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United States of Tara
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United States of Tara
United States of Tara promotional poster
Genre
Comedy-drama
Created by
Diablo Cody
Starring
Toni Collette
Rosemarie DeWitt
John Corbett
Brie Larson
Keir Gilchrist
Theme music composer
Tim DeLaughter
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
3
No. of episodes
36 (list of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Steven Spielberg
Diablo Cody
Alexa Junge (season 1)
Jill Soloway (season 2–3)
Darryl Frank
Justin Falvey
Craig Zisk (season 2–3)
Producer(s)
Dan Kaplow
Location(s)
Overland Park, Kansas (setting)
Los Angeles, California (actual filming location)
Camera setup
Single-camera
Running time
approx. 30 min.
Production company(s)
DreamWorks Television
Showtime Networks
Release
Original network
Showtime
Picture format
480i (SDTV)
1080i (HDTV)
Audio format
Dolby Digital 5.1 Surround Sound
Original release
January 18, 2009 – June 20, 2011
External links
Website
www.sho.com/site/tara/home.do
United States of Tara is an American television comedy-drama created by Diablo Cody, which aired on Showtime from 2009 to 2011. The series follows the life of Tara (Toni Collette), a suburban housewife and mother coping with dissociative identity disorder (formerly called multiple personality disorder).
The series was based on an idea by Steven Spielberg, who is the executive producer, under his DreamWorks Television label. Other executive producers include writers Darryl Frank, Justin Falvey, director Craig Zisk, and showrunners Cody and Jill Soloway. Former executive producer Alexa Junge quit as showrunner after the first season.
Principal photography was filmed in Los Angeles, California, while the show's setting is located in Overland Park, Kansas. Collette won the 2009 Primetime Emmy Award and 2010 Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Comedy Series for her role; the opening title sequence also won an Emmy. The show's third and final season premiered on March 28, 2011.[1]
On May 23, 2011, Showtime announced that the series would not be renewed for a fourth season,[2] and the series finale aired on June 20, 2011.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Characters
3 Episodes
4 Broadcasting information
5 Reception
5.1 Critical reception
5.2 Awards and nominations
6 DVD releases
7 References
8 External links
Plot[edit]
Tara Gregson is a wife and mother of two children in Overland Park, Kansas, a suburb of Kansas City, who has been diagnosed with dissociative identity disorder (DID). When stressed, Tara often transitions into one of her alternate personalities: wild and flirty teenager T; 1950s style housewife Alice; and male, loud, beer-drinking Vietnam vet Buck. A fourth personality, Gimme, is introduced later in the first season. During the second season of the series, two further personalities were introduced. The former, called Shoshana, is Tara's "therapist" of sorts, while the sixth personality's name is Chicken, an infantile representation of Tara when she was five years old. Another personality emerges in Season 3, that of Tara's previously unknown half-brother Bryce. Tara is supported by her husband Max, daughter Kate, and son Marshall. Her sister, Charmaine, is initially not very supportive of Tara, expressing doubts about the validity of her sister's disorder, though she becomes increasingly more understanding and receptive as the series progresses. The show is a representation of a seemingly typical American family who must cope with the daily struggles of dissociative identity disorder.
