text:
Piano Quartet (Schumann)
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The Piano Quartet in E flat major, Op. 47, by Robert Schumann was written in 1842. It has been described as the "creative double" of Schumann's Piano Quintet, also in E-flat major. It is one of the most frequently performed and recorded piano quartets in the standard repertoire.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Form
2.1 First Movement: Sostenuto assai - Allegro ma non troppo
2.2 Second Movement: Scherzo: Molto vivace - Trio I - Trio II
2.3 Third Movement: Andante cantabile
2.4 Finale: Finale: Vivace
3 Footnotes
4 External links
Background[edit]
The work was composed in 1842, during Schumann's "Chamber Music Year." Prior to that year Schumann had completed no chamber music at all with the exception of an early piano quartet (in 1829). However, during his year-long concentration on the genre he wrote three string quartets and a piano quintet in addition to the piano quartet.
According to John Daverio, the work shows the influence of Franz Schubert's second piano trio, also in E-flat Major.[2]
Form[edit]
The piece is in four movements:
Sostenuto assai - Allegro ma non troppo
Scherzo: Molto vivace - Trio I - Trio II
Andante cantabile
Finale: Vivace
First Movement: Sostenuto assai - Allegro ma non troppo[edit]
Second Movement: Scherzo: Molto vivace - Trio I - Trio II[edit]
This skittering movement resembles the "elfin scherzos" of Mendelssohn.[3]
Third Movement: Andante cantabile[edit]
A deeply romantic and song-like, melodic movement, with the cello prominent.
Finale: Finale: Vivace[edit]
A heavily contrapuntal movement built upon the three-note figure introduced in the coda of the preceding movement.[4]
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ John Daverio, 'Robert Schumann: Herald of a "New Poetic Age."' (1997, Oxford), p. 259
Jump up ^ John Daverio, 'Robert Schumann: Herald of a "New Poetic Age."' (1997, Oxford), p. 51
Jump up ^ John Daverio, 'Robert Schumann: Herald of a "New Poetic Age."' (1997, Oxford), p. 253
Jump up ^ John Daverio, 'Robert Schumann: Herald of a "New Poetic Age."' (1997, Oxford), p. 259-60
External links[edit]
Piano Quartet: Scores at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)
Performance by the Musicians from Marlboro from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in MP3 format
[hide]
v
t
e
Chamber music by Robert Schumann
Duos
Fantasy Pieces for Clarinet and Piano, Op. 73
Three Romances for Oboe and Piano, Op. 94
Violin Sonata No. 1 in A minor, Op. 105
Violin Sonata No. 2 in D minor, Op. 121
Märchenbilder for Viola and Piano, Op. 113
Trios
Piano Trio No. 1 in D minor, Op. 63
Piano Trio No. 2 in F, Op. 80
Piano Trio No. 3 in G minor, Op. 110
Quartets & Quintets
String Quartet No. 1 in A minor, Op. 41 No. 1
String Quartet No. 2 in F, Op. 41 No. 2
String Quartet No. 3 in A, Op. 41 No. 3
Piano Quartet in E♭, Op. 47
Piano Quintet in E♭, Op. 44
List of compositions by Robert Schumann
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Right-to-work law
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the U.S. laws prohibiting mandated union membership and dues. For the human right concept, see right to work. For the Indian law, see National Rural Employment Guarantee Act.
"Right-to-work laws" are statutes in 28 U.S. states that prohibit union security agreements between companies and workers' unions. Under these laws, employees in unionized workplaces are banned from negotiating contracts which require all members who benefit from the union contract to contribute to the costs of union representation.[1]
According to the Legal Defense Foundation, right-to-work laws prohibit union security agreements, or agreements between employers and labor unions, that govern the extent to which an established union can require employees' membership, payment of union dues, or fees as a condition of employment, either before or after hiring. Right-to-work laws do not aim to provide general guarantee of employment to people seeking work, but rather are a government ban on contractual agreements between employers and union employees requiring workers to pay for the costs of union representation. [2]
Unions are already governed by regulations and laws, including public policy on labor-management relations. Typically, unions are organized by industry (e.g., healthcare, restaurant, steel workers, teachers, state government- professional, non-professional), and they are required to be voted in by employees. Union employees can vote to keep or get rid of their union through a decertification vote, and regularly negotiate and vote on their working conditions protected by a legally enforceable contract. Union workers in states without right-to-work restrictions can choose whether to require all employees benefiting from the contract to contribute.
Right-to-work provisions (either by law or by constitutional provision) exist in 28 U.S. states, mostly in the southern and western United States, but also including the Midwestern states of Michigan,[3] Indiana,[4] and Wisconsin.[5] Business interests represented by the United States Chamber of Commerce have lobbied extensively to pass right-to-work legislation.[6][7] Such laws are allowed under the 1947 federal Taft–Hartley Act. A further distinction is often made within the law between people employed by state and municipal governments and those employed by the private sector, with states that are otherwise union shop (i.e., workers must pay for union representation in order to obtain or retain a job) having right to work laws in effect for government employees; provided, however, that the law also permits an "agency shop" where employees pay their share for representation (less than union dues), while not joining the union as members.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Origins
1.2 Wagner Act (1935)
1.3 Taft–Hartley Act (1947)
1.4 Current status
2 Arguments
2.1 In favor
2.1.1 Minority rights and due process
2.1.2 Freedom of association
2.1.3 Unfairness
2.1.4 Political contributions
2.1.5 Cost of Living
2.2 Opposed
2.2.1 Free riders
2.2.2 Freedom of contract and association
2.2.3 Corporate interests
3 Studies of economic effect
4 Polling
5 U.S. states with right-to-work laws
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
8.1 Opposed to right-to-work laws
8.2 Supported right-to-work laws
History[edit]
Origins[edit]
According to Slate, "right-to-work" laws are derived from legislation forbidding unions from forcing strikes on workers, as well as from legal principles such as "liberty of contract," which as applied here sought to prevent passage of laws regulating workplace conditions.[8]
According to PandoDaily and NSFWCORP, the term itself was coined by Vance Muse, a Republican operative who headed an early "right-to-work" group, the "Christian American Association", to replace the term "American Plan" after it became associated with the anti-union violence of the First Red Scare.[9][10] Muse used racist rhetoric in his defense of "right-to-work" laws.[9][10]
According to the Conservative think tank, the American Enterprise Institute, the term "right to work" was coined by Dallas Morning News editorial writer William Ruggles.[11]
(An unrelated use of term "right to work" had been coined by French socialist leader Louis Blanc before 1848.[12])
Wagner Act (1935)[edit]
The National Labor Relations Act, generally known as the Wagner Act, was passed in 1935 as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's "Second New Deal." Among other things, the Act provided that a company could lawfully agree to be any of the following:
A closed shop, in which employees must be members of the union as a condition of employment. Under a closed shop, an employee who ceased being a member of the union for whatever reason, from failure to pay dues to expulsion from the union as an internal disciplinary punishment, was required to be fired even if the employee did not violate any of the employer's rules.
