
Jump up ^ See C.D. O'Malley Andreas Vesalius' Pilgrimage, Isis 45:2, 1954
Jump up ^ Kusukawa, Sachiko. "De humani corporis fabrica. Epitome". Cambridge Digital Library. Retrieved 3 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Vallejo-Manzur F. et al. (2003) "The resuscitation greats. Andreas Vesalius, the concept of an artificial airway." Resuscitation" 56:3–7
Jump up ^ Andreas Vesalius, De humani corporis fabrica (1544), Book II, Ch. 24, 268. Trans. William Frank Rich son, On the Fabric of the Human Body (1999), Book II, 234. As quoted by W. F. Bynum & Roy Porter (2005), Oxford Dictionary of Scientific Quotations: Andreas Vesalius, 595:2, ISBN 0-19-858409-1.
Jump up ^ Michael Servetus Research Website with graphical study on the Manuscript of Paris by Servetus
Jump up ^ The Anatomical Plates of Pietro da Cortona, Dover, New York, 1986. They were published in the 18th century. Twenty of the drawings for these plates are now in the Hunterian Library, Glasgow.
^ Jump up to: a b Andreas Vesalius, De Humani Corporis Fabrica (1998), commentary by Katharine Park
Jump up ^ Lyn Paul Relph, Our Experience, Ourselves (2012)
Sources[edit]
Dear, Peter. Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and Its Ambitions, 1500–1700. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2001.
Debus, Allen, ed. Vesalius. Who's Who in the World of Science: From Antiquity to Present. 1st ed. Hanibal: Western Co., 1968.
O'Malley, CD. Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964.
Porter, Roy, ed. Vesalius. The Biographical Dictionary of Scientists. 2nd Ed. New York: Oxford University P, 1994.
Saunders, JB de CM and O'Malley, Charles D. The Illustrations from the Works of Andreas Vesalius of Brussels. New York: Dover, 1973 [reprint].
"Vesalius." Encyclopedia Americana. 1992.
Vesalius, Andreas. On the Fabric of the Human Body, translated by W. F. Richardson and J. B. Carman. 5 vols. San Francisco and Novato: Norman Publishing, 1998–2009. The Fabric of the human Body, Translated by Daniel H. Harrison and Malcolm H. Hast. Basel: Karger Publishing, 2013. Garrison, Daniel H. Vesalius: The China Root Epistle. A New Translation and Critical Edition. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
Williams, Trevor, ed. Vesalius. A Biographical Dictionary of Scientists. 3rd Ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1982.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Andreas Vesalius.
Anatomia 1522–1867: Anatomical Plates from the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library
Bibliography van Andreas Vesalius
Vesalius's « Anatomies » Introduction by Jacqueline Vons
Places and memories related to Andreas Vesalius
Play on Vesalius
Translating Vesalius
Ars Anatomica collection at University of Edinburgh image service (includes Vesalius's De Humanis Corporis Fabrica)
Turning the Pages: a virtual copy of Vesalius's De Humanis Corporis Fabrica. From the U.S. National Library of Medicine.
De humani corporis fabrica. Epitome coloured and complete with manekin at Cambridge Digital Library
Texts digitized by the Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de santé; see its digital library Medic@.
Vesalius four centuries later by John F. Fulton. Logan Clendening lecture on the history and philosophy of medicine, University of Kansas, 1950. Full-text PDF.
Andreas Vesalius, VESALIUS project. Information about the new DVD "De Humani Corporis Fabrica" produced by Health Science Library of the St. Anna Hospital in Ferrara – Italy.
Vesalius College in Brussels
TV report on 500th birthday Vesalius by tvbrussel
De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem (1543) – full digital facsimile at Linda Hall Library
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Politics of Houston
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The politics of Houston in the U.S. state of Texas are complex and constantly shifting in part owing to the fact that the city is one of the fastest growing major cities in the United States and that it is the largest without zoning laws. Houston was founded in 1836 and incorporated in 1837. The city is the county seat of Harris County. A portion of southwest Houston extends into Fort Bend County and a small portion in the northeast extends into Montgomery County.
