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Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
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The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) was adopted by the General Assembly on Thursday, 13 September 2007, by a majority of 144 states in favour, 4 votes against (Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States) and 11 abstentions (Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burundi, Colombia, Georgia, Kenya, Nigeria, Russian Federation, Samoa and Ukraine).[1] The work towards this declaration can be seen as far as in 1923 and 1925 by the works of Haudenosaunee Chief Deskaheh and Māori T.W. Ratana who attempted to bring issues of Canada and New Zealand failure to uphold treaties to the League of Nations [precursor to the United Nations].[2][3]
In May 2016 Canada officially removed its objector status to UNDRIP, almost a decade after it was adopted by the General Assembly. By now also the other 3 objectors have, to various degrees, turned their vote.
While as a General Assembly Declaration it is not a legally binding instrument under international law,[4] according to a UN press release it does "represent the dynamic development of international legal norms and it reflects the commitment of the UN's member states to move in certain directions"; the UN describes it as setting "an important standard for the treatment of indigenous peoples that will undoubtedly be a significant tool towards eliminating human rights violations against the planet's 370 million indigenous people and assisting them in combating discrimination and marginalisation."
UNDRIP codifies "Indigenous historical grievances, contemporary challenges and socio-economic, political and cultural aspirations" and is the "culmination of generations-long efforts by Indigenous organizations to get international attention, to secure recognition for their aspirations, and to generate support for their political agendas."[5] Canada Research Chair and faculty member at the University of Saskatchewan[6][7] Ken Coates argues that UNDRIP resonates powerfully with Indigenous peoples, while national governments have not yet fully understood its impact.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Purpose
2 Content
2.1 Provisions
3 Negotiation and adoption
4 Reaction
4.1 Support and compromises
4.1.1 Australia
4.2 Criticism, defiance and "aspirational" nullification
4.2.1 Australia
4.2.2 Canada
4.2.3 New Zealand
4.2.4 United States
4.2.5 United Kingdom
4.2.6 Finland
4.3 Abstentions
4.3.1 Ukraine
4.3.2 Pacific Island states
5 Notes
6 References
6.1 Additional references
7 External links
Purpose[edit]
Due to the past and ongoing violence and abuse of Indigenous individuals and peoples, the UN created this non-legally binding declaration as an aspiration for how Indigenous individuals and peoples should be treated. The Declaration sets out the individual and collective rights of Indigenous peoples, as well as their rights to culture, identity, language, employment, health, education and other issues. It also "emphasizes the rights of Indigenous peoples to maintain and strengthen their own institutions, cultures and traditions, and to pursue their development in keeping with their own needs and aspirations".[8] It "prohibits discrimination against indigenous peoples", and it "promotes their full and effective participation in all matters that concern them and their right to remain distinct and to pursue their own visions of economic and social development".[8][9] The goal of the Declaration is to encourage countries to work alongside indigenous peoples to solve global issues, like development, multicultural democracy and decentralization.[10] According to Article 31, there is a major emphasis that the indigenous peoples will be able to protect their cultural heritage and other aspects of their culture and tradition in order to preserve their heritage from over controlling nation-states.
The elaboration of this Declaration had already been recommended by the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action.[11]
This declaration is a resolution, meaning it is not a law bearing document. Indigenous people are not considered a country [nation - state] and do not have right to international law protection through the international court of justice. Article 40 states that Indigenous peoples have right to fair procedures for the resolution of conflicts and dispute with countries or other parties, because Indigenous people cannot use the International court of justice, UNDRIP has no indication of which judicial power indigenous peoples are to bring disputes to.[12]
Content[edit]
The Declaration is structured as a United Nations resolution, with 23 preambular clauses and 46 articles. In most articles, an aspiration for how the State should promote and protect the rights of indigenous people is included (see Provision for further explanation). Major themes of the articles include:
Rights of self-determination of indigenous individuals and peoples (Articles 1 - 8; 33 -34)
The difference is between the individual and people’s group
Rights of indigenous individuals and people to protect their culture through practices, languages, education, media, and religion (Articles 9 - 15, 16, 25, and 31)
Asserts the indigenous peoples’ right to own type of governance and to economic development (Articles 17 - 21, 35 -37)
Health rights (Article 23 -24)
Protection of subgroups ex. elderly, women, and children (Article 22)
Land rights from ownership (including reparation, or return of land i.e. Article 10) to environmental issues (Articles 26 -30, and 32)
Dictates how this document should be understood in future reference(Articles 38 - 46).[13]
Provisions[edit]
The opening and Article 2 of the Declaration provide that “indigenous peoples are equal to all other peoples” (source). Besides asserting the rights that indigenous individuals and peoples’ have as other peoples, there are Articles (23 of the 46) pointing to how States should interact with the declaration. Most of the articles point to States working in conjunction with the indigenous peoples. Some measures countries are suggested to take are
to return land (article 26), ceremonial objects (article 12), and human remains (article 12)
To place “programmes for monitoring, maintaining, and restoring the health of indigenous peoples” (article 29 )
To protect and uphold the rights of indigenous individuals and peoples (subpoint in many articles; see Declaration) [14]
Negotiation and adoption[edit]
UN General Assembly
Resolution 61/295
Date
13 December 2007
Code
A/61/295 (Document)
Subject
Indigenous rights
Voting summary
143 voted for
4 voted against
11 abstained
Result
Adopted
The Declaration was over 25 years in the making. The idea originated in 1982 when the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) set up its Working Group on Indigenous Populations (WGIP), established as a result of a study by Special Rapporteur José Ricardo Martínez Cobo on the problem of discrimination faced by indigenous peoples. Tasked with developing human rights standards that would protect indigenous peoples, in 1985 the Working Group began working on drafting the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. The draft was finished in 1993 and was submitted to the Sub-Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, which gave its approval the following year. During this the International Labour Organisation adopted the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989.
