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2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull
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2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull
Volcano plume on 18 April 2010
Date
20 March – 23 June 2010
Type
Strombolian and Vulcanian eruption phases
Location
Iceland
63°37′59″N 19°36′00″W / 63.633°N 19.6°W / 63.633; -19.6Coordinates: 63°37′59″N 19°36′00″W / 63.633°N 19.6°W / 63.633; -19.6
VEI
4
Impact
large-scale disruption to air travel, smaller effects on farming in Iceland
Composite map of the volcanic ash cloud spanning 14–25 April 2010
The 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull were volcanic events at Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland which, although relatively small for volcanic eruptions, caused enormous disruption to air travel across western and northern Europe over an initial period of six days in April 2010. Additional localised disruption continued into May 2010. The eruption was declared officially over in October 2010, when snow on the glacier did not melt. From 14–20 April, ash from the volcanic eruption covered large areas of Northern Europe. About 20 countries closed their airspace to commercial jet traffic and it affected approximately 10 million travellers.[1]
Seismic activity started at the end of 2009 and gradually increased in intensity until on 20 March 2010, a small eruption started rated as a 1 on the volcanic explosivity index.[2]
Beginning on 14 April 2010, the eruption entered a second phase and created an ash cloud that led to the closure of most of the European IFR airspace from 15 until 20 April 2010. Consequently, a very high proportion of flights within, to, and from Europe were cancelled, creating the highest level of air travel disruption since the Second World War. The second phase resulted in an estimated 250 million cubic metres (330,000,000 cu yd) (0.25 km3) of ejected tephra and an ash plume that rose to a height around 9 km (5.6 mi), which rates the explosive power of the eruption as a 4 on the volcanic explosivity index.[3] By 21 May 2010, the second eruption phase had subsided to the point that no further lava or ash was being produced.
By the evening of 6 June 2010, a small, new crater had opened up on the west side of the main crater. Explosive activity from this new crater was observed with emission of small quantities of ash.[4] Seismic data showed that the frequency and intensity of earth tremors still exceeded the levels observed before the eruption, therefore scientists at the Icelandic Meteorological Office[5] (IMO) and the Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland[6] (IES) continued to monitor the volcano.
In October 2010, Ármann Höskuldsson, a scientist at the University of Iceland Institute of Earth Sciences, stated that the eruption was officially over, although the area was still geothermally active and might erupt again.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Public observations
3 Scientific observations
4 Phase 1: Effusive eruption
4.1 Evacuations
4.2 Effects on the river
4.3 Fissure
5 Phase 2: Explosive eruption
5.1 Ash analysis
5.2 Impact on farming
5.3 Timeline of the second eruption phase
6 Phase 3: Return to dormancy
7 Volume of erupted material and magma discharge
8 Health effects
9 Effects of the ash plume on air travel
10 Short- and long-term weather and environmental effects
11 Comparison to other recent eruptions
12 See also
13 References
14 External links
14.1 Photography
14.2 Audio
Background[edit]
Main article: Iceland
Dust particles that get suspended in the atmosphere scatter light from the setting sun, generating 'volcanic lavenders' like this one over the flight path of Leeds-Bradford Airport in England during the aviation shutdown
Eyjafjallajökull (pronounced [ˈɛɪjaˌfjatl̥aˌjœkʏtl̥] ( listen)) is one of Iceland's smaller ice caps located in the far south of the island. Situated to the north of Skógar and to the west of the larger ice cap Mýrdalsjökull, Eyjafjallajökull covers the caldera of a volcano 1,666 m (5,466 ft) high, which has erupted relatively frequently since the last ice age. The most recent major eruptions occurred in 920, 1612, and from 1821 to 1823.[8] Previous eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull have been followed by eruptions at its larger neighbour, Katla.[9] On 20 April 2010 Icelandic President Ólafur Grímsson said, "the time for Katla to erupt is coming close ... we [Iceland] have prepared ... it is high time for European governments and airline authorities all over the world to start planning for the eventual Katla eruption".[10]
The volcanic events starting in March 2010 were considered to be a single eruption divided into phases. The first eruption phase ejected olivine basaltic andesite lava[11] several hundred metres into the air in what is known as an effusive eruption. Ash ejection from this phase of the eruption was small, rising to no more than 4 km (2.5 mi) into the atmosphere.
On 14 April 2010, however, the eruption entered an explosive phase and ejected fine glass-rich ash to over 8 km (5.0 mi) into the atmosphere. The second phase was estimated to be a VEI 4 eruption, which was large, but not nearly the most powerful eruption possible by volcanic standards. By way of comparison, the Mount St. Helens eruption of 1980 was rated as 5 on the VEI, and the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo was rated as a 6. This second phase erupted trachyandesite.[12]
This volcanic activity so disruptive to air travel because of a combination of factors:[citation needed]
The volcano was directly under the jet stream.
The direction of the jet stream was unusually stable at the time of the eruption's second phase, continuously southeast.
The second eruptive phase happened under 200 m (660 ft) of glacial ice. The resulting meltwater flowed back into the erupting volcano, which created two specific phenomena:
The rapidly vaporising water significantly increased the eruption's explosive power.
The erupting lava cooled very fast, which created a cloud of highly abrasive, glass-rich ash.
The volcano's explosive power was enough to inject ash directly into the jet stream.
Public observations[edit]
People observing the first fissure at Fimmvörðuháls
"Volcano tourism" quickly sprang up in the wake of the eruption, with local tour companies offering day trips to see the volcano.[13] The Civil Protection Department[14] of the Icelandic Police produced regular reports about access to the area, including a map of the restricted area around Eyjafjallajokull, from which the public was forbidden. Teams from the Icelandic Association for Search and Rescue were stationed at the eruption site as part of standard safety measures and to assist in enforcing access restrictions.
Vodafone and the Icelandic telecommunications company Míla installed webcams, giving views of the eruption from Valahnúkur, Hvolsvöllur, and Þórólfsfell. The view of the eruption from Þórólfsfel also includes a thermal imaging camera.
Scientific observations[edit]
This eruption was assigned the volcano number 1702-02[15] by the Global Volcanism Program.