The city of Houston has a strong mayor–council government. The City's elected officials, serving four-year terms,[1] are: the mayor, the city comptroller and 16 members of the city council. Under the strong mayor-council government, the mayor serves as the executive officer of the city. As the city's chief administrator and official representative, the mayor is responsible for the general management of the city and for seeing that all laws and ordinances are enforced.[citation needed]
Houston City Hall
As the result of a 1991 referendum in Houston, the two-year term was amended to elected officials who can serve up to three terms until 2015 where the three term limit and two year terms were replaced with a two four-year terms - a mayor is elected for a four-year term (previously the mayor, controller, and councilmembers are elected to a two-year term prior to the November 3, 2015 city elections), and can be elected to as many as two consecutive terms. City council members, who also have a three-term limit, are elected from eleven districts in the city, along with five at-large council members, who represent the entire city. Term limits with the City of Houston are absolute - past elected officeholders are prohibited from campaigning for their former council positions (which includes the Mayor and City Controller). The current Mayor of Houston is Sylvester Turner.
The city council lineup was based on a U.S. Justice Department mandate which took effect in 1979. Under the current city charter, when the population in the Houston city limits passed 2.2 million residents, the nine-member city council districts expanded to include two more city council districts.[2] The municipal elections held on November 8, 2011 included the newly formed Districts J (located in the Greater Sharpstown area) and K (a section of Southwest Houston, Reliant Park, and Fort Bend County located within the Houston City Limits) where 2 candidates won over 50% of the vote. Houston is a home rule city and all municipal elections in the state of Texas are nonpartisan.[3]
Many local lawmakers have been impacted by the city's term limits. Several former city officials—Anthony Hall, Rodney Ellis, Sheila Jackson-Lee, Sylvia Garcia, Martha Wong, Chris Bell, Annise Parker, Shelley Sekula-Gibbs, Adrian Garcia, Ed Gonzalez, and Mike Sullivan—, chose to run for other elected positions once their terms expired or shortly before they were due to expire.
City Council Member offices located at the Margaret Helfrich Westerman City Hall Annex
Former mayor Lee P. Brown denounced the term limits, saying they prevented incumbents from gaining enough experience in city government. A proposal to double the current two-year term of office has been debated—as of 2005, several candidates for the city council have brought up the issue of whether term limits should be amended or eliminated. Some elected officials from the Greater Houston area within the Texas Legislature—primarily Garnet Coleman and Sylvester Turner—have also spoken out against term limits. In 2010, a term limits review commission appointed by former Mayor Bill White called for amending the city charter on extending term limits where elected officials could serve two four-year terms; the proposal failed 8.18.10 after the Houston City Council voted 7-7. The November 3, 2015 City of Houston municipal elections a referendum on the voter ballot have amended the term limit law where elected officials can serve two four year terms - this measure does not abolish term limits nor have a reeligibility provision for past elected officeholders who served their full tenure under the 1991 term limit ordinance. Incumbents who have won re-election during the 2015 election under the three-term rule - those who served 2 are granted an additional 4 years while a freshman councilmember are granted their 2 additional terms - this means that some elected officials can hold up to 10 years in office (if a freshman councilmember who served during their 2014-16 term) or 8 years in office (for those elected in 2011 and re-elected to their final term).