Characters[edit]
Main article: List of United States of Tara characters
Tara Gregson (Toni Collette), a woman with dissociative identity disorder
Max Gregson (John Corbett), Tara's husband
Kate Gregson (Brie Larson), Tara and Max's troubled teenage daughter
Marshall Gregson (Keir Gilchrist), Tara and Max's son
Charmaine Craine (Rosemarie DeWitt), Tara's self-absorbed younger sister
Episodes[edit]
Main article: List of United States of Tara episodes
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
First aired
Last aired
1 12 January 18, 2009 (2009-01-18) April 5, 2009 (2009-04-05)
2 12 March 22, 2010 (2010-03-22) June 7, 2010 (2010-06-07)
3 12 March 28, 2011 (2011-03-28) June 20, 2011 (2011-06-20)
Broadcasting information[edit]
The series premiered on the US network Showtime on January 18, 2009. On February 10, 2009, after only four episodes had aired, Showtime Networks president of entertainment Robert Greenblatt announced that United States of Tara would be renewed for a second season, to consist of twelve episodes and air in early 2010. He said the early renewal decision came after the show averaged 2.67 million viewers per week, giving the network its highest ratings since 2004, when Nielsen Media Research began counting original shows on premium channels in its prime time ratings.[4] Season two premiered on March 22, 2010.[5]
On March 25, three days after the season 2 premiere, it was announced that it would be picked up for a third season which aired in spring 2011.[6] Season 3 officially premiered on March 28, 2011.[1] On May 23, 2011, it was announced that the series would not be renewed for a fourth season.[2]
Reception[edit]
Critical reception[edit]
Initial critical response to the show was positive, with many reviewers praising Collette's acting. According to Metacritic, which assigns a rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the show's first season holds a score of 63 out of 100, indicating "generally favorable reviews", based on 24 reviews. Season 2 has 79% with 10 reviews and Season 3 has 84% ("universal acclaim") with 5.[7]
Awards and nominations[edit]
Year
Award
Category
Nominee
Result
2009 Emmy Award Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series Toni Collette Won[8]
Outstanding Casting for a Comedy Series Allison Jones, Cami Patton and Elizabeth Barnes Nominated[8]
Outstanding Main Title Design Jamie Caliri, Dave Finkel, Brett Baer and Alex Jukasz Won[8]
Outstanding Original Main Title Theme Music Tim Delaughter Nominated[8]
2010 Golden Globe Award Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy Toni Collette Won
Emmy Award Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series Toni Collette Nominated[8]
Outstanding Casting for a Comedy Series Cami Patton and Jennifer Lare Nominated[8]
Screen Actors Guild Award Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series Toni Collette Nominated
GLAAD Media Award Outstanding Comedy Series Nominated
2011 Golden Globe Award Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy Toni Collette Nominated
DVD releases[edit]
DVD Name
Release Date
Ep #
Additional Content
The First Season
Region 1: December 29, 2009[9]
Region 4: November 3, 2011
12
Sitting Down with Diablo Cody
Audio Commentary
Tara's Alters
Podcast interviews with Toni Collette, John Corbett, Rosemarie DeWitt and Brie Larson
On The Set
First two episodes of Californication season 2
Episode 2 of The Tudors season 3
Bonus Disc: The first two episodes of Nurse Jackie (Best Buy exclusive)
The Second Season
Region 1: December 28, 2010[10]
12
"Chats with the Cast" – Short interviews with the cast
Cast bios
The Third and Final Season
Region 1: August 2, 2011[11]
12
Episodes 1 and 2 were also available as bonus features on DVD disc 4 (of 4) of Dexter, Season 3; and on disc 4 (of 4) of The Tudors, Season 3.
In Australia, United States of Tara was rated MA 15+, whereas in New Zealand, it was rated R13 for offensive language and sexual references.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Carlbert, Michelle (January 18, 2011). "NURSE JACKIE and UNITED STATES OF TARA Season 3 Premiere Date Announced". TV Equals. Retrieved April 14, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Carlbert, Michelle (May 23, 2011). "Showtime keeping NURSE JACKIE But Giving UNITED STATES OF TARA The Boot". TV Equals. Retrieved April 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ "United States of Tara: Showtime Comedy Cancelled; No Season Four". TV Series Finale. May 23, 2011. Retrieved April 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Showtime United With Tara For Second Season". Multichannel News. February 10, 2009. Archived from the original on February 14, 2009.
Jump up ^ Caitlin, Roger (November 6, 2009). "'Nurse Jackie,' 'Tara' Both Back March 22". Hartford Courant. Retrieved April 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Showtime renews 'Nurse Jackie,' 'United States of Tara". HitFix. March 25, 2010. Retrieved April 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ "United States of Tara - Season 1 Reviews". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Retrieved April 14, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "United States Of Tara". Emmys. Academy of Television Arts & Sciences. Retrieved June 9, 2013.
Jump up ^ Lambert, David (October 5, 2009). "United States of Tara - A Change Comes to 'Tara': DVD Delayed, Extras Revealed". TVShowsonDVD.com. Retrieved April 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ Lambert, David (September 7, 2010). "United States of Tara - The 2nd Season DVDs: Date, Bonus Material, Cover Art". TVShowsOnDVD.com. Retrieved April 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ Lambert, David (May 16, 2011). "United States of Tara - 'The 3rd Season' Announced: Date, Details and Early Cover Art". TVShowsOnDVD.com. Retrieved April 14, 2013.