A union shop, which allows for hiring non-union employees, provided that the employees then join the union within a certain period.
An agency shop, in which employees must pay the equivalent of the cost of union representation, but need not formally join the union.
An open shop, in which an employee cannot be compelled to join or pay the equivalent of dues to a union or be fired for joining the union.[13]
The Act tasked the National Labor Relations Board, which had existed since 1933, with overseeing the rules.
Taft–Hartley Act (1947)[edit]
In 1947 Congress passed the Labor Management Relations Act of 1947, generally known as the Taft–Hartley Act, over President Harry S. Truman's veto. The Act repealed some parts of the Wagner Act, including outlawing the closed shop. Section 14(b) of the Taft–Hartley Act also authorizes individual states (but not local governments, such as cities or counties) to outlaw the union shop and agency shop for employees working in their jurisdictions. Any state law that outlaws such arrangements is known as a "right-to-work state."
In the early development of the right-to-work policy, segregationist sentiment was used as an argument, as many people in the South felt that it was wrong for blacks and whites to belong to the same unions. Vance Muse, one of the early developers of the policy in Texas, used that argument in the development of anti-union laws in Texas in the 1940s.[14]
Current status[edit]
The federal government operates under open shop rules nationwide, but many of its employees are represented by unions. Unions that represent professional athletes have written contracts that include particular representation provisions (such as in the National Football League),[15] but their application is limited to "wherever and whenever legal," as the Supreme Court has clearly held that the application of a right-to-work law is determined by the employee's "predominant job situs."[16] Players on professional sports teams in states with right-to-work laws are thus subject to those laws and cannot be required to pay any portion of union dues as a condition of continued employment.[17]
Twenty-two states, as well as the District of Columbia, do not have right-to-work laws. Missouri's is on hold after a petition called for a statewide vote on the issue.
On November 18, 2016, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the right of local governments to enact local right-to-work laws in Kentucky, Ohio, and the other states of its jurisdiction.[18]
Arguments[edit]
In favor[edit]
Minority rights and due process[edit]
The first arguments concerning the right to work centered around the rights of a dissenting minority with respect to an opposing majoritarian collective bargain. President Franklin Roosevelt's "New Deal" had prompted many U.S. Supreme Court challenges, among which were challenges regarding the constitutionality of the National Industry Recovery Act of 1933 (NIRA). In 1936, as a part of its ruling in Carter v. Carter Coal Co. the Court ruled against mandatory collective bargaining, stating:
The effect, in respect to wages and hours, is to subject the dissentient minority ... to the will of the stated majority .... To ‘accept’ in these circumstances, is not to exercise a choice, but to surrender to force. The power conferred upon the majority is, in effect, the power to regulate the affairs of an unwilling minority. This is legislative delegation in its most obnoxious form; for it is not even delegation to an official or an official body ... but to private persons .... [A] statute which attempts to confer such power undertakes an intolerable and unconstitutional interference with personal liberty and private property. The delegation is so clearly arbitrary, and so clearly a denial of rights safeguarded by the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment, that it is unnecessary to do more than refer to decisions of this Court which foreclose the question.[19]
Freedom of association[edit]
Besides the U.S. Supreme Court, other proponents of right-to-work laws also point to the Constitution and the right to freedom of association. They argue that workers should both be free to join unions or to refrain, and thus, sometimes refer to non-right-to-work states as "forced unionism" states. These proponents argue that by being forced into a collective bargain, what the majoritarian unions call a fair share of collective bargaining costs is actually "financial coercion and a violation of freedom of choice." An opponent to the union bargain is forced to "financially support an organization they did not vote for, in order to receive monopoly representation they have no choice over."[20]
Some religions, such as the Seventh-Day Adventist Church, prohibit or discourage the joining of unions,[21] citing Ellen White and the Loss of Free Will if you join a union.[clarification needed]
Unfairness[edit]
Proponents such as the Mackinac Center for Public Policy contend that it is unfair that unions can require new and existing employees to either join the union or pay fees for collective bargaining expenses as a condition of employment under union security agreement contracts.[22] Other proponents contend that unions may still be needed in new and growing sectors of the economy, for example, the voluntary and third party sectors, to assure adequate benefits for new immigrant, "part-time" aides in America (e.g., US Direct Support Workforce).
Political contributions[edit]
Right-to-work proponents, including the Center for Union Facts, contend that political contributions made by unions are not representative of the union workers.[23] The agency shop portion of this had previously been contested with support of National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation in Communications Workers of America v. Beck, resulting in "Beck rights" preventing agency fees from being used for expenses outside of collective bargaining if the non-union worker notifies the union of their objection.[24]
Cost of Living[edit]
States enforcing union security provisions in union collective bargaining agreements generally have a higher cost of living.[25] [26] While union-enhancing policies may not be the only factor creating a higher cost of living, this correlation rebuts the assertion that right-to-work policies cause lower salaries.
Opposed[edit]
Free riders[edit]
This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: article needs a coherent summary of arguments by someone at least slightly familiar with the subject Please help improve this article if you can. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Opponents such as Richard Kahlenberg have argued that while it is an effective political slogan, the phrase "right-to-work" is a misnomer because the lack of such a law does not deprive anyone of the right to work. The Taft–Hartley Act (1947) outlawed the union-only "closed shops" which did deprive people of the right to work, and the "right to work" doesn't eliminate a worker's option of joining a work or labor union. A right-to-work law simply "gives employees the right to be free riders—to benefit from collective bargaining without paying for it".[27][28][6][29] Under labor laws in the United States, the union as the exclusive collective bargaining agent has a duty of fair representation for all persons in the bargaining unit, including those who choose not to be members and pay dues. Thus, in Abood v. Detroit Board of Education, the Supreme Court of the United States permitted agency fees so that employees in the public sector could be required to pay for the costs of representation, even as they opted not to be a member. The right to challenge the fees must include the right to have it heard by an impartial fact finder.[30]
Freedom of contract and association[edit]
Opponents argue that right-to-work laws restrict freedom of association, and limit the sorts of agreements individuals acting collectively can make with their employer, by prohibiting workers and employers from agreeing to contracts that include "fair share fees". Moreover, American law imposes a duty of fair representation on unions; consequently non-members in right to work states can and do force unions to provide without compensation grievance services that are paid for by union members.[31] Hence right-to-work laws are not neutral, but rather impose an active and artificial burden on labor unions.