Houston is considered to be a politically divided city whose balance of power often sways between Republicans and Democrats. The city has elected (as of 2017[update]) Democratic mayors since 1982 but the city council has been much more divided. The affluent western-central portions of Houston—such as River Oaks and the Memorial/Spring Branch area, as well as master planned communities of Kingwood and Clear Lake City—consistently vote Republican, while many of the inner city areas, Neartown, and Alief—are heavily Democratic. According to the 2005 Houston Area Survey, 68 percent of non-Hispanic whites in Harris County are declared or favor Republicans while 89 percent of non-Hispanic blacks in the area are declared or favor Democrats. About 62 percent Hispanics (of any race) in the area are declared or favor Democrats.[4] The city has become the most ethnically diverse city in the United States with immigrants from all over the world, adding a unique dimension to the city's politics.[5] As of 2017[update] approximately 28% of the city's population is immigrants and there is no single identifiable ethnic group that holds a majority in the city.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Municipal government
2.1 Elected officials
2.2 Super neighborhoods
2.3 Parks and Recreation Department
2.4 Houston Airport System
2.5 Office of Emergency Management
3 State government
4 Federal government
4.1 Elected officials
5 Gallery
6 See also
7 Notes
8 External links
History[edit]
In 1912 the Government of Texas passed an amendment to the Texas Constitution that allowed the annexation of unincorporated areas. Since then the City of Houston annexed various properties.[7]
Municipal government[edit]
Elected officials[edit]
Position
Name
First Elected
Areas Represented
Council Districts Super Neighborhoods
Mayor Sylvester Turner 2015 City-wide
City Controller Chris B. Brown 2015 City-wide
At-Large Position 1 Mike Knox 2015 City-wide
At-Large Position 2 David W. Robinson 2013 City-wide
At-Large Position 3 Michael Kubosh 2013 City-wide
At-Large Position 4 Amanda Edwards 2015 City-wide
At-Large Position 5 Jack Christie 2011 City-wide
District A Brenda Stardig 2009 District A serves areas in northwestern Houston.[8] District A includes communities north of Interstate 10 (Katy Freeway),[9] including Spring Branch.[10] As of 2012 thousands of South Korean people live within District A.[11]
As of 2012, according to Rice University political scientist Bob Stein, voters in District A tend to be older people, conservative, and White American, and many follow the Tea Party movement. The voting base is such despite the presence of large Hispanic neighborhoods within District A. In the 2011 election voters favored Tea Party candidate Helena Brown over the incumbent, Brenda Stardig, because Stardig supported a "rain tax," passed in 2010, that taxed churches.[12]
District B Jerry Davis 2011 District B serves areas in northern Houston and northeast Houston.[8][13] Chris Moran of the Houston Chronicle said that the district "is considered an African-American stronghold."[8] Most residents belong to racial and ethnic minorities.[13]
Areas within the district boundaries include Acres Homes, the Fifth Ward,[14][15] and George Bush Intercontinental Airport.[8]
The Houston Chronicle said that District B's constituency "has been shortchanged historically on municipal services and economic development."[13] A lot of illegal dumping occurs within the district. The newspaper added that the district has "a resilient community spirit."[13] Kristen Mack of the Houston Chronicle said in 2005 that the district, prior to the 2011 redistricting, "is plagued by unkempt lots, clogged ditches and substandard streets."[15]
In 1987 District B included Clinton Park, the Fifth Ward, Fontane Place, Kashmere Gardens, Scenic Woods, Settegast, Songwood, and Trinity Gardens. It also included the Lake Houston and the Bush Airport areas. In 1987 the district was 69% African American.[16]
District C Ellen Cohen 2011 District C extends from an area north of the 610 Loop, through the Houston Heights area, up to the Braeswood area.[17] The current District C includes most of the Houston Heights,[18][19] Montrose, the Houston Museum District,[18][20] and some communities around Rice University.[8] District C also includes the Braeswood area, Meyerland, Southampton,[21] almost all of Oak Forest.[18][21][22]
Because of the inclusion of the Montrose, Heights, and Rice University areas, it has the nickname "Hipstrict" for what Chris Moran of the Houston Chronicle refers to as its "progressive, urban ethic."[8] The Houston Chronicle editorial base described District C as a district that should be "politically dynamic."[23]
Historically District C has covered areas within the "Inner Loop" (areas inside the 610 Loop) and western Houston.[24] 20 years before 2011, Montrose was moved from District C to district D to avoid putting too many minorities in a single city council district.[25] Kristen Mack of the Houston Chronicle said that District C, which "covers a diverse swath of southwest Houston", was "One of Houston's most economically diverse districts, it ranges from leafy Southampton near Rice University through more modest subdivisions and vast apartment warrens in the city's far southwest."[26] Jerry Wood, a former city planner and neighborhood expert, said that all of the regions of District C were active in terms of politics.[26]
In the 1990s District C had a wedge shape. It extended from the Museum District to the Beltway 8 south side. It included Fondren Southwest, Meyerland, and Southampton.[27]
As 2011 city council redistricting approached, some members of Houston's gay community and some Houston area bloggers proposed returning Montrose to District C.[25] Around 2011 an earlier plan would have combined the Heights and Montrose under a district called District J.[28] The current District C has former turf once located in District H (West End (Washington Avenue), Houston Heights, Historic Sixth Ward) while retaining the Meyerland area (the rest of District C southwest of Meyerland became part of District K).