The Draft Declaration was then referred to the Commission on Human Rights, which established another Working Group to examine its terms. Over the following years this Working Group met on 11 occasions to examine and fine-tune the Draft Declaration and its provisions. Progress was slow because of certain states' concerns regarding some key provisions of the Declaration, such as indigenous peoples' right to self-determination and the control over natural resources existing on indigenous peoples' traditional lands.[15] The final version of the Declaration was adopted on 29 June 2006 by the 47-member Human Rights Council (the successor body to the Commission on Human Rights), with 30 member states in favour, 2 against, 12 abstentions, and 3 absentees.[16]
The Declaration (document A/61/L.67) was then referred to the General Assembly, which voted on the adoption of the proposal on 13 September 2007 during its 61st regular session.[17]
The vote was, in favour 143 countries: Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Andorra, Angola, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Armenia, Austria, Bahamas, Bahrain, Barbados, Belarus, Belgium, Belize, Benin, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Brazil, Brunei Darussalam, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chile, China, Comoros, Congo, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cuba, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Denmark, Djibouti, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Estonia, Finland, France, Gabon, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Guatemala, Guinea, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Latvia, Lebanon, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Mali, Malta, Mauritius, Mexico, Micronesia (Federated States of), Moldova, Monaco, Mongolia, Mozambique, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Netherlands, Nicaragua, Niger, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Republic of Korea, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, San Marino, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Serbia, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Swaziland, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United Republic of Tanzania, Uruguay, Venezuela, Viet Nam, Yemen, Zambia, Zimbabwe.
Against: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, United States. All four member states that voted against have their origins as colonies of the United Kingdom, and have large non-indigenous immigrant majorities and thriving indigenous populations. Since then, all four countries have moved to endorse the declaration in some informal way in which it would not actually become binding law pleadable in court. Canada, under a Conservative Party leadership made official public statements against the application of the UN DRIP in Canada, e.g.
"Indian Affairs Minister Jim Prentice has stated publicly that the Declaration conflicts with the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms but has never substantiated this extraordinary claim."[18].
However, the Liberal Government elected to leadership in 2015, has unequivocally indicated Canada's support for the UN DRIP and is working on amending Canada's laws accordingly.
Australian government interventions have been challenged under its terms without success.[19]
Abstaining, 11 countries:[20] Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burundi, Colombia, Georgia, Kenya, Nigeria, Russian Federation, Samoa and Ukraine. Colombia and Samoa have since endorsed the document.[21]
Absent:[22] Chad, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Fiji, Gambia, Grenada, Guinea-Bissau, Israel, Kiribati, Kyrgyzstan, Marshall Islands, Mauritania, Montenegro, Morocco, Nauru, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Romania, Rwanda, Saint Kitts and Nevis, São Tomé and Príncipe, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Tajikistan, Togo, Tonga, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, Uganda, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu.
Reaction[edit]
Support and compromises[edit]
In contrast to the Declaration's initial rejection by Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States over legal concerns (all 4 countries later switched their positions to accepting the declaration as a non-legally-binding document), United Nations officials and other world leaders expressed pleasure at its adoption. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon described it as a "historic moment when UN Member States and indigenous peoples have reconciled with their painful histories and are resolved to move forward together on the path of human rights, justice and development for all." Louise Arbour, a former justice of the Supreme Court of Canada then serving as the UN's High Commissioner for Human Rights, expressed satisfaction at the hard work and perseverance that had finally "borne fruit in the most comprehensive statement to date of indigenous peoples' rights."[9] Similarly, news of the Declaration's adoption was greeted with jubilation in Africa[23] and, present at the General Assembly session in New York, Bolivian foreign minister David Choquehuanca said that he hoped the member states that had voted against or abstained would reconsider their refusal to support a document he described as being as important as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[24] Bolivia has become the first country to approve the U.N. declaration of indigenous rights. Evo Morales, President of Bolivia, stated, "We are the first country to turn this declaration into a law and that is important, brothers and sisters. We recognize and salute the work of our representatives. But if we were to remember the indigenous fight clearly, many of us who are sensitive would end up crying in remembering the discrimination, the scorn."
Stephen Corry, Director of the international indigenous rights organization Survival International, said, "The declaration has been debated for nearly a quarter century. Years which have seen many tribal peoples, such as the Akuntsu and Kanoê in Brazil, decimated and others, such as the Innu in Canada, brought to the edge. Governments that oppose it are shamefully fighting against the human rights of their most vulnerable peoples. Claims they make to support human rights in other areas will be seen as hypocritical."[25]
Australia[edit]
The Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies formally acknowledges and upholds the principles of the Declaration in both their Collection Access and Use Policy[26] and their Guidelines for Ethical Research in Australian Indigenous Studies.[27]
Criticism, defiance and "aspirational" nullification[edit]
Prior to the adoption of the Declaration, and throughout the 62nd session of the General Assembly, a number of countries expressed concern about some key issues, such as self-determination, access to lands, territories and resources and the lack of a clear definition of the term "indigenous".[28] In addition to those intending to vote against the adoption of the declaration, a group of African countries represented by Namibia proposed to defer action, to hold further consultations, and to conclude consideration of the declaration by September 2007.[29] Ultimately, after agreeing on some adjustments to the Draft Declaration, a vast majority of states recognized that these issues could be addressed by each country at the national level.
The four states that voted against continued to express serious reservations about the final text of the Declaration as placed before the General Assembly.[30] As mentioned above, all four opposing countries have since then changed their vote in favour of the Declaration.
Australia[edit]
Australia's government opposed the Declaration in the General Assembly vote of 2007, but has since endorsed the Declaration. Australia's Mal Brough, Minister for Families, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs, referring to the provision regarding the upholding of indigenous peoples' customary legal systems, said that "There should only be one law for all Australians and we should not enshrine in law practices that are not acceptable in the modern world."[17]
Marise Payne, Liberal Party Senator for New South Wales, further elaborated on the Australian government's objections to the Declaration in a speech to the Australian Senate:[31]
Concerns about references to self-determination and their potential to be misconstrued.
Ignorance of contemporary realities concerning land and resources. "They seem, to many readers, to require the recognition of Indigenous rights to lands which are now lawfully owned by other citizens, both Indigenous and non-Indigenous, and therefore to have some quite significant potential to impact on the rights of third parties."[31]
Concerns over the extension of Indigenous intellectual property rights under the declaration as unnecessary under current international and Australian law.