In December 2012, libertarian writer J.D. Tuccille, in Reason magazine, wrote:
I consider the restrictions right-to-work laws impose on bargaining between unions and businesses to violate freedom of contract and association. ... I'm disappointed that the state has, once again, inserted itself into the marketplace to place its thumb on the scale in the never-ending game of playing business and labor off against one another. ... This is not to say that unions are always good. It means that, when the state isn't involved, they're private organizations that can offer value to their members.[32]
Corporate interests[edit]
Critics from organized labor have pointed out since the late 1970s[33] that while the National Right to Work Committee purports to engage in grass-roots lobbying on behalf of the "little guy", the National Right to Work Committee was formed by a group of southern businessmen with the express purpose of fighting unions, and that they "added a few workers for the purpose of public relations".[34]
The unions also contend that the National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation and National Right to Work Committee have received millions of dollars in grants from foundations controlled by major U.S. industrialists like the New York-based Olin Foundation, Inc., which grew out of a family manufacturing business, but now funds primarily conservative think tanks, media outlets, and university law programs.[34][35]
Kahlenberg and Marvit also argue that, at least in efforts to pass a right-to-work law in Michigan, excluding police and firefighter unions—traditionally less hostile to Republicans—from the law caused some to question claims that the law was simply an effort to improve Michigan's businesses climate, not to seek partisan advantage.[27]
Corporate interests have now involved the growing non-profit and voluntary sectors of the economy which "achieved parity in wages and benefits" to the state, unionized workforces, while not assuring provisions such as adverse hearings which benefit employees.
Studies of economic effect[edit]
According to Tim Bartik of the W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, studies of the effect of right-to-work laws "abound," but are not "consistent." Studies have found both "some positive effect on job growth," and no effect.[36] Thomas Holmes argues that it is difficult to analyze right-to-work laws by comparing states due to other similarities between states that have passed these laws. For instance, right-to-work states often have some strong pro-business policies, making it difficult to isolate the effect of right-to-work laws.[37] Looking at the growth of states in the Southeast following World War II, Bartik notes that while they have right-to-work laws they have also benefited from "factors like the widespread use of air conditioning and different modes of transportation that helped decentralize manufacturing".[38]
Economist Thomas Holmes compared counties close to the border between states with and without right-to-work laws (thereby holding constant an array of factors related to geography and climate). He found that the cumulative growth of employment in manufacturing in the right-to-work states was 26 percentage points greater than that in the non-right-to-work states.[39] However, given the study design, Holmes points out "my results do not say that it is right-to-work laws that matter, but rather that the 'probusiness package' offered by right-to-work states seems to matter."[40] Moreover, as noted by Kevin Drum and others, this result may reflect business relocation rather than an overall enhancement of economic growth, since "businesses prefer locating in states where costs are low and rules are lax."[41]
A February 2011 study by the Economic Policy Institute found:[28]
Wages in right-to-work states are 3.2% lower than those in non-RTW states, after controlling for a full complement of individual demographic and socioeconomic variables as well as state macroeconomic indicators. Using the average wage in non-RTW states as the base ($22.11), the average full-time, full-year worker in an RTW state makes about $1,500 less annually than a similar worker in a non-RTW state. The study goes on to say "How much of this difference can be attributed to RTW status itself? There is an inherent “endogeneity” problem in any attempt to answer that question, namely that RTW and non-RTW states differ on a wide variety of measures that are also related to compensation, making it difficult to isolate the impact of RTW status."[28]
The rate of employer-sponsored health insurance (ESI) is 2.6 percentage points lower in RTW states compared with non-RTW states, after controlling for individual, job, and state-level characteristics. If workers in non-RTW states were to receive ESI at this lower rate, 2 million fewer workers nationally would be covered.
The rate of employer-sponsored pensions is 4.8 percentage points lower in RTW states, using the full complement of control variables in [the study's] regression model. If workers in non-RTW states were to receive pensions at this lower rate, 3.8 million fewer workers nationally would have pensions.
A 2008 editorial in The Wall Street Journal comparing job growth in Ohio and Texas stated that from 1998 to 2008, Ohio lost 10,400 jobs, while Texas gained 1,615,000. The opinion piece suggested right-to-work laws might be among the reasons for the economic expansion in Texas, along with the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the absence of a state income tax in Texas.[42] Another Wall Street Journal editorial in 2012, by the president and the labor policy director of the Mackinac Center for Public Policy, reported 71% employment growth in right-to-work states from 1980 to 2011, while employment in non-right-to-work states grew just 32% during the same period.[43] The 2012 editorial also stated that since 2001, compensation in right-to-work states had increased 4 times faster than in other states.[43]
Polling[edit]
In January 2012, in the immediate aftermath of passage of Indiana's right-to-work law, Rasmussen Reports found that 74% of likely U.S. voters supported right-to-work laws, but "most also don’t think a non-union worker should enjoy benefits negotiated by the union."[44]
In Michigan in January through March 2013, a poll found that 43 percent of those polled thought the law would help Michigan's economy, while 41 percent thought it would hurt.[45]
U.S. states with right-to-work laws[edit]
Right-to-work states shown in turquoise.
The following states (28) are right-to-work states:
Alabama (adopted 1953, Constitution 2016)
Arizona (Constitution, State Constitution Article 25 approved 1946)[46] (adopted 1944)
Arkansas (Constitution, 1947, Amendment 34)
Florida (Constitution, 1944, revised 1968, Article 1, Section 6)[47]
Georgia (adopted 1947)
Idaho (adopted 1985)
Indiana[4] (State law, 2012)
Iowa (adopted 1947)
Kansas (Constitution, 1958, Article 15, Section 12)
Kentucky (adopted 2017)
Louisiana (adopted 1976)
Michigan (State law, 2012)[3]
Mississippi (Constitution, adopted 1954)
Missouri (adopted 2017) (Postponed by petition to 2018 for citizen voting)
Nebraska (Constitution and statute, adopted 1946)
Nevada (adopted 1951)
North Carolina (adopted 1947)
North Dakota (adopted 1947)
Oklahoma (Constitution, adopted 2001)
South Carolina[48] (adopted 1954)
South Dakota (adopted 1946)
Tennessee (adopted 1947)
Texas[49] (adopted 1947, revised 1993)
Utah (adopted 1955)
Virginia (adopted 1947)
West Virginia (adopted 2016) (Went into effect September 2017 due to lower court injunctions)
Wisconsin (adopted 2015)
Wyoming (adopted 1963)
In addition, the territory of Guam also has right-to-work laws, and employees of the US Federal Government have the right to choose whether or not to join their respective unions.[50]
New Hampshire adopted a right-to-work bill in 1947, but it was repealed in 1949 by the state legislature and governor.[51]
See also[edit]
At-will employment
Closed shop/open shop
United States labor law
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Employer/Union Rights and Obligations". National Labor Relations Board. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
Jump up ^ Baird, Charles W. "Right to work before and after 14 (b)." Journal of Labor Research 19.3 (1998): 471-493.
^ Jump up to: a b "Michigan passes 'right-to-work' legislation". BBC News. December 11, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Schneider, Mary Beth; Sikich, Chris (February 1, 2012). "Indiana Gov. Daniels signs 'right to work' bill; protest winds through Super Bowl Village". The Indianapolis Star. Retrieved February 1, 2012.
