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Philippine presidential line of succession
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The Philippine presidential line of succession defines who becomes or acts as President of the Philippines upon the incapacity, death, resignation, or removal from office (by impeachment and subsequent conviction) of a sitting president or a president-elect.
Contents
[hide]
1 Current Order
1.1 Current line of succession
2 At the start of the term
3 During the term
4 The line of succession in practice
5 References
Current Order[edit]
The current line of succession to the office of President of the Philippines is specified by the 1987 Constitution. During the Marcos era, the line of succession would be amended to include newly created cabinet or ministerial offices. The line of presidential succession follows the order of Vice President, President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. In case of death, permanent disability, or inability of these officials, Congress shall, by law, provide for the manner of selection of the person who is to act as President until a President or Vice President shall have qualified and the line of succession will change of who those new national officials.
Rodrigo Duterte takes the oath of office as the 16th President of the Philippines at the Malacañang Palace on June 30, 2016. Leni Robredo had taken her own oath of office as Vice President hours earlier at a separate venue, securing the presidential line of succession.
Current line of succession[edit]
Key
PDP-Laban
Liberal Party (LP)
#
Office
Current officer
1
Vice President of the Philippines Leni Robredo (LP)
2
Senate President of the Philippines Aquilino Pimentel III (PDP-Laban)
3
Speaker of the House of Representatives of the Philippines Pantaleon Alvarez (PDP-Laban)
At the start of the term[edit]
If a President was elected but failed to qualify - the Vice President who was elected will act as President until the President qualifies.
If there was no President elected - the Vice-President who was elected will act as President until a President is elected and qualifies.
If at the beginning of the term of the President, the President-elect dies or has become permanently disabled - the Vice President who was elected becomes President.
If neither President and Vice-President had been chosen or had qualified, or if both had died or had become permanently disabled - the Senate President or, in case of his inability, the Speaker of the House, will act as President until a President or a Vice-President is chosen and qualifies[1]
During the term[edit]
In 1944, following the death of Manuel L. Quezon, Sergio Osmeña became the first vice president to succeed to the presidency.
If the President dies, becomes permanently disabled, is removed from office, or resigns - the Vice-President becomes the President and serves the unexpired term.
If both the President and the Vice President die, become permanently disabled, are removed from office, or resign - the President of the Senate or, in case of his inability, the Speaker of the House of Representatives, will act as President until a President or Vice-President is elected and qualifies.
If the Acting President dies, becomes permanently disabled, is removed from office, or resigns, Congress shall, by law, provide who shall serve as President. He shall serve until the President or the Vice-President shall have been elected and qualified, and be subject to the same restrictions of powers and disqualifications as the Acting President.[1]
The line of succession in practice[edit]
On August 1, 1944, following the death of President Manuel L. Quezon due to tuberculosis, Vice President Sergio Osmeña took his oath of office and became the second President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines, then a government-in-exile in the United States. As the war in the Pacific Theatre continued, he returned to the Philippines two months later with General Douglas MacArthur and began the campaign to liberate the country. After the war, he restored the Commonwealth government and the various executive departments. Osmeña, who assumed the presidency at age 65, lost to Manuel Roxas in his bid for a full four-year term in his own right in the 1946 presidential election.
On April 17, 1948, Vice President Elpidio Quirino assumed the presidency, taking his oath of office two days after the death of Manuel Roxas. His first official act as the President was the proclamation of a state of mourning throughout the country for Roxas' death. Since Quirino was a widower, his surviving daughter Victoria Quirino served as the official hostess and performed the functions traditionally ascribed to the First Lady. Quirino won the 1949 presidential election and secured a four-year term in his own right.
On March 17, 1957, Vice President Carlos P. Garcia was heading the Philippine delegation to the SEATO conference, then being held at Canberra, Australia.[2] Vice President Garcia hastily traveled back to Manila when he was informed of the death of President Ramon Magsaysay in a plane crash in Cebu. Upon his arrival, he immediately returned to Malacañang Palace to assume the duties of President. Supreme Court Chief Justice Ricardo Paras was at hand to administer the oath of office and Garcia became the 8th President of the Philippines. President Garcia's first actions dealt with the declaration of a period of mourning for the whole nation and the burial of his late predecessor.[2] Garcia was elected to a full four-year term in the 1957 presidential election, which was held a few months after Magsaysay's death.
On January 20, 2001, Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo took her oath of office as the 14th President of the Philippines before Chief Justice Hilario Davide, Jr. following the ouster of President Joseph Ejercito-Estrada. She had earlier resigned her cabinet position as Secretary of Social Welfare and Development and joined the growing opposition to the president, who faced impeachment. Estrada was forced from office by the EDSA Revolution of 2001. She was elected to a full six-year term in the 2004 presidential election and was sworn in on June 30, 2004. Following her presidency, she was elected to the House of Representatives, making her the second Philippine president after Jose P. Laurel to pursue a lower office after their presidency.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b www.Batasan.org 1987 Constitution of the Philippines (accessed November 19, 2007).
^ Jump up to: a b Molina, Antonio. The Philippines: Through the centuries. Manila: University of Sto. Tomas Cooperative, 1961. Print.
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text:
Terry's Chocolate Orange
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Terry's Chocolate Orange
Product type
Confection
Owner
Carambar & Co
Country
Originally York, England. Now Jankowice, Poland
Introduced
1932 (1932)
Markets
Worldwide
Previous owners
Terry's
Kraft General Foods
Kraft Foods
Mondelēz International
Terry's Chocolate Orange is a chocolate product created by Terry's in 1932 at the Chocolate Works factory in York, England, It was made by Mondelēz International from 2012-2017. As of spring 2017 it is made by Carambar & Co.