External links[edit]
Official website
United States of Tara on IMDb
United States of Tara at TV.com
[show]
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Works by Diablo Cody
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Juno (2007)
Jennifer's Body (2009)
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Tully (2018)
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Television
United States of Tara (2009–2011)
One Mississippi (2015–present)
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Candy Girl: A Year in the Life of an Unlikely Stripper (2005)
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text:
European exploration of Africa
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This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (February 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Map of Africa by John Thomson, 1813. Much of the continent is simply labeled "unknown parts". The map still includes Ptolemy's Mountains of the Moon, which have since been credited to ranges varying from the Rwenzori to Kilimanjaro to the peaks of Ethiopia at the head of the Blue Nile.
[show]
v
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Exploration of Africa
Nero expedition
Roman expeditions
The search for the source of the Nile
First Zambesi expedition
Second Zambesi expedition
First trans-Africa exploration
Scramble for Africa
The geography of North Africa has been reasonably well known among Europeans since classical antiquity in Greco-Roman geography. Northwest Africa (the Maghreb) was known as either Libya or Africa, while Egypt was considered part of Asia.
European exploration of Sub-Saharan Africa begins with the Age of Discovery in the 15th century, pioneered by Portugal under Henry the Navigator. The Cape of Good Hope was first reached by Bartolomeu Dias on 12 March 1488, opening the important sea route to India and the Far East, but European exploration of Africa itself remained very limited during the 16th and 17th centuries. The European powers were content to establish trading posts along the coast while they were actively exploring and colonizing the New World. Exploration of the interior of Africa was thus mostly left to the Arab slave traders, who in tandem with the Muslim conquest of the Sudan established far-reaching networks and supported the economy of a number of Sahelian kingdoms during the 15th to 18th centuries.
At the beginning of the 19th century, European knowledge of geography of the interior of Sub-Saharan Africa was still rather limited. Expeditions exploring Southern Africa were made during the 1830s and 1840s, so that around the midpoint of the 19th century and the beginning of the colonial Scramble for Africa, the unexplored parts were now limited to what would turn out to be the Congo Basin and the African Great Lakes. This "Heart of Africa" remained one of the last remaining "blank spots" on world maps of the later 19th century (alongside the Arctic, Antarctic and the interior of the Amazon basin). It was left for 19th-century European explorers (including those searching for the famed sources of the Nile, notably John Hanning Speke, David Livingstone and Henry Morton Stanley, to complete the exploration of Africa by the 1870s. After this, the general geography of Africa was known, but it was left to further expeditions during the 1880s onward, notably those led by Oskar Lenz, to flesh more detail such as the continent's geological makeup.
Contents
[hide]
1 Antiquity
2 Arab slave trade
3 Early Portuguese expeditions
4 Early Modern history
4.1 Portuguese
4.2 Dutch
4.3 Other early modern European presence
5 The 19th century
6 List of Africa explorers
6.1 15th century
6.2 15th/16th century
6.3 16th century
6.4 18th century
6.5 19th century
6.6 Early 20th century
7 See also
8 References
9 Bibliography
Antiquity[edit]
Further information: North Africa during the Classical Period
reconstruction of Hecataeus' map of the world
The Phoenicians explored North Africa, establishing a number of colonies, the most prominent of which was Carthage. Carthage itself conducted exploration of West Africa. The first circumnavigation of the African continent was probably made by Phoenician sailors, in an expedition commissioned by Egyptian pharaoh Necho II, in c. 600 BC and took three years. A report of this expedition is provided by Herodotus (4.37). They sailed south, rounded the Cape heading west, made their way north to the Mediterranean and then returned home. He states that they paused each year to sow and harvest grain. Herodotus himself is sceptical of the historicity of this feat, which would have taken place close about 120 years before his birth; however, the reason he gives for disbelieving the story is the sailors' reported claim that when they sailed along the southern coast of Africa, they found the Sun stood to their right, in the north; Herodotus, who was unaware of the spherical shape of the Earth found this impossible to believe. Some commentators took this circumstance as proof that the voyage is historical, but other scholars still dismiss the report as unlikely. [1]
The West African coast may have been explored by Hanno the Navigator in an expedition in c. 500 BC.[2] The report of this voyage survives in a short Periplus in Greek, which was first cited by Greek authors in the 3rd century BC.[3]:162–3 There is some uncertainty as to how far precisely Hanno reached, he clearly sailed as far as Sierra Leone, and may have continued as far as Guinea or even Gabon.[4] However, Robin Law notes that some commentators have argued that Hanno exploration have taken him no further than southern Morocco.[5]
Africa is named for the Afri people who settled in the area of current-day Tunisia. The Roman province of Africa spanned the Mediterranean coast of what is now Libya, Tunisia and Algeria. The parts of North Africa north of the Sahara were well known in antiquity. Prior to the 2nd century BC, however, Greek geographers were unaware that the land mass then known as Libya expanded south of the Sahara, assuming that the desert bounded on the outer Ocean. Indeed, Alexander the Great, according to Plutarchus' Lives, considered sailing from the mouths of the Indus back to Macedonia passing south of Africa as a shortcut compared to the land route. Even Eratosthenes around 200 BC still assumed an extent of the landmass no further south than the Horn of Africa.