The potential abuse of the right under the Declaration for indigenous peoples to unqualified consent on matters affecting them, "which implies to some readers that they may then be able to exercise a right of veto over all matters of state, which would include national laws and other administrative measures."[31]
The exclusivity of indigenous rights over intellectual, real and cultural property, that "does not acknowledge the rights of third parties – in particular, their rights to access Indigenous land and heritage and cultural objects where appropriate under national law."[31] Furthermore, that the Declaration "fails to consider the different types of ownership and use that can be accorded to Indigenous people and the rights of third parties to property in that regard."[31]
Concerns that the Declaration places indigenous customary law in a superior position to national law, and that this may "permit the exercise of practices which would not be acceptable across the board",[31] such as customary corporal and capital punishments.
In October 2007 former Australian Prime Minister John Howard pledged to hold a referendum on changing the constitution to recognise indigenous Australians if re-elected. He said that the distinctiveness of people's identity and their rights to preserve their heritage should be acknowledged.[32]
On 3 April 2009, the Rudd Government formally endorsed the Declaration.[33]
Canada[edit]
The Canadian government said that while it supported the "spirit" of the declaration, it contained elements that were "fundamentally incompatible with Canada's constitutional framework",[17] which includes both the Charter of Rights and Freedoms and Section 35, which enshrines aboriginal and treaty rights. In particular, the Canadian government had problems with Article 19 (which appears to require governments to secure the consent of indigenous peoples regarding matters of general public policy), and Articles 26 and 28 (which could allow for the re-opening or repudiation of historically settled land claims).[34]
Former Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development Chuck Strahl described the document as "unworkable in a Western democracy under a constitutional government."[35] Strahl elaborated, saying "In Canada, you are balancing individual rights vs. collective rights, and (this) document ... has none of that. By signing on, you default to this document by saying that the only rights in play here are the rights of the First Nations. And, of course, in Canada, that's inconsistent with our constitution." He gave an example: "In Canada ... you negotiate on this ... because (native rights) don't trump all other rights in the country. You need also to consider the people who have sometimes also lived on those lands for two or three hundred years, and have hunted and fished alongside the First Nations."[36]
The Assembly of First Nations passed a resolution in December 2007 to invite Presidents Hugo Chávez and Evo Morales to Canada to put pressure on the government to sign the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, calling the two heads of state "visionary leaders" and demanding Canada resign its membership on the United Nations Human Rights Council.[37]
On 3 March 2010, in the Speech From the Throne, the Governor General of Canada announced that the government was moving to endorse the declaration. "We are a country with an Aboriginal heritage. A growing number of states have given qualified recognition to the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Our Government will take steps to endorse this aspirational document in a manner fully consistent with Canada’s Constitution and laws."
On 12 November 2010, Canada officially endorsed the declaration but without changing its position that it was 'aspirational'.[38]
Anishinabek spiritual leader, Chief William Commanda (1908-3 August 2011) was honoured at the 21st annual week-long First Peoples' Festival held in Montreal from 2–9 August 2011, celebrating Canada's 2010 adoption of the U. N. declaration. AFN Innu representative, Ghislain Picard's tribute praised Grandfather Commanda for his work that was "key not only in the adoption of the U.N. declaration, but in all the work leading up to it throughout the last 25 years."[39]
In 2015, Romeo Saganash (a Cree Member of Parliament for Abitibi—Baie-James—Nunavik—Eeyou) sponsored Private Member's Bill C-641, the "United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act", which would have required the Canadian government to ensure that the laws of Canada are in harmony with UNDRIP but it was defeated on May 6, 2015.[40]
In 2016, Canada officially adopted and promised to implement the declaration fully. Speaking at the UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada minister Carolyn Bennett announced, "We are now a full supporter of the declaration, without qualification. We intend nothing less than to adopt and implement the declaration in accordance with the Canadian Constitution."[41] Bennett described the Declaration as "breathing life into Section 35 [of the Canadian Constitution] and recognizing it as a full box of rights for Indigenous Peoples in Canada."[41] In July 2016, Kwakwaka’wakw Justice Minister Jody Wilson-Raybould gave a speech that stated that "adopting the UNDRIP as being Canadian law are unworkable", due to its incompatibility with the Indian Act, the current governing statute.[42]
The federal government pledged on 21 June 2017 to rename its National Aboriginal Day to be consistent with the terminology used by the Declaration.[43]
In September 2017, British Columbia provincial government announced that it will govern in accordance with the principles outlined in the Declaration.[44]
New Zealand[edit]
New Zealand delegation at the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues. New Zealand endorsed the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in April 2010.