Contents
[hide]
1 Development
2 Structure
2.1 Spin-offs
3 Advertising
4 Product range
5 Changes to product weight in 2016
6 References
7 External links
Development[edit]
Main article: Terry's
The company opened the Art Deco-style factory The Chocolate Works in 1926, and began launching new products.[1] These included the Dessert Chocolate Apple (1926), Terry's All Gold (1931) and the Chocolate Orange (1932). [2] At the onset of World War II, confectionery production was immediately halted. The factory was taken over by F. Hills and Sons of Manchester as a shadow factory to manufacture and repair aircraft propeller blades. With the factory handed back to the company post-war, production was difficult due to continued rationing in the United Kingdom, and limited imports of raw cocoa. In 1954, production of the chocolate apple was phased out in favour of increased production of the chocolate orange.[1]
In the North American market, where it has had a variety of importers over the years, it was briefly sold as a Tobler (maker of the Toblerone) product.
Chocolate oranges appeared on the South Korean market in the GS25 chain of convenience stores in 2017.
Korean packaging
Since 2005 and the closure of the Terry factory in York, Chocolate Orange products have been manufactured near Jankowice, Poland.[3]
In 1979, Terry's launched the Chocolate Lemon, but it was withdrawn three years later.[2]
Structure[edit]
Terry's Chocolate Orange Bar, a chocolate bar version of the Chocolate Orange
The Terry's Chocolate Orange comprises an orange-shaped ball of chocolate mixed with orange oil, divided into 20 segments, similar to a real orange, and wrapped in orange-skin patterned foil. When packaged, the segments are stuck together firmly in the centre; therefore, prior to unwrapping, the ball is traditionally tapped severely on a hard surface to cause the segments to separate from each other (dubbed "Tap and Unwrap" or "Whack and Unwrap").
Spin-offs[edit]
There have been a number of spin-off products, currently including:
Chocolate Orange bar: a bar of six segments, initially produced with smooth vertical segments (similar to a Toblerone bar), then, later, with textured segments that mimic the traditional orange shape.
Chocolate Orange minis: a bag of small segments
Chocolate Orange White Eggs: egg-shaped white-chocolate versions of Chocolate Orange that were available for one Easter
Segsations: individual segments of chocolate in different flavours, including: milk chocolate, puffed rice, honeycomb, cornflake, white chocolate and a "double seg" of layered milk and dark chocolate, all flavoured with orange oil.
Segsations Mini Eggs: individual foil-wrapped eggs of chocolate in same flavours as Segsations, for Easter
Chocolate Orange – Egg & Spoon: a milk chocolate egg filled with an orange fondant filling (similar to Cadbury's Creme Egg)
Advertising[edit]
The Chocolate Orange product is known for its unusual marketing, which is usually at its heaviest around Christmas. At one time it was estimated that the Chocolate Orange was found in a tenth of British Christmas stockings.[4] Actress Dawn French has fronted numerous campaigns for the brand, often in a posed scene of defending and hiding "her" Chocolate Orange from others. Famous marketing phrases include:
Tap it and unwrap it (since replaced with "whack and unwrap")
It's not Terry's, it's mine
Don't tap it... Whack it!
More recent advertisements (after the rebranding) do not feature French and contain the new slogan "Round but not round for long" (some include the Countdown theme tune). The newest advertising campaign in the United Kingdom features various situations in which people are trying to break the segments of their Terry's Chocolate Orange apart with the slogan "Smash it to pieces, love it to bits".
Product range[edit]
A "tapped and unwrapped" Terry's Chocolate Orange
Terry's Dessert Chocolate Apple (1926–1954 precursor to the Orange)[2]
Terry's Chocolate Lemon (short-lived 1979-1980s variant)[2]
Terry's Chocolate Orange Dark (formerly 'Plain')
Terry's Chocolate Orange Snowball (white chocolate)
Terry's Chocolate Orange Mint (Discontinued 2012)
Terry's Chocolate Orange Toffee
Terry's Chocolate Orange Bars (chocolate bars)
Terry's Chocolate Orange Mini segments/Segsations (individually wrapped segments)
Terry's Chocolate Orange White Egg
Terry's Chocolate Orange Flavour Carte D'Or ice cream (no longer in production)
Terry's Chocolate Orange Tangy
Terry's Chocolate Orange Cookies
Terry's Chocolate Orange Exploding Candy
Terry's Chocolate Orange Siesta
Terry's Chocolate Orange Hazelnut
Terry's Chocolate Orange Raspberry
Terry's Chocolate Orange White Chocolate Smasher
Terry's Chocolate Orange Toffee Crunch
Terry's Chocolate Orange Birthday Cake
Terry's Chocolate Orange Orange
Terry's Chocolate Orange Ice-Creams (currently sold as limited edition)
Changes to product weight in 2016[edit]
On 29 May 2016, the UK product size was reduced from 175g to 157g by changing the moulded shape of each segment to leave an air gap between each piece.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "The Chocolate Works". NeolithicSea.co.uk. Retrieved 27 June 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Terry's Confections (Courtesy of Kraft Foods Archives)". docslide.us. Retrieved 7 January 2016.
Jump up ^ Delgado, Martin. "How long before Cadbury's chocolate is made in this Polish factory?". Daily Mail. London. Retrieved 13 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Chocolate history". VisitYork.org. Retrieved 27 June 2012.
External links[edit]
Media related to Terry's Chocolate Orange at Wikimedia Commons
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1In the United States, these products are manufactured and marketed by The Hershey Company under a prior licensing agreement.
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Human skeleton
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Bone structure" and "skeletal system" redirect here. For skeletal systems of other animals, see Skeleton. For for the scientific study of bones, see Osteology.
Human skeleton
Diagram of the human skeleton
Details
Identifiers
Greek
σκελετός
TA
A02.0.00.000
FMA
23881
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The human skeleton is the internal framework of the body. It is composed of about 300 bones at birth – this total decreases to around 206 bones by adulthood after some bones get fused together.[1] The bone mass in the skeleton reaches maximum density around age 21. The human skeleton can be divided into the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton is formed by the vertebral column, the rib cage, the skull and other associated bones. The appendicular skeleton, which is attached to the axial skeleton, is formed by the shoulder girdle, the pelvic girdle and the bones of the upper and lower limbs.
The human skeleton performs six major functions; support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals, and endocrine regulation.