By the Roman imperial period the Horn of Africa was well-known to Mediterranean geographers. The trading post of Rhapta, described as "the last marketplace of Azania," may correspond to the coast of Tanzania. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, dated to the 1st century AD, appears to extend geographical knowledge further south, to Southeast Africa. Ptolemy's world map of the 2nd century is well aware that the African continent extents significantly further south than the Horn of Africa, but has no geographic detail south of the equator (it is unclear whether it is aware of the Gulf of Guinea)[6]
Arab slave trade[edit]
Main articles: Arab slave trade, Islamization of the Sudan region, and Sahelian kingdoms
In the medieval period, the exploration of the interior of the Sahara and the Sahel as well as along the Swahili coast as far as Mozambique was the project of Muslim conquests and slave trade. It was at Mozambique that the Arab "clockwise" and the Portuguese "counter-clockwise" routes of exploration would meet at the end of the 15th century.
Following its 8th-century conquest of North Africa, Arab Muslims ventured into Sub-Saharan Africa first along the Nile Valley towards Nubia, and later also across the Sahara towards West Africa. They were interested in the trans-Saharan trade, especially in slaves. This expansion of Arab and Islamic culture was a gradual process, lasting throughout most of the Middle Ages. The Christian kingdoms of Nubia came under pressure from the 7th century, but they resisted for several centuries. The Kingdom of Makuria and Old Dongola collapsed by the beginning of the 14th century. A significant role in the spread of Islam in Africa was taken by Sufi orders during the 9th to 14th centuries, who spread south along trade routes between North Africa and the sub-Saharan kingdoms of Ghana and Mali. On the West African coast, they set up zawiyas on the shores of the River Niger. The Mali Empire became Islamic following the pilgrimage of Musa I of Mali in 1324. Timbuktu became an important center of Islamic culture south of the Sahara. Alodia, the last remnant of Christian Nubia, was destroyed by the Funj in 1504.
Early Portuguese expeditions[edit]
Further information: History of Portugal (1415–1578), Portuguese discoveries, and Portuguese explorers
Henry the Navigator in 15th century triptych of St. Vincent, by Nuno Gonçalves
Portuguese explorer Prince Henry, known as the Navigator, was the first European to methodically explore Africa and the oceanic route to the Indies. From his residence in the Algarve region of southern Portugal, he directed successive expeditions to circumnavigate Africa and reach India. In 1420, Henry sent an expedition to secure the uninhabited but strategic island of Madeira. In 1425, he tried to secure the Canary Islands as well, but these were already under firm Castilian control. In 1431, another Portuguese expedition reached and annexed the Azores.
Naval charts of 1339 show that the Canary Islands were already known to Europeans. In 1341, Portuguese and Italian explorers prepared a joint expedition. In 1342 the Catalans organized an expedition captained by Francesc Desvalers to the Canary Islands that set sail from Majorca. In 1344, Pope Clement VI named French admiral Luis de la Cerda Prince of Fortune, and sent him to conquer the Canaries. In 1402, Jean de Bethencourt and Gadifer de la Salle sailed to conquer the Canary Islands but found them already plundered by the Castilians. Although they did conquer the isles, Bethencourt's nephew was forced to cede them to Castile in 1418.