In 2007 New Zealand's Minister of Māori Affairs Parekura Horomia described the Declaration as "toothless", and said, "There are four provisions we have problems with, which make the declaration fundamentally incompatible with New Zealand's constitutional and legal arrangements." Article 26 in particular, he said, "appears to require recognition of rights to lands now lawfully owned by other citizens, both indigenous and non-indigenous. This ignores contemporary reality and would be impossible to implement."[45]
In response, Māori Party leader Pita Sharples said it was "shameful to the extreme that New Zealand voted against the outlawing of discrimination against indigenous people; voted against justice, dignity and fundamental freedoms for all".[46]
On 7 July 2009, the New Zealand government announced that it would support the Declaration; this, however, appeared to be a premature announcement by Pita Sharples, the current Minister of Māori Affairs, as the New Zealand government cautiously backtracked on Sharples' July announcement.[47] However, on 19 April 2010, Sharples announced New Zealand's support of the declaration at a speech in New York.[48][49]
United States[edit]
Speaking for the United States mission to the UN, spokesman Benjamin Chang said, "What was done today is not clear. The way it stands now is subject to multiple interpretations and doesn't establish a clear universal principle."[50] The U.S. mission also issued a floor document, "Observations of the United States with respect to the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples", setting out its objections to the Declaration. Most of these are based on the same points as the three other countries' rejections but, in addition, the United States drew attention to the Declaration's failure to provide a clear definition of exactly whom the term "indigenous peoples" is intended to cover.[51]
On 16 December 2010, President Obama declared that the United States would "lend its support" to the Declaration. The decision was announced during the second White House Tribal Nations Conference, where he said he is "working hard to live up to" the name that was given to him by the Crow Nation: "One Who Helps People Throughout the Land." Obama has told Native American leaders that he wants to improve the "nation-to-nation" relationship between the United States and the tribes and repair broken promises. Today, there are more than 560 Indian tribes[52] in the United States that are recognized at the federal level, with some sixty-plus tribes recognized at the state level. Many had representatives at the White House conference and applauded Obama's announcement.[53]
The Obama administration's decision came after three consultation meetings with Native Americans and more than 3,000 written comments on the subject.[54] The support of the government also included several interpretations of the meaning of the Declaration. In the view of the United States government, the Declaration advances "a new and distinct international concept of self-determination specific to indigenous peoples," which is not the same as the existing concept in international law.[54] The statement also interprets free, prior, and informed consent, "which the United States understands to call for a process of meaningful consultation with tribal leaders, but not necessarily the agreement of those leaders, before the actions addressed in those consultations are taken."[54]
United Kingdom[edit]
Speaking on behalf of the United Kingdom government, UK Ambassador and Deputy Permanent Representative to the United Nations, Karen Pierce, "emphasized that the Declaration was non-legally binding and did not propose to have any retroactive application on historical episodes. National minority groups and other ethnic groups within the territory of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories did not fall within the scope of the indigenous peoples to which the Declaration applied."[55]
The UK position was also clearly intended to prevent formal appeal of Canadian decisions to UK courts: Canadian indigenous peoples never accepted the 1982 constitution in which such appeal (regarding early treaties made with the Crown of the British Empire) was cut off. Under the prior 1867 constitution, 1920s Dominion of Canada and earlier law, which continue to apply to these peoples and treaties, the UN DRIP could have been pleaded in a UK court in conflicts between treaty and Canadian law. Calls to pursue this approach have been common among Canadian natives. [6]
Finland[edit]
Finland signed the International Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples when it was originally put forward.[56][57] However the reindeer owners and Forest Administration (Metsähallitus) have a long dispute in the area of the forests.[58] The UN Human Rights Committee ordered the Finnish State to stop logging in some of the disputed areas.[citation needed]
Abstentions[edit]
Ukraine[edit]
Ukraine, which initially abstained from adopting the Declaration, changed its approach to indigenous issues in response to the recent annexation of Crimea, asserting that Crimean Tatars are an Indigenous people. In May 2014, the country formally endorsed the UNDRIP.[59]
Pacific Island states[edit]
Ten UN member states in the Pacific, all with indigenous majorities, were absent from the assembly at the time of the vote: Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu. It is unclear whether this represents the equivalent of deliberate abstention, or whether the country delegations were absent for some other reason. The constitutions of these states typically make mention of "indigenous inhabitants" and accommodate customary laws in at least part of their modern legal systems. The constitution of Papua New Guinea, for example, has an explanatory section on the "underlying law" being based on custom, while Sch.1.2. says that "custom" means "the customs and usages of indigenous inhabitants of the country ..." (emphasis added). It may be the case, therefore, that the governments of these states took the position that their own legal systems offered sufficient protection to their own indigenous peoples. There has been no suggestion at any time since decolonisation commenced in the 1960s and the present that indigenous people are absent from any of the ten countries.
Nonetheless, Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu are among countries in this group plagued by land grabbing in recent years.[60] Researchers have warned that as much as 12% of the land surface of Papua New Guinea has been leased without informed consultation and consent from landowners, typically suppressing customary rights for 99 years.[61] Given that land grabbing was recently ruled to lie within the remit of the International Criminal Court,[62] it is a reasonable conclusion that legal systems in the Pacific, unsupported by UNDRIP, have insufficient built-in safeguards for the protection of indigenous rights.
There are also significant implications in the extractive sector for these states not having signed UNDRIP. Mining companies that are members of the International Council on Mining and Metals commit to respect the ICMM's position statement on indigenous peoples. However, ambiguity surrounds how or if member companies recognise when they are dealing with indigenous peoples. For example, Barrick Gold lists only its operations in North and South America as lying on indigenous land, yet operates in Fiji and Papua New Guinea (where a subsidiary has operated the Porgera gold mine since 2007).[63] Another member, Newmont Mining, said in its 2011 Sustainability Report[64] that it had been conducting mining exploration in Papua New Guinea for three years, yet its disclosures do not show how activities in this country may have followed the ICCM's Indigenous Peoples and Mining Good Practice Guide, first published in 2010.
Notes[edit]
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Toensing, Gale Courey (13 September 2011), Political Party! Celebrating UNDRIP and Indigenous Culture in Montreal, Montreal, PQ, Canada: Indian Country Today, retrieved 20 September 2013
Jump up ^ Bill C-641 (Historical) United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act, openparliament.ca
^ Jump up to: a b "Canada officially adopts UN declaration on rights of Indigenous Peoples". CBC News. 2016-05-10. Retrieved 2016-05-19.
Jump up ^ http://aptn.ca/news/2016/07/12/justice-minister-jody-wilson-raybould-says-adopting-undrip-into-canadian-law-unworkable/
Jump up ^ Harris, Kathleen (21 June 2017). "Trudeau marks National Aboriginal Day with pledge to build relations, rename day". CBC News. Retrieved 21 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Newton, Chris (September 6, 2017). "B.C. government adopts UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples". energeticcity.ca. Archived from the original on 2017-09-07.
Jump up ^ Māori Party’s head in the clouds New Zealand government press release, via scoop.co.nz, 14 September 2007.
Jump up ^ "NZ indigenous rights stance 'shameful' – Maori Party". Stuff.co.nz. New Zealand. 14 September 2007. Retrieved 27 September 2011.
Jump up ^ "Government to endorse UN indigenous rights declaration". Stuff. New Zealand. 7 July 2009. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "NZ does U-turn on rights charter". 20 April 2010.
Jump up ^ New Zealand Statement Before 9th Session of the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues Archived September 8, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ UN adopts declaration on rights for indigenous peoples worldwide International Herald Tribune, 13 September 2007.
Jump up ^ Explanation of vote on the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples United States Mission to the United Nations press release, 13 September 2007.