The human skeleton is not as sexually dimorphic as that of many other primate species, but subtle differences between sexes in the morphology of the skull, dentition, long bones, and pelvis exist. In general, female skeletal elements tend to be smaller and less robust than corresponding male elements within a given population. The human female pelvis is also different from that of males in order to facilitate childbirth.[2] Unlike most primates, human males do not have penile bones.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Skeletal Divisions
1.1 Axial skeleton
1.2 Appendicular skeleton
2 Functions
2.1 Support
2.2 Movement
2.3 Protection
2.4 Blood cell production
2.5 Storage
2.6 Endocrine regulation
3 Sex differences
3.1 Skull
3.2 Dentition
3.3 Long bones
3.4 Pelvis
4 Clinical significance
4.1 Arthritis
4.2 Osteoporosis
5 History
5.1 The Renaissance
6 See also
7 References
Skeletal Divisions[edit]
Axial skeleton[edit]
Main article: Axial skeleton
The axial skeleton (80 bones) is formed by the vertebral column (32–34 bones; the number of the vertebrae differs from human to human as the lower 2 parts, sacral and coccygeal bone may vary in length), a part of the rib cage (12 pairs of ribs and the sternum), and the skull (22 bones and 7 associated bones).
The upright posture of humans is maintained by the axial skeleton, which transmits the weight from the head, the trunk, and the upper extremities down to the lower extremities at the hip joints. The bones of the spine are supported by many ligaments. The erector spinae muscles are also supporting and are useful for balance.
Appendicular skeleton[edit]
Main article: Appendicular skeleton
The appendicular skeleton (126 bones) is formed by the pectoral girdles, the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle or pelvis, and the lower limbs. Their functions are to make locomotion possible and to protect the major organs of digestion, excretion and reproduction.
Functions[edit]
A human skeleton on exhibit at the Museum of Osteology, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
The skeleton serves six major functions: support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals and endocrine regulation.
Support[edit]
The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its shape. The pelvis, associated ligaments and muscles provide a floor for the pelvic structures. Without the rib cages, costal cartilages, and intercostal muscles, the lungs would collapse.
Movement[edit]
The joints between bones allow movement, some allowing a wider range of movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is powered by skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones. Muscles, bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated by the nervous system.
It is believed that the reduction of human bone density in prehistoric times reduced the agility and dexterity of human movement. Shifting from hunting to agriculture has caused human bone density to reduce significantly.[4][5][6]
Protection[edit]
The skeleton helps to protect our many vital internal organs from being damaged.
The skull protects the brain
The vertebrae protect the spinal cord.
The rib cage, spine, and sternum protect the lungs, heart and major blood vessels.
Blood cell production[edit]
The skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis, the development of blood cells that takes place in the bone marrow. In children, haematopoiesis occurs primarily in the marrow of the long bones such as the femur and tibia. In adults, it occurs mainly in the pelvis, cranium, vertebrae, and sternum.[7]
Storage[edit]
The bone matrix can store calcium and is involved in calcium metabolism, and bone marrow can store iron in ferritin and is involved in iron metabolism. However, bones are not entirely made of calcium, but a mixture of chondroitin sulfate and hydroxyapatite, the latter making up 70% of a bone. Hydroxyapatite is in turn composed of 39.8% of calcium, 41.4% of oxygen, 18.5% of phosphorus, and 0.2% of hydrogen by mass. Chondroitin sulfate is a sugar made up primarily of oxygen and carbon.
Endocrine regulation[edit]
Bone cells release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar (glucose) and fat deposition. Osteocalcin increases both the insulin secretion and sensitivity, in addition to boosting the number of insulin-producing cells and reducing stores of fat.[8]
Sex differences[edit]
During construction of the York to Scarborough Railway Bridge in 1901, workmen discovered a large stone coffin, close to the River Ouse. Inside was a skeleton, accompanied by an array of unusual and expensive objects. This chance find represents one of the most significant discoveries ever made from Roman York. Study of the skeleton has revealed that it belonged to a woman.
Anatomical differences between human males and females are highly pronounced in some soft tissue areas, but tend to be limited in the skeleton. The human skeleton is not as sexually dimorphic as that of many other primate species, but subtle differences between sexes in the morphology of the skull, dentition, long bones, and pelvis are exhibited across human populations. In general, female skeletal elements tend to be smaller and less robust than corresponding male elements within a given population.
Skull[edit]
A variety of gross morphological traits of the human skull demonstrate sexual dimorphism, such as the median nuchal line, mastoid processes, supraorbital margin, supraorbital ridge, and the chin.[9]
Dentition[edit]
Human inter-sex dental dimorphism centers on the canine teeth, but it is not nearly as pronounced as in the other great apes.
Long bones[edit]
Long bones are generally larger in males than in females within a given population. Muscle attachment sites on long bones are often more robust in males than in females, reflecting a difference in overall muscle mass and development between sexes. Sexual dimorphism in the long bones is commonly characterized by morphometric or gross morphological analyses.
Pelvis[edit]
The human pelvis exhibits greater sexual dimorphism than other bones, specifically in the size and shape of the pelvic cavity, ilia, greater sciatic notches, and the sub-pubic angle. The Phenice method is commonly used to determine the sex of an unidentified human skeleton by anthropologists with 96% to 100% accuracy in some populations.[10]
Women's pelvises are wider in the pelvic inlet and are wider throughout the pelvis to allow for child birth. The sacrum in the women's pelvis is curved inwards to allow the child to have a "funnel" to assist in the child's pathway from the uterus to the birth canal.
Clinical significance[edit]
See also: Bone disease
There are many classified skeletal disorders. One of the most common is osteoporosis. Also common is scoliosis, a side-to-side curve in the back or spine, often creating a pronounced "C" or "S" shape when viewed on an x-ray of the spine. This condition is most apparent during adolescence, and is most common with females.