District D Dwight Boykins 2013 District D extends from the northernmost area within Midtown southward to Beltway 8.[8] District D includes Sunnyside,[29][30] and it also includes the Third Ward.[29][31]
20 years before 2011, Montrose was moved from District C to district D to avoid putting too many minorities in a single city council district.[25] While Montrose was in District D, it was not able to have its own residents elected to city council where its residents usually campaigned for candidates who were GLBT friendly and/or involved with pro-HIV/AIDS awareness. Instead the district was forced to try to influence electoral contests involving candidates from other neighborhoods. In the 2011 redistricting Montrose was moved into District C.[23]
District E Dave Martin 2011 District E mainly consists of Kingwood and the Houston portion of Clear Lake City.[31] The City of Houston has a liaison who works with the District E representative and the residents of Kingwood. In 2006 some Kingwood residents told the Houston Chronicle that the District E representative has too little influence in city council, which had 15 seats during that year, and that the district is, in the words of Renée C. Lee of the Chronicle, territorially "spread too thin."[7]
District F Steve Le 2015 District F serves areas in southwestern Houston.[8] District F has a significant Vietnamese American community.[32] District F includes much of the Alief, area other areas in Southwest Houston, Briarmeadow and Tanglewilde.[9]
In 1985 District F included far Southwest Houston. It included Alief, Braeburn, Braeburn Valley West, Glenshire, Gulfton, Robindell, and Sharpstown. In 1985 the district was 83% white.[33] In 2011 Briarmeadow and Tanglewilde, areas south of Westheimer Road which were previously in District G, were moved to District F, while the Bellaire Boulevard areas and Sharpstown were moved out of District F.[9]
District G Greg Travis 2015 District G serves areas in western Houston.[8] District G extends from an area inside the 610 Loop, between Interstate 10 (Katy Freeway) and Westheimer Road, westward to an area past Eldridge Road.[9] Neighborhoods in District G include the Memorial area, River Oaks and Tanglewood.[34]
Briarmeadow and Tanglewilde, two communities south of Westheimer Road, were previously in district G until 2011, when redistricting moved them into District F.[9]
In 1987 District G was the wealthiest city council district in Houston. It was about 90% white. It served River Oaks and most of Memorial, two very wealthy communities, and it also served Afton Oaks, the Ashford Area, Briargrove, Briarmeadow, Carvercrest, Greenway Plaza, the Uptown area, Lamar Terrace, Park Hollow Place, Shadow Oaks, Tanglewood, and Westpark Village. In 1987 Kim Cobb said that while it includes wealthy areas, District G "also includes neighborhoods suffering from a shortage of city services because of west Houston's breakneck growth during the boom years."[35] During that year, Chris Chandler, a political candidate for District G, said, as paraphrased by Cobb, that Lamar Terrace was the "most troubled sector" of District G "and could stand a thorough cleanup by the Solid Waste Management Department."[35]
District H Karla Cisneros 2015 District H includes some areas north of the 610 Loop.[8] Areas within the district include the Near Northside,[36][37] areas in the Northside region extending to Little York Road,[37][38] and some areas east of Downtown Houston.[36][37] The district also includes a portion of the Houston Heights.[8][19][37]
Before the 2011 redistricting, District H included all of the Houston Heights. At the time District H was mostly Hispanic, but because of the inclusion of the Houston Heights, it was becoming increasingly non-Hispanic White.[25]
District I Robert Gallegos 2013 District I includes neighborhoods in southeastern Houston,[8] including several East End communities.[31][39] It also includes most of Downtown Houston.[8][39]