The London Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC),[16] part of the UK Met Office, was responsible for forecasting the presence of volcanic ash in the north-east Atlantic. All ash dispersion models for this geographic region were produced by the VAAC in London.
A study by the Icelandic Meteorological Office published on December 2009 indicated an increase in seismic activity around the Eyjafjallajökull area during the years 2006–2009. The study reported increased activity that occurred between June and August 2009 (200 events), compared to a total of about 250 earthquakes recorded between September 2006 and August 2009. It further indicated that the locations of most of the earthquakes in 2009 occurred between 8 to 12 km (5.0 to 7.5 mi) depth east of the volcano‘s top crater.[17] At the end of December 2009, seismic activity began around the Eyjafjallajökull volcano area, with thousands of small earthquakes (mostly of magnitude 1–2 Mw), 7 to 10 km (4.3 to 6.2 mi) beneath the volcano.[18]
The radar stations of the Meteorological Institute of Iceland did not detect any appreciable amount of volcanic ashfall during the first 24 hours of the eruption.[19] However, during the night of 22 March, they reported some volcanic ash fall reaching the Fljótshlíð area (20 to 25 km (12 to 16 mi) north-west of the eruption's location)[20] and Hvolsvöllur town (40 kilometres (25 mi) north-west of the eruption location)[20] leaving vehicles with a fine, grey layer of volcanic ash. At around 07:00 on 22 March, an explosion launched eruption columns as far as 4 km (2.5 mi) straight up into the air. This was the highest plume since the eruption started.[21] On 23 March, a small vapour explosion took place, when hot magma came into contact with nearby snowdrifts, emitting a huge vapour plume which reached an altitude of 7 km (4.3 mi), and was detected on radar from the Meteorological Institute of Iceland. Since then, many vapour explosions have taken place.[22]
By 26 February 2010, the global positioning system (GPS) equipment used by the Iceland Meteorological Office[23] at Þorvaldseyri farm in the Eyjafjöll area (around 15 km (9.3 mi) south-east of the location of the recent eruption)[20] had shown 3 cm of displacement of the local crust in a southward direction, of which a 1-cm displacement had taken place within four days. (See the GPS Time Series[24] page of the Nordic Volcanological Center's[25] website for detailed information on the degree of movement detected in the Earth's crust in the Eyjafjallajökull locality.)
This unusual seismic activity, along with the rapid movement of the Earth's crust in the area, gave geophysicists evidence that magma was flowing from underneath the crust into Eyjafjallajökull's magma chamber and that pressure stemming from the process caused (in geophysical terms) the huge crustal displacement at Þorvaldseyri farm.[26] The seismic activity continued to increase, and from 3 to 5 March, close to 3,000 earthquakes were measured having their epicentre at the volcano. Most of these were too small (magnitude 2) to be interpreted as precursors to an eruption, but some could be detected in nearby towns.[27]
The grounding of European flights avoided about 3.44×108 kg of CO2 emissions per day, while the volcano emitted about 1.5×108 kg of CO2 per day.[28]
Phase 1: Effusive eruption[edit]
The first phase of the eruption lasted from 20 March to 12 April 2010 and was characterised by olivine basaltic andesite lava flowing from various eruptive vents on the flanks of the mountain.
Evacuations[edit]
About 500 farmers and their families from the areas of Fljótshlíð, Eyjafjöll, and Landeyjar were evacuated overnight (including a group of 30 schoolchildren and their three teachers[29][30] from Caistor Grammar School in England), and flights to and from Reykjavík and Keflavík International Airport were postponed, but on the evening of 21 March, domestic and international air traffic was allowed again.[31][32][33] Inhabitants of the risk zone of Fljótshlíð, Eyjafjöll, and Landeyjar area were allowed to return to their farms and homes after an evening meeting with the Civil Protection Department on 22 March and the evacuation plan was temporarily dismissed. Instead, the police closed the road to Þórsmörk and the four-wheel-drive trail from Skógar village to the Fimmvörðuháls mountain pass, but these roads and trails were reopened on 29 March, though only for suitable four-wheel drives. When the second fissure appeared, the road was closed again because of the danger of flash floods, which could have developed if the fissure had opened near big ice caps or other snow reservoirs, but the road was again opened at around noon on 1 April.[34][35][36]
Effects on the river[edit]
On 22 March, a flow meter device in the Krossá glacial river (which drains Eyjafjallajökull and Mýrdalsjökull glaciers) in the Þórsmörk area (a few kilometres north-west of the erupting location) started to record a sudden rise in water level and in water temperature – the total water temperature rose by 6 °C (11 °F) over a two-hour period, which had never happened so quickly in the Krossá river since measurements began. Shortly afterward, the water level returned to normal and water temperature decreased.[37] This rise in water temperature was thought to be related to the eruption nearby and was affecting part of the Krossá drainage basin. The temperature of Hruná river, which flows through the narrow Hrunárgil canyon, into which part of the lava stream was flowing, was recently recorded by geologists to be between 50 and 60 °C (122 and 140 °F), indicating that the river was cooling the lava in that canyon.[38]
Fissure[edit]
Second fissure, viewed from the north, on 2 April 2010
The first phase of the 2010 eruption began late on the evening of 20 March at the Eyjafjallajökull.
The initial visual report of the eruption was at 23:52 GMT, when a red cloud was seen at the north slopes of Fimmvörðuháls mountain pass,[39][40] lighting up the sky above the eruptive site. The eruption was preceded by intense seismicity and high rates of deformation in the weeks before the eruption, in association with magma recharging of the volcano. Immediately before the eruption, the depth of the seismicity had become shallow, but was not significantly enhanced from what it had been in the previous weeks. Deformation was occurring at rates up to a centimetre a day since 4 March at various GPS sites installed within 12 km (7.5 mi) from the eruptive site.[citation needed]
A fissure opened up about 150 metres (490 ft) in length running in a north-east to south-west direction, with 10 to 12 erupting lava craters ejecting lava at a temperature around 1,000 °C (1,800 °F) up to 150 m (490 ft) into the air. The lava was alkali olivine basalt[41] and was relatively viscous, causing the motion of the lava stream to the west and east of the fissure to be slow. The molten lava flowed more than 4,000 m (13,000 ft) to the north-east of the fissure and into Hrunagil canyon, forming a lava fall more than 200 m (660 ft) long and slowly approaching Þórsmörk, but had not yet[update] reached the flood plains of Krossá.[42][43][44]