Arthritis[edit]
Main article: Arthritis
Arthritis is a disorder of the joints. It involves inflammation of one or more joints. When affected by arthritis, the joint or joints affected may be painful to move, may move in unusual directions or may be immobile completely. The symptoms of arthritis will vary differently between types of arthritis. The most common form of arthritis: Osteoarthritis can affect both the larger and smaller joints of the human skeleton. The cartilage in the affected joints will degrade, soften and wear away. This decreases the mobility of the joints and decreases the space between bones where cartilage should be.
Osteoporosis[edit]
Main article: Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a disease of bone where there is reduced bone mineral density, increasing the likelihood of fractures.[11] Osteoporosis is defined by the World Health Organization in women as a bone mineral density 2.5 standard deviations below peak bone mass, relative to the age and sex-matched average, as measured by Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, with the term "established osteoporosis" including the presence of a fragility fracture.[12] Osteoporosis is most common in women after menopause, when it is called "postmenopausal osteoporosis", but may develop in men and premenopausal women in the presence of particular hormonal disorders and other chronic diseases or as a result of smoking and medications, specifically glucocorticoids.[11] Osteoporosis usually has no symptoms until a fracture occurs.[11] For this reason, DEXA scans are often done in people with one or more risk factors, who have developed osteoporosis and be at risk of fracture.[11]
Osteoporosis treatment includes advice to stop smoking, decrease alcohol consumption, exercise regularly, and have a healthy diet. Calcium supplements may also be advised, as may Vitamin D. When medication is used, it may include bisphosphonates, Strontium ranelate, and osteoporosis may be one factor considered when commencing Hormone replacement therapy.[11]
History[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2014)
See also: Paleoanthropology
The study of human bones probably started in ancient Greece under Ptolemaic kings due to their link to Egypt. Herophilos, through his work by studying dissected human corpses in Alexandria is credited to be the pioneer of the field. His works are lost but are often cited by notable persons in the field such as Galen and Rufus of Ephesus. Galen himself did little dissection though and relied on the work of others like Marinus of Alexandria,[13] as well as his own observations of gladiator cadavers and animals.[14] According to Katherine Park, in medieval Europe dissection continued to be practiced, contrary to the popular understanding that such practices are taboo and thus completely banned.[15] The practice of holy autopsy, such as in the case of Clare of Montefalco further supports the claim.[16] Alexandria continued as a center of anatomy under Islamic rule, with Ibn Zuhr a notable figure. Chinese understandings are divergent, as the closest corresponding concept in the medicinal system seem to be the meridians, although given that Hua Tuo regularly performs surgery, there must be some distance between medical theory and actual understanding.
The Renaissance[edit]
Leonardo Da Vinci, among his many talents also contributed to the study of the skeleton, albeit unpublished in his time.[17] Many artists, Antonio Pollaiuolo being the first, performed dissections for better understanding of the body, although they concentrated mostly on the muscles.[18] Vesalius, regarded as the founder of modern anatomy authored the book De humani corporis fabrica, which contained many illustrations of the skeleton and other body parts, correcting some theories dating from Galen, such as the lower jaw being a single bone instead of two.[19] Various other figures like Alessandro Achillini also contributed to the further understanding of the skeleton.
See also[edit]
List of bones of the human skeleton
Distraction osteogenesis
References[edit]
‹ The template below (Library resources box) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. ›
Library resources about
Skeletal system
Resources in your library
Jump up ^ Mammal anatomy : an illustrated guide. New York: Marshall Cavendish. 2010. p. 129. ISBN 9780761478829.
Jump up ^ Thieme Atlas of Anatomy, (2006), p 113
Jump up ^ Patterns of Sexual Behavior Clellan S. Ford and Frank A. Beach, published by Harper & Row, New York in 1951. ISBN 0-313-22355-6
Jump up ^ "Switching Farming Made Human Bone Skeleton Joint Lighter". Smithsonian Magazine. 23 December 2014.
Jump up ^ "Light human skeleton may have come after agriculture". Retrieved 4 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "With the Advent of Agriculture, Human Bones Dramatically Weakened". 22 December 2014. Retrieved 4 March 2017.
Jump up ^ Fernández, KS; de Alarcón, PA (Dec 2013). "Development of the hematopoietic system and disorders of hematopoiesis that present during infancy and early childhood.". Pediatric clinics of North America. 60 (6): 1273–89. PMID 24237971. doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2013.08.002.
Jump up ^ Lee, Na Kyung; Sowa, Hideaki; Hinoi, Eiichi; Ferron, Mathieu; Ahn, Jong Deok; Confavreux, Cyrille; Dacquin, Romain; Mee, Patrick J.; McKee, Marc D.; Jung, Dae Young; Zhang, Zhiyou; Kim, Jason K.; Mauvais-Jarvis, Franck; Ducy, Patricia; Karsenty, Gerard (2007). "Endocrine Regulation of Energy Metabolism by the Skeleton". Cell. 130 (3): 456–69. PMC 2013746  . PMID 17693256. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2007.05.047.
Jump up ^ Buikstra, J.E.; D.H. Ubelaker (1994). Standards for data collection from human skeletal remains. Arkansas Archaeological Survey. p. 208.
Jump up ^ Phenice, T. W. (1969). "A newly developed visual method of sexing the os pubis". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 30 (2): 297–301. PMID 5772048. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330300214.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Britton, the editors Nicki R. Colledge, Brian R. Walker, Stuart H. Ralston ; illustrated by Robert (2010). Davidson's principles and practice of medicine. (21st ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. pp. 1116–1121. ISBN 978-0-7020-3085-7.
Jump up ^ WHO (1994). "Assessment of fracture risk and its application to screening for postmenopausal osteoporosis. Report of a WHO Study Group". World Health Organization technical report series. 843: 1–129. PMID 7941614.
Jump up ^ Rocca, Julius (9 August 2010). "A Note on Marinus of Alexandria". Journal of the History of the Neurosciences. 11 (3): 282–285. doi:10.1076/jhin.11.3.282.10386.