Jump up ^ Federal Register, Volume 78, Number 87 dated May 6, 2013 Archived October 19, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. (78 FR 26384)
Jump up ^ "U.S. will sign U.N. declaration on rights of native people, Obama tells tribes". The Washington Post. 16 December 2010. Retrieved 16 December 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c U.S. Department of State (2010-12-16), Announcement of U.S. Support for the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (PDF), retrieved 2015-03-19
Jump up ^ GENERAL ASSEMBLY ADOPTS DECLARATION ON RIGHTS OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES; at www.un.org
Jump up ^ "UNBISnet". Unbisnet.un.org:8080. Retrieved 2013-12-24.
Jump up ^ "Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples". Social.un.org. Retrieved 2013-12-24.
Jump up ^ YK pyysi säästämään Nellimen porot HS 27.9.2011 A6
Jump up ^ Don't Cry for Us Ukraina! (Ukraine), International Committee for Crimea, Inc
Jump up ^ [1] Pacific land grab among worlds worst says expert, ABC Radio Australia
Jump up ^ [2], On Our Land: Modern Land Grabs Reversing Independence in Papua New Guinea, Oakland Institute 2013
Jump up ^ [3], International Criminal Court extends remit to land grabbing, Scottish Legal News,19 September 2016
Jump up ^ [4], Barrick Gold, "Indigenous Peoples", accessed 3 February 2017.
Jump up ^ [5], Beyond the Mine: the journey towards sustainability, 2011 edition.
Additional references[edit]
UN (18 March 2008), United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (PDF), United Nations, retrieved 20 September 2013
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Draft United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples as Adopted by the General Assembly, 13 September 2007 Full text of the Declaration.
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Computer simulation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about computer model within a scientific context. For simulating a computer on a computer, see emulator.
"Computer model" redirects here. For computer models of 3-dimensional objects, see 3D modeling.
Process of building a computer model, and the interplay between experiment, simulation, and theory.
Computer simulation reproduces the behavior of a system using a mathematical model. Computer simulations have become a useful tool for the mathematical modeling of many natural systems in physics (computational physics), astrophysics, climatology, chemistry and biology, human systems in economics, psychology, social science, and engineering. Simulation of a system is represented as the running of the system's model. It can be used to explore and gain new insights into new technology and to estimate the performance of systems too complex for analytical solutions.[1]
Computer simulations are computer programs that can be either small, running almost instantly on small devices, or large-scale programs that run for hours or days on network-based groups of computers. The scale of events being simulated by computer simulations has far exceeded anything possible (or perhaps even imaginable) using traditional paper-and-pencil mathematical modeling. Over 10 years ago, a desert-battle simulation of one force invading another involved the modeling of 66,239 tanks, trucks and other vehicles on simulated terrain around Kuwait, using multiple supercomputers in the DoD High Performance Computer Modernization Program.[2] Other examples include a 1-billion-atom model of material deformation;[3] a 2.64-million-atom model of the complex protein-producing organelle of all living organisms, the ribosome, in 2005;[4] a complete simulation of the life cycle of Mycoplasma genitalium in 2012; and the Blue Brain project at EPFL (Switzerland), begun in May 2005 to create the first computer simulation of the entire human brain, right down to the molecular level.[5]
Because of the computational cost of simulation, computer experiments are used to perform inference such as uncertainty quantification.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Simulation versus model
2 History
3 Data preparation
4 Types
5 Visualization
6 Computer simulation in science
6.1 Simulation environments for physics and engineering
7 Computer simulation in practical contexts
8 Pitfalls
8.1 Model calibration techniques
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
Simulation versus model[edit]
A computer model is the algorithms and equations used to capture the behavior of the system being modeled. By contrast, computer simulation is the actual running of the program that contains these equations or algorithms. Simulation, therefore, is the process of running a model. Thus one would not "build a simulation"; instead, one would "build a model", and then either "run the model" or equivalently "run a simulation".
History[edit]
Computer simulation developed hand-in-hand with the rapid growth of the computer, following its first large-scale deployment during the Manhattan Project in World War II to model the process of nuclear detonation. It was a simulation of 12 hard spheres using a Monte Carlo algorithm. Computer simulation is often used as an adjunct to, or substitute for, modeling systems for which simple closed form analytic solutions are not possible. There are many types of computer simulations; their common feature is the attempt to generate a sample of representative scenarios for a model in which a complete enumeration of all possible states of the model would be prohibitive or impossible.
Data preparation[edit]
The external data requirements of simulations and models vary widely. For some, the input might be just a few numbers (for example, simulation of a waveform of AC electricity on a wire), while others might require terabytes of information (such as weather and climate models).
Input sources also vary widely:
Sensors and other physical devices connected to the model;
Control surfaces used to direct the progress of the simulation in some way;
Current or historical data entered by hand;
Values extracted as a by-product from other processes;
Values output for the purpose by other simulations, models, or processes.
Lastly, the time at which data is available varies:
"invariant" data is often built into the model code, either because the value is truly invariant (e.g., the value of π) or because the designers consider the value to be invariant for all cases of interest;
data can be entered into the simulation when it starts up, for example by reading one or more files, or by reading data from a preprocessor;
data can be provided during the simulation run, for example by a sensor network.
Because of this variety, and because diverse simulation systems have many common elements, there are a large number of specialized simulation languages. The best-known may be Simula (sometimes called Simula-67, after the year 1967 when it was proposed). There are now many others.
Systems that accept data from external sources must be very careful in knowing what they are receiving. While it is easy for computers to read in values from text or binary files, what is much harder is knowing what the accuracy (compared to measurement resolution and precision) of the values are. Often they are expressed as "error bars", a minimum and maximum deviation from the value range within which the true value (is expected to) lie. Because digital computer mathematics is not perfect, rounding and truncation errors multiply this error, so it is useful to perform an "error analysis"[7] to confirm that values output by the simulation will still be usefully accurate.
Even small errors in the original data can accumulate into substantial error later in the simulation. While all computer analysis is subject to the "GIGO" (garbage in, garbage out) restriction, this is especially true of digital simulation. Indeed, observation of this inherent, cumulative error in digital systems was the main catalyst for the development of chaos theory.