On 25 March 2010, while studying the eruption, scientists witnessed, for the first time in history, the formation of a pseudocrater during a steam explosion.[45] Crustal expansion continued at Þorvaldseyri for two days after the eruption began, but was slowly decreasing whilst the volcanic activity was increasing. This indicates that the rate at which magma was flowing into the magma chamber roughly equaled the rate at which it was being lost due to the eruption, giving evidence that this phase of volcanic activity reached equilibrium.[46]
A new fissure opened on 31 March, around 200 m (660 ft) north-west of the original fissure.[47] Many witnesses were present while the new fissure opened. It was a bit smaller, around 300 m (980 ft) long according to witnesses, and lava coming from it started to flow into Hvannárgil canyon. These two erupting fissures shared the same magma chamber, according to geophysicists. No unusual seismic activity was detected at the time the new fissure appeared, nor any crustal expansion according to many seismometers and GPS recorders situated in nearby areas.[48][49]
Geophysicist Magnús Tumi Einarsson said (at a press meeting in Hvolsvöllur on 21 March) that this eruption was small compared to, for example, the eruption of Hekla in 2000. The eruption, rather than taking place under the ice cap of the glacier, occurred in the mountain pass between the Eyjafjallajökull and Mýrdalsjökull glaciers. As long as the fissure was not near the glacier, the risk of flooding was minimal; however, the fissure could extend into the ice cap, thereby greatly increasing the risk of flooding.[50]
Phase 2: Explosive eruption[edit]
Photograph from satellite Aqua showing the ash plume over North Atlantic at 13:30 GMT on 15 April
The estimated ash cloud at 18:00 GMT on 15 April.
After a short hiatus in eruptive activity, a new set of craters opened early in the morning of 14 April 2010 under the volcano's ice-covered central summit caldera. Prior to this event, a large increase in seismic activity was detected between 23:00 on 13 April and 1:00 on 14 April. The earthquake swarm was followed by the onset of a seismic eruption tremor. Meltwater started to emanate from the ice cap around 07:00 on 14 April and an eruption plume was observed in the early morning. Visual observations were greatly restricted due to cloud cover over the volcano, but an aeroplane of the Icelandic Coast Guard imaged eruptive craters with radar instruments. A series of vents along a 2-km-long north-south-oriented fissure was active, with meltwater flowing mostly down the northern slopes of the volcano, but also to the south. An ash-loaded eruption plume rose to more than 8 km (5.0 mi), deflected to the east by westerly winds.[citation needed]
Ash analysis[edit]
Upper: Ash covers the Thórsmörk valley in early June 2010, immediately after the eruption Lower: The same area, in September 2011
Samples of volcanic ash collected near the eruption showed a silica concentration of 58%—much higher than in the lava flows.[51] The concentration of water-soluble fluoride was one-third of the concentration typical in Hekla eruptions, with a mean value of 104 mg of fluoride per kg of ash. Agriculture is important in this region of Iceland,[52] and farmers near the volcano have been warned not to let their livestock drink from contaminated streams and water sources,[53] as high concentrations of fluoride can have deadly renal and hepatic effects, particularly in sheep.[54]
Impact on farming[edit]
The Icelandic Food and Veterinary Authority released an announcement on 18 April 2010, asking that all horse owners who keep their herds outside be on the alert for ash fall. Where ash fall was significant, all horses had to be sheltered indoors.[55] The thick layer of ash that had fallen on some Icelandic pastures and farms at Raufarfell had become wet and compact, making it very difficult to continue farming, harvesting, or grazing livestock.[56]
Timeline of the second eruption phase[edit]
Unlike the earlier eruption phase, the second phase occurred beneath glacial ice. Cold water from melted ice quickly chilled the lava, causing it to fragment into highly abrasive glass particles that were then carried into the eruption plume. This, together with the magnitude of the eruption (estimated to be VEI 4)[3] and being 10 to 20 times larger than the eruption of Fimmvörðuháls on 20 March, injected a glass-rich ash plume into the jet stream.
In addition to volcanic ash being very hazardous to aircraft,[57] the location of this eruption directly under the jet stream ensured that the ash was carried into the heavily used airspace over northern and central Europe.
Phase 3: Return to dormancy[edit]
A necklace made from the ash of the 2010 eruption: Jewellery and similar memorabilia of the eruption are now sold in Iceland.
By the morning of 24 May 2010, the view from the web camera installed on Þórólfsfell[58] showed only a plume of water vapour surrounded by a bluish haze caused by emission of sulphurous gases. Due to the large quantities of dry volcanic ash lying on the ground, surface winds frequently lifted up an "ash mist" that significantly reduced visibility and made web camera observation of the volcano impossible.[59]
On 21 June 2010, data from seismic recorders in the area indicated that the frequency and strength of earth tremors had diminished, but were continuing.[60]
In October 2010, Ármann Höskuldsson, a scientist at the University of Iceland Institute of Earth Sciences, stated that the eruption was officially over, although the area was still geothermally active and might erupt again.[7]
Volume of erupted material and magma discharge[edit]
The Institute of Earth Sciences[61] made a preliminary estimate of erupted material in the first three days of the eruption on 14 April 2010 at Eyjafjallajökull. The erupted products were fragmented material, the majority fine-grained airborne tephra. Eruptive products can be split into three categories along with preliminary estimated erupted volumes:
Material (tephra) in the ice cauldrons around the volcanic vents: 30 million cubic metres (39,000,000 cu yd)
Tephra filling the glacial lagoon of Gígjökulslón, carried by floods down the outlet glacier Gígjökull: 10 million cubic metres (13,000,000 cu yd)
Airborne tephra that was carried to the east and south of the volcano, uncompacted tephra fallout from eruption plume: 100 million cubic metres (130,000,000 cu yd)
Total: 140 million cubic metres (180,000,000 cu yd) which corresponds to some 70–80 million cubic metres (92,000,000–105,000,000 cu yd) of magma. The magma discharge rate was about 300 cubic metres per second (11,000 cu ft/s) or 750 t/s. This was 10–20 times the average discharge rate in the preceding flank eruption at Fimmvörðuháls. (First eruption on 20 March 2010).[62]
The IES updated the eruption flow rate on 21 April 2010 to an estimation less than 30 cubic metres per second (1,100 cu ft/s) of magma, or 75 tonnes/s, with a large uncertainty. IES also noted that the eruption continue with less explosive activity.[63]