Jump up ^ Charlier, Philippe; Huynh-Charlier, Isabelle; Poupon, Joël; Lancelot, Eloïse; Campos, Paula F.; Favier, Dominique; Jeannel, Gaël-François; Bonati, Maurizio Rippa; Grandmaison, Geoffroy Lorin de la; Herve, Christian (2014). "Special report: Anatomical pathology A glimpse into the early origins of medieval anatomy through the oldest conserved human dissection (Western Europe, 13th c. A.D.)". Archives of Medical Science. 2: 366–373. doi:10.5114/aoms.2013.33331.
Jump up ^ "Debunking a myth". Harvard Gazette. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Hairston, Julia L.; Stephens, Walter (2010). The body in early modern Italy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9780801894145.
Jump up ^ Sooke, Alastair. "Leonardo da Vinci: Anatomy of an artist". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Bambach, Carmen. "Anatomy in the Renaissance". The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History.
Jump up ^ "Vesalius's Renaissance anatomy lessons". www.bl.uk. Retrieved 18 December 2016.
[show]
v
t
e
Bones in the human skeleton
Axial skeleton
Skull
Neurocranium
occipital
parietal
frontal
temporal
sphenoid
ethmoid
Face
nasal
maxilla
lacrimal
zygomatic
palatine
inferior nasal conchae
vomer
mandible
hyoid
Ear
ossicles
malleus
incus
stapes
Thorax
sternum
rib cage
rib
Vertebral column
vertebrae
cervical
thoracic
lumbar
sacrum
coccyx
Appendicular
Shoulder
clavicle
scapula
Arm
humerus
ulna
radius
Hand
carpals (scaphoid, lunate bone, triquetral, pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate)
metacarpals
phalanges (prox, int, dist)
Pelvis
ilium
ischium
pubis
Leg
femur
patella
fibula
tibia
Foot
tarsals
heelbone
anklebone
navicular
cuneiform
cuboid
metatarsals
phalanges
proximal
intermediate
distal
[show]
v
t
e
Human systems and organs
Musculoskeletal
Skeletal system
Bone
Carpus
Collar bone (clavicle)
Thigh bone (femur)
Fibula
Humerus
Mandible
Metacarpus
Metatarsus
Ossicles
Patella
Phalanges
Radius
Skull (cranium)
Tarsus
Tibia
Ulna
Rib
Vertebra
Pelvis
Sternum
Cartilage
Joints
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Cartilaginous joint
Synovial joint
Muscular system
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Lymphatic system
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CNS equivalent
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Nerve
Sensory system
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Eye
Integumentary system
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Subcutaneous tissue
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Immune system
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Myeloid immune system
Lymphoid
Lymphoid immune system
Respiratory system
Upper
Nose
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Lower
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General anatomy: systems and organs, regional anatomy, planes and lines, superficial axial anatomy, superficial anatomy of limbs
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text:
History of media studies
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article's lead section does not adequately summarize key points of its contents. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. Please discuss this issue on the article's talk page. (November 2014)
This article outlines the history of media studies.
Contents
[hide]
1 Chicago School
2 First M.A. Media Studies program in the U.S.
3 Propaganda studies
4 Frankfurt School and Critical Theory
5 Media effects
6 Uses and Gratification Model
7 References
Chicago School[edit]
Though not yet named as such, media studies' roots are in the Chicago School and thinkers such as John Dewey, Charles Cooley and George Mead. These authors saw American society on the cusp of positive social change toward pure democracy. Mead argued that for an ideal society to exist, a form of communication must be developed to allow the unique individual to appreciate the attitudes, viewpoints and positions of others unlike himself, and allow him to be understood by others as well. Mead believed that this "new media" would allow humans to empathize with others, and therefore moves toward an "ideal of human society."[1] Where Mead sees an ideal society, Dewey names it the "Great Community," and further asserts the assumption that humans are intelligent enough for self-government, and that that knowledge is "a function of association and communication."[2] Similarly, Cooley asserts that political communication makes public opinion possible, which in turn promotes democracy. Each of these authors represent the Chicago School’s attention to electronic communication as a facilitator of democracy, its faith in the informed electorate, and its focus on the individual as opposed to the mass.
First M.A. Media Studies program in the U.S.[edit]
The social impact of mass communication has been studied at The New School University in New York since its founding in 1919. The first college course to investigate the motion picture was offered here in 1926. Marshall McLuhan's colleague, John Culkin, brought his Center for Understanding Media to The New School in 1975 and The New School began offering the Master of Arts degree in Media Studies, one of the first graduate programs of its kind.[3] Today, among other programs,[4] MA in Media Studies is still being offered by School of Media Studies, The New School, which will celebrate 40th anniversary of Media Studies at The New School during the academic year 2015-2016[5]
Propaganda studies[edit]
Between the First and Second World Wars, the Institute for Propaganda Analysis briefly rose to importance. Their definition of propaganda was
"expression of opinion or action by individuals or groups deliberately designed to influence opinion or actions of other individuals or groups with reference to predetermined ends."[6]
Harold Lasswell, who worked in the paradigm of the Chicago School of sociology wrote Propaganda Technique in the World War, which included this definition of propaganda:
"Propaganda in the broadest sense is the technique of influencing human action by the manipulation of representations. These representations may take spoken, written, pictorial or musical form."[7]
These definitions of propaganda clearly show that this was a school of thought that focused on media effects, as it highlighted the influence that media could have over its audiences attitudes and actions.[8]
Epitomizing this early school of media effects studies are experiments done by The Experimental Section of the Research Branch of the U.S. War Department's Information and Education Division. In the experiments, the effects of various U.S. wartime propaganda films on soldiers were observed.[9]
Current Propaganda studies are applied into many fields besides politics. Herman described a propaganda model as "a model of media behavior and performance, not of media effects." (Herman, 2000, p. 63) He argued: "They are profit-seeking business, owned by very wealthy people (or other companies); and they are funded largely by advertisers who are also profit-seeking entities, and who want their advertisements to appear in a supportive selling environment."[10] He also presented "five factors: owner ship, advertising, sourcing, flak and anti-communist ideology-work as filters through which information must pass, and that individually and often in cumulative fashion they greatly influence media choices."[10] Until now, there is no conclusion of propaganda, debate still continues.
