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United States presidential election
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For the most recent election, see United States presidential election, 2016. For the upcoming election, see United States presidential election, 2020.
See also: List of Presidents of the United States
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The election of President and Vice President of the United States is an indirect election in which citizens of the United States who are registered to vote in one of the 50 U.S. states or Washington, D.C. cast ballots for members of the U.S. Electoral College, known as electors. These electors then in turn cast direct votes, known as electoral votes, for President and Vice President. The candidate who receives an absolute majority of electoral votes for President or Vice President (currently, at least 270 out of a total of 538) is then elected to that office. If no candidate receives an absolute majority for President, the House of Representatives chooses the President; if no one receives a majority for Vice President, then the Senate chooses the Vice President.
The Electoral College and its procedure is established in the U.S. Constitution by Article II, Section 1, Clauses 2 and 4; and the Twelfth Amendment (which replaced Clause 3 after its ratification in 1804). Under Clause 2, each of the states casts as many electoral votes as the total number of its Senators and Representatives in Congress, while, per the Twenty-third Amendment ratified in 1961, Washington, D.C. casts the same number of electoral votes as the least-represented state, which is three. Also under Clause 2, the manner for choosing electors is determined by each state legislature, not directly by the federal government. Many state legislatures previously selected their electors directly, but over time all of them switched to using the popular vote to help determine electors, which persists today. Once chosen, electors generally cast their electoral votes for the candidate who won the plurality in their state, but at least 21 states do not have provisions that specifically address this behavior; those who vote in opposition to the plurality are known as "faithless" or "unpledged electors".[1] In modern times, faithless and unpledged electors have not affected the ultimate outcome of an election, so the results can generally be determined based on the state-by-state popular vote.
Presidential elections occur quadrennially with registered voters casting their ballots on Election Day, which since 1845 has been the first Tuesday after November 1.[2][3][4] This date coincides with the general elections of various other federal, state, and local races; since local governments are responsible for managing elections, these races typically all appear on one ballot. The Electoral College electors then formally cast their electoral votes on the first Monday after December 12 at their respective state capitals. Congress then certify the results in early January, and the presidential term begins on Inauguration Day, which since the passage of the Twentieth Amendment has been set at January 20.
The nomination process, consisting of the primary elections and caucuses and the nominating conventions, was not specified in the Constitution, but was developed over time by the states and political parties. These primary elections are generally held between January and June before the general election in November, while the nominating conventions are held in the summer. Though not codified by law, political parties also follow an indirect election process, where voters in the 50 U.S. states, Washington, D.C., and U.S. territories, cast ballots for a slate of delegates to a political party's nominating convention, who then in turn elect their party's presidential nominee. Each party may then choose a vice presidential running mate to join the ticket, which is either determined by choice of the nominee or by a second round of voting. Because of changes to national campaign finance laws since the 1970s regarding the disclosure of contributions for federal campaigns, presidential candidates from the major political parties usually declare their intentions to run as early as the spring of the previous calendar year before the election (almost 18 months before Inauguration Day).[5]
A 2016 general election ballot, listing the presidential and vice presidential candidates
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Procedure
2.1 Eligibility requirements
2.2 Nominating process
2.3 The popular vote on Election Day
2.4 Electoral college
2.5 Election calendar
3 Trends
3.1 Previous experience
3.2 Technology and media
4 Criticisms
4.1 Proposed changes to the election process
5 Electoral college results
6 Voter turnout
7 Financial disclosures
8 Presidential coattails
8.1 Comparison with other U.S. general elections
9 See also
10 Notes
11 Further reading
12 External links
History[edit]
Article Two of the United States Constitution originally established the method of presidential elections, including the Electoral College. This was a result of a compromise between those constitutional framers who wanted the Congress to choose the president, and those who preferred a national popular vote.[6]
Each state is allocated a number of electors that is equal to the size of its delegation in both houses of Congress combined. With the ratification of the 23rd Amendment to the Constitution in 1961, the District of Columbia is also granted a number of electors, equal to the number of those held by the least populous state. However, U.S. territories are not represented in the Electoral College.
Constitutionally, the manner for choosing electors is determined within each state by its legislature. During the first presidential election in 1789, only 6 of the 13 original states chose electors by any form of popular vote.[7] Gradually throughout the years, the states began conducting popular elections to help choose their slate of electors, resulting in the overall, nationwide indirect election system that it is today.
Under the original system established by Article Two, electors could cast two votes to two different candidates for president. The candidate with the highest number of votes (provided it was a majority of the electoral votes) became the president, and the second-place candidate became the vice president. This presented a problem during the presidential election of 1800 when Aaron Burr received the same number of electoral votes as Thomas Jefferson and challenged Jefferson's election to the office. In the end, Jefferson was chosen as the president because of Alexander Hamilton's influence in the House of Representatives. This added to the deep rivalry between Burr and Hamilton which resulted in their famous 1804 duel.
In response to the 1800 election, the 12th Amendment was passed, requiring electors to cast two distinct votes: one for President and another for Vice President. While this solved the problem at hand, it ultimately had the effect of lowering the prestige of the Vice Presidency, as the office was no longer for the leading challenger for the Presidency. The separate ballots for President and Vice President became something of a moot issue later in the 19th century when it became the norm for popular elections to determine a state's Electoral College delegation. Electors chosen this way are pledged to vote for a particular presidential and vice presidential candidate (offered by the same political party). So, while the Constitution says that the President and Vice President are chosen separately, in practice they are chosen together.
The 12th Amendment also established rules when no candidate wins a majority vote in the Electoral College. In the presidential election of 1824, Andrew Jackson received a plurality, but not a majority, of electoral votes cast. The election was thrown to the House of Representatives, and John Quincy Adams was elected to the presidency. A deep rivalry resulted between Andrew Jackson and House Speaker Henry Clay, who had also been a candidate in the election.
Since 1824, aside from the occasional "faithless elector," the popular vote determines the winner of a presidential election by determining the electoral vote, as each state or district's popular vote determines its electoral college vote. Although the nationwide popular vote does not directly determine the winner of a presidential election, it does strongly correlate with who is the victor. In 52 of the 56 total elections held so far (about 93 percent), the winner of the national popular vote has also carried the Electoral College vote. The winners of the nationwide popular vote and the Electoral College vote differ only in close elections. In highly competitive elections, candidates focus on turning out their vote in the contested swing states critical to winning an electoral college majority, so they do not try to maximize their popular vote by real or fraudulent vote increases in one-party areas.[8]
However, candidates can fail to get the most votes in the nationwide popular vote in a Presidential election and still win that election. In the 1824 election, Jackson won the popular vote, but no one received the majority of electoral votes. According to the 12th Amendment in the Constitution, the House of Representatives must choose the president out of the top 3 people in the election. Clay had come fourth, so he threw his support to Adams, who then won. Because Adams later named Clay his Secretary of State, Jackson's supporters claimed that Adams gained the presidency by making a deal with Clay. Charges of a "corrupt bargain" followed Adams through his term.
Comparison of the popular vote totals since 1900.
Republican
Democrat
All other candidates together
Then in 1876, 1888, 2000, and 2016, the winner of electoral vote lost the popular vote outright. Numerous constitutional amendments have been submitted seeking to replace the Electoral College with a direct popular vote, but none has ever successfully passed both Houses of Congress. Another alternate proposal is the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact, an interstate compact whereby individual participating states agree to allocate their electors based on the winner of the national popular vote instead of just their respective statewide results.