Health effects[edit]
No human fatalities were reported from the 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull. The people who lived near the volcano had high levels of irritation symptoms, though their lung function was not lower than expected.[64] Six months later, the population living in the area had more respiratory symptoms than a control group from North Iceland, with no ashfall.[65] In Scotland, the number of phone calls to health services for respiratory and eye irritation did not rise significantly.[66]
Effects of the ash plume on air travel[edit]
Main article: Air travel disruption after the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption
Volcanic ash is a major hazard to aircraft.[67] Smoke and ash from eruptions reduce visibility for visual navigation, and microscopic debris in the ash can sandblast windscreens and melt in the heat of aircraft turbine engines, damaging engines and making them shut down.[57][67] Many flights within, to, and from Europe were cancelled following the 14 April 2010 eruption, and although no commercial aircraft were damaged, the engines of some military aircraft were harmed.[68][69] The presence and location of the plume depends upon the state of the eruption and the winds. While some ash fell on uninhabited areas in Iceland, most had been carried by westerly winds resulting in the shutdown of a large air space over Europe. The shutdown had a knock on impact on the economy and cultural events across Europe. The Icelandic flag carrier airline, Icelandair, seemed at first especially vulnerable, but managed to deal effectively with the eruption and subsequently published a detailed report about its actions and conclusions.[70]
Short- and long-term weather and environmental effects[edit]
This section needs attention from an expert in Meteorology. The specific problem is: Expert needed to carefully review the wording and claims made here to ensure they both meet Wikipedia's principles of Verifiability and No Original Research, and to ensure they are as clear as possible. The paragraph starting with "While it is suspected" may not fully match what the given cites actually states. Also, several citations need improving with addition of quotes and page numbers to aid WP:Verifiability.. See the talk page for details. WikiProject Meteorology may be able to help recruit an expert. (April 2010)
Possible ash fallout from Eyjafjallajökull on a car, Manchester, England, 21 April 2010
At the mouth of the crater, the gases, ejecta, and volcanic plume have created a rare weather phenomenon known as volcanic lightning (or a "dirty thunderstorm").[71] When rocks and other ejecta collide with one another, they create static electricity. This, with the abundant water-ice at the summit, aids in making lightning.[72]
High-fluoride Hekla eruptions pose a threat to foraging livestock, especially sheep. Fluoride poisoning can start in sheep at a diet with fluorine content of 25 ppm. At 250 ppm, death can occur within a few days.[54] In 1783, 79% of the Icelandic sheep stock were killed, probably as a result of fluorosis caused by the eruption of Laki.[73] The effect also spread beyond Iceland.[74] Ash from the current Eyjafjallajökull eruption contains one-third the concentration typical in Hekla eruptions, with a mean value of 104 mg of fluoride per kg of ash. Large-scale release of sulphur dioxide into the troposphere also poses a potential health risk, especially to people with pre-existing breathing disorders.
While it is suspected that major volcanic eruptions that coincide with cyclic solar minimum activity[75][76] could produce temporary global cooling or reduction in global temperature,[77][78] it is noted[79] that coincidentally the earth-facing side of the Sun was mostly blank with no sun spots since the start of the second eruption phase on 14 until 29 April 2010.[80] Although the current unusually long solar minimum came to a close earlier this year, the current cycle may witness unusual weak solar maximum. Other research links volcanic eruptions including recent Icelandic activity to the solar cycle. Most consider the climate anomaly of the Year Without A Summer 1816 to have been caused by a combination of a historic low in solar activity with a volcanic winter event; the latter caused by a succession of major volcanic eruptions capped off by the Mount Tambora eruption of 1815, the largest known eruption in over 1,600 years.[81][82][83][84][85][86] One proposed volcanic winter happened c. 70,000 years ago following the supereruption of Lake Toba on Sumatra island in Indonesia.[87]
As of 15 April, the eruption was not large enough to have an effect on global temperatures like that of Mount Pinatubo and other major past volcanic eruptions.[88][89] One previous related sequence of eruptions of this volcano, beginning in 1821 is recorded as having lasted for over two years, but no single set of major eruptions is known to have lasted more than 'several days'. Should the eruption continue for a sufficient length of time at its current intensity, the potential remains for a temporary global cooling effect. By analogy, the Laki eruption has been linked with extreme weather events from severe hailstorms in Great Britain to the Mississippi River freezing at New Orleans.[90][91] Sulfate aerosols that reach the stratosphere catalyse the production of chlorine monoxide (ClO), which destroys ozone (O3). In the upper troposphere, the same aerosols become nuclei for cirrus clouds, which increase the Earth's albedo, thus altering its radiation balance.[92] Several eruptions during the past century have caused a decline in the average temperature at the Earth's surface of up to half a degree Celsius for periods of one to three years.[92][93]
Comparison to other recent eruptions[edit]
The recent eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull and the largest ash plume associated with the second eruption phase were not unparalleled in either volume or abundance; however, the location was the critical factor because it affected air travel across Europe. Neither phase of the eruption was unusually powerful.[94][95] Other notable volcanic eruptions in recent years include the eruption of Mount Pinatubo of 1991 of VEI 6.[3] This eruption lasted eight days, from 7 – 15 June of that year, with an ash cloud that would have required additional days to dissipate,[96] and resulted in worldwide abnormal weather and decrease in global temperature over the next few years. However, the second phase of Eyjafjallajökull's eruption lasted longer than that of Mount Pinatubo.
See also[edit]
2010 eruptions of Mount Merapi
2014–2015 eruption of Bárðarbunga
Air travel disruption after the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption
British Airways Flight 9
Effects of the April 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption
KLM Flight 867
Laki
List of volcanoes in Iceland
North Atlantic oscillation
Timeline of volcanism on Earth
Tuya
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Jump up ^ Morgunblaðið 22. Mars 2010 "Rýmingu aflétt". Morgunblaðið. Retrieved 9 May 2011.