Frankfurt School and Critical Theory[edit]
Typified by the philosophical and theoretical orientations of Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Walter Benjamin, Leo Lowenthal, and Herbert Marcuse, the Frankfurt school contributed greatly to the development and application of critical theory in media studies. Their Marxist critique of market-driven media was critical of its atomizing and leveling effects.
The Frankfurt school also lamented the effects of the "culture industry" on the production and appreciation of art. For example, in A Social Critique of Radio Music, Adorno asserts:
"…music has ceased to be a human force and is consumed like other consumers’ goods. This produces ‘commodity listening’…The listener suspends all intellectual activity."[11]
As the Frankfurt school lamented on the effects of the "culture industry" they also began to identify mass culture and high culture as two distinct entities. Scholars like Benjamin (1936) and Adorno (1945) can be credited with what would eventually become known as popular culture and high culture. Their finite distinction of equating original production with ritualistic behavior as compared with mass culture that finds its identifying symbols in reproductions. These reproductions are souless and lacking in definition and originality.
Media effects[edit]
Main article: Media effects
The less paradigm in media studies since the Second World War has been associated with the ideas, methods and findings of Paul F. Lazarsfeld and his school: media effect studies. Their studies focused on measurable, short-term behavioral ‘effects’ of media and concluded that the media played a limited role in influencing public opinion. The "Limited-Effects" Model developed by Lazarsfeld and his colleagues from Columbia was highly influential in the development of media studies. The model claims the mass media has "limited-effects" on voting patterns. Voters are influenced, rather, through the ‘two-step flow’ model, the idea that media messages are disseminated through personal interaction with ‘opinion leaders’.[12]
The model of limited- effects was so influential that the question of media "effects" on politics was left largely unaddressed until the late 1960s. Eventually Mass Communication scholars began to study political behavior again and the limited-effects model was called into question.[13]
Uses and Gratification Model[edit]
As a response to the previous emphasis upon media effects, from the 1970s researchers became interested in how audiences make sense of media texts.[14] The "uses and gratifications" model, associated with Jay Blumler and Elihu Katz, reflected this growing interest in the 'active audience'. One such example of this type of research was conducted by Hodge and Tripp,[15] and separately Palmer,[16] about how school-children make sense of the Australian soap opera Prisoner. They found that pupils could identify with the prisoners: they were "shut in", separated from their friends and wouldn't be there had they not been made to be, etc. Also, the children could compare the wardens to their teachers: "the hard-bitten old [one], the soft new one, the one you could take advantage of..."[17]John Fiske summarises:
The children inserted meanings of the program into their social experience of school in a way that informed both -- the meanings of school and the meanings of Prisoner were each influenced by the other, and the fit between them validated the other.[17]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Mead, George Herbert. "Obstacles and Promises in the Development of an Ideal Society." Mind, Self & Society, pp. 317–28. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1934.
Jump up ^ Dewey, John. "Search for the Great Community." The Public and Its Problems, pp. 143–84. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1927. "Nature, Communication, and Meaning." Experience and Nature, pp. 138–70.
Jump up ^ http://www.newschool.edu/public-engagement/school-of-media-studies-about/
Jump up ^ http://www.newschool.edu/public-engagement/school-of-media-studies-degrees-and-programs/
Jump up ^ http://smscommons.newschool.edu/news/2015/09/14/media-studies-40th-anniversary-celebration-fall-2015-spring-2016/
Jump up ^ Lee, Alfred M. (With Elizabeth Briant Lee) (1937). The Fine Art of Propaganda: A Study of Father Coughlin’s Speeches.
Jump up ^ Lasswell, Harold. (1937). Propaganda Technique in the World War. pp. 214–22. ISBN 0-8240-0458-2.
Jump up ^ Lasswell, Harold (1937). "Propaganda". Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. pp. 521–27.
Jump up ^ Hovland, Carl I.; Arthur A. Lumsdaine; Fred D. Shefield (1949). "Experiments in Mass Communication". Studies in the Social Psychology in World War II, American Soldier Series. New York: Macmillan. 3: 3–16, 247–79.
^ Jump up to: a b (Herman, 2000, p. 62)
Jump up ^ Adorno, Theodor W. (1945). "A Social Critique of Radio Music". Kenyon Review. 7: 208–17.
Jump up ^ Gitlinn, Todd (1974). Media Sociology: the Dominant Paradigm.
Jump up ^ Chaffee, Steven H., & Hockheimer, J.. "The Beginnings of Political Communication Research in the United States: Origins of the ‘Limited Effects’ Model." The Media Revolution in America & Western Europe, pp. 267–96. Ed. Ev Rogers & F. Balle. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex, 1985.
Jump up ^ Hutchby, Ian (2006). Media Talk: Conversation Analysis and the Study of Broadcasting. Berkshire: Open University Press. p. 5. ISBN 0-335-20995-5.
Jump up ^ Hodge, R.; Tripp, D. (1986). Children and Television. Cambridge: Polity Press. ISBN 0-8047-1352-9.
Jump up ^ Palmer, P (1986). The Lively Audience: A Study of Children around the TV set. Sydney: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 0-86861-970-1.
^ Jump up to: a b Fiske, John (1987). Television Culture. London: Routledge. pp. 68–9. ISBN 0-415-03934-7.