The presidential election day was established on a Tuesday in the month of November because of the factors involved (weather, harvests and worship). When voters used to travel to the polls by horse, Tuesday was an ideal day because it allowed people to worship on Sunday, ride to their county seat on Monday, and vote on Tuesday–all before market day, Wednesday. The month of November also fits nicely between harvest time and harsh winter weather, which could be especially bad to people traveling by horse and buggy.[9]
Until 1937, presidents were not sworn in until March 4 because it took so long to count and report ballots, and because of the winner's logistical issues of moving to the capital. With better technology and the 20th Amendment being passed, presidential inaugurations were moved to noon on January 20–allowing presidents to start their duties sooner.[9]
The Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 was enacted to increase disclosure of contributions for federal campaigns. Subsequent amendments to law require that candidates to a federal office must file a Statement of Candidacy with the Federal Election Commission before they can receive contributions aggregating in excess of $5,000 or make expenditures aggregating in excess of $5,000. Thus, this began a trend of presidential candidates declaring their intentions to run as early as the Spring of the previous calendar year so they can start raising and spending the money needed for their nationwide campaign.[5]
The first president, George Washington, was elected as an independent. Since the election of his successor, John Adams, in 1796, all winners of U.S. presidential elections have represented one of two major parties. Third parties have taken second place only twice, in 1860 and 1912. The last time a third (independent) candidate achieved significant success (although still finishing in third place) was in 1992, and the last time a third-party candidate received any electoral votes not from faithless electors was in 1968.
Procedure[edit]
Eligibility requirements[edit]
The hand-written copy of the natural-born-citizen clause as it appeared in 1787
Article Two of the United States Constitution stipulates that for a person to serve as President, the individual must be a natural-born citizen of the United States, at least 35 years old, and a resident of the United States for a period of no less than 14 years. A candidate may start running his or her campaign early before turning 35 years old or completing 14 years of residency, but must meet the age and residency requirements by Inauguration Day. The Twenty-second Amendment to the Constitution also sets a term limit: a President cannot be elected to more than two terms.
The U.S. Constitution also has two provisions that apply to all federal offices in general, not just the presidency. Article I, Section 3, Clause 7 states that if the U.S. Congress convicts any officer on impeachment, they may also bar that person from holding any public office in the future. And Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits the election to any federal office of any person who had held any federal or state office and then engaged in insurrection, rebellion or treason; this disqualification can be waived if such an individual gains the consent of two-thirds of both houses of Congress.
In addition, the Twelfth Amendment establishes that the Vice-President must meet all of the qualifications of being a President.
Although not a mandatory requirement, Federal campaign finance laws including the Federal Election Campaign Act state that a candidate who intends to receive contributions aggregating in excess of $5,000 or make expenditures aggregating in excess of $5,000, among others, must first file a Statement of Candidacy with the Federal Election Commission.[10] This has led presidential candidates, especially members from the two major political parties, to officially announce their intentions to run as early as the spring of the previous calendar year so they can start raising or spending the money needed for their nationwide campaign.[5] Potential candidates usually form exploratory committees even earlier to determining the feasibility of them actually running.
Nominating process[edit]
Main articles: United States presidential primary and United States presidential nominating convention
A 2008 Democratic caucus meeting in Iowa City, Iowa. The Iowa caucuses are traditionally the first major electoral event of presidential primaries and caucuses.
Madison Square Garden in New York City, the site of the 1976, 1980, and 1992 Democratic National Conventions; and the 2004 Republican National Convention.
The floor of the 2008 Republican National Convention at the Xcel Energy Center in Saint Paul, Minnesota.
The modern nominating process of U.S. presidential elections consists of two major parts: a series of presidential primary elections and caucuses held in each state, and the presidential nominating conventions held by each political party. This process was never included in the United States Constitution, and thus evolved over time by the political parties to clear the field of candidates.
The primary elections are run by state and local governments, while the caucuses are organized directly by the political parties. Some states hold only primary elections, some hold only caucuses, and others use a combination of both. These primaries and caucuses are staggered generally between January and June before the federal election, with Iowa and New Hampshire traditionally holding the first presidential state caucus and primary, respectively.
Like the general election, presidential caucuses or primaries are indirect elections. The major political parties officially vote for their presidential candidate at their respective nominating conventions, usually all held in the summer before the federal election. Depending on each state's law and state's political party rules, when voters cast ballots for a candidate in a presidential caucus or primary, they may be voting to award delegates "bound" to vote for a candidate at the presidential nominating conventions, or they may simply be expressing an opinion that the state party is not bound to follow in selecting delegates to their respective national convention.
Unlike the general election, voters in the U.S. territories can also elect delegates to the national conventions. Furthermore, each political party can determine how many delegates to allocate to each state and territory. In 2012 for example, the Democratic and Republican party conventions each used two different formulas to allocate delegates. The Democrats-based theirs on two main factors: the proportion of votes each state gave to the Democratic candidate in the previous three presidential elections, and the number of electoral votes each state had in the Electoral College.[11] In contrast, the Republicans assigned to each state 10 delegates, plus 3 delegates per congressional district.[12] Both parties then gave fixed amounts of delegates to each territory, and finally bonus delegates to states and territories that passed certain criteria.[11][12]
Along with delegates chosen during primaries and caucuses, state and U.S. territory delegations to both the Democratic and Republican party conventions also include "unpledged" delegates that have a vote. For Republicans, they consist of the three top party officials from each state and territory. Democrats have a more expansive group of unpledged delegates called "superdelegates", who are party leaders and elected officials.
Each party's presidential candidate also chooses a vice presidential nominee to run with him or her on the same ticket, and this choice is rubber-stamped by the convention.
If no single candidate has secured a majority of delegates (including both pledged and unpledged), then a "brokered convention" results. All pledged delegates are then "released" and are able to switch their allegiance to a different candidate. Thereafter, the nomination is decided through a process of alternating political horse trading, and additional rounds of re-votes.[13][14][15][16]
The conventions have historically been held inside convention centers, but since the late 20th century both the Democratic and Republican parties have favored sports arenas and domed stadiums to accommodate the increasing attendance.
The popular vote on Election Day[edit]
A Texas voter about to mark a selection for president on a ballot, 2008 Election Day
Under the United States Constitution, the manner of choosing electors for the Electoral College is determined by each state's legislature. Although each state designates electors by popular vote, other methods are allowed. For instance, instead of having a popular vote, a number of states used to select presidential electors by a direct vote of the state legislature itself.
However, federal law does specify that all electors must be selected on the same day, which is "the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November," i.e., a Tuesday no earlier than November 2 and no later than November 8.[17] Today, the states and the District of Columbia each conduct their own popular elections on Election Day to help determine their respective slate of electors. Thus, the presidential election is really an amalgamation of separate and simultaneous state elections instead of a single national election run by the federal government.
Like any other election in the United States, the eligibility of an individual for voting is set out in the Constitution and regulated at state level. The Constitution states that suffrage cannot be denied on grounds of race or color, sex or age for citizens eighteen years or older. Beyond these basic qualifications, it is the responsibility of state legislatures to regulate voter eligibility.
Generally, voters are required to vote on a ballot where they select the candidate of their choice. The presidential ballot is a vote "for the electors of a candidate" meaning that the voter is not voting for the candidate, but endorsing a slate of electors pledged to vote for a specific presidential and vice presidential candidate.
Many voting ballots allow a voter to “blanket vote” for all candidates in a particular political party or to select individual candidates on a line by line voting system. Which candidates appear on the voting ticket is determined through a legal process known as ballot access. Usually, the size of the candidate's political party and the results of the major nomination conventions determine who is pre-listed on the presidential ballot. Thus, the presidential election ticket will not list every candidate running for President, but only those who have secured a major party nomination or whose size of their political party warrants having been formally listed. Laws are in effect to have other candidates pre-listed on a ticket, provided that enough voters have endorsed the candidate, usually through a signature list.