Types[edit]
Computer models can be classified according to several independent pairs of attributes, including:
Stochastic or deterministic (and as a special case of deterministic, chaotic) – see external links below for examples of stochastic vs. deterministic simulations
Steady-state or dynamic
Continuous or discrete (and as an important special case of discrete, discrete event or DE models)
Dynamic system simulation, e.g. electric systems, hydraulic systems or multi-body mechanical systems (described primarely by DAE:s) or dynamics simulation of field problems, e.g. CFD of FEM simulations (described by PDE:s).
Local or distributed.
Another way of categorizing models is to look at the underlying data structures. For time-stepped simulations, there are two main classes:
Simulations which store their data in regular grids and require only next-neighbor access are called stencil codes. Many CFD applications belong to this category.
If the underlying graph is not a regular grid, the model may belong to the meshfree method class.
Equations define the relationships between elements of the modeled system and attempt to find a state in which the system is in equilibrium. Such models are often used in simulating physical systems, as a simpler modeling case before dynamic simulation is attempted.
Dynamic simulations model changes in a system in response to (usually changing) input signals.
Stochastic models use random number generators to model chance or random events;
A discrete event simulation (DES) manages events in time. Most computer, logic-test and fault-tree simulations are of this type. In this type of simulation, the simulator maintains a queue of events sorted by the simulated time they should occur. The simulator reads the queue and triggers new events as each event is processed. It is not important to execute the simulation in real time. It is often more important to be able to access the data produced by the simulation and to discover logic defects in the design or the sequence of events.
A continuous dynamic simulation performs numerical solution of differential-algebraic equations or differential equations (either partial or ordinary). Periodically, the simulation program solves all the equations and uses the numbers to change the state and output of the simulation. Applications include flight simulators, construction and management simulation games, chemical process modeling, and simulations of electrical circuits. Originally, these kinds of simulations were actually implemented on analog computers, where the differential equations could be represented directly by various electrical components such as op-amps. By the late 1980s, however, most "analog" simulations were run on conventional digital computers that emulate the behavior of an analog computer.
A special type of discrete simulation that does not rely on a model with an underlying equation, but can nonetheless be represented formally, is agent-based simulation. In agent-based simulation, the individual entities (such as molecules, cells, trees or consumers) in the model are represented directly (rather than by their density or concentration) and possess an internal state and set of behaviors or rules that determine how the agent's state is updated from one time-step to the next.
Distributed models run on a network of interconnected computers, possibly through the Internet. Simulations dispersed across multiple host computers like this are often referred to as "distributed simulations". There are several standards for distributed simulation, including Aggregate Level Simulation Protocol (ALSP), Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS), the High Level Architecture (simulation) (HLA) and the Test and Training Enabling Architecture (TENA).
Visualization[edit]
Formerly, the output data from a computer simulation was sometimes presented in a table or a matrix showing how data were affected by numerous changes in the simulation parameters. The use of the matrix format was related to traditional use of the matrix concept in mathematical models. However, psychologists and others noted that humans could quickly perceive trends by looking at graphs or even moving-images or motion-pictures generated from the data, as displayed by computer-generated-imagery (CGI) animation. Although observers could not necessarily read out numbers or quote math formulas, from observing a moving weather chart they might be able to predict events (and "see that rain was headed their way") much faster than by scanning tables of rain-cloud coordinates. Such intense graphical displays, which transcended the world of numbers and formulae, sometimes also led to output that lacked a coordinate grid or omitted timestamps, as if straying too far from numeric data displays. Today, weather forecasting models tend to balance the view of moving rain/snow clouds against a map that uses numeric coordinates and numeric timestamps of events.
Similarly, CGI computer simulations of CAT scans can simulate how a tumor might shrink or change during an extended period of medical treatment, presenting the passage of time as a spinning view of the visible human head, as the tumor changes.
Other applications of CGI computer simulations are being developed to graphically display large amounts of data, in motion, as changes occur during a simulation run.
Computer simulation in science[edit]
Computer simulation of the process of osmosis
Generic examples of types of computer simulations in science, which are derived from an underlying mathematical description:
a numerical simulation of differential equations that cannot be solved analytically, theories that involve continuous systems such as phenomena in physical cosmology, fluid dynamics (e.g., climate models, roadway noise models, roadway air dispersion models), continuum mechanics and chemical kinetics fall into this category.
a stochastic simulation, typically used for discrete systems where events occur probabilistically and which cannot be described directly with differential equations (this is a discrete simulation in the above sense). Phenomena in this category include genetic drift, biochemical or gene regulatory networks with small numbers of molecules. (see also: Monte Carlo method).
multiparticle simulation of the response of nanomaterials at multiple scales to an applied force for the purpose of modeling their thermoelastic and thermodynamic properties. Techniques used for such simulations are Molecular dynamics, Molecular mechanics, Monte Carlo method, and Multiscale Green's function.
Specific examples of computer simulations follow:
statistical simulations based upon an agglomeration of a large number of input profiles, such as the forecasting of equilibrium temperature of receiving waters, allowing the gamut of meteorological data to be input for a specific locale. This technique was developed for thermal pollution forecasting.
agent based simulation has been used effectively in ecology, where it is often called "individual based modeling" and is used in situations for which individual variability in the agents cannot be neglected, such as population dynamics of salmon and trout (most purely mathematical models assume all trout behave identically).
time stepped dynamic model. In hydrology there are several such hydrology transport models such as the SWMM and DSSAM Models developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for river water quality forecasting.
computer simulations have also been used to formally model theories of human cognition and performance, e.g., ACT-R.
computer simulation using molecular modeling for drug discovery.[8]
computer simulation for studying the selective sensitivity of bonds by mechanochemistry during grinding of organic molecules.[9]
Computational fluid dynamics simulations are used to simulate the behaviour of flowing air, water and other fluids. One-, two- and three-dimensional models are used. A one-dimensional model might simulate the effects of water hammer in a pipe. A two-dimensional model might be used to simulate the drag forces on the cross-section of an aeroplane wing. A three-dimensional simulation might estimate the heating and cooling requirements of a large building.
An understanding of statistical thermodynamic molecular theory is fundamental to the appreciation of molecular solutions. Development of the Potential Distribution Theorem (PDT) allows this complex subject to be simplified to down-to-earth presentations of molecular theory.