Jump up ^ Davey, Monica (March 9, 2015). "Gov. Scott Walker of Wisconsin Signs Bill Curbing Union Fees". The New York Times. Retrieved March 9, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "The South Carolina Governance Project — Interest Groups in South Carolina," Center for Governmental Services, Institute for Public Service and Policy Research, University of South Carolina, Accessed July 6, 2007.
Dinan, Elizabeth (January 14, 2011). "N.H. Rep. proposes right to work law". Seacoast Online. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
Jump up ^ Miller, Berkeley; Canak, William (1991). "From 'Porkchoppers' to 'Lambchoppers': The Passage of Florida's Public Employee Relations Act". Industrial and Labor Relations Review. 44 (2): 349–66. doi:10.2307/2524814. JSTOR 2524814.
Partridge, Dane M. (1997). "Virginia's New Ban on Public Employee Bargaining: A Case Study of Unions, Business, and Political Competition". Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal. 10 (2): 127–39. doi:10.1023/A:1025657412651.
Canak, William; Miller, Berkeley (1990). "Gumbo Politics: Unions, Business, and Louisiana Right-to-Work Legislation". Industrial and Labor Relations Review. 43 (2): 258–71. doi:10.2307/2523703. JSTOR 2523703.
Jump up ^ Palmer, Brian (December 12, 2012). "Why Are Anti-Union Laws Called "Right To Work"?". Slate. Retrieved February 11, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Ames, Mark (March 13, 2015). "As "Right To Work" becomes law in Wisconsin, a reminder of its inventor's racist past". PandoDaily. Retrieved February 11, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Ames, Mark (December 12, 2012). "You Hate "Right To Work" Laws More Than You Know. Here's Why". NSFWCORP. Retrieved February 11, 2018.
Jump up ^ Perry, Mark J. (September 1, 2014). "Dallas Morning News editorial writer William Ruggles coined the term "right to work" on Labor Day in 1941". AEIIdeas. American Enterprise Institute. Retrieved February 11, 2018.
Jump up ^ Robertson, Priscilla Smith (1952). Revolutions of 1848: A Social History. Princeton University Press. p. 69. ISBN 9780691007564.
Jump up ^ Roof, Tracy (2011). American Labor, Congress, and the Welfare State, 1935-2010. JHU Press. p. 73. ISBN 9781421400877.
Jump up ^ Colby, Gerard (1984). "Decade of Despair". Du Pont Dynasty: Behind the Nylon Curtain. Secaucus: Lyle Stewart.
"The racist roots of 'right to work' laws". Southernstudies.org. 2012-12-13. Retrieved 2015-05-02.
Ames, Mark. "As 'Right To Work' becomes law in Wisconsin, a reminder of its inventor's racist past". Pando.com. Retrieved 2015-05-02.
Muse, Vance (1986). "Making Peace with Grandfather". Texas Monthly. 14 (2): 142.
Mirer, J. (2013). "Right-to-Work Laws: History and Fightback". National Law. Guild Rev. 70: 30.
Jump up ^ NFL Collective Bargaining Agreement 2006-2012: Art. V, Sec. 1.
Jump up ^ Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers, Int'l Union v. Mobil Oil Corp., 426 U.S. 407, 414 (1976) (Marshall, J.).
Jump up ^ Orr v. National Football League Players Ass'n, 145 L.R.R.M. (BNA) 2224, 1993 WL 604063 (Va.Cir.Ct. 1993).
Jump up ^ "Appeals Court Upholds Local Right-to-Work Laws in Kentucky and Ohio". National Review. 2016-11-21. Retrieved 2016-12-08.
Jump up ^ Carter v. Carter Coal Co., 298 U. S. 238, at 311 (1936).
Jump up ^ Campbell, Simon. "Right-to-Work vs Forced Unionism". StopTeacherStrikes, Inc. Retrieved November 14, 2012. Fair share is compulsory dues. A non-union employee is forced to financially support an organization they did not vote for, in order to receive monopoly representation they have no choice over. It is financial coercion and a violation of freedom of choice. Money is forcibly withheld from non-union employees' paychecks and sent to a private organization. When an agency-shop agreement exists in a school district or county, every employee must pay dues to the union as a condition of their employment. They must pay-up or leave. Should anyone's ability to get or keep a job depend on whether they pay dues to a union? Non-union teachers have struggled in court to try and stop their forced dues from being used for political activity by the union.
Jump up ^ "What is the Adventist Church's stance on trade unions?". perspectives.adventist.org. 2016-10-04. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
Justice, Diana (2003-06-01). "Adventist Labor Unions". GleanerNow. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
"Lt 26, 1903 - Ellen G. White Writings". text.egwwritings.org. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
Jump up ^ Rae, La (1998-08-01). "Improvement #3: Remove Union Security Clauses [Mackinac Center]". Mackinac.org. Retrieved 2015-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Use of Dues for Politics". Center for Union Facts. Retrieved 2016-05-04.
Jump up ^ "How do I cut off the use of my dues for politics and other nonbargaining activities?". National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation. Retrieved 2016-05-04.
Jump up ^ Chokshi, Niraj (2016-08-08). "What $100 Can Buy, State by State". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2018-04-26.
Jump up ^ "Out Of Reach". National Low Income Housing Coalition. Retrieved 2018-04-26.
^ Jump up to: a b Kahlenberg, Richard D.; Marvit, Moshe Z. (December 13, 2012). "Right to Work" Isn't a Civil Right. But Unionizing Should Be".
^ Jump up to: a b c Gould, Elise; Shierholz, Heidi (2011). "The Compensation penalty of "right-to-work" laws"" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-12-11.
Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Steven (January 3, 2011). "States Seek Laws to Curb Power of Unions". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Gregory, David L. "1997-1998 Preview U.S. Sup. Ct. Cas. 392 (1997-1998): Contesting Union-Imposed Fees: Must Arbitration Precede Litigation (97-428)". heinonline: 392. Retrieved May 19, 2016.
Chicago Local Teachers Union v Hudson 475 U.S. 292. 310 (1986)
Jump up ^ "Employer/Union Rights and Obligations". National Labor Relations Board.
Jump up ^ Tuccille, J.D. (2012-12-12). "When Right-To-Work Is Wrong and Un-Libertarian - Hit & Run". Reason.com. Retrieved 2015-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Examining the opposition's tangled web — the who's who in the right wing". The Machinist. International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers, AFL-CIO/CLC. October 1977. p. 4.
^ Jump up to: a b "Questions and Answers about the National Right to Work Committee and the National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation" (PDF). United Auto Workers. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 6, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Meet the billionaires behind No Rights At Work". Teamster Nation. January 27, 2013. Retrieved February 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ Samples, Susan (December 12, 2012). "Studies mixed on right-to-work's impact". WOOD Television. Archived from the original on December 13, 2012.
Jump up ^ Holmes, Thomas J. (1998). "The Effect of State Policies on the Location of Manufacturing: Evidence from State Borders". Journal of Political Economy. 106 (4): 667–705. doi:10.1086/250026.
Jump up ^ Evans, Gordon (December 10, 2012). "Upjohn Institute economist on right to work laws". WMUK. Retrieved 2017-02-26.