The final way to be elected for president is to have one's name written in at the time of election as a write-in candidate. This is used for candidates who did not fulfill the legal requirements to be pre-listed on the voting ticket. It is also used by voters to express a distaste for the listed candidates, by writing in an alternative candidate for president such as Mickey Mouse or comedian Stephen Colbert (whose application was voted down by the South Carolina Democratic Party). In any event, a write-in candidate has never won an election for President of the United States.
Because U.S. territories are not represented in the Electoral College, U.S. citizens in those areas do not vote in the general election for President. Guam has held straw polls for president since the 1980 election to draw attention to this fact.[18]
Electoral college[edit]
Main article: Electoral College (United States)
Electoral College map showing the results of the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Republican candidate Donald Trump won the popular vote in 30 states (denoted in red) to capture 305 electoral votes (plus 1 electoral vote from Maine's second congressional district). Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton won the popular vote in 20 states and Washington, D.C. (denoted in blue) to capture 232 electoral votes.
Most state laws establish a winner-take-all system, wherein the ticket that wins a plurality of votes wins all of that state's allocated electoral votes, and thus has their slate of electors chosen to vote in the Electoral College. Maine and Nebraska do not use this method, instead giving two electoral votes to the statewide winner and one electoral vote to the winner of each Congressional district.
Each state's winning slate of electors then meets at their respective state's capital on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December to cast their electoral votes on separate ballots for President and Vice President. Although Electoral College members can technically vote for anyone under the U.S. Constitution, 24 states have laws to punish faithless electors,[19] those who do not cast their electoral votes for the person whom they have pledged to elect.
In early January, the total Electoral College vote count is opened by the sitting Vice President, acting in his capacity as President of the Senate, and read aloud to a joint session of the incoming Congress, which was elected at the same time as the President.
If no candidate receives a majority of the electoral vote (at least 270), the President is determined by the rules outlined by the 12th Amendment. Specifically, the selection of President would then be decided by a contingent election in a ballot of the House of Representatives. For the purposes of electing the President, each state has only one vote. A ballot of the Senate is held to choose the Vice President. In this ballot, each senator has one vote. The House of Representatives has chosen the victor of the presidential race only twice, in 1800 and 1824; the Senate has chosen the victor of the vice-presidential race only once, in 1836.
If the President is not chosen by Inauguration Day, the Vice President-elect acts as President. If neither are chosen by then, Congress by law determines who shall act as President, pursuant to the 20th Amendment.
Unless there are faithless electors, disputes, or other controversies, the events in December and January mentioned above are largely a formality since the winner can be determined based on the state-by-state popular vote results. Between the general election and Inauguration Day, this apparent winner is referred to as the "President-elect" (unless it is a sitting President that has won re-election).
Election calendar[edit]
The typical periods of the presidential election process are as follows, with the dates corresponding to the 2016 general election:
Spring 2015 – Candidates announce their intentions to run, and (if necessary) file their Statement of Candidacy with the Federal Election Commission
August 2015 to March 2016 – Primary and caucus debates
February 1 to June 14, 2016 – Primaries and caucuses
April to August, 2016 – Nominating conventions (including those of the minor third parties)
September and October, 2016 – Presidential election debates
November 8, 2016 – Election Day
December 19, 2016 – Electors cast their electoral votes
January 6, 2017 – Congress counts and certifies the electoral votes
January 20, 2017 – Inauguration Day
Trends[edit]
Previous experience[edit]
See also: List of Presidents of the United States by previous experience and List of Presidents of the United States by other offices held
John Adams was the first of a record-high 26 presidents who had been lawyers
Among all the U.S. Presidents, only Donald Trump had never held a position in either government or the military prior to taking the office.[20] The only previous experience that Zachary Taylor, Ulysses S. Grant, and Dwight D. Eisenhower had was in the military. Herbert Hoover previously served as the Secretary of Commerce. Everyone else served in elected public office before becoming president, such as being Vice President, a U.S. congressman, or a state or territorial governor.
Fourteen Presidents have served as Vice President. However, only John Adams (1796), Thomas Jefferson (1800), Martin Van Buren (1836), Richard Nixon (1968) and George H. W. Bush (1988) began their first term after winning an election. Among the remaining nine who began their first term as President according to the presidential line of succession after their respective predecessor died or resigned from office, Theodore Roosevelt, Calvin Coolidge, Harry S. Truman, and Lyndon B. Johnson were reelected. John Tyler, Millard Fillmore, Andrew Johnson, Chester A. Arthur, and Gerald Ford served as President but became president through succession and not election. Ford became President after Nixon's resignation in 1974 through the processes of the Twenty-fifth Amendment and then lost the 1976 presidential election, making him the only President to not have been voted for by the Electoral College.
Sixteen presidents had served in the Senate, including four of the five Presidents who served between 1945 and 1974. However, only three were sitting U.S. Senators at the time they were elected president (Warren G. Harding in 1920, John F. Kennedy in 1960, and Barack Obama in 2008). Major-party candidate Senators Andrew Jackson (1824), Lewis Cass (1848), Stephen Douglas (1860), Barry Goldwater (1964), George McGovern (1972), John Kerry (2004), and John McCain (2008) all lost their elections. Only one sitting member of the House of Representatives has been elected president (James A. Garfield in 1880), although eighteen presidents have been former members of the House.
Of the last seven presidents, four (Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton and George W. Bush) have been governors of a state. Geographically, these presidents were from either very large states (Reagan from California, Bush from Texas) or from a state south of the Mason–Dixon line and east of Texas (Carter from Georgia, Clinton from Arkansas). In all, sixteen presidents have been former governors, including seven who were in office as governor at the time of their election to the presidency.
Since 1964 a state governor has been on a major-party ticket (as either the nominee for President or Vice President). Major-party presidential candidates since 1964 who were also state governors but not elected to the office of president include Michael Dukakis (Massachusetts, 1988), and Mitt Romney (Massachusetts, 2012). Spiro Agnew (Maryland) is the only Vice President since 1964 to have been elected after having served as a state governor, while Nelson Rockefeller (New York) was appointed as Vice President in 1974 following Ford's ascension to the presidency after Nixon's resignation. Other such major-party vice presidential candidates include Sarah Palin (Alaska, 2008) and Mike Pence (Indiana, 2016), and Tim Kaine (Virginia, 2016). For third-party tickets, Gary Johnson (New Mexico) running for the Libertarian Party in 2012 became the first Governor to be nominated by a third-party since George Wallace (Alabama) was the nominee for the American Independent Party in 1968 (Johnson again was selected as the Libertarian Party's 2016 nominee). And the most recent state governor to serve as a third-party running mate is William Weld (Massachusetts) for the Libertarian Party in 2016. The 2016 Johnson-Weld ticket is the first of any party to feature two state governors since the 1948 election when Strom Thurmond (South Carolina) ran for the Dixiecrats with Fielding L. Wright (Mississippi) as his running mate.
The most common job experience, occupation or profession of U.S. presidents has been lawyer;[21] 26 presidents had served as attorneys. Twenty-two presidents were also in the military. Eight presidents had served as Cabinet Secretaries, with five of the six Presidents who served between 1801 and 1841 having held the office of U.S. Secretary of State.
After leaving office, one President, William Howard Taft, served as Chief Justice of the United States. Two Presidents, John Quincy Adams (serving in the House) and Andrew Johnson (serving in the Senate), have served in Congress after being President. John Quincy Adams is the only former President to be elected to federal office after serving as president; when Andrew Johnson served as a Senator, state legislatures appointed the Senators.
Technology and media[edit]
Play media
Lyndon B. Johnson's 1964 "Daisy" advertisement
Advances in technology and media have also affected presidential campaigns. The invention of both radio and television have given way to the reliance of national political advertisements across those methods of communication. National advertisements such as Lyndon B. Johnson's 1964 commercial "Daisy", Ronald Reagan's 1984 commercial "Morning in America", and George H. W. Bush's 1988 commercial "Revolving Door" became major factors in those respective elections. In 1992, George H. W. Bush's promise of "Read my lips: no new taxes" was extensively used in the commercials of Bill Clinton and Bush's other opponents with significant effect during the campaign.