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I Won't Back Down
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"I Won't Back Down"
Single by Tom Petty
from the album Full Moon Fever
B-side
"The Apartment Song"
"Don't Treat Me Like a Stranger" (12" and CD single only)
Released
April 1989 (1989-04)
Format
7"
12"
cassette
CD
Recorded
1987-1988
Genre
Heartland rock
Length
2:59
Label
MCA
Songwriter(s)
Tom Petty
Jeff Lynne
Producer(s)
Jeff Lynne
Tom Petty
Mike Campbell
Tom Petty singles chronology
"All Mixed Up"
(1987) "I Won't Back Down"
(1989) "Runnin' Down a Dream"
(1989)
"All Mixed Up"
(1987) "I Won't Back Down"
(1989) "Runnin' Down a Dream"
(1989)
Audio sample
file
help
"I Won't Back Down" is a song by American rock musician Tom Petty. It was released in April 1989 as the lead single from his first solo album, Full Moon Fever. The song was written by Petty and Jeff Lynne, his writing partner for the album. It reached number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 and topped the Album Rock Tracks chart for five weeks, starting the album's road to multi-platinum status.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background and writing
2 Content
3 Music video
4 Agreement with Sam Smith
5 Personnel
6 Charts
6.1 Weekly charts
6.2 Year-end charts
7 Use in political campaigns
8 Use in sports campaigns
9 All appearances
10 Cover versions
11 References
12 External links
Background and writing[edit]
Petty recalled the recording of this song to Mojo magazine: "At the session George Harrison sang and played the guitar. I had a terrible cold that day, and George went to the store and bought a ginger root, boiled it and had me stick my head in the pot to get the ginger steam to open up my sinuses, and then I ran in and did the take."[1]
Content[edit]
A message of defiance against unnamed forces of difficulty and possibly oppression, the lyric is set against a mid-tempo beat:
Well I know what's right, I got just one life
in a world that keeps on pushin' me around
but I'll stand my ground, and I won't back down
Due to its themes, the song was played often on American radio following the September 11 attacks.[2] Petty and the Heartbreakers played a quiet but resolute version of the song at the America: A Tribute to Heroes telethon following the 2001 attacks.[2][3]
In the 2007 documentary Runnin' Down a Dream, Petty said that he felt some initial hesitation about releasing the song, given its clear and unabashed message.[4]
Music video[edit]
The music video, directed by David Leland, was shot on March 22 and 23, 1989 on a sound stage at Pinewood Studios and released on April 24, 1989. Traveling Wilburys bandmates George Harrison and Jeff Lynne appear in the video. Mike Campbell and Harrison's former Beatles bandmate Ringo Starr are also featured in the video[5] along with Harrison's famous painted Fender Stratocaster "Rocky" being played by Campbell. Starr is depicted in the video as playing the drums on the song, though drumming was actually performed by Phil Jones on the record.
Agreement with Sam Smith[edit]
In January 2015, it was revealed that an agreement had been reached whereby Petty and Jeff Lynne would be credited as co-writers of Sam Smith's song "Stay with Me" and receive 12.5% of its royalties. Petty's publishing company had contacted Smith's publisher after noticing a likeness between "Stay with Me" and "I Won't Back Down". [6] Petty clarified that he did not believe Smith plagiarized him, saying "All my years of songwriting have shown me these things can happen. Most times you catch it before it gets out the studio door but in this case it got by. Sam's people were very understanding of our predicament and we easily came to an agreement".[7][8] Smith claimed he had never heard "I Won't Back Down" before he wrote "Stay with Me",[9] but he acknowledged the similarity after listening to the song, and said that the likeness was "a complete coincidence".[10][11] Petty and Lynne were not eligible for a Grammy Award ("Stay with Me" was nominated for three awards at the 57th annual ceremony, winning two of them) as the Recording Academy considered "Stay with Me" to have been interpolated from "I Won't Back Down" by Smith, James Napier, and William Phillips, the writers of "Stay with Me"; Petty and Lynne were instead given certificates to honor their participation in the work, as is usual for writers of sampled or interpolated work.[12]
Personnel[edit]
Tom Petty – lead vocals and backing vocals, acoustic guitar
Mike Campbell – slide guitar
George Harrison – acoustic guitar, backing vocals
Jeff Lynne – bass, backing vocals
Howie Epstein – backing vocals
Phil Jones – drums
Charts[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (1989)
Peak
position
Australia (ARIA)[13] 16
Canada Top Singles (RPM) 5
Germany (Official German Charts)[14] 66
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[15] 49
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[16] 28
US Billboard Hot 100[17] 12
US Mainstream Rock (Billboard)[18] 1
US Alternative Songs (Billboard)[19] 29
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1989)
Position
Canada Top Singles (RPM)[20] 40
Use in political campaigns[edit]
George W. Bush used "I Won't Back Down" at campaign events during the 2000 presidential campaign but was compelled to stop using the song after receiving a cease and desist letter from Petty's publisher.[21][22] Petty then went on to perform the song at Al Gore's home after Gore conceded the election to President Bush.[23] Jim Webb used the song for his successful bid for one of Virginia's U.S. Senate seats in 2006, as did Hillary Clinton during the 2008 Democratic presidential primary campaign. The song was also used at campaign events for Congressman Ron Paul of Texas during the 2008 Republican presidential primary campaign, as well as for events for his Campaign for Liberty. The song was also played at an event for Republican Connecticut gubernatorial nominee, Tom Foley.[24] The song was also played at the 2012 Democratic National Convention after speech delivered by President Bill Clinton, in which President Barack Obama came out on stage to salute him.
Use in sports campaigns[edit]
The Ottawa Senators used the song as a campaign anthem in December 1990 at their presentation to be awarded an NHL franchise at the Breakers Hotel in Palm Beach, Florida. The unlikely bid received unanimous support from the NHL and the franchise was awarded on December 6, 1990.[25] The Johnny Cash cover has also been used for a Rogers Sportsnet advertising campaign for the 2010-2011 NHL season.[26]
The song was used as the walkout song for the Australian Rugby League club the Melbourne Storm from 1999-2007.
It was also used as the slogan for the TCU Horned Frogs during the 2009 season, and incorporated into their merchandise during the year.[27]
All appearances[edit]
Full Moon Fever (1989)
Greatest Hits (1993)
Playback (1995)
Anthology: Through the Years (2000)
America: A Tribute to Heroes (2001)
The Live Anthology (2009)
Mojo Tour 2010 (2010) - Live Version
Barnyard (2006)
The song was also released as downloadable content for Rock Band 2
Cover versions[edit]
Something for Kate
Johnny Cash – American III: Solitary Man (2000) (Tom Petty contributed vocals and guitar to Cash's recording.)