District J Mike Laster 2011 District J includes several neighborhoods along U.S. Route 59 (Southwest Freeway), outside of the 610 Loop. District J includes Gulfton and Sharpstown.[23] The district stretches from the 610 Loop to an area south of Beltway 8.[40] District J includes territory previously in districts C and F.[41]
District J was formed as a district to allow Hispanic and Latino Americans to more easily elect representatives catering to them; as of 2010 Hispanic and Latino people have 44% of Houston's population, but two of the eleven city council members were Hispanic or Latino.[40] During the 2011 redistricting, Hispanic and Latino leaders asked Annise Parker, Mayor of Houston, to revise her proposed redistricting plan of city council areas. Instead of creating a new city council district to serve White communities within the 610 Loop, as the earlier plan had proposed, the revised plan called for making a mostly Hispanic district.[23] Robert Jara, a political consultant of the group Campaign Strategies, drew the boundaries of District J in order to ensure that Gulfton and Sharpstown were together in one area. That way, the Hispanic residents could lobby for influence with their city council representative, whether he or she is of Hispanic origin or not.[23]
As of 2011, 63.1% of residents are Hispanic and Latino.[23] Significant numbers of White, Black, and Asian people live in the district. As of the same year, 17% of registered voters had family names of Spanish/Hispanic origin.[40] Many people living in the district are not U.S. citizens.[23] Jason Moran of the Houston Chronicle said that the area has been referred to as a "Hispanic opportunity district."[8]
In a May 2011 editorial the Houston Chronicle editors said that they support the redistricting plan since they believed that Hispanics need more representation, but they added that the election of a Hispanic to fill the position is not guaranteed because many of the residents are not U.S. citizens and are ineligible to vote. As an example, the editors pointed to the Texas State Legislature's establishment of the 29th congressional district so that a Hispanic/Latino could be elected as a member of the United States Congress. Gene Green, a non-Hispanic White, won the first election for the district in 1992. As of 2011 he is still the incumbent in the area.[23]
District K Larry Green 2011 District K is in far southwestern Houston.[23] The editors of the Houston Chronicle said that it is "roughly at 7 o'clock if you pretend that our squiggly map is shaped like a circle."[42] District K's approximate boundaries are Almeda Road, South Braeswood Boulevard, Gessner Road, and Farm to Market Road 2234 in Fort Bend County.[43]
The district includes Brays Oaks, Hiram Clarke, Reliant Stadium, Westbury, and areas of Houston in Fort Bend County.[42] It also serves Willowbend.[43]
District K was formed in 2011,[8] with territory taken from council districts C and D.[43] As of 2011 it has an African-American plurality,[8] and most of its residents were Black and Hispanic.[43] In a 2011 editorial the Houston Chronicle editors stated that African-American voters likely would have control of the district.[23]
See also: List of Houston mayors, Diplomatic missions in Houston, and Sister cities of Houston
Super neighborhoods[edit]
During the administration of Lee P. Brown, starting in the year 2000 the City of Houston began grouping areas into "super neighborhoods." Communities with similar identities, infrastructures, and physical features were grouped into super neighborhoods.[44] These were meant to encourage residents to come together to address the needs of their individual communities. Super Neighborhood Councils (made up of residents and stakeholders) are intended to be a "middle man" between the super neighborhood and the City of Houston.