Since the development of the internet in the mid-90s, Internet activism has also become an invaluable component of presidential campaigns, especially since 2000. The internet was first used in the 1996 presidential elections, but primarily as a brochure for the candidate online.[22] It was only used by a few candidates and there is no evidence of any major effect on the outcomes of that election cycle.[22]
In 2000, both candidates (George W. Bush and Al Gore) created, maintained and updated their campaign website. But it was not until the 2004 presidential election cycle was the potential value of the internet seen. By the summer of 2003, ten people competing in the 2004 presidential election had developed campaign websites.[23] Howard Dean’s campaign website from that year was considered a model for all future campaign websites. His website played a significant role in his overall campaign strategy.[23] It allowed his supporters to read about his campaign platform and provide feedback, donate, get involved with the campaign, and connect with other supporters.[22] A Gallup poll from January 2004 revealed that 49 percent of Americans have used the internet to get information about candidates, and 28 percent said that they use the internet to get this information frequently.[22]
In 2008, the internet became a grassroots and a voice of the people tool—a way for the users to connect with each other and with the campaign, like Dean’s website had done in 2004. All of the major candidates had a website and utilized social networking like Facebook and MySpace. The popularity of a candidate could be measured by the number of "friends" on these sites as well as on websites like Hitwise, which listed the number of hits all of the presidential candidate’s websites had each week.
Internet channels such as YouTube were used by candidates to share speeches and ads for free. This also served as a forum for users to attack other candidates by uploading videos of gaffes.[22]
A study done by the Pew Internet & American Life Project in conjunction with Princeton Survey Research Associates in November 2010 shows that 54 percent of adults in the United States used the internet to get information about the 2010 midterm elections and about specific candidates. This represents 73 percent of adult internet users. The study also showed that 22 percent of adult internet users used social network sites or Twitter to get information about and discuss the elections and 26 percent of all adults used cell phones to learn about or participate in campaigns.[24]
E-campaigning as it has come to be called, is subject to very little regulation. On March 26, 2006, the Federal Election Commission voted unanimously to "not regulate political communication on the Internet, including emails, blogs and the creating of Web sites"[25] This decision made only paid political ads placed on websites subject to campaign finance limitations.[26] A comment was made about this decision by Roger Alan Stone of Advocacy Inc. which explains this loophole in the context of a political campaign: "A wealthy individual could purchase all of the e-mail addresses for registered voters in a congressional district…produce an Internet video ad, and e-mail it along with a link to the campaign contribution page…Not only would this activity not count against any contribution limits or independent expenditure requirements; it would never even need to be reported."[25]
Criticisms[edit]
Main articles: Criticisms of the Electoral College, Criticisms of U.S. presidential primaries, and History of U.S. presidential nominating conventions
2012 Republican primaries and caucuses calendar.
January 2012 (4)
February 2012 (7)
March 2012 (23)
April 2012 (9)
May 2012 (7)
June 2012 (6)
2012 swing states, where the margin of victory was 8 percentage points or fewer.
States won by Republican Mitt Romney by 0–4 percentage points
States won by Democrat Barack Obama by 0–4 percentage points
States won by Democrat Barack Obama by 4–8 percentage points
The presidential election process is controversial, with critics arguing that it is inherently undemocratic, and discourages voter participation and turnout in many areas of the country. Because of the staggered nature of the primary season, voters in Iowa, New Hampshire and other small states which traditionally hold their primaries and caucuses first in January usually have a major impact on the races. Campaign activity, media attention, and voter participation are usually higher in these states, as the candidates attempt to build momentum and generate a bandwagon effect in these early primaries. Conversely, voters in California and other large states which traditionally hold their primaries last in June usually end up having no say in who the presidential candidates will be. The races are usually over by then, and thus the campaigns, the media, and voters have little incentive to participate in these late primaries. As a result, more states vie for earlier primaries to claim a greater influence in the process. However, compressing the primary calendar in this way limits the ability of lesser-known candidates to effectively corral resources and raise their visibility among voters, especially when competing with better-known candidates who have more financial resources and the institutional backing of their party's establishment. Primary and caucus reform proposals include a National Primary held on a single day; or the Interregional Primary Plan, where states would be grouped into six regions, and each of the regions would rotate every election on who would hold their primaries first.
With the primary races usually over before June, the political conventions have mostly become scripted, ceremonial affairs. As the drama has left the conventions, and complaints grown that they were scripted and dull pep rallies, public interest and viewership has fallen off. After having offered gavel-to-gavel coverage of the major party conventions in the mid-20th century, the Big Three television networks now only devote approximately three hours of coverage (one hour per night).
Critics also argue that the Electoral College is archaic and inherently undemocratic. With all states, except Maine and Nebraska, using a winner-take-all system, both the Democratic and the Republican candidates are almost certain to win all the electoral votes from those states whose residents predominantly vote for the Democratic Party or the Republican Party, respectively. This encourages presidential candidates to focus exponentially more time, money, and energy campaigning in a few so-called "swing states", states in which no single candidate or party has overwhelming support. Such swing states like Ohio are inundated with campaign visits, saturation television advertising, get-out-the-vote efforts by party organizers, and debates. Meanwhile, candidates and political parties have no incentive to mount nationwide campaign efforts, or work to increase voter turnout, in predominately Democratic Party "safe states" like California or predominately Republican Party "safe states" like Texas. In practice, the winner-take-all system also both reinforces the country's two-party system and decreases the importance of third and minor political parties.[27] Furthermore, a candidate can win the electoral vote without securing the greatest amount of the national popular vote, such as during the 1824, 1876, 1888, 2000 and 2016 elections. In theory, it is possible to secure the necessary 270 electoral votes from just the top 11 populous states and then ignore the rest of the country.
Proposed changes to the election process[edit]
In 1844, Representative Samuel F. Vinton of Ohio proposed an amendment to the constitution that would replace the electoral college system with a lot system. The Joint Resolution called for each state to elect, by a simple majority, a presidential candidate of said state. Each state would notify Congress of the presidential election results. Congress would then inscribe the name of every state on uniform balls, equal to the number of said state's members of Congress, and deposit into a box. In a joint session of Congress, a ball would be drawn, and the elected candidate of the state of which is written on the drawn ball would be named President. A second ball would immediately be drawn after, and that state's candidate would be named Vice-President. The resolution did not pass the House. Representative Vinton proposed an identical amendment in 1846. Again, it was unsuccessful. The driving force behind the introduction of the resolution is unclear, as there is no recorded debate for either proposal.[28]
Other constitutional amendments, such as the Every Vote Counts Amendment, have been proposed seeking to replace the Electoral College with a direct popular vote, which proponents argue would increase turnout and participation. Other proposed reforms include the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact, an interstate compact without Congressional authorization, whereby individual participating states agree to allocate their electors based on the winner of the national popular vote, instead of voting their respective statewide results. Another proposal is for every state to simply adopt the District system used by Maine and Nebraska: give two electoral votes to the statewide winner and one electoral vote to the winner of each Congressional district. The Automatic Plan would replace the Electors with an automatic tallying of votes to eliminate the faithless elector affecting the outcome of the election. The Proportional Plan, often compared to the District Plan, would distribute electoral votes in each state in proportion to the popular vote, introducing third party effects in election outcomes. The House Plan would require a constitutional amendment to allocate electors based on the House apportionment alone to lessen small state advantage. Direct election plans and bonus plans have in common a higher valuation on the popular vote for president.[29]
Electoral college results[edit]
See also: List of United States presidential elections by Electoral College margin and List of United States presidential elections by popular vote margin
This is a table of electoral college results. Included are candidates who received at least 1 electoral vote or at least 5% of the popular vote.
Year
Party
Presidential candidate
Vice presidential candidate
Popular vote
%
Electoral votes
Notes
1788 Independent George Washington None[30] 43,782 100.0
69 / 138
Federalist John Adams[31] N/A N/A
34 / 138
John Jay
9 / 138
Robert H. Harrison
6 / 138
John Rutledge
6 / 138
John Hancock
4 / 138
Anti-Administration George Clinton
3 / 138
Federalist Samuel Huntington
2 / 138
John Milton
2 / 138
James Armstrong