Edgewater - Lifter (2001)
Holly Nelson - Leaving the Yard (2003)
Cumberland Gap - Circle the Wagons (2004)
Sam Elliott - Barnyard: The Original Party Animals (2006)
Pearl Jam – Live at the Gorge 05/06 (2007)
Mem Shannon - Live: A Night at Tipitina's (2007)
MercyMe - iTunes Originals (2008)
Dawn Landes – Fireproof (2008)
Switchfoot (2008)
Reel Big Fish - Fame, Fortune and Fornication (2009)
Booka Shade vs Plastic Operator - "Night Falls/Won't Back Down" (2009)
John O'Callaghan (2010)
Tyler Hilton (2010)
Dia Frampton and her coach Blake Shelton covered the song for The Voice (U.S.). (2011)
Ryan Star - The America EP (2012)
Benjamin Francis Leftwich - covered the song for Grey's Anatomy season 9 episode 3. (2012)
Bon Jovi - Covered the song during their Have a Nice Day Tour. (2005-2006)
Dale Ann Bradley - Covered the song for her "Don't Turn Your Back" CD. (2009)
Tokutaro sleepy Maki- Covered in English along with Japanese. (2013)
Kris Kristofferson - Covered for the soundtrack for History Channel's Texas Rising. (2015)
Jason Aldean - Saturday Night Live (2017) Coincidentally, Sam Smith was the musical guest on this episode of Saturday Night Live.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Snow, Mat. "Tom Petty interview". MOJO. January 2010 (194). Retrieved 2014-07-15.
^ Jump up to: a b Eric Schumacher-Rasmussen (September 22, 2001). "Mariah Carey, Springsteen, Other Stars Sing For America On Telethon". MTV News.
Jump up ^ Bill Crandall (September 24, 2001). "Artists Rise Up for America". Rolling Stone.
Jump up ^ Peter Bogdanovich (director) (2007). Runnin' Down a Dream (Documentary). Event occurs at 2:43:25. Of all the songs I've written I think I get the most feedback about that song. And it is a personal song – when I did it I sort of thought that I laid it out, you know, with no ambiguity at all – like I just said it very plainly – and I kind of felt nervous about it like maybe I should take it back and disguise it a little bit, but I'm glad I didn't – and it's very much like me. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Strictly limited edition 7" single cover (MCA 1334)
Jump up ^ "Sam Smith: Tom Petty given writing credit for Stay with Me". BBC News.
Jump up ^ Kreps, Daniel (2015-01-29). "Tom Petty on Sam Smith Settlement: 'No Hard Feelings. These Things Happen'". Rolling Stone. Retrieved 2015-01-31.
Jump up ^ Lac, J. Freedom du (9 February 2015). "The only person Sam Smith didn't thank at the Grammys deserves a lot of credit" – via washingtonpost.com.
Jump up ^ "Sam Smith explains why he settled copyright dispute with Tom Petty". CBC. Feb 7, 2015.
Jump up ^ Copland, Chris (25 January 2015). "Tom Petty awarded songwriting royalties for Sam Smith's "Stay With Me"". Consequence of Sound. Retrieved 26 January 2015.
Jump up ^ "Sam Smith: Tom Petty given writing credit for Stay With Me". BBC. January 27, 2015. Retrieved January 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ Randall Roberts (January 26, 2015). "Tom Petty, Jeff Lynne added to credits of Sam Smith's 'Stay With Me'". Los Angeles Times.
Jump up ^ "Australian-charts.com – Tom Petty – I Won't Back Down". ARIA Top 50 Singles.
Jump up ^ "Offiziellecharts.de – Tom Petty – I Won't Back Down". GfK Entertainment Charts.
Jump up ^ "Charts.org.nz – Tom Petty – I Won't Back Down". Top 40 Singles.
Jump up ^ "Official Singles Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company.
Jump up ^ "Tom Petty Chart History (Hot 100)". Billboard. Retrieved October 8, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Tom Petty Chart History (Mainstream Rock)". Billboard. Retrieved October 8, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Tom Petty Chart History (Alternative Songs)". Billboard. Retrieved October 8, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Top Singles - Volume 51, No. 8, December 23, 1989". RPM. December 23, 1999. Retrieved November 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Roisin O'Connor (October 2, 2017). "Tom Petty once sent a cease and desist letter to George W. Bush". The Independent.
Jump up ^ Claire Suddath. "A Brief History of Campaign Songs - George W. Bush". Time.
Jump up ^ "Petty, Popper Serenade Gore After Concession". ABC News. December 14, 2000.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Pieslak (November 3, 2015). Radicalism and Music An Introduction to the Music Cultures of al-Qa'ida, Racist Skinheads, Christian-Affiliated Radicals, and Eco-Animal Rights Militants. Wesleyan. p. 244. ISBN 978-0819575845.
Jump up ^ "These are the Ottawa Senators you know". Ottawa Citizen. December 5, 2005. Archived from the original on February 14, 2012. Retrieved April 10, 2012. Firestone turned 39 the day before the bid presentation. Leeder and Sexton, boyhood hockey pals from Brockville, were 31. Waiting in a holding room, feeling a little like caged animals, the group got psyched up the way athletes do, by listening to inspiring music. In this case, it was the theme song of their mission -- Tom Petty's "I Won't Back Down".
Jump up ^ Canucks Won't Back Down on YouTube
Jump up ^ Evans, Thayer (November 14, 2009). "T.C.U. Fans Are Singing Football Coach's Praises". The New York Times.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
[hide]
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Tom Petty
Studio albums
Full Moon Fever (1989)
Wildflowers (1994)
Highway Companion (2006)
Songs
"Stop Draggin' My Heart Around"
"I Won't Back Down"
"Runnin' Down a Dream"
"Free Fallin'"
"A Face in the Crowd"
"Yer So Bad"
"You Don't Know How It Feels"
"Square One"
"Saving Grace"
Related articles
Discography
Songs
Awards
Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers
Blue Stingrays
Mudcrutch
Traveling Wilburys
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=I_Won%27t_Back_Down&oldid=836573280"
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