Parks and Recreation Department[edit]
The City of Houston Parks and Recreation Department was created by a city ordinance on March 15, 1916. When it was created it had two parks, Hermann Park and Sam Houston Park. As of 2010 the department maintains about 350 developed parks and 200 esplanades and greenspaces inside and outside of the City of Houston.[45][46]
Houston Airport System[edit]
Main article: Houston Airport System
The Houston Airport System manages three airports in the Houston city limits: George Bush Intercontinental Airport, William P. Hobby Airport, and Ellington Airport.
Office of Emergency Management[edit]
The Office of Emergency Management coordinates the city's emergency response, and maintains the city's AlertHouston notification system.
State government[edit]
The Texas Department of Transportation operates the Houston District Office in Houston.[47]
The Texas Department of Criminal Justice (TDCJ) operates the Region III Parole Division headquarters in Houston. The Houston VI district parole office is located on the grounds of the headquarters. The Houston I, Houston II, Houston III, Houston IV, and Houston VII are located in other places in Houston. The Houston V district parole office is in Pasadena.[48] The agency also operates the Joe Kegans Unit state jail facility in Downtown Houston.[49]
The Huntsville Unit in Huntsville serves as the designated regional release center for prisoners arriving in the Houston area.[50] Throughout the history of the Texas Prison System 90% of male prisoners, regardless of where they were being released, were sent to the unit for the final portions of their sentences before being released. Starting in September 2010 the TDCJ instead began to use regional release centers for male prisoners.[51] Female prisoners throughout Texas who are not state jail prisoners or substance abuse felony punishment facility residents are released from the Christina Crain Unit in Gatesville.[50]
The Texas Youth Commission (TYC) operates the Houston District Office in Greater Sharpstown, Houston.[52][53] The closest TYC correctional facility to Houston is the Al Price State Juvenile Correctional Facility in unincorporated Jefferson County, near Beaumont.[52][54] The TYC announced that the Al Price facility will close by August 31, 2011.[55]
Federal government[edit]
Houston Post Office
The United States Postal Service's main post office facility is the 16-acre (6.5 ha) Houston Post Office at 401 Franklin Street in Downtown Houston.[56] In February 2009 the U.S. Postal Service announced that it was going to sell the Houston Post Office. The party buying the facility is required to build a replacement facility.[57] The postal service operates station branches in other parts of Houston.
The U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services Houston Field Office and the Houston office of the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) are in Greenspoint and in Houston.[58] An ICE Special Agent in Charge (SAC) principal field office is also in Houston.[59] The Houston Contract Detention Facility, operated by the Corrections Corporation of America on behalf of ICE, is located in Houston.[60]
The Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas Houston Branch is located in the Fourth Ward of Houston.[61][62]
Elected officials[edit]
Houston is represented in the United States Congress by U.S. Senators John Cornyn and Ted Cruz and U.S. Representatives Kevin Brady, John Culberson, Al Green, Gene Green, Sheila Jackson Lee, Michael McCaul, Pete Olson, Brian Babin, and Ted Poe.[63]
Gallery[edit]
Bob Lanier Public Works Building
Municipal Courts, northwest of Downtown
Health Department, in the Northside
Health and Human Services, south of Downtown
Code Enforcement, located in Midtown
Houston Airport System Administration Building, near George Bush Intercontinental Airport
Houston Parks and Recreation Department headquarters
City Hall of Houston, 1913 illustration
Post Office and Federal Building, 1913 illustration
See also[edit]
Houston portal
Politics portal
Harris County, Texas
Fort Bend County, Texas
Montgomery County, Texas
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Morris, Mike. "Houston voters lengthen term limits for city officials". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved 7 June 2016.