1 / 138
Benjamin Lincoln
1 / 138
Anti-Administration Edward Telfair
1 / 138
1792 Independent George Washington 28,579 100.0
132 / 264
Federalist John Adams[31] N/A N/A
77 / 264
Democratic-Republican George Clinton
50 / 264
Thomas Jefferson
4 / 264
Aaron Burr
1 / 264
1796 Federalist John Adams 35,726 53.4
71 / 276
Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson[32] 31,115 46.6
68 / 276
Federalist Thomas Pinckney N/A N/A
59 / 276
Democratic-Republican Aaron Burr
30 / 276
Samuel Adams
15 / 276
Federalist Oliver Ellsworth
11 / 276
Democratic-Republican George Clinton
7 / 276
Federalist John Jay
5 / 276
James Iredell
3 / 276
Independent George Washington
2 / 276
Democratic-Republican John Henry
2 / 276
Federalist Samuel Johnston
2 / 276
Charles Cotesworth Pinckney
1 / 276
1800 Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson Aaron Burr[33] 41,330 61.4%
73 / 276
Federalist John Adams Charles Cotesworth Pinckney[33] 25,952 38.6%
64 / 276
John Jay[33]
1 / 276
1804 Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson George Clinton 104,110 72.8%
162 / 176
Federalist Charles Cotesworth Pinckney Rufus King 38,919 27.2%
14 / 176
1808 Democratic-Republican James Madison George Clinton 124,732 64.7%
113 / 176
[34]
John Langdon
9 / 176
Federalist Charles Cotesworth Pinckney Rufus King 62,431 32.4%
47 / 176
Democratic-Republican George Clinton James Madison N/A N/A
3 / 176
[35]
James Monroe
3 / 176
1812 Democratic-Republican James Madison Elbridge Gerry 140,431 50.4%
128 / 217
Democratic-Republican/Federalist[36] DeWitt Clinton Jared Ingersoll 132,781 47.6%
86 / 217
[37]
Elbridge Gerry
3 / 217
1816 Democratic-Republican James Monroe Daniel D. Tompkins 76,592 68.2%
83 / 217
Federalist Rufus King John Eager Howard 34,740 30.9%
22 / 217
[38]
James Ross
5 / 217
John Marshall
4 / 217
Robert Goodloe Harper
3 / 217
1820 Democratic-Republican James Monroe Daniel D. Tompkins 87,343 80.6%
218 / 232
[39]
Richard Stockton
(Federalist)
8 / 232
Daniel Rodney
(Federalist)
4 / 232
Robert Goodloe Harper
(Federalist)
1 / 232
John Quincy Adams Richard Rush
(Federalist) N/A N/A
1 / 232
[40]
1824 Democratic-Republican (Adams faction) John Quincy Adams[41] John C. Calhoun 113,122 30.9%
74 / 261
[42]
Andrew Jackson
9 / 261
N/A
1 / 261
Democratic-Republican (Jackson faction) Andrew Jackson John C. Calhoun 151,271 41.4%
99 / 261
Democratic-Republican (Crawford faction) William H. Crawford Nathaniel Macon 40,856 11.2%
24 / 261
[43]
Martin Van Buren
9 / 261
John C. Calhoun
2 / 261
Henry Clay
2 / 261
Nathan Sanford
2 / 261
Andrew Jackson
1 / 261
Democratic-Republican (Clay faction) Henry Clay Nathan Sanford 47,531 13.0%
28 / 261
[44]
John C. Calhoun
7 / 261
Andrew Jackson
3 / 261
1828 Democratic Andrew Jackson John C. Calhoun 642,553 56.0%
171 / 261
[45]
William Smith
7 / 261
National Republican John Quincy Adams Richard Rush 500,897 43.6%
83 / 261
1832 Democratic Andrew Jackson Martin Van Buren 701,780 54.2%
189 / 286
[46]
William Wilkins
30 / 286
National Republican Henry Clay John Sergeant 484,205 37.4%
49 / 286
Nullifier John Floyd Henry Lee N/A N/A
11 / 286
[47]
Anti-Masonic William Wirt Amos Ellmaker 100,715 7.8%
7 / 286
1836 Democratic Martin Van Buren Richard Mentor Johnson 763,291 50.8%
147 / 294
[48]
William Smith
23 / 294
Whig William Henry Harrison Francis Granger 549,907 36.6%
63 / 294
[49]
John Tyler
10 / 294
Hugh L. White John Tyler 146,107 9.7%
26 / 294
Daniel Webster Francis Granger 41,201 2.7%
14 / 294
Willie Person Mangum John Tyler N/A N/A
11 / 294
[47]
1840 Whig William Henry Harrison John Tyler 1,275,390 52.9%
234 / 294
Democratic Martin Van Buren Richard Mentor Johnson 1,128,854 46.8%
48 / 294
[50]
Littleton W. Tazewell
11 / 294
James K. Polk
1 / 294
1844 Democratic James K. Polk George M. Dallas 1,339,494 49.5%
170 / 275
Whig Henry Clay Theodore Frelinghuysen 1,300,004 48.1%
105 / 275
1848 Whig Zachary Taylor Millard Fillmore 1,361,393 47.3%
163 / 290
Democratic Lewis Cass William Orlando Butler 1,223,460 42.5%
127 / 290
Free Soil Martin Van Buren Charles Francis Adams Sr. 291,501 10.1%
0 / 290
1852 Democratic Franklin Pierce William R. King 1,607,510 50.8%
254 / 296
Whig Winfield Scott William Alexander Graham 1,386,942 43.9%
42 / 296
Free Soil John P. Hale George Washington Julian 155,210 4.9%
0 / 296
1856 Democratic James Buchanan John C. Breckinridge 1,836,072 45.3%
174 / 296
Republican John C. Frémont William L. Dayton 1,342,345 33.1%
114 / 296
American Millard Fillmore Andrew Jackson Donelson 873,053 21.6%
8 / 296
1860 Republican Abraham Lincoln Hannibal Hamlin 1,865,908 39.8%
180 / 303
Democratic (Southern) John C. Breckinridge Joseph Lane 848,019 18.1%
72 / 303
Constitutional Union John Bell Edward Everett 590,901 12.6%
39 / 303
Democratic (Northern) Stephen A. Douglas Herschel V. Johnson 1,380,202 29.5%
12 / 303
1864 National Union/Republican Abraham Lincoln Andrew Johnson 2,218,388 55.0%
212 / 233
[51][52]
Democratic George B. McClellan George H. Pendleton 1,812,807 45.0%
21 / 233
1868 Republican Ulysses S. Grant Schuyler Colfax 3,013,650 52.7%
214 / 294
Democratic Horatio Seymour Francis Preston Blair Jr. 2,708,744 47.3%
80 / 294
1872 Republican Ulysses S. Grant Henry Wilson 3,598,235 55.6%
286 / 352
Democratic Thomas A. Hendricks Benjamin Gratz Brown
(Liberal Republican) 2,834,761[53] 43.8%
41 / 352
42 / 352
[54][55]
William S. Groesbeck
0 / 352
1 / 352
George Washington Julian
(Liberal Republican)
0 / 352
1 / 352
John M. Palmer
(Liberal Republican)
0 / 352
1 / 352
Liberal Republican Benjamin Gratz Brown Alfred H. Colquitt
(Democratic)
5 / 352
[54]
George Washington Julian
4 / 352
5 / 352
Thomas E. Bramlette
(Democratic)
3 / 352
John M. Palmer
2 / 352
3 / 352
Nathaniel P. Banks
1 / 352
Willis Benson Machen
(Democratic)
1 / 352
William S. Groesbeck
(Democratic)
0 / 352
1 / 352
Horace Greeley Benjamin Gratz Brown
3 / 352
[56]
Democratic Charles J. Jenkins Benjamin Gratz Brown
2 / 352
Liberal Republican David Davis Benjamin Gratz Brown
0 / 352
1 / 352
[54][57]
William S. Groesbeck
(Democratic)
0 / 352
1 / 352
George Washington Julian
0 / 352
1 / 352
John M. Palmer
0 / 352
1 / 352
1876 Republican Rutherford B. Hayes William A. Wheeler 4,034,142 47.9%
185 / 369
Democratic Samuel J. Tilden Thomas A. Hendricks 4,286,808 50.9%
184 / 369
1880 Republican James A. Garfield Chester A. Arthur 4,446,158 48.3%
214 / 369
Democratic Winfield Scott Hancock William Hayden English 4,444,260 48.3%
155 / 369
1884 Democratic Grover Cleveland Thomas A. Hendricks 4,914,482 48.9%
219 / 401
Republican James G. Blaine John A. Logan 4,856,903 48.3%
182 / 401
1888 Republican Benjamin Harrison Levi P. Morton 5,443,892 47.8%
233 / 401
Democratic Grover Cleveland Allen G. Thurman 5,534,488 48.6%
168 / 401
1892 Democratic Grover Cleveland Adlai Stevenson I 5,553,898 46.0%
277 / 444
Republican Benjamin Harrison Whitelaw Reid 5,190,819 43.0%
145 / 444
Populist James B. Weaver James G. Field 1,026,595 8.5%
22 / 444
1896 Republican William McKinley Garret Hobart 7,111,607 51.0%
271 / 447
Democratic/Populist William Jennings Bryan Arthur Sewall
(Democratic) 6,509,052 46.7%
149 / 447
[58]
Thomas E. Watson
(Populist)
27 / 447
1900 Republican William McKinley Theodore Roosevelt 7,228,864 51.6%
292 / 447
Democratic William Jennings Bryan Adlai Stevenson I 6,370,932 45.5%
155 / 447
1904 Republican Theodore Roosevelt Charles W. Fairbanks 7,630,457 56.4%
336 / 476
Democratic Alton B. Parker Henry G. Davis 5,083,880 37.6%
140 / 476
1908 Republican William Howard Taft James S. Sherman 7,678,335 51.6%
321 / 483
Democratic William Jennings Bryan John W. Kern 6,408,979 43.0%
162 / 483
1912 Democratic Woodrow Wilson Thomas R. Marshall 6,296,284 41.8%
435 / 531
Progressive Theodore Roosevelt Hiram Johnson 4,122,721 27.4%
88 / 531
Republican William Howard Taft Nicholas Murray Butler[59] 3,486,242 23.2%
8 / 531
Socialist Eugene V. Debs Emil Seidel 901,551 6.0%
0 / 531
1916 Democratic Woodrow Wilson Thomas R. Marshall 9,126,868 49.2%
277 / 531
Republican Charles Evans Hughes Charles W. Fairbanks 8,548,728 46.1%
254 / 531
1920 Republican Warren G. Harding Calvin Coolidge 16,144,093 60.3%
404 / 531
Democratic James M. Cox Franklin D. Roosevelt 9,139,661 34.2%
127 / 531
1924 Republican Calvin Coolidge Charles G. Dawes 15,723,789 54.0%
382 / 531
Democratic John W. Davis Charles W. Bryan 8,386,242 28.8%
136 / 531
Progressive Robert La Follette Burton K. Wheeler 4,831,706 16.6%
13 / 531
1928 Republican Herbert Hoover Charles Curtis 21,427,123 58.2%
444 / 531
Democratic Al Smith Joseph Taylor Robinson 15,015,464 40.8%
87 / 531
1932 Democratic Franklin D. Roosevelt John Nance Garner 22,821,277 57.4%
472 / 531
Republican Herbert Hoover Charles Curtis 15,761,254 39.7%
59 / 531
1936 Democratic Franklin D. Roosevelt John Nance Garner 27,752,648 60.8%
523 / 531
Republican Alf Landon Frank Knox 16,681,862 36.5%
8 / 531
1940 Democratic Franklin D. Roosevelt Henry A. Wallace 27,313,945 54.7%
449 / 531
Republican Wendell Willkie Charles L. McNary 22,347,744 44.8%
82 / 531
1944 Democratic Franklin D. Roosevelt Harry S. Truman 25,612,916 53.4%
432 / 531
Republican Thomas E. Dewey John W. Bricker 22,017,929 45.9%
99 / 531
1948 Democratic Harry S. Truman Alben W. Barkley 24,179,347 49.6%
303 / 531
Republican Thomas E. Dewey Earl Warren 21,991,292 45.1%
189 / 531
Dixiecrat Strom Thurmond Fielding L. Wright 1,175,930 2.4%
39 / 531
1952 Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower Richard Nixon 34,075,529 55.2%
442 / 531
Democratic Adlai Stevenson II John Sparkman 27,375,090 44.3%
89 / 531
1956 Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower Richard Nixon 35,579,180 57.4%
457 / 531
Democratic Adlai Stevenson II Estes Kefauver 26,028,028 42.0%
73 / 531
Walter Burgwyn Jones Herman Talmadge N/A N/A
1 / 531
[60]
1960 Democratic John F. Kennedy Lyndon B. Johnson 34,220,984 49.7%
303 / 537
Republican Richard Nixon Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. 34,108,157 49.6%
219 / 537
Southern Democratic Harry F. Byrd Strom Thurmond 610,409 0.4%
14 / 537
[61]
Barry Goldwater
(Republican)
1 / 537
1964 Democratic Lyndon B. Johnson Hubert Humphrey 43,127,041 61.0%
486 / 538
Republican Barry Goldwater William E. Miller 27,175,754 38.5%
52 / 538
1968 Republican Richard Nixon Spiro Agnew 31,783,783 43.4%
301 / 538
Democratic Hubert Humphrey Edmund Muskie 31,271,839 42.7%
191 / 538
American Independent George Wallace Curtis LeMay 9,901,118 13.5%
46 / 538
1972 Republican Richard Nixon Spiro Agnew 47,168,710 60.7%
520 / 538
Democratic George McGovern Sargent Shriver 29,173,222 37.5%
17 / 538
Libertarian John Hospers Tonie Nathan 3,674 <0.01%
1 / 538
[62]
1976 Democratic Jimmy Carter Walter Mondale 40,831,881 50.1%