In 1455 and 1456 two Italian explorers, Alvise Cadamosto from Venice and Antoniotto Usodimare from Genoa, together with an unnamed Portuguese captain and working for Prince Henry, the Navigator, of Portugal, followed the Gambia river, visiting the land of Senegal, while another Italian sailor from Genoa, Antonio de Noli, also on behalf of Prince Henry, explored the Bijagós islands, and, together with the Portuguese Diogo Gomes, the Cape Verde archipelago. Antonio de Noli, who became the first governor of Cape Verde (and the first European colonial governor in Sub-Saharan Africa), is also considered the discoverer of the First Islands of Cape Verde.[7]
Along the western and eastern coasts of Africa, progress was also steady; Portuguese sailors reached Cape Bojador in 1434 and Cape Blanco in 1441. In 1443, they built a fortress on the island of Arguin, in modern-day Mauritania, trading European wheat and cloth for African gold and slaves. It was the first time that the semi-mythic gold of the Sudan reached Europe without Muslim mediation. Most of the slaves were sent to Madeira, which became, after thorough deforestation, the first European plantation colony. Between 1444 and 1447, the Portuguese explored the coasts of Senegal, Gambia, and Guinea. In 1456, the Venetian captain Alvise Cadamosto, under Portuguese command, explored the islands of Cape Verde. In 1462, two years after Prince Henry's death, Portuguese sailors explored the Bissau islands and named Serra Leoa (Lioness Mountains).
Map of Western Africa by Lázaro Luis (1563). The large castle in West Africa represents the São Jorge da Mina (Elmina castle) fortified factory.
In 1469, Fernão Gomes rented the rights of African exploration for five years. Under his direction, in 1471, the Portuguese reached modern Ghana and settled in A Mina (the mine), later renamed Elmina. They had finally reached a country with an abundance of gold, hence the historical name of "Gold Coast" that Elmina would eventually receive.
In 1472, Fernão do Pó discovered the island that would bear his name for centuries (now Bioko) and an estuary abundant in shrimp (Portuguese: camarão,), giving its name to Cameroon.
Soon after, the equator was crossed by Europeans . Portugal established a base in Sāo Tomé that, after 1485, was settled with criminals. After 1497, expelled Spanish and Portuguese Jews also found a safe haven there.
In 1482, Diogo Cão found the mouth of a large river and learned of the existence of a great kingdom, Kongo. In 1485, he explored the river upstream as well.
But the Portuguese wanted, above anything else, to find a route to India and kept trying to circumnavigate Africa. In 1485, the expedition of João Afonso d'Aveiros, with the German astronomer Martin of Behaim as part of the crew, explored the Bight of Benin (Kingdom of Benin), returning information about African king Ogane.
In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias and his pilot Pêro de Alenquer, after putting down a mutiny, turned a cape where they were caught by a storm, naming it Cape of Storms. They followed the coast for a while realizing that it kept going eastward with even some tendency to the north. Lacking supplies, they turned around with the conviction that the far end of Africa had finally been reached. Upon their return to Portugal the promising cape was renamed Cape of Good Hope.
Some years later, Christopher Columbus landed in America under rival Castilian command. Pope Alexander VI decreed the Inter caetera bull, dividing the non-Christian parts of the world between the two rival Catholic powers, Spain and Portugal.
Finally, in the years 1497 to 1498, Vasco da Gama, again with Alenquer as pilot, took a direct route to Cape of Good Hope, via St. Helena. He went beyond the farthest point reached by Dias and named the country Natal. Then he sailed northward, making land at Quelimane (Mozambique) and Mombasa, where he found Chinese traders, and Malindi (both in modern Kenya). In this town, he recruited an Arab pilot and set sail directly to Calicut. On August 28, 1498, King Manuel of Portugal informed the Pope of the good news that Portugal had reached India.
Egypt and Venice reacted to this news with hostility; from the Red Sea, they jointly attacked the Portuguese ships that traded with India. The Portuguese defeated these ships near Diu in 1509. The Ottoman Empire's indifferent reaction to Portuguese exploration left Portugal in almost exclusive control of trade through the Indian Ocean. They established many bases along the eastern coast of Africa except for Somalia (See Ajuran-Portuguese wars), The Portuguese also captured Aden in 1513.