Jump up ^ City Council may grow by two seats. Houston Chronicle.
Jump up ^ Ballotpedia, Municipal Elections in Houston, TX (2015). https://ballotpedia.org/Municipal_elections_in_Houston,_Texas_(2015)
Jump up ^ Klineberg, Stephen. Houston Area Survey 1982–2005, Page 40.
Jump up ^ Gates, Sarah (May 5, 2012). "Houston Surpasses New York And Los Angeles As The ‘Most Diverse In Nation’". Huffington Post.
Jump up ^ "Fact Sheet: Immigrants in Houston" (PDF). Center for Public Policy Priorities. Retrieved 7 Jul 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Lee, Renée C. "Annexed Kingwood split on effects." Houston Chronicle. Sunday October 8, 2006. A21. Retrieved on July 6, 2011. Print version exclusively has the information cited; the information is not included in the online edition.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Moran, Chris. "Only 2 city incumbents lack opponents." Houston Chronicle. Thursday September 8, 2011. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Graham, Rusty. "Early voting underway through Nov. 4." The Memorial Examiner. Wednesday October 26, 2011. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ "District A incumbant [sic] Stardig faces two challengers." KTRK-TV. Tuesday November 1, 2011. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ McCoy, Terrence. "Helena Brown's Asian Adventures: DMZ, Fighter Jets -- But What About The Airlines?" Houston Press. Monday July 9, 2012. Retrieved on July 25, 2012.
Jump up ^ McCoy, Terrence. "Who's Behind Helena Brown?" Houston Press. Wednesday July 4, 2012. 2. Retrieved on July 25, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Editorial: Kathy Ballard-Blueford Daniels for City Council." Houston Chronicle. Wednesday October 5, 2011. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Revised Council District B." City of Houston. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Mack, Kristen. "Small differences separate runoff candidates." Houston Chronicle. Friday December 9, 2005. 2. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Rodriguez, Lori. "District B contest/Architect Reynaldo Pradia seeks to unseat Ernest McGowen." Houston Chronicle. Monday October 12, 1987. Section 1, Page 9. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Moran, Chris. "City Council District C candidates target high-rises." Houston Chronicle. Monday October 10, 2011. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c City of Houston, Council District Maps, District C." City of Houston. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Map." Houston Heights. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Connelly, Richard. "The Heights-Montrose-Museum District Council Seat: A Checklist for Potential Candidates." Houston Press. Wednesday May 11, 2011. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Editorial: Ellen Cohen for City Council District C." Houston Chronicle. Thursday October 6, 2011. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Oak Forest Section Map." Oak Forest Homeowner's Association. Retrieved on June 16, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j "Political challenge: Revised council redistricting plan offers Hispanics a third majority district." (editorial) Houston Chronicle. Wednesday May 18, 2011. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Fountain, Ken. "Candidates square off for redrawn ‘hipstrict’ District C Houston council seat." The Bellaire Examiner. Tuesday November 1, 2011. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Jigsaw puzzle: Creating two new Houston City Council seats poses demographic challenges." (editorial) Houston Chronicle. Wednesday January 26, 2011. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Mack, Kristen. "Council District C hopefuls push advocacy Diverse area has 7 candidates to pick from Nov. 8." Houston Chronicle. Friday October 21, 2005. Retrieved on November 4, 2011.
Jump up ^ Mason, Julie. "Chimney Rock issue may decide outcome of District C." Houston Chronicle. Sunday September 19, 1999. A35 MetFront. Retrieved on October 17, 2012.