Jump up ^ Barro, Robert (February 28, 2011). "Opinion: Unions vs. the Right to Work". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
Jump up ^ "The Location of Industry : Do States' Policies Matter?" (PDF). Cato.org. Retrieved 2015-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Unions and Growth". Motherjones.com. Retrieved 2015-05-02.
Jump up ^ Texas v. Ohio, "Texas is prospering while Ohio lags"| The Wall Street Journal| March 3, 2008| Accessed July 18, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b Vernuccio, Vincent; Lehman, Joseph G. (December 14, 2012). "Vernuccio and Lehman: An Inspiration and a Warning From Michigan". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved December 18, 2012.
Jump up ^ "74% Favor Right-to-Work Law Eliminating Mandatory Union Dues - Rasmussen Reports™". Rasmussenreports.com. 2012-01-31. Retrieved 2015-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Poll: Michigan evenly divided on right-to-work law". MLive.com. Retrieved 2015-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Right to Work Laws: Arizona | National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation". Nrtw.org. Retrieved 2015-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Florida Constitution". The Florida Legislature. Retrieved 2014-07-11.
"Right to Work States: Florida | National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation". Nrtw.org. Retrieved 2015-05-02.
Jump up ^ "South Carolina Code of Laws § 41-7-10".
Jump up ^ "State Right-to-Work Timeline". National Right to Work Committee. Retrieved 2017-10-29.
"LABOR CODE CHAPTER 101. LABOR ORGANIZATIONS". Statutes.legis.state.tx.us. Retrieved 2015-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Right to Work States: Guam | National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation". Nrtw.org. 2000-05-15. Retrieved 2015-05-02.
Jump up ^ "A Conservative's Guide to the "Right to Work" Bill". NH LABOR NEWS. 2017-01-09. Retrieved 2017-11-06.
External links[edit]
Find more aboutRight-to-work lawat Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Opposed to right-to-work laws[edit]
Wisconsin Contractor Coalition
Supported right-to-work laws[edit]
Wisconsin Manufacturers and Commerce
Michigan Chamber of Commerce
National Right to Work Committee
National Right to Work Legal Defense Fund
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Salamis Island
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Salamis.
Salamis
Σαλαμίνα
View of Salamina
Salamis
Location within the region [show]
Coordinates: 37°56′N 23°30′E / 37.933°N 23.500°E / 37.933; 23.500Coordinates: 37°56′N 23°30′E / 37.933°N 23.500°E / 37.933; 23.500
Country
Greece
Administrative region
Attica
Regional unit
Islands
Government
• Mayor
Ioannis Tsavaris (Ind.)
Area
• Municipality
96.16 km2 (37.13 sq mi)
Population (2011)[1]
• Municipality
39,283
• Municipality density
410/km2 (1,100/sq mi)
Time zone
EET (UTC+2)
• Summer (DST)
EEST (UTC+3)
Postal code
189 xx
Area code(s)
21
Vehicle registration
Y
Website
www.salamina.gr
Salamis (/ˈsæləmɪs/; Greek: Σαλαμίνα Salamína, Ancient and Katharevousa: Σαλαμίς Salamís),[2] is the largest Greek island in the Saronic Gulf, about 1 nautical mile (2 km) off-coast from Piraeus and about 16 kilometres (10 miles) west of Athens. The chief city, Salamina, lies in the west-facing core of the crescent on Salamis Bay, which opens into the Saronic Gulf. On the Eastern side of the island is its main port, Paloukia, in size second in Greece only to Piraeus, the port of Athens.
Contents
[hide]
1 Name
2 History
3 Geography
4 Municipality
5 Population
6 Villages in the municipal unit of Salamina
6.1 Paloukia
6.2 Aianteio
6.3 Batsi
6.4 Kaki Vigla
6.5 Agios Georgios
6.6 Peristeria
6.7 Psili Ammos
6.8 Steno
6.9 Vasilika
6.10 Xeno
7 Villages in the municipal unit of Ampelakia
7.1 Kynosoura
7.2 Selinia
8 Culture
8.1 Education
8.2 Recreational areas
8.3 Sports
8.4 Local newspapers and magazines
9 Landmarks
10 Noted people
10.1 Mythological and ancient people
10.2 Modern people
11 Twin towns / sister cities
12 Gallery
13 See also
14 References
15 External links
Name[edit]
The traditional etymology of Salamis derives it from the eponymous nymph Salamis, the mother of Cychreus, the legendary first king of the island. A more modern theory considers "Salamis" to come from the root sal 'salt' and -amis 'middle'; thus Salamis would be the place amid salt water.[2] Some scholars connect it to the Semitic root Š-L-M 'health, safety, peace', because of the well-sheltered harbor.[3]
From at least the 13th century until the 19th century, the town, the island, and the bay of Salamis were called Koulouri (Κουλούρι),[4] presumably because it was round like the bread called 'koulouri'. The ancient name was revived in the 19th century.[5] The name Koulouri is still used informally for the town.
History[edit]
Coin of Salamis, 339–318 BC. Obverse: Female head. Reverse: Boeotian shield (shield of Ajax) and sword in sheath
Salamis is mentioned in Homer's writings.
Salamis was probably first colonised by Aegina and later occupied by Megara, but became an Athenian possession in the time of Solon or Peisistratos, following the war between Athens and Megara around 600 BC.[6] According to Strabo, the ancient capital was at the south of the island; in classical times it was to the east, on the Kamatero Peninsula overlooking the Strait of Salamis; in modern times it is on the west.[7]
According to Homer's Iliad, Salamis took part in the Trojan War with twelve ships under the leadership of Ajax (Aias).[8]
Salamis island is known for the Battle of Salamis, the decisive naval victory of the allied Greek fleet, led by Themistocles, over the Persian Empire in 480 BC. It is said to be the birthplace of Ajax and Euripides, the latter's birth being popularly placed on the day of the battle. In modern times, it is home to Salamis Naval Base, headquarters for the Hellenic Navy.
The oldest known counting board was discovered on Salamis Island in 1899.[9] It is thought to have been used by the Babylonians in about 300 BC and is more of a gaming board rather than a calculating device. It is marble, about 150 cm × 75 cm × 4.5 cm (59 in × 30 in × 2 in), and has carved Greek symbols and parallel grooves.