297 / 538
Republican Gerald Ford Bob Dole 39,148,634 48.0%
240 / 538
Ronald Reagan N/A N/A
1 / 538
[63]
1980 Republican Ronald Reagan George H. W. Bush 43,903,230 50.7%
489 / 538
Democratic Jimmy Carter Walter Mondale 35,480,115 41.0%
49 / 538
Independent John B. Anderson Patrick Lucey 5,719,850 6.6%
0 / 538
1984 Republican Ronald Reagan George H. W. Bush 54,455,472 58.8%
525 / 538
Democratic Walter Mondale Geraldine Ferraro 37,577,352 40.6%
13 / 538
1988 Republican George H. W. Bush Dan Quayle 48,886,597 53.4%
426 / 538
Democratic Michael Dukakis Lloyd Bentsen 41,809,476 45.6%
111 / 538
Lloyd Bentsen Michael Dukakis N/A N/A
1 / 538
[64]
1992 Democratic Bill Clinton Al Gore 44,909,806 43.0%
370 / 538
Republican George H. W. Bush Dan Quayle 39,104,550 37.4%
168 / 538
Independent Ross Perot James Stockdale 19,743,821 18.9%
0 / 538
1996 Democratic Bill Clinton Al Gore 47,401,185 49.2%
379 / 538
Republican Bob Dole Jack Kemp 39,197,469 40.7%
159 / 538
Reform Ross Perot Pat Choate 8,085,294 8.4%
0 / 538
2000 Republican George W. Bush Dick Cheney 50,456,002 47.9%
271 / 538
Democratic Al Gore Joe Lieberman 50,999,897 48.4%
266 / 538
[65][66]
2004 Republican George W. Bush Dick Cheney 62,040,610 50.7%
286 / 538
Democratic John Kerry John Edwards 59,028,444 48.3%
251 / 538
John Edwards 5 <0.01%
1 / 538
[67]
2008 Democratic Barack Obama Joe Biden 69,498,516 52.9%
365 / 538
Republican John McCain Sarah Palin 59,948,323 45.7%
173 / 538
2012 Democratic Barack Obama Joe Biden 65,915,795 51.1%
332 / 538
Republican Mitt Romney Paul Ryan 60,933,504 47.2%
206 / 538
2016 Republican Donald Trump Mike Pence 62,979,636 46.0%
304 / 538
Ron Paul (Libertarian)[68] 124 <0.01%
1 / 538
[69]
Democratic Hillary Clinton Tim Kaine 65,844,610 48.1%
227 / 538
Republican
(cast by Democratic electors) Colin Powell Susan Collins 25 <0.01%
1 / 538
[70]
Maria Cantwell
(Democratic)
1 / 538
Elizabeth Warren
(Democratic)
1 / 538
Republican John Kasich Carly Fiorina[68] 2,684 <0.01%
1 / 538
[69]
Democratic Bernie Sanders Elizabeth Warren 108,776 0.08%
1 / 538
[71]
Faith Spotted Eagle Winona LaDuke (Green) N/A N/A
1 / 538
[72]
Voter turnout[edit]
See also: Voter turnout in the United States presidential elections
Voter turnout in the 2004 and 2008 elections showed a noticeable increase over the turnout in 1996 and 2000. Prior to 2004, voter turnout in presidential elections had been decreasing while voter registration, measured in terms of voting age population (VAP) by the U.S. Census, has been increasing. The VAP figure, however, includes persons ineligible to vote – mainly non-citizens and ineligible felons – and excludes overseas eligible voters. Opinion is mixed on whether this decline was due to voter apathy.[73][74][75][76] or an increase in ineligible voters on the rolls.[77] The difference between these two measures are illustrated by analysis of turnout in the 2004 and 2008 elections. Voter turnout from the 2004 and 2008 election was "not statistically different," based on the voting age population used by a November 2008 U.S. Census survey of 50,000 households.[73] If expressed in terms of vote eligible population (VEP), the 2008 national turnout rate was 61.7% from 131.3 million ballots cast for president, an increase of over 1.6 percentage points over the 60.1% turnout rate of 2004, and the highest since 1968.[78]
Financial disclosures[edit]
Prior to 1967, many presidential candidates disclosed assets, stock holdings, and other information which might affect the public trust.[79] In that year, Republican candidate George W. Romney went a step further and released his tax returns for the previous twelve years.[79] Since then, many presidential candidates – including all major-party nominees from 1980 to 2012 – have released some of their returns,[80] although few of the major party nominees have equaled or exceeded George Romney's twelve.[81][82] The Tax History Project – a project directed by Joseph J. Thorndike and established of the nonprofit Tax Analysts group[83] – has compiled the publicly released tax returns of presidents and presidential candidates (including primary candidates).[84]
In 2016, Republican presidential nominee Donald Trump broke with tradition, becoming the only major-party candidate since Gerald Ford in 1976 to not make any of his full tax returns public.[85] Trump gave as a reason that he was being audited by the IRS.[85] However, no law or precedent prevents a person from releasing their tax returns while under audit, and in fact President Richard M. Nixon released his tax returns while being audited.[86][87]
Presidential coattails[edit]
Main article: Coattail effect
Presidential elections are held on the same date as those for all the seats in the United States House of Representatives, the full terms for 33 or 34 of the 100 seats in the United States Senate, the governorships in several U.S. states, and many state and local elections. Presidential candidates tend to bring out supporters who then vote for their party's candidates for those other offices.[88] These other candidates are said to ride on the presidential candidates' coattails. Voter turnout is also generally higher during presidential election years than either midterm election years[89] or odd-numbered election years.[90]
Comparison with other U.S. general elections[edit]
Basic rotation of U.S. general elections (fixed-terms only[1])
Year
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Type
Presidential Off-yeara Midterm Off-yearb Presidential
President
Yes No Yes
Senate
Class III (34 seats) No Class I (33 seats) No Class II (33 seats)
House
All 435 seats[2] No All 435 seats[3] No All 435 seats[2]
Gubernatorial
11 states, 2 territories
AS, DE, IN, MO, MT, NH, NC, ND, PR, UT, VT, WA, WV 2 states
NJ, VA 36 states, 3 territories[4]
AL, AK, AZ, AR, CA, CO, CT, FL, GA, GU, HI, ID, IL, IA, KS, ME, MP, MD, MA, MI, MN, NE, NV, NH, NM, NY, OH, OK, OR, PA, RI, SC, SD, TN, TX, VI, VT, WI, WY 3 states
KY, LA, MS 11 states, 2 territories
AS, DE, IN, MO, MT, NH, NC, ND, PR, UT, VT, WA, WV
Other state and local offices
Varies
1 This table does not include special elections, which may be held to fill political offices that have become vacant between the regularly scheduled elections.
2 As well as all six non-voting delegates of the U.S. House.
3 As well as five non-voting delegates of the U.S. House. The Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico instead serves a four-year term that coincides with the presidential term.
4 The Governors of New Hampshire and Vermont are each elected to two-year terms. The other 48 state governors serve four-year terms.
view
talk
edit
See also[edit]
American election campaigns in the 19th century
Elections in the United States
First Party System, Federalists vs Jeffersonian Republicans, 1790s-1820s
Second Party System, Democrats vs Whigs, 1830s-1850s
Third Party System, Republicans vs Democrats, 1850s-1890s
Fourth Party System, Republicans vs Democrats, 1890s-1930s; "Progressive Era"
Fifth Party System, Democrats vs Republicans 1930s-1960s
Sixth Party System, recent
Statistical forecasts:
Electoral-vote.com
FiveThirtyEight.com
PollyVote
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Dixon, Robert G., Jr. (1950). "Electoral College Procedure". The Western Political Quarterly. 3 (2). doi:10.2307/443484. JSTOR 443484.
Jump up ^ 3 U.S.C. § 1
Jump up ^ Caldwell, Leigh Ann (November 4, 2015). "A Viewer's Guide to the Next Year in Presidential Politics". NBC News. Retrieved November 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ Cohen, Andrew (October 29, 2012). "Could a Hurricane Like Sandy Postpone the Presidential Election?". The Atlantic. Retrieved November 8, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Jose A. DelReal (April 3, 2015). "Why Hillary Clinton might have just two more weeks or so to announce she's running for president". Washington Post. Retrieved April 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ Gary Bugh (2010). Electoral College Reform: Challenges and Possibilities. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-7546-7751-2.
Jump up ^ Of the 13 original states during the 1789 election, six states chose electors by some form of popular vote, four states chose electors by a different method, North Carolina and Rhode Island were ineligible to participate since they had not yet ratified the U.S. Constitution, and New York failed to appoint their allotment of electors in time because of a deadlock in their state legislature.
Jump up ^ Rose, Douglas Dana. "The Ten Most Competitive American Presidential Elections". ResearchGate.
^ Jump up to: a b Yan, Holly (6 November 2012). "Why Tuesday, why November, why elephants? Election riddles solved". CNN. Retrieved 9 November 2012.
Jump up ^ "2016 Presidential Form 2 Filers" (Press release). Federal Election Commission. Retrieved April 12, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Democratic Detailed Delegate Allocation – 2012". The Green Papers. Retrieved September 8, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Republican Detailed Delegate Allocation – 2012". The Green Papers. Retrieved September 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ Paul, Katie (2008-02-07). "Convention Wisdom". Newsweek.
Jump up ^ Eun Kyung Kim (2008-02-10). "Convention Q & A". Gannett News Service. Detroit Free Press.
Jump up ^ Clift, Eleanor (2008-02-06). "A Ticking Clock". Newsweek.
Jump up ^ Gold, Jeffrey (2008-02-09). "Post-primary questions answered". Associated Press. Courier-Post.
Jump up ^ "Sandy unlikely to postpone election". USA Today. Retrieved 31 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Guam Legislature Moves General Election Presidential Vote to the September Primary". Ballot-Access.org. 2008-07-10. Retrieved 2008-09-17.
Jump up ^ "Faithless Electors". FairVote.
Jump up ^ Montanaro, Domenico (April 23, 2017). "Trump's First 100 Days: An 'Entry-Level' Presidency". NPR. Retrieved August 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ International Law, US Power: The United States' Quest for Legal Security, p. 10, Shirley V. Scott (2012)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Pollard, Timothy D.; Chesebro, James W.; Studinski, David Paul (2009). "The Role of the Internet in Presidential Campaigns". Communications Studies. 60 (5): 574–88. doi:10.1080/10510970903260418.
^ Jump up to: a b Endres, Warnick (2004). "Text-based Interactivity in Candidate Campaign Web Sites: A case Study from the 2002 Elections". Western Journal of Communication. 68 (3): 322–42. doi:10.1080/10570310409374804.