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Jump up ^ Morgunblaðið 29. Mars "Mikill hiti í Hruná". Morgunblaðið. Retrieved 9 May 2011.
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^ Jump up to: a b "Experimental Acute Sodium Fluoride Poisoning in Sheep: Renal, Hepatic, and Metabolic Effects". M. KESSABI, A. HAMLIRI, J. P. BRAUN and A. G. RICO: Département de Toxicologie, Pharmacie et Biochimie, Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II B.P. 6202, Rabat-Agdal, Maroc {dagger}Département de Biochimie et Biophysique, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire 23, chemin des Capelles, 31076 Toulouse, France. 1985. Retrieved 9 May 2011.
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^ Jump up to: a b "Iceland's volcanic ash halts flights across Europe | World news | guardian.co.uk". Guardian. UK. 23 January 2008. Archived from the original on 23 April 2010. Retrieved 18 April 2010.
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^ Jump up to: a b C. M. Riley, "Tephra" Michigan Technological University Geological & Mining, Engineering & Sciences, Retrieved on 23 January 2008.
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eyjafjöll 2010 eruptions.
Frequently Asked Questions on the Eruption in Iceland – from the Icelandic Met Office
BBC webpage with film of the volcano, taken from 500m from the crater's edge, by Chris Weber on 13 May 2010
Volcanic Ash and Aviation Safety – SKYbrary guidance to pilots and controllers concerning the effects of volcanic ash.
Collection of Scientific Earth Observations and Models
NASA Observes the Icelandic Volcano
NASA Earth Observatory satellite imagery
Satellite evidence of hot lava flows from an Icelandic volcano (CIMSS Satellite Blog) (March 2010)
Description of beginning of current eruption, (March 2010), Icelandic Met Office
Volcanoes in European history – Podcast placing the Eyjafjallajökull eruption in a historical perspective.
Photography[edit]
Photos from Icelanders and by visitors (Flickr Group)
A short time-lapse from 17 April 2010. About 30 minutes played in 18 seconds.
Photos of the 2010 eruptions by Fred Kamphues
Icelandic Coast Guard, radar images of the volcano
Audio[edit]
Volcanic Eyjafjallajökull run off: Seljalandsfoss Waterfall (binaural recording optimised for headphones)
[hide]
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2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruptions
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Poverty threshold
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Graph of global population living on under 1, 1.25 and 2 equivalent of 2005 US dollars daily (red) and as a proportion of world population (blue) based on 1981–2008 World Bank data
The poverty threshold, poverty limit or poverty line is the minimum level of income deemed adequate in a particular country.[1] In practice, like the definition of poverty, the official or common understanding of the poverty line is significantly higher in developed countries than in developing countries.[2][3] In 2008, the World Bank came out with a figure (revised largely due to inflation) of $1.25 a day at 2005 purchasing-power parity (PPP).[4] In October 2015, the World Bank updated the international poverty line to $1.90 a day. The new figure of $1.90 is based on ICP purchasing power parity (PPP) calculations and represents the international equivalent of what $1.90 could buy in the US in 2011. The new IPL replaces the $1.25 per day figure, which used 2005 data. [5] Most scholars agree that it better reflects today's reality, particularly new price levels in developing countries.[6] The common international poverty line has in the past been roughly $1 a day.[7] At present the percentage of the global population living under extreme poverty is likely to fall below 10% according to the World Bank projections released in 2015.[8]
Determining the poverty line is usually done by finding the total cost of all the essential resources that an average human adult consumes in one year.[9] The largest of these expenses is typically the rent required to live in an apartment, so historically, economists have paid particular attention to the real estate market and housing prices as a strong poverty line affector. Individual factors are often used to account for various circumstances, such as whether one is a parent, elderly, a child, married, etc. The poverty threshold may be adjusted annually.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Absolute poverty
2.1 Basic needs
3 Relative poverty
3.1 History of the concept of relative poverty
3.2 Relative poverty compared with other standards
4 National poverty lines
5 Criticisms
5.1 Understating poverty
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
History[edit]
Charles Booth, a pioneering investigator of poverty in London at the turn of the 20th century, popularised the idea of a poverty line, a concept originally conceived by the London School Board.[10] Booth set the line at 10 (50p) to 20 shillings (£1) per week, which he considered to be the minimum amount necessary for a family of four or five people to subsist on.[11] Benjamin Seebohm Rowntree (1871–1954), a British sociological researcher, social reformer and industrialist, surveyed rich families in York, and drew a poverty line in terms of a minimum weekly sum of money "necessary to enable families … to secure the necessaries of a healthy life", which included fuel and light, rent, food, clothing, and household and personal items. Based on data from leading nutritionists of the period, he calculated the cheapest price for the minimum calorific intake and nutritional balance necessary, before people got ill or lost weight. He considered this amount to set his poverty line and concluded that 27.84% of the total population of York lived below this poverty line.[12] This result corresponded with that from Charles Booth's study of poverty in London and so challenged the view, commonly held at the time, that abject poverty was a problem particular to London and was not widespread in the rest of Britain. Rowntree distinguished between primary poverty, those lacking in income and secondary poverty, those who had enough income, but spent it elsewhere (1901:295–96).[12]
Absolute poverty[edit]
See also: Extreme poverty
The term "absolute poverty" is also sometimes used as a synonym for extreme poverty. Absolute poverty is the absence of enough resources to secure basic life necessities.
According to a UN declaration that resulted from the World Summit on Social Development in Copenhagen in 1995, absolute poverty is "a condition characterised by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education, and information. It depends not only on income, but also on access to services."[13]
David Gordon's paper, "Indicators of Poverty and Hunger", for the United Nations, further defines absolute poverty as the absence of any two of the following eight basic needs:[13]
Food: Body mass index must be above 16.
Safe drinking water: Water must not come solely from rivers and ponds, and must be available nearby (fewer than 15 minutes' walk each way).