During the German invasion of Greece in World War II, the harbor was bombed by the Luftwaffe on April 23, 1941, sinking the Greek battleships Kilkis and Lemnos.[10][11]
In the 1960s and 1970s, during the military junta period, changes in land legislation allowed the subdivision of land plots.[12] This opened the island to massive unplanned and unregulated urban and suburban development, including many weekend homes, especially along the northern and eastern coasts. The lack of corresponding investment in infrastructure, combined with heavy industry, has led to sea and beach pollution on this side of the island. There are, however, ongoing initiatives such as help from the European Union’s Cohesion Fund toward improving sewerage by 2008.[13]
Salamis island map
An oil spill occurred off the coast of Salamis Island in September 2017.[14]
Geography[edit]
Salamis has an area of 36 square miles (93 km2); its highest point is Mavrovouni at 1,325 feet (404 metres). A significant part of Salamis Island is rocky and mountainous. On the southern part of the island a pine forest is located, which is unusual for western Attica. Unfortunately, this forest is often a target for fires.[13] While the inland inhabitants are mainly employed within the agricultural sector, the majority of Salamis' inhabitants work in maritime occupations (fishing, ferries, and the island's shipyards) or commute to work in Athens.[15][16] The maritime industry is focused on the north-east coast of the island at the port of Paloukia (Παλούκια), where ferries to mainland Greece are based, and in the dockyards of Ampelakia and the north side of the Kynosoura peninsula.
Salamis Island is very popular for holiday and weekend visits from the Athens and Piraeus area; its population rises to 300,000 in peak season of which c. 31,000 are permanent inhabitants.[13] This supports a strong service industry sector, with many cafes, bars, ouzeries, tavernas and consumer goods shops throughout the island. On the south of the island, away from the port, there are a number of less developed areas with good swimming beaches including those of Aianteio, Maroudi, Perani, Peristeria, Kolones, Saterli, Selenia and Kanakia.[17]
Municipality[edit]
Salamis Island belongs to the Islands regional unit of the Attica region. Since the 2011 local government reform the island is administered as one municipality. Before, the island was divided into two municipalities, that became municipal units at the reform:[18]
Salamina
Ampelakia
In the municipal unit of Salamina, which has a land area of 80.992 square kilometres (31.271 sq mi)[19] and a 2011 census population of 31,776, the chief population centre is the city of Salamina (also called Salamis, Salamis City or Koulouris, pop. 25,888 in 2011), consisting of the districts Alonia, Agios Minas, Agios Dimitrios, Agios Nikolaos, Boskos, Nea Salamina, Tsami and Vourkari.[citation needed] Its second-largest town is Aiánteio (pop. 5,888). In the municipal unit of Ampelakia, which has a land area of 15.169 square kilometres (5.857 sq mi)[19] and a population of 7,507, the largest towns are Ampelakia (pop. 4,998) and Selinia (2,509).
Population[edit]
As of the mid-20th century, the majority of the inhabitants were Arvanite; a thing that changed during the past 20 years due to settlement of a lot of Athenians on the island to the degree that nowadays Arvanites are a fraction of the population, living mainly in Salamina town, Ampelakia and Moulki (Aianteion).[20] The island is known in Arvanitika as Κȣλλȣρι ("Koullouri").
Year
Salamina (town)
Salamina (municipal unit)
Salamis (island)
1981 20,807 25,215 30,402
1991 22,567 27,582 34,342
2001 25,730 30,962 38,022
2011 25,888 31,776 39,283
Villages in the municipal unit of Salamina[edit]
Salamis Naval Base
Batsi beach
Paloukia[edit]
Paloukia (Greek: Παλούκια, population 1,695) is located in the northeast of the island. Many ferryboats, fishing vessels and port police craft dock in this harbor. Paloukia is the base for the port police department of Salamina. Most visitors who come to Salamina first arrive at Paloukia via ferryboats that run between Paloukia and Perama or Piraeus.
The area is adjacent to the Salamis Naval Base (in Greek Nafstathmos), which is a major base of the Hellenic Navy.
Aianteio[edit]
Aianteio (Greek: Αιάντειο, population 4,860[21] as of March 16, 2011) is a large village in the southwestern part of Salamis Island and is named after Ajax, "King of the Salamis", from Homer's Iliad. The village was known as Moulki (Μούλκι) until 1915.[22] In the region, there are churches from the 11th and 12th centuries such as Saint John and Saint Dimitrios.
Interesting places to visit are:
the oldest church in the island, Saint John the "Kalyvitis", which dates back to the 10th century and has remarkable hagiographies
the monastery of Saint Nicolas which dates back to the 18th century and is situated in a forest.
Batsi[edit]
Batsi (Greek: Μπατσί) is a little community (population 212) in the north of Salamis, in the municipality of Salamis, located at the foot of a piney mountain, about 6 to 8 km (4 to 5 mi) east of Megara.
In the mountain, there is a cave of archeological interest that has not been investigated yet. In the winter there are few tourists; it is more popular with vacationers from Athens during the summer months.
Kaki Vigla[edit]
The Stone Lighthouse, 1901, Peristeria
Kaki Vigla (Greek: Κακή Βίγλα) is a small community (population 236) located at the south of Salamis Island, near Aianteio.
The beaches of Kaki Vigla are relatively clean and the area has pine and olive trees near the shore.
Agios Georgios[edit]
A new village, founded in 1960.
Peristeria[edit]
Peristeria (Greek: Περιστέρια, population 456) is a small village in the southeast of the island 45 km (28 mi) from Salamis City. It took its name from the bird of peace, the dove (Greek: περιστέρι), because it is a calm, peaceful and isolated place, away from the cars and from noise. Another interpretation says that its name may be derived from the doves which were living and had nests in the area.
View of Salamina
The area has a marina, which has yachts and fishing boats. The beaches of Peristeria are the cleanest of Salamis. The village is near the Cave of Euripides, associated with the famous ancient playwright.
Psili Ammos[edit]
Psili Ammos (Greek: Ψιλή Άμμος, population 271), which means Fine Sand is so named because it is covered with sand. The area is located at the northwest of the island opposite of Elefsina. In the area there is one of the oldest landmarks, the chantry of Saint Grigorios (Saint Gregory).
Steno[edit]
Steno (Greek: Στενό, population 985), which means Narrow in Greek, is a small community in the northwest of Salamis Island. The area is separated from Fanaromeni Monastery by a hill with shrubs and pine trees. The area is adjacent to the bay of Agios Georgios. Steno has wide and well-planned roads.
Aianteio Beach
Vasilika[edit]
Vasilika (Greek: Βασιλικά, population 4,264) which means Royal is a big village located in the northwest of the island. Vasilika is the third largest area in Salamis by population after Salamis City and Aianteio. Vasilika has a sandy large beach apt for swimming.
Xeno[edit]
Xeno (Greek: Ξένο "foreign", population 786) is located in the northwest corner of the island. The area was so named because the first residents were not from Salamis but from nearby Piraeus.
Villages in the municipal unit of Ampelakia[edit]
Ruins of ancient classical city and the port of Salamis (5th to 2nd BC) Ampelakia
Main article: Ampelakia
Kynosoura[edit]
Kynosoura (Greek: Κυνόσουρα) (Greek: κυνός-ουρά "dog's tail") is a small peninsula located in the east of the island. The name probably comes from the shape of the peninsula, long and thin and pointed at the end. In the south are a few houses (population 69). In the north are the remains of an ancient tumulus thought to be the burial site of Greek warriors in the Battle of Salamis. Nearby is a dockyard, which constructs and fixes ships including oil tankers and containers.