Jump up ^ Connelly, Richard. "City Council Redistricting Map: Montrose and the Heights, (Somewhat) Together." Houston Press. April 6, 2011. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Revised Council District D." City of Houston. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Wallstin, Brian. "Situational Ethics." Houston Press. Thursday March 26, 1997. 1. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c Mack, Kristen. "City Council hopefuls starting to make plans." Houston Chronicle. Friday January 5, 2007. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Moran, Chris. "District F councilman facing both political, legal fights." Houston Chronicle. Sunday October 9, 2011. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Hurst, Deborah. "Goodner stays away from focusing on gays in District F campaign." Houston Chronicle. Monday October 21, 1985. Section 1, Page 10. Retrieved on August 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Editorial: Pennington for council District G." (editorial) Houston Chronicle. Friday October 7, 2011. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Cobb, Kim. "District G candidates target area's service gaps as their first priority." Houston Chronicle. Saturday October 24, 1987. Section 1, Page 19. Retrieved on October 14, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Morris, Mike. "Pothole patrol looks for Houston's bumps." Houston Chronicle. Friday January 14, 2011. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Revised Council District H." City of Houston. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Endorsement: Vote Gonzalez for District H seat." Houston Chronicle. Thursday June 4, 2009. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Revised Council District I." City of Houston. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c Shauk, Zain. "Hispanic-opportunity district draws three candidates." Houston Chronicle. Friday October 14, 2011. Retrieved on November 4, 2011. (Refer to image, Archive)
Jump up ^ Foster, Robin. "Candidates' forum offers reminder about new districts election: Fourm [sic] provides feedback Candidates' forum offers reminder about new districts." Houston Chronicle. Tuesday September 20, 2011. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Editorial: Larry Green for council District K." (editorial) Houston Chronicle. Tuesday October 11, 2011. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Lee, Renée C. "New faces hoping to represent new District K." Houston Chronicle. Thursday October 20, 2011. Retrieved on November 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Sendejas, Jesse. "Planning for the future / Super neighborhood councils try to boost community services." Houston Chronicle. Wednesday September 27, 2000. ThisWeek 1. Retrieved on February 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Our Parks." City of Houston. Retrieved on April 4, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Our Parks G-N." City of Houston. Retrieved on April 4, 2010. Keith-Weiss Park is operated by the City of Houston, but at 12300 Aldine-Westfield it is in an unincorporated area in Harris County, Texas.
Jump up ^ "Houston District Office." Texas Department of Transportation. Retrieved on January 11, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Parole Division Region III." Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved on May 15, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Kegans (HM)." Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Accessed September 12, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b "New regional release centers now operating across state." Texas Department of Criminal Justice. September–October 2010. Retrieved on March 1, 2011.
Jump up ^ Schiller, Dane. "Walking free - now what?" Houston Chronicle. May 9, 2010. Retrieved on May 10, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Facility Address List." Texas Youth Commission. Retrieved on May 6, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Map Major Roads." Greater Sharpstown Management District. Retrieved on August 15, 2009.
Jump up ^ Knight, Paul. "Texas' Youth Prisons Among The Worst For Sexual Abuse, Study Finds." Houston Press. Wednesday January 13, 2010. Retrieved on July 16, 2010. "And at the closest youth prison to Houston, the Al Price State Juvenile Correctional Facility in Beaumont,"
Jump up ^ "TYC Announces Closure of Three Facilities." Texas Youth Commission. Retrieved on July 3, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Post Office Location - HOUSTON." United States Postal Service. Retrieved on December 4, 2008.
Jump up ^ Sarnoff, Nancy. "Downtown Houston post office up for sale." Houston Chronicle. February 25, 2009. Retrieved on February 25, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Houston Field Office." (Archive) U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. Retrieved on May 7, 2010. "Local Office for Texas Street Address The USCIS office that serves your area is the: Houston Field Office. This office is located at: 126 Northpoint Drive Houston, TX 77060."
Jump up ^ "Investigations - Contacts." U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. Retrieved on May 22, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Houston Contract Detention Facility." U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. Retrieved on May 22, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Contact Us." Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas. Retrieved on May 22, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Boundary.png." Fourth Ward Redevelopment Authority. Retrieved on July 2, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Districts for Houston". Texas Legislature. Retrieved July 1, 2011.
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