Notable, and sometimes controversial, computer simulations used in science include: Donella Meadows' World3 used in the Limits to Growth, James Lovelock's Daisyworld and Thomas Ray's Tierra.
In social sciences, computer simulation is an integral component of the five angles of analysis fostered by the data percolation methodology,[10] which also includes qualitative and quantitative methods, reviews of the literature (including scholarly), and interviews with experts, and which forms an extension of data triangulation.
Simulation environments for physics and engineering[edit]
Graphical environments to design simulations have been developed. Special care was taken to handle events (situations in which the simulation equations are not valid and have to be changed). The open project Open Source Physics was started to develop reusable libraries for simulations in Java, together with Easy Java Simulations, a complete graphical environment that generates code based on these libraries.
Computer simulation in practical contexts[edit]
Computer simulations are used in a wide variety of practical contexts, such as:
analysis of air pollutant dispersion using atmospheric dispersion modeling
design of complex systems such as aircraft and also logistics systems.
design of noise barriers to effect roadway noise mitigation
modeling of application performance[11]
flight simulators to train pilots
weather forecasting
forecasting of risk
simulation of electrical circuits
simulation of other computers is emulation.
forecasting of prices on financial markets (for example Adaptive Modeler)
behavior of structures (such as buildings and industrial parts) under stress and other conditions
design of industrial processes, such as chemical processing plants
strategic management and organizational studies
reservoir simulation for the petroleum engineering to model the subsurface reservoir
process engineering simulation tools.
robot simulators for the design of robots and robot control algorithms
urban simulation models that simulate dynamic patterns of urban development and responses to urban land use and transportation policies. See a more detailed article on Urban Environment Simulation.
traffic engineering to plan or redesign parts of the street network from single junctions over cities to a national highway network to transportation system planning, design and operations. See a more detailed article on Simulation in Transportation.
modeling car crashes to test safety mechanisms in new vehicle models.
crop-soil systems in agriculture, via dedicated software frameworks (e.g. BioMA, OMS3, APSIM)
The reliability and the trust people put in computer simulations depends on the validity of the simulation model, therefore verification and validation are of crucial importance in the development of computer simulations. Another important aspect of computer simulations is that of reproducibility of the results, meaning that a simulation model should not provide a different answer for each execution. Although this might seem obvious, this is a special point of attention in stochastic simulations, where random numbers should actually be semi-random numbers. An exception to reproducibility are human-in-the-loop simulations such as flight simulations and computer games. Here a human is part of the simulation and thus influences the outcome in a way that is hard, if not impossible, to reproduce exactly.
Vehicle manufacturers make use of computer simulation to test safety features in new designs. By building a copy of the car in a physics simulation environment, they can save the hundreds of thousands of dollars that would otherwise be required to build and test a unique prototype. Engineers can step through the simulation milliseconds at a time to determine the exact stresses being put upon each section of the prototype.[12]
Computer graphics can be used to display the results of a computer simulation. Animations can be used to experience a simulation in real-time, e.g., in training simulations. In some cases animations may also be useful in faster than real-time or even slower than real-time modes. For example, faster than real-time animations can be useful in visualizing the buildup of queues in the simulation of humans evacuating a building. Furthermore, simulation results are often aggregated into static images using various ways of scientific visualization.
In debugging, simulating a program execution under test (rather than executing natively) can detect far more errors than the hardware itself can detect and, at the same time, log useful debugging information such as instruction trace, memory alterations and instruction counts. This technique can also detect buffer overflow and similar "hard to detect" errors as well as produce performance information and tuning data.
Pitfalls[edit]
Although sometimes ignored in computer simulations, it is very important to perform a sensitivity analysis to ensure that the accuracy of the results is properly understood. For example, the probabilistic risk analysis of factors determining the success of an oilfield exploration program involves combining samples from a variety of statistical distributions using the Monte Carlo method. If, for instance, one of the key parameters (e.g., the net ratio of oil-bearing strata) is known to only one significant figure, then the result of the simulation might not be more precise than one significant figure, although it might (misleadingly) be presented as having four significant figures.
Model calibration techniques[edit]
The following three steps should be used to produce accurate simulation models: calibration, verification, and validation. Computer simulations are good at portraying and comparing theoretical scenarios, but in order to accurately model actual case studies they have to match what is actually happening today. A base model should be created and calibrated so that it matches the area being studied. The calibrated model should then be verified to ensure that the model is operating as expected based on the inputs. Once the model has been verified, the final step is to validate the model by comparing the outputs to historical data from the study area. This can be done by using statistical techniques and ensuring an adequate R-squared value. Unless these techniques are employed, the simulation model created will produce inaccurate results and not be a useful prediction tool.
Model calibration is achieved by adjusting any available parameters in order to adjust how the model operates and simulates the process. For example, in traffic simulation, typical parameters include look-ahead distance, car-following sensitivity, discharge headway, and start-up lost time. These parameters influence driver behavior such as when and how long it takes a driver to change lanes, how much distance a driver leaves between his car and the car in front of it, and how quickly a driver starts to accelerate through an intersection. Adjusting these parameters has a direct effect on the amount of traffic volume that can traverse through the modeled roadway network by making the drivers more or less aggressive. These are examples of calibration parameters that can be fine-tuned to match characteristics observed in the field at the study location. Most traffic models have typical default values but they may need to be adjusted to better match the driver behavior at the specific location being studied.
Model verification is achieved by obtaining output data from the model and comparing them to what is expected from the input data. For example, in traffic simulation, traffic volume can be verified to ensure that actual volume throughput in the model is reasonably close to traffic volumes input into the model. Ten percent is a typical threshold used in traffic simulation to determine if output volumes are reasonably close to input volumes. Simulation models handle model inputs in different ways so traffic that enters the network, for example, may or may not reach its desired destination. Additionally, traffic that wants to enter the network may not be able to, if congestion exists. This is why model verification is a very important part of the modeling process.