Jump up ^ Smith, Aaron. "Pew Internet & American Life Project". The Internet and Campaign 2010. Pew Research Center.
^ Jump up to: a b Bimbaum, Jeffrey (June 11, 2006). "Loophole a Spigot for E-Mail; Critics Fear Voters Will Be Deluged as Fall Elections Near". The Washington Post.
Jump up ^ Trent & Friedenberg (2008). Political Campaign Communication Principles & Practices. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
Jump up ^ Jerry Fresia (February 28, 2006). "Third Parties?". Zmag.org. Retrieved August 26, 2010. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "House Joint Resolution (H.J. Res.) 8 Proposing a Constitutional Amendment to Elect the President by Lot". National Archives Catalog. Center for Legislative Archives, National Archives and Records Administration.
Jump up ^ Melcher, James P., “Electing to Reform: Maine and the District Plan for Selection of Presidential Electors”, 2004, New England Political Science Association. viewed October 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ Prior to the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution, electors cast two ballots, both for President. The candidate who received a majority of electoral votes became President, and the runner-up became Vice President.
^ Jump up to: a b Adams was elected Vice President.
Jump up ^ Jefferson was elected Vice President.
^ Jump up to: a b c Breakdown by ticket results are available for the 1800 election.
Jump up ^ In total, Jefferson received 122 electoral votes.
Jump up ^ Six faithless electors from New York voted for Clinton instead of Madison. Three cast their vice presidential vote for Madison, and three for Monroe.
Jump up ^ While commonly labeled as the Federalist candidate, Clinton technically ran as a Democratic-Republican and was not nominated by the Federalist party itself, the latter simply deciding not to field a candidate. This did not prevent endorsements from state Federalist parties (such as in Pennsylvania), but he received the endorsement from the New York state Democratic-Republicans as well.
Jump up ^ Three faithless electors, two from Massachusetts and one from New Hampshire, voted for Gerry for vice president instead of Ingersoll.
Jump up ^ Electors from Massachusetts voted for Howard, electors from Delaware voted for Harper, and electors from Connecticut split their vote between Ross and Marshall. In total, King received 34 electoral votes.
Jump up ^ Although the Federalists did not field a candidate, several Federalist electors voted for Federalist vice presidential candidates instead of Tompkins. In total, Monroe received 231 electoral votes.
Jump up ^ Faithless elector William Plumer of New Hampshire voted for Adams and Rush instead of Monroe and Tompkins.
Jump up ^ Since no candidate received a majority of the electoral vote, the House of Representatives elected the president. In the House, 13 state delegations voted for Adams, 7 for Jackson, and 4 for Crawford.
Jump up ^ 74 of Adams' electors voted for Calhoun, 9 voted for Jackson, and one did not vote for vice president.
Jump up ^ In total, Crawford received 40 electoral votes.
Jump up ^ In total, Clay received 38 electoral votes.
Jump up ^ 7 faithless electors from Georgia voted for Smith instead of Calhoun.
Jump up ^ All 30 of Pennsylvania's electors voted for Wilkins instead of Van Buren. In total, Jackson received 219 electoral votes.
^ Jump up to: a b All of the electoral votes came from South Carolina, where the electors were chosen by the legislature and not by popular vote.
Jump up ^ All 23 of Virginia's electors voted for Smith for vice president instead of Johnson, which resulted in Johnson failing to obtain a majority of the electoral votes. As a result, the election went to the Senate, who elected Johnson by a vote of 33–16.
Jump up ^ In total, Harrison received 73 electoral votes.
Jump up ^ In total, Van Buren received 60 electoral votes.
Jump up ^ Johnson, a Democrat, was nominated on the National Union ticket along with Lincoln, a Republican.
Jump up ^ The electoral votes of Tennessee and Louisiana were not counted. Had they been counted, Lincoln would have received 229 electoral votes.
Jump up ^ All popular votes were originally for Horace Greeley and Benjamin Gratz Brown.
^ Jump up to: a b c The used sources had insufficient data to determine the pairings of 4 electoral votes in Missouri. Therefore, the possible tickets are listed with the minimum and maximum possible number of electoral votes each.
Jump up ^ In total, Hendricks received 42 electoral votes.
Jump up ^ Greeley died before the Electoral College voted; as a result the electoral vote intended for Greeley and Brown went to several other candidates.
Jump up ^ In total, Davis received 1 electoral vote.
Jump up ^ While the Democrats and Populists both nominated Bryan, the two parties had different vice presidential running mates.
Jump up ^ Butler replaced Sherman, who died before the election was held.
Jump up ^ W. F. Turner, a faithless elector from Alabama, voted for Jones and Talmadge instead of Stevenson and Kefauver.
Jump up ^ Unpledged electors voted for Byrd and Thurmond. Henry D. Irwin, a faithless elector from Oklahoma, cast his vote for Byrd and Goldwater instead of Nixon and Lodge.
Jump up ^ Faithless elector Roger MacBride of Virginia voted for Hospers and Nathan instead of Nixon and Agnew.
Jump up ^ Mike Padden, a faithless elector from Washington, voted for Reagan instead of Ford. He voted for Dole, however, as pledged.
Jump up ^ Faithless elector Margarette Leach of West Virginia voted for Bentsen for president and Dukakis for vice president, instead of Dukakis for president and Bentsen for vice president.
Jump up ^ One of the D.C. electors pledged to Gore-Lieberman abstained from the final vote.
Jump up ^ https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/2000/members.html#dc
Jump up ^ One anonymous faithless elector from Minnesota voted for Edwards for both president and vice president.
^ Jump up to: a b Collins Walsh, Sean (December 19, 2016). "All but 2 Texas members of the Electoral College choose Donald Trump". Austin American-Statesman. Retrieved December 25, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b 1 faithless electoral vote from Texas.
Jump up ^ 3 faithless electoral votes from Washington.
Jump up ^ 1 faithless electoral vote from Hawaii.
Jump up ^ 1 faithless electoral vote from Washington.
^ Jump up to: a b [1]
Jump up ^ "National Voter Turnout in Federal Elections: 1960–1996". Federal Election Commission. 2003-07-29. Archived from the original on 2007-12-09. Retrieved 2007-12-09.
Jump up ^ "Election Information: Election Statistics". Office of the Clerk. Archived from the original on July 25, 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-09.
Jump up ^ "Voting and Registration Date". U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved 2007-12-09.
Jump up ^ "Voter Turnout Frequently Asked Questions". Elections.gmu.edu. March 12, 2009. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
Jump up ^ "2008 Preliminary Voter Turnout". Elections.gmu.edu. March 12, 2009. Archived from the original on November 13, 2008. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b Income Tax Returns Released for Last 12 Years by Romney, St. Joseph Gazette, United Press International, November 27, 1967.
Jump up ^ Shaxson, Nicholas (August 2012). "Where the Money Lives". Vanity Fair.
Jump up ^ Sherman, Amy (August 19, 2012), Debbie Wasserman Schultz' claim about release of tax returns of major candidates is false, says PolitiFact Florida, Miami Herald.
Jump up ^ Robert Farley, Romney and the Tax Return Precedent, FactCheck.org, Annenberg Public Policy Center, July 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ About the Project, Tax History Project.
Jump up ^ Presidential Tax Returns, Tax History Project.
^ Jump up to: a b Alan Rappeport, Donald Trump Breaks With Recent History by Not Releasing Tax Returns, New York Times (May 11, 2016).
Jump up ^ Jeanne Sahadi, Nixon released his tax returns under audit. Why can't Trump?, CNN Money (May 11, 2016).
Jump up ^ Sean Gorman, Tim Kaine correctly notes Richard Nixon released tax returns despite audit, PolitiFact (October 5, 2016).
Jump up ^ "Government By the People; national, state, and local version" Prentice Hall publishers, by Cronin Magleby O'Brien Light
Jump up ^ Desilver, D. (2014) Voter turnout always drops off for midterm elections, but why? Pew Research Center, July 24, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Voter Turnout". FairVote. Retrieved 2001-04-08. Low turnout is most pronounced in off-year elections for state legislators and local officials as well as primaries
Further reading[edit]
Schlesinger, Arthur. Jr., ed. History of American Presidential Elections, 1789–2008 (2011) 3 vol and 11 vol editions; detailed analysis of each election, with primary documents; online v. 1. 1789-1824 -- v. 2. 1824-1844 -- v. 3. 1848-1868 -- v. 4. 1872-1888 -- v. 5. 1892-1908 -- v. 6. 1912-1924 -- v. 7. 1928-1940 -- v. 8. 1944-1956 -- v. 9. 1960-1968 -- v. 10. 1972-1984 -- v. 11. 1988-2001
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to United States presidential election.
The American Presidency Project (UC Santa Barbara: 52,000+ Presidential Documents)
Electoral College Box Scores
Teaching about Presidential Elections
All the maps since 1840 by counties (French language site)
Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections
History of U.S. Presidential Elections: 1789–2004
Graphic election results from 1952 to 2008 broken down by state (Java Applet)
A history of the presidency from the point of view of Vermont Discusses history of American presidential elections with two states as opposite "poles", Vermont, and Alabama
The Living Room Candidate: A Compilation of Presidential Television Ads
Presidential Elections, from History.com
A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825
How close were Presidential Elections? – Michael Sheppard, Michigan State University
Better World Links on the U.S. Presidential Election
Presidential Elections: Resource Guides from the Library of Congress
Presidential Elections: Vacancies in Major-Party Candidacies and the Position of President-Elect from Congressional Research Service
U.S. Election Statistics: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
"Electoral Votes". New International Encyclopedia. 1905. This is a tabulation of the electoral votes by election year, and also includes the results for Vice President.
Statistical forecasts
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value: United States presidential election, 1804