Sanitation facilities: Toilets or latrines must be accessible in or near the home.
Health: Treatment must be received for serious illnesses and pregnancy.
Shelter: Homes must have fewer than four people living in each room. Floors must not be made of soil, mud, or clay.
Education: Everyone must attend school or otherwise learn to read.
Information: Everyone must have access to newspapers, radios, televisions, computers, or telephones at home.
Access to services: This item is undefined by Gordon, but normally is used to indicate the complete panoply of education, health, legal, social, and financial (credit) services.
Basic needs[edit]
See also: Basic needs
The basic needs approach is one of the major approaches to the measurement of absolute poverty in developing countries. It attempts to define the absolute minimum resources necessary for long-term physical well-being, usually in terms of consumption goods. The poverty line is then defined as the amount of income required to satisfy those needs. The 'basic needs' approach was introduced by the International Labour Organization's World Employment Conference in 1976.[14][15] "Perhaps the high point of the WEP was the World Employment Conference of 1976, which proposed the satisfaction of basic human needs as the overiding objective of national and international development policy. The basic needs approach to development was endorsed by governments and workers' and employers' organizations from all over the world. It influenced the programmes and policies of major multilateral and bilateral development agencies, and was the precursor to the human development approach."[14][15]
A traditional list of immediate "basic needs" is food (including water), shelter, and clothing.[16] Many modern lists emphasize the minimum level of consumption of 'basic needs' of not just food, water, and shelter, but also sanitation, education, and health care. Different agencies use different lists.
In 1978, Ghai investigated the literature that criticized the basic needs approach. Critics argued that the basic needs approach lacked scientific rigour; it was consumption-oriented and antigrowth. Some considered it to be "a recipe for perpetuating economic backwardness" and for giving the impression "that poverty elimination is all too easy".[17] Amartya Sen focused on 'capabilities' rather than consumption.
In the development discourse, the basic needs model focuses on the measurement of what is believed to be an eradicable level of poverty.
Relative poverty[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
See also: Economic inequality and Relative deprivation
Relative poverty means low income relative to others in a country; for example, below 60% of the median income of people in that country. It is the "most useful measure for ascertaining poverty rates in wealthy developed nations".[18][19][20][21][22] Relative poverty measure is used by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and Canadian poverty researchers.[18][19][20][21][22] In the European Union, the "relative poverty measure is the most prominent and most–quoted of the EU social inclusion indicators."[23]
"Relative poverty reflects better the cost of social inclusion and equality of opportunity in a specific time and space."[24]
"Once economic development has progressed beyond a certain minimum level, the rub of the poverty problem – from the point of view of both the poor individual and of the societies in which they live – is not so much the effects of poverty in any absolute form but the effects of the contrast, daily perceived, between the lives of the poor and the lives of those around them. For practical purposes, the problem of poverty in the industrialized nations today is a problem of relative poverty (page 9)."[24][25]
However, some have argued that as relative poverty is merely a measure of inequality, using the term 'poverty' for it is misleading. For example, if everyone in a country's income doubled, it would not reduce the amount of 'relative poverty' at all.
History of the concept of relative poverty[edit]
In 1776, Adam Smith argued that poverty is the inability to afford "not only the commodities which are indispensably necessary for the support of life, but whatever the custom of the country renders it indecent for creditable people, even of the lowest order, to be without."[26][27]
In 1958, John Kenneth Galbraith argued, "People are poverty stricken when their income, even if adequate for survival, falls markedly behind that of their community."[27][28]
In 1964, in a joint committee economic President's report in the United States, Republicans endorsed the concept of relative poverty: "No objective definition of poverty exists. ... The definition varies from place to place and time to time. In America as our standard of living rises, so does our idea of what is substandard."[27][29]
In 1965, Rose Friedman argued for the use of relative poverty claiming that the definition of poverty changes with general living standards. Those labelled as poor in 1995, would have had "a higher standard of living than many labelled not poor" in 1965.[27][30]
In 1979, British sociologist, Peter Townsend published his famous definition: "individuals... can be said to be in poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the types of diet, participate in the activities and have the living conditions and amenities which are customary, or are at least widely encouraged or approved, in the societies to which they belong (page 31)."[31]
Brian Nolan and Christopher T. Whelan of the Economic and Social Research Institute (ESRI) in Ireland explained that "poverty has to be seen in terms of the standard of living of the society in question."[32]
Relative poverty measures are used as official poverty rates by the European Union, UNICEF and the OEDC. The main poverty line used in the OECD and the European Union is based on "economic distance", a level of income set at 60% of the median household income.[33]
Relative poverty compared with other standards[edit]
A measure of relative poverty defines "poverty" as being below some relative poverty threshold. For example, the statement that "those individuals who are employed and whose household equivalised disposable income is below 60% of national median equivalised income are poor" uses a relative measure to define poverty.[34]
The term relative poverty can also be used in a different sense to mean "moderate poverty" – for example, a standard of living or level of income that is high enough to satisfy basic needs (like water, food, clothing, housing, and basic health care), but still significantly lower than that of the majority of the population under consideration.[35]
National poverty lines[edit]
CIA World Factbook-based map showing the percentage of population by country living below that country's official poverty line
National estimates are based on population-weighted subgroup estimates from household surveys. Definitions of the poverty line do vary considerably among nations. For example, rich nations generally employ more generous standards of poverty than poor nations. Even among rich nations, the standards differ greatly. Thus, the numbers are not comparable among countries. Even when nations do use the same method, some issues may remain.[36]