The final step is to validate the model by comparing the results with what is expected based on historical data from the study area. Ideally, the model should produce similar results to what has happened historically. This is typically verified by nothing more than quoting the R-squared statistic from the fit. This statistic measures the fraction of variability that is accounted for by the model. A high R-squared value does not necessarily mean the model fits the data well. Another tool used to validate models is graphical residual analysis. If model output values drastically differ from historical values, it probably means there is an error in the model. Before using the model as a base to produce additional models, it is important to verify it for different scenarios to ensure that each one is accurate. If the outputs do not reasonably match historic values during the validation process, the model should be reviewed and updated to produce results more in line with expectations. It is an iterative process that helps to produce more realistic models.
Validating traffic simulation models requires comparing traffic estimated by the model to observed traffic on the roadway and transit systems. Initial comparisons are for trip interchanges between quadrants, sectors, or other large areas of interest. The next step is to compare traffic estimated by the models to traffic counts, including transit ridership, crossing contrived barriers in the study area. These are typically called screenlines, cutlines, and cordon lines and may be imaginary or actual physical barriers. Cordon lines surround particular areas such as a city's central business district or other major activity centers. Transit ridership estimates are commonly validated by comparing them to actual patronage crossing cordon lines around the central business district.
Three sources of error can cause weak correlation during calibration: input error, model error, and parameter error. In general, input error and parameter error can be adjusted easily by the user. Model error however is caused by the methodology used in the model and may not be as easy to fix. Simulation models are typically built using several different modeling theories that can produce conflicting results. Some models are more generalized while others are more detailed. If model error occurs as a result, in may be necessary to adjust the model methodology to make results more consistent.
In order to produce good models that can be used to produce realistic results, these are the necessary steps that need to be taken in order to ensure that simulation models are functioning properly. Simulation models can be used as a tool to verify engineering theories, but they are only valid if calibrated properly. Once satisfactory estimates of the parameters for all models have been obtained, the models must be checked to assure that they adequately perform the intended functions. The validation process establishes the credibility of the model by demonstrating its ability to replicate actual traffic patterns. The importance of model validation underscores the need for careful planning, thoroughness and accuracy of the input data collection program that has this purpose. Efforts should be made to ensure collected data is consistent with expected values. For example, in traffic analysis it is typical for a traffic engineer to perform a site visit to verify traffic counts and become familiar with traffic patterns in the area. The resulting models and forecasts will be no better than the data used for model estimation and validation.
See also[edit]
A 48-hour computer simulation of Typhoon Mawar using the Weather Research and Forecasting model
Software portal
List of computer simulation software
Emulator
Energy modeling
Stencil code
Virtual prototyping
Web-based simulation
References[edit]
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (May 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Jump up ^ Strogatz, Steven (2007). "The End of Insight". In Brockman, John. What is your dangerous idea?. HarperCollins. ISBN 9780061214950
Jump up ^ " "Researchers stage largest Military Simulation ever" Archived 2008-01-22 at the Wayback Machine., Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Caltech, December 1997,
Jump up ^ "Molecular Simulation of Macroscopic Phenomena". Archived from the original on 2013-05-22.
Jump up ^ "Largest computational biology simulation mimics life's most essential nanomachine" (news), News Release, Nancy Ambrosiano, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, October 2005, webpage: LANL-Fuse-story7428 Archived 2007-07-04 at the Wayback Machine..
Jump up ^ "Mission to build a simulated brain begins" Archived 2015-02-09 at the Wayback Machine., project of the institute at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland, New Scientist, June 2005.
Jump up ^ Santner, Thomas J; Williams, Brian J; Notz, William I (2003). The design and analysis of computer experiments. Springer Verlag.
Jump up ^ John Robert Taylor (1999). An Introduction to Error Analysis: The Study of Uncertainties in Physical Measurements. University Science Books. pp. 128–129. ISBN 0-935702-75-X. Archived from the original on 2015-03-16.
Jump up ^ Atanasov AG, Waltenberger B, Pferschy-Wenzig EM, Linder T, Wawrosch C, Uhrin P, Temml V, Wang L, Schwaiger S, Heiss EH, Rollinger JM, Schuster D, Breuss JM, Bochkov V, Mihovilovic MD, Kopp B, Bauer R, Dirsch VM, Stuppner H. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2015.08.001 Discovery and resupply of pharmacologically active plant-derived natural products: A review.] Biotechnol Adv. 2015, PMID 26281720.
Jump up ^ Mizukami, Koichi ; Saito, Fumio ; Baron, Michel. Study on grinding of pharmaceutical products with an aid of computer simulation Archived 2011-07-21 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Mesly, Olivier (2015). Creating Models in Psychological Research. United States: Springer Psychology: 126 pages. ISBN 978-3-319-15752-8
Jump up ^ Wescott, Bob (2013). The Every Computer Performance Book, Chapter 7: Modeling Computer Performance. CreateSpace. ASIN 1482657759. ISBN 1482657759. Archived from the original on 2015-07-26. CS1 maint: ASIN uses ISBN (link)
Jump up ^ Baase, Sara. A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and Ethical Issues for Computing and the Internet. 3. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2007. Pages 363–364. ISBN 0-13-600848-8.
Further reading[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Computer simulation.
"A Resource Allocation Framework for Experiment-Based Validation of Numerical Models," Journal of Mechanics of Advanced Materials and Structures (Taylor & Francis).
Young, Joseph and Findley, Michael. 2014. "Computational Modeling to Study Conflicts and Terrorism." Handbook of Research Methods in Military Studies edited by Soeters, Joseph; Shields, Patricia and Rietjens, Sebastiaan. pp. 249–260. New York: Routledge,
R. Frigg and S. Hartmann, Models in Science. Entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
E. Winsberg Simulation in Science. Entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
A.K. Hartmann, Practical Guide to Computer Simulations, Singapore: World Scientific, 2009
S. Hartmann, The World as a Process: Simulations in the Natural and Social Sciences, in: R. Hegselmann et al. (eds.), Modelling and Simulation in the Social Sciences from the Philosophy of Science Point of View, Theory and Decision Library. Dordrecht: Kluwer 1996, 77–100.
E. Winsberg, Science in the Age of Computer Simulation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010.
P. Humphreys, Extending Ourselves: Computational Science, Empiricism, and Scientific Method. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
James J. Nutaro (2011). Building Software for Simulation: Theory and Algorithms, with Applications in C++. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-09945-2.
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