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value: United States presidential election, 1808

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value: United States presidential election, 1812

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value: United States presidential election, 1816

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value: United States presidential election, 1820

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/wiki/Jacksonian_Democrats
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Jacksonian Democrats

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value: United States presidential election, 1828

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value: United States presidential election, 1832

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value: United States presidential election, 1840

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/wiki/Littleton_W._Tazewell
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Littleton W. Tazewell

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value: United States presidential election, 1844

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value: United States presidential election, 1852

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value: United States presidential election, 1856

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value: Constitutional Union Party (United States)

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value:
/wiki/Northern_Democrats
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Northern Democrats

value: United States presidential election, 1864

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value: United States presidential election, 1868

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value: United States presidential election, 1872

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value: Liberal Republican Party (United States)

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value: United States presidential election, 1884

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value: United States presidential election, 1892

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value: United States presidential election, 1896

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value: United States presidential election, 1900

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value: United States presidential election, 1904

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value:
/wiki/Henry_G._Davis
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Henry G. Davis

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value: United States presidential election, 1908

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value: United States presidential election, 1916

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value: United States presidential election, 1924

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value:
/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette_Sr.
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Robert M. La Follette Sr.

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value: United States presidential election, 1928

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value: United States presidential election, 1932

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value: box-sizing: border-box; border: 1px solid #aaa; height: 1.15em; position: relative; background-color: #FF4D4D; width: 11%; height: 100%;

value: United States presidential election, 1936

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value: United States presidential election, 1940

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value: United States presidential election, 1944

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value: United States presidential election, 1952

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value: United States presidential election, 1956

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value: United States presidential election, 1980

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value: United States presidential election, 1984

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value: box-sizing: border-box; border: 1px solid #aaa; height: 1.15em; position: relative; background-color: #FF4D4D; width: 79%; height: 100%;

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value: United States presidential election, 1996

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value: Reform Party of the United States of America

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value: Voter turnout in the United States presidential elections

value: Donald Trump presidential campaign, 2016

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/wiki/Richard_M._Nixon
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Richard M. Nixon

value: Edit section: Comparison with other U.S. general elections

value: United States House of Representatives elections, 2016

value: United States House of Representatives elections, 2018

value: United States House of Representatives elections, 2020

value: United States gubernatorial elections, 2016

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/wiki/Governor_of_American_Samoa
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Governor of American Samoa

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/wiki/Governor_of_Delaware
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Governor of Delaware

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/wiki/Governor_of_Missouri
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Governor of Missouri

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/wiki/Governor_of_Montana
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Governor of Montana

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/wiki/Governor_of_Utah
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Governor of Utah

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/wiki/Governor_of_Washington
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Governor of Washington

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/wiki/Governor_of_West_Virginia
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Governor of West Virginia

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value: United States gubernatorial elections, 2017

value: United States gubernatorial elections, 2018

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/wiki/Governor_of_Alabama
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Governor of Alabama

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/wiki/Governor_of_Alaska
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Governor of Alaska

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/wiki/Governor_of_Arizona
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Governor of Arizona

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/wiki/Governor_of_Arkansas
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Governor of Arkansas

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/wiki/Governor_of_Connecticut
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Governor of Connecticut

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/wiki/Governor_of_Florida
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Governor of Florida

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/wiki/Governor_of_Georgia
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Governor of Georgia

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/wiki/Governor_of_Guam
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Governor of Guam

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/wiki/Governor_of_Idaho
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