In United States, the poverty thresholds are updated every year by Census Bureau. The threshold in United States are updated and used for statistical purposes. In 2015, in the United States, the poverty threshold for a single person under 65 was an annual income of US$11,770; the threshold for a family group of four, including two children, was US$24,250.[37][38] According to the U.S. Census Bureau data released on 13 September 2011, the nation's poverty rate rose to 15.1 percent in 2010.
In the UK, "more than five million people – over a fifth (23 percent) of all employees – were paid less than £6.67 an hour in April 2006. This value is based on a low pay rate of 60 percent of full-time median earnings, equivalent to a little over £12,000 a year for a 35-hour working week. In April 2006, a 35-hour week would have earned someone £9,191 a year – before tax or National Insurance".[39][40]
India's official poverty level, on the other hand, is split according to rural versus urban thresholds. For urban dwellers, the poverty line is defined as living on less than 538.60 rupees (approximately US$12) per month, whereas for rural dwellers, it is defined as living on less than 356.35 rupees per month (approximately US$7.50).[41]
Criticisms[edit]
This section appears to contradict itself on How welfare benefits are treated, including specific benefits like SNAP. Please see the talk page for more information. (October 2017)
Using a poverty threshold is problematic because having an income slightly above or below is not substantially different; the negative effects of poverty tend to be continuous rather than discrete, and the same low income affects different people in different ways. To overcome this problem, a poverty index or indices can be used instead; see income inequality metrics.
A poverty threshold relies on a quantitative, or purely numbers-based, measure of income. If other human development-indicators like health and education are used, they must be quantified, which is not a simple (if even achievable) task.
Using a single monetary poverty threshold is problematic when applied worldwide, due to the difficulty of comparing prices between countries. Prices of the same goods vary dramatically from country to country; while this is typically corrected for by using purchasing power parity (PPP) exchange rates, the basket of goods used to determine such rates is usually unrepresentative of the poor, most of whose expenditure is on basic foodstuffs rather than the relatively luxurious items (washing machines, air travel, healthcare) often included in PPP baskets. The economist Robert C. Allen has attempted to solve this by using standardized baskets of goods typical of those bought by the poor across countries and historical time, for example including a fixed calorific quantity of the cheapest local grain (such as corn, rice, or oats).
Understating poverty[edit]
In addition to wage and salary income, investment income and government transfers such as SNAP (Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, also known as food stamps) and housing subsidies are included in a household's income. Studies measuring the differences between income before and after taxes and government transfers, have found that without social support programs, poverty would be roughly 30% to 40% higher than the official poverty line indicates.[42][43]
Further, the U.S. Census Bureau calculates the poverty line the same throughout the U.S. regardless of the cost-of-living in a state or urban area. For instance, the cost-of-living in California, the most populous state, was 42% greater than the U.S. average in 2010, while the cost-of-living in Texas, the second-most populous state, was 10% less than the U.S. average.[citation needed] In 2017, California had the highest poverty rate in the country when housing costs are factored in, a measure calculated by the Census Bureau known as "the supplemental poverty measure".[44]
See also[edit]
Asset poverty
Glass ceiling
Income deficit
List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty
Living wage
Minimum wage
Measuring poverty
Poor person
UN Millennium Development Goals
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ravallion, Martin Poverty freak: A Guide to Concepts and Methods. Living Standards Measurement Papers, The World Bank, 1992, p. 25
Jump up ^ Hagenaars, Aldi & de Vos, Klaas The Definition and Measurement of Poverty. Journal of Human Resources, 1988
Jump up ^ Hagenaars, Aldi & van Praag, Bernard A Synthesis of Poverty Line Definitions. Review of Income and Wealth, 1985
Jump up ^ Ravallion, Martin; Chen Shaohua & Sangraula, Prem Dollar a day The World Bank Economic Review, 23, 2, 2009, pp. 163–84
Jump up ^ "World Bank Forecasts Global Poverty to Fall Below 10% for First Time; Major Hurdles Remain in Goal to End Poverty by 2030". www.worldbank.org. Retrieved 6 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Hildegard Lingnau (19 February 2016). "Major breakthrough". D+C, development&cooperation. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Sachs, Jeffrey D. The End of Poverty 2005, p. 20
Jump up ^ Hickel, Jason (1 November 2015). "Could you live on $1.90 a day? That's the international poverty line". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 10 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Poverty Lines – Martin Ravallion, in The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition, London: Palgrave Macmillan
Jump up ^ Alan Gillie, "The Origin of the Poverty Line", Economic History Review, XLIX/4 (1996), 726
Jump up ^ David Boyle. The Tyranny of Numbers p. 116
^ Jump up to: a b Rowntree, Benjamin Seebohm (1901). Poverty: A Study in Town Life. Macmillan and Co. p. 298
^ Jump up to: a b "Indicators of Poverty and Hunger" (PDF). Retrieved 14 February 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b "The World Employment Programme at ILO" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 March 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Richard Jolly (October 1976). "The World Employment Conference: The Enthronement of Basic Needs". Development Policy Review. A9 (2): 31–44. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7679.1976.tb00338.x.
Jump up ^ Denton, John A. (1990). Society and the official world: a reintroduction to sociology. Dix Hills, N.Y: General Hall. p. 17. ISBN 0-930390-94-6.
Jump up ^ Dharam Ghai (June 1978). "Basic Needs and its Critics". Institute of Development Studies. 9 (4): 16–18. doi:10.1111/j.1759-5436.1978.mp9004004.x.
^ Jump up to: a b Raphael, Dennis (June 2009). "Poverty, Human Development, and Health in Canada: Research, Practice, and Advocacy Dilemmas". Canadian Journal of Nursing Research (CJNR). 41 (2): 7–18.
^ Jump up to: a b Child poverty in rich nations: Report card no. 6 (Report). Innocenti Research Centre. 2005.