Selinia[edit]
Selinia (Greek: Σελήνια, population 2.523) is a resort located a few kilometers southeast of Salamis city. Selinia once was the weekend resort of many Athenians due to its proximity to Piraeus and Athens. Selinia also features restaurants and taverns
Folklore Museum & Salamina Municipal Library. In the Municipal building. (Town Hall)
Culture[edit]
Education[edit]
Salamis island has eleven primary schools (ten public and one private), four high schools, and four lycees. The majority of students are proficient in school, and the pupils (above 13 years) usually have acquired diplomas and certificates in English, in French, or in German such as ECCE, FCE, CPE, and ECPE. Many students from Salamis island also possess many computer skills. Many students also study abroad in countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and France. In the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, the pupils went to Italy for studies since it was close to Greece.
Recreational areas[edit]
In Salamis Bay, a visitor can find many bars, cafeterias, beaches, and shops. The main cafeterias and bars are based in Agios Nikolaos, which is located in the western suburbs of Salamis city. The district is named for the church. Taverns and inns, which are located throughout the island, feature local food and dishes. The shops—which sell appliances, computers, clothing, souvenirs, and vehicles—are opened from 8:00 a.m. to 2:00 p.m. and from 5:30 p.m. to 9:00 p.m. on weekdays; from 9:00 a.m. to 1:30 p.m. and 6:00 p.m to 8:30 p.m. on Saturdays.
Sports[edit]
Salamis island has four football teams: Aias (Ajax) Salaminas, Ampelakiakos F.C., A.E. Salaminas and Salaminomachoi.
Local newspapers and magazines[edit]
Salamina-Press
30 Imeres tis Salaminas (30 Days of Salamina)
Anatropes (Tippings)
Apopsi (Opinion)
Athlitikoi Palmoi (Athletic Vibrations)
I Enotita tis Salaminas (The Unity of Salamis)
I Nea Salamina (The New Salamis)
I Foni tis Salaminas (The Voice of Salamis)
Neo Ithos tis Salaminas (New Morale of Salamis)
Palmos tis Salaminas (Pulse of Salamis)
Politis me dikaioma (Citizen With Rights)
Salaminiaki Protoporia (Salaminian Vanguard)
Sports Week Salamina
Mycenaean acropolis at Kanakia 13th century BC
Source:[23]
Landmarks[edit]
Monument for the Battle of Salamis, Kynosoura peninsula by sculptor Achilles Vasileiou.
Archaeological Museum of Salamis
Circular funerary, 4th century BC in Kolones
Landmark
Year of construction
Location
Faneromeni Monastery 15th century Faneromeni
Chantry of Saint George around 1250 Agios Georgios
Mycenaean city of Salamis 13th century BC Kanakia
Ancient city and port of Salamis 5th – 1st centuries BC Ampelakia
Fighters tomb of the naval Battle of Salamis 5th century BC Ampelakia, Kynosoura
Circular funerary 4th century BC Kolones
Euripideio Theatre 1993 in suburbs of Salamis City (in hill Patris)
Church of Saint Dimitrios 1806 center of Salamis City (in hononymous district)
The Cave of Euripides 450 BC at south Salamis Island (near Peristeria)
The Cottage of Angelos Sikelianos 1935 Faneromeni
The Stone Lighthouse 1901 Peristeria
The bust of Georgios Karaiskakis 1982 center of Salamis City (in Vourkari district)
The Windmills 19th century in suburbs of Salamis City (in a hill)
Chantry of Prophet Elias early of 20th century Salamis City (in a stone hill)
Chantry of Saint Grygorios 12th century Psili Ammos
The Stony small Theater 1990 Selinia
The City Hall of Salamis 2000 Salamis City
The Monastery of Saint Nicolaos 17th century at south Salamis Island (near Kanakia)
The Church of Saint John the Kalyvitis 11th century at south Salamis Island (near Kanakia)
The Folklore Museum 2000 lodging at Salamis City Hall
Archaeological museum of Salamis 2013 Salamis City
The Mansion of Galeos Family 19th century at Salamis center (at Agios Minas district)
The Church of Saint Minas 1869 at Salamis City (at Agios Minas district)
Noted people[edit]
Ajax the Great
Euripides
Mythological and ancient people[edit]
Ajax the Great, the legendary king of Salamis island, son of Telamon and half-brother of Teucer
Cychreus, the first king of Salamis Island
Euripides, tragedian (480 BC – 406 BC)
Moerocles, orator (4th century BC)
Telamon, the king of Salamis Island, father of Ajax the Great and Teucer
Teucer, the half-brother of Ajax the Great, son of Telamon, warrior of Trojan War, and founder of the city-state of Salamis, Cyprus.
Modern people[edit]
Georgios Karaiskakis (c. 1780–1827), Greek War of Independence hero, is buried on Salamis.
Polychronis Lempesis (1848–1913), painter
Memos Mpegnis (1974- ), actor
Dimitrios Mpogris (1890–1964), playwright
Giorgos Papasideris (1902–1977), country singer, composer and lyricist
Angelos Sikelianos (1884–1951), poet and playwright, whose cottage was near the Monastery of Faneromeni.
Twin towns / sister cities[edit]
See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Greece
Salamis Island is twinned with Famagusta, Cyprus (1998)
Gallery[edit]
Kaki Vigla beach
Kaki Vigla beach
Kaki Vigla Gulf
The historic monastery of Faneromeni
Nicolas Lemonia monastery 17th century AD, on the road between the villages Aianteio and Kanakia
Kanakia beach
See also[edit]
Trojan War
Greek Revolution
Aeacus
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Απογραφή Πληθυσμού - Κατοικιών 2011. ΜΟΝΙΜΟΣ Πληθυσμός" (in Greek). Hellenic Statistical Authority.
^ Jump up to: a b Bell, Robert E. (1988). Place Names in Classical Mythology: Greece. ABC-CLIO Ltd. ISBN 978-0-87436-507-8.
Jump up ^ Martin Bernal, Black Athena, p. 492
Jump up ^ William Miller, The Latins in the Levant, a history of Frankish Greece (1204–1566), New York, 1908, p. 18
Jump up ^ Peter Mackridge, Language and National Identity in Greece, 1766-1976, Oxford University Press, 2010, p. 22
Jump up ^ "Salamis", Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World, Ed. John Roberts. Oxford University Press, 2007.
Jump up ^ Rossiter, Stuart; Benn, Ernest (1981). Greece – Blue Guide series.
Jump up ^ Homer. The Iliad.
Jump up ^ "salamis". Archived from the original on January 3, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Kilkis (Battleship, 1914–1941)". Naval Historical Center. Archived from the original on October 16, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Lemnos (Battleship, 1914–1941)". Naval Historical Center. Archived from the original on July 6, 2014.
Jump up ^ "One-sixth of houses are for vacation use". Kathimerini. April 19, 2006. Archived from the original on March 18, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c Polyxeni Athanassoulia (September 7, 2006). "Salamina, so near yet so unknown". Kathimerini. Archived from the original on March 18, 2008.