^ Jump up to: a b "Growing unequal? Income distribution and poverty in OECD countries". Paris, France: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b Human development report: Capacity development: Empowering people and institutions (Report). Geneva: United Nations Development Program. 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b "Child Poverty". Ottawa, ON: Conference Board of Canada. 2013.
Jump up ^ Ive Marx; Karel van den Bosch. "How poverty differs from inequality on poverty management in an enlarged EU context: Conventional and alternate approaches" (PDF). Antwerp, Belgium: Centre for Social Policy. [permanent dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b Jonathan Bradshaw; Yekaterina Chzhen; Gill Main; Bruno Martorano; Leonardo Menchini; Chris de Neubourg (January 2012). Relative Income Poverty among Children in Rich Countries (PDF) (Report). Innocenti Working Paper. Florence, Italy: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre. ISSN 1014-7837.
Jump up ^ A League Table of Child Poverty in Rich Nations (Report). Innocenti Report Card No.1. Florence, Italy: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre.
Jump up ^ Adam Smith (1776). An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. 5.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Peter Adamson; UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre (2012). Measuring child poverty: New league tables of child poverty in the world's rich countries (PDF) (Report). UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre Report Card. Florence, Italy.
Jump up ^ Galbraith, J. K. (1958). The Affluent Society. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Jump up ^ Minority [Republican] views, p. 46 in U.S. Congress, Report of the Joint Economic Committee on the January 1964 Economic Report of the President with Minority and Additional Views (Report). Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office. January 1964.
Jump up ^ Friedman, Rose. D. (1965). Poverty: Definition and Perspective. American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research (Report). Washington, D.C.
Jump up ^ Townsend, P. (1979). Poverty in the United Kingdom. London: Penguin.
Jump up ^ Callan, T.; Nolan, Brian; Whelan, Christopher T. (1993). "Resources, Deprivation and the Measurement of Poverty". Journal of Social Policy. 22: 141–72. doi:10.1017/s0047279400019280.
Jump up ^ Michael Blastland (31 July 2009). "Just what is poor?". BBC NEWS. Retrieved 25 September 2008.
Jump up ^ Bardone, Laura; Guio, Anne-Catherine (2005). "In-Work Poverty: New commonly agreed indicators at the EU level" (PDF). Statistics in Focus: Population and Social Conditions. Eurostat. ISSN 1024-4352. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
Jump up ^ "Inequality in Focus, October 2013: Analyzing the World Bank's Goal of Achieving "Shared Prosperity"". World Bank. Retrieved 16 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "http://inequalitywatch.eu/spip.php?article99" Eurostat 2010
Jump up ^ "Annual Update of the HHS Poverty Guidelines". 22 January 2015. Retrieved 15 April 2015.
Jump up ^ US Census Bureau. "How the Census Bureau Measures Poverty". Retrieved 22 December 2010.
Jump up ^ Working out of Poverty: A study of the low paid and the working poor by Graeme Cooke and Kayte Lawton
Jump up ^ IPPR Article: "Government must rescue 'forgotten million children' in poverty" Archived 25 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Poverty Estimates for 2004-05" (PDF). Retrieved 19 November 2009.
Jump up ^ Kenworthy, L (1999). "Do social-welfare policies reduce poverty? A cross-national assessment". Social Forces. 77 (3): 1119–39. doi:10.1093/sf/77.3.1119.
Jump up ^ Bradley, D.; Huber, E.; Moller, S.; Nielson, F.; Stephens, J. D. (2003). "Determinants of relative poverty in advanced capitalist democracies". American Sociological Review. 68 (3): 22–51. doi:10.2307/3088901. JSTOR 3088901.
Jump up ^ Matt Levin (October 2, 2017). "Expensive homes make California poorest state". San Francisco Chronicle. p. C1.
Further reading[edit]
Shweparde, Jon; Robert W. Greene (2003). Sociology and You. Ohio: Glencoe McGraw-Hill. p. A-22. ISBN 0-07-828576-3. Archived from the original on 8 March 2010.
Alan Gillie, "The Origin of the Poverty Line", Economic History Review, XLIX/4 (1996), 726
Villemez, Wayne J. (2001). "Poverty". Encyclopedia of Sociology (PDF). New York: Gale Virtual Reference Library.
External links[edit]
History of the U.S. Poverty Line by Tom Gentle, Oregon State University.
United States Department of Health and Human Services Poverty Guidelines, Research, and Measurement
2007 United States Department of Health and Human Services Poverty Guidelines
Debraj Ray 1998, Development Economics, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-01706-9.
World Summit for Social Development Agreements, United Nations
The "elimination" of poverty, Takis Fotopoulos, The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy, vol.4, no.1 (January 2008).
The Correct US Poverty Rate Is Around And About Zero
Fisher, Gordon (16 December 2005). "Relative or Absolute – New Light on the Behavior of Poverty Lines Over Time". Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 16 January 2008.
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value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

value:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

value: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

value: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

value:
p-cactions
navigation
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p-cactions-label

value:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

value:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Find background information on current events

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

value:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

value: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

value: Permanent link to this revision of the page

value: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

value: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

value: عتبة الفقر – Arabic

value: Жизнен минимум – Bulgarian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fy
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

value: निर्धनता सीमा – Hindi

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-io
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

value: קו העוני – Hebrew

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ku
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

value: दारिद्र्यरेषा – Marathi

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mr
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

value: ਗ਼ਰੀਬੀ ਰੇਖਾ – Punjabi

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

value: Апсолутно сиромаштво – Serbian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

value: வறுமைக் கோடு – Tamil

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

value: เส้นแบ่งความยากจน – Thai

value: Межа бідності – Ukrainian

value: عتَبہ غربت – Urdu

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value:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

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