Jump up ^ http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/greek-island-bay-black-oil-spill-salamis-selinia-taker-sinks-ecological-disaster-athens-a7944291.html
Jump up ^ "Salamis". Howstuffworks. Archived from the original on March 11, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Salamis official website". Archived from the original on February 22, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Salamina" (in Greek). Anatropes. Archived from the original on August 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Kallikratis law" (PDF). Greece Ministry of Interior. (in Greek)
^ Jump up to: a b "Population & housing census 2001 (incl. area and average elevation)" (PDF) (in Greek). National Statistical Service of Greece.
Jump up ^ Jochalas, Titos P. (1971): Über die Einwanderung der Albaner in Griechenland: Eine zusammenfassene Betrachtung ["On the immigration of Albanians to Greece: A summary"]. München: Trofenik.
Jump up ^ "Settlements (Dímos Salamínas, Municipality)". citypopulation.de.
Jump up ^ "Name changes of settlements in Greece".
Jump up ^ "Εφημερίδες & Περιοδικά" (in Greek). Archived from the original on 30 April 2009.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
External links[edit]
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Salamis (Greece).
Official website of Municipality of Salamina (in English) (in Greek)
Official website of Municipality of Ampelakia (in Greek)
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GND: 4105212-2
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text:
Fair Housing Act
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the 1963 California law, see Rumford Fair Housing Act.
The Fair Housing Act is a federal act in the United States intended to protect the buyer or renter of a dwelling from seller or landlord discrimination. Its primary prohibition makes it unlawful to refuse to sell, rent to, or negotiate with any person because of that person's inclusion in a protected class.[1] The goal is a unitary housing market in which a person's background (as opposed to financial resources) does not arbitrarily restrict access. Calls for open housing were issued early in the twentieth century, but it was not until after World War II that concerted efforts to achieve it were undertaken.
The legislation was the culmination of a civil rights campaign against housing discrimination in the United States and was approved by President Lyndon B. Johnson one week after the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.
The Fair Housing Act was enacted as Title VIII of the Civil Rights Act of 1968, and codified at 42 U.S.C. 3601-3619, with penalties for violation at 42 U.S.C. 3631. It is enforced by the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Summary
2 Enforcement
3 See also
4 Notes
5 External links
Summary[edit]
The Fair Housing Act (Title VIII of the Civil Rights Act of 1968) introduced meaningful federal enforcement mechanisms. It outlaws:
Refusal to sell or rent a dwelling to any person because of race, color, disability, religion, sex, familial status, or national origin.
Discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, disability, familial status, or national origin in the terms, conditions or privileges of sale or rental of a dwelling.
Advertising the sale or rental of a dwelling indicating preference, limitation, or discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, handicap, familial status, disability or national origin.
Coercing, threatening, intimidating, or interfering with a person's enjoyment or exercise of housing rights based on discriminatory reasons or retaliating against a person or organization that aids or encourages the exercise or enjoyment of fair housing rights.
When the Fair Housing Act was first enacted, it prohibited discrimination only on the basis of race, color, religion, and national origin.[3] Sex was added as a protected characteristic in 1974.[4] In 1988, disability and familial status (the presence or anticipated presence of children under 18 in a household) were added (further codified in the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990).[3] In certain circumstances, the law allows limited exceptions for discrimination based on sex, religion, or familial status.[5]
The United States Department of Housing and Urban Development is the federal executive department with the statutory authority to administer and enforce the Fair Housing Act. The Secretary of Housing and Urban Development has delegated fair housing enforcement and compliance activities to HUD's Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity (FHEO) and HUD's Office of General Counsel. FHEO is one of the United States' largest federal civil rights agencies. It has a staff of more than 600 people located in 54 offices around the United States. As of August 2017, the head of FHEO is Assistant Secretary for Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity Anna Maria Farias, whose appointment was confirmed on August 3, 2017.[6]
Individuals who believe they have experienced housing discrimination can file a complaint with FHEO at no charge. FHEO funds and has working agreements with many state and local governmental agencies where "substantially equivalent" fair housing laws are in place. Under these agreements, FHEO refers complaints to the state or locality where the alleged incident occurred, and those agencies investigate and process the case instead of FHEO. This is known as FHEO's Fair Housing Assistance Program (or "FHAP").
There is also a network of private, non-profit fair housing advocacy organizations throughout the country. Some are funded by FHEO's Fair Housing Initiatives Program (or "FHIP"), and some operate with private donations or grants from other sources.
Victims of housing discrimination need not go through HUD or any other governmental agency to pursue their rights, however. The Fair Housing Act confers jurisdiction to hear cases on federal district courts. The United States Department of Justice also has jurisdiction to file cases on behalf of the United States where there is a pattern and practice of discrimination or where HUD has found discrimination in a case and either party elects to go to federal court instead of continuing in the HUD administrative process.
The Fair Housing Act applies to landlords renting or leasing space in their primary residence only if the residence contains living quarters occupied or intended to be occupied by three or more other families living independently of each other, such as an owner-occupied rooming house.
Enforcement[edit]
The Fair Housing Act has been strengthened since its adoption in 1968, but enforcement continues to be a concern among housing advocates. According to a 2010 evaluation of Analysis of Impediments (AI) reports done by the Government Accountability Office, enforcement is particularly inconsistent across local jurisdictions.[7]
See also[edit]
Housing discrimination (United States)
Stuyvesant Town–Peter Cooper Village#Controversy - Post-war project that was involved in controversy for refusing to admit African-Americans.
Buchanan v. Warley
Department of Fair Employment and Housing
Civil rights campaign in Seattle (Fair housing campaign in the 1960s)
Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity[1]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Definition of Fair Housing Act of 1968 , Legal Dictionary at TheFreeDictionary.com, Farlex Company. Accessed 15 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Fair Housing - It's Your Right - HUD". Portal.hud.gov. Retrieved 2015-07-06.
^ Jump up to: a b "Title VIII: Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity - HUD". Portal.hud.gov. Retrieved 2015-07-06.
Jump up ^ http://nlihc.org/article/40-years-ago-fair-housing-act-amended-prohibit-discrimination-basis-sex
Jump up ^ "Exemptions to the Fair Housing Act? Not Many -- But Here Are Some". Fox Rothschild LLP. Retrieved February 26, 2018.
Jump up ^ "PN1349 — Anna Maria Farias". washingtonexaminer.com.
Jump up ^ US Government Accountability Office (2010). "Housing and community grants: HUD needs to enhance its requirements and oversight of jurisdictions' fair housing plans".
External links[edit]
File a housing discrimination complaint
The National Fair Housing Advocate Online
The National Fair Housing Alliance
HUD's Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity
Southern California Housing Rights Center
The Fair Housing Center of Southeastern Michigan
Fair Housing Blog
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
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LCCN: n2016014738
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fair_Housing_Act&oldid=836236204"
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