One of the ships under command of Diogo Dias arrived at a coast that was not in East Africa. Two years later, a chart already showed an elongated island east of Africa that bore the name Madagascar. But only a century later, between 1613 and 1619, did the Portuguese explore the island in detail. They signed treaties with local chieftains and sent the first missionaries, who found it impossible to make locals believe in Hell, and were eventually expelled.
Early Modern history[edit]
Portuguese[edit]
17th century crucifix, copper alloy, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Portuguese presence in Africa soon interfered with existing Arab trade interests. By 1583, the Portuguese established themselves in Zanzibar and on the Swahili coast. The Kingdom of Congo was converted to Christianity in 1495, its king taking the name of João I. The Portuguese also established their trade interests in the Kingdom of Mutapa in the 16th century, and in 1629 placed a puppet ruler on the throne.
The Portuguese (and later also the Dutch) also became involved in the local slave economy, supporting the state of the Jaggas, who performed slave raids in the Congo.[citation needed]
Queen Nzinga in peace negotiations with the Portuguese governor in Luanda, 1657
They also used the Kongo to weaken the neighbour realm of Ndongo, where Queen Nzinga put a fierce but eventually doomed resistance to Portuguese and Jagga ambitions. Portugal intervened militarily in these conflicts, creating the basis for their colony of Angola. In 1663, after another conflict, the royal crown of Kongo was sent to Lisbon. Nevertheless, a diminished Kongo Kingdom would still exist until 1885, when the last Manicongo, Pedro V, ceded his almost non-existent domain to Portugal.
The Portuguese dealt with the other major state of Southern Africa, the Monomotapa (in modern Zimbabwe), in a similar manner: Portugal intervened in a local war hoping to get abundant mineral riches, imposing a protectorate. But with the authority of the Monomotapa diminished by the foreign presence, anarchy took over. The local miners migrated and even buried the mines to prevent them from falling into Portuguese hands. When in 1693 the neighbouring Cangamires invaded the country, the Portuguese accepted their failure and retreated to the coast.
Dutch[edit]
Beginning in the 17th century, the Netherlands began exploring and colonizing Africa. While the Dutch were waging a long war of independence against Spain, Portugal had temporarily united with Spain, starting in 1580 and ending in 1640. As a result, the growing colonial ambitions of the Netherlands were mostly directed against Portugal.
For this purpose, two Dutch companies were founded: the West Indies Company, with power over all the Atlantic Ocean, and the East Indies Company, with power over the Indian Ocean.
The West India Company conquered Elmina in 1637 and Luanda in 1640. In 1648, they were expelled from Luanda by the Portuguese. Overall the Dutch built 16 forts in different places, including Gorée in Senegal, partly overtaking Portugal as the main slave-trading power.The Dutch Gold Coast and Dutch Slave Coast were succesfull.
But in the colony of Dutch Loango-Angola the Portuguese could expell the Netherlands.
In Dutch Mauritius the colonization started in 1638 and ended in 1710, with a brief interruption between 1658 and 1666. Numerous governors were appointed, but continuous hardships such as cyclones, droughts, pest infestations, lack of food and illnesses finally took their toll, and the island was definitively abandoned in 1710.
The Dutch left a lasting impact in South Africa, a region ignored by Portugal that the Dutch eventually decided to use as station in their route to East Asia. Jan van Riebeeck founded Cape Town in 1652, starting the European exploration and colonization of South Africa.
Other early modern European presence[edit]
Map of Fort James (Gambia), the first English possession in Africa
Almost at the same time as the Dutch, other European powers attempted to create their own outposts for the African slave trade.
As early as 1530, English merchant adventurers started trading in West Africa, coming into conflict with Portuguese troops. In 1581, Francis Drake reached the Cape of Good Hope. In 1663, the English built Fort James in Gambia. One year later, another English colonial expedition attempted to settle southern Madagascar, resulting in the death of most of the colonists. The English forts on the West African coast were eventually taken by the Dutch.
In 1626, the French Compagnie de l'Occident was created. This company expelled the Dutch from Senegambia (Senegal), making it the first French domain in Africa,they also conquered the island of Arguin .
France also set her eyes on Madagascar, the island that had been used since 1527 as a stop in travels to India. In 1642, the French East India Company founded a settlement in southern Madagascar called Fort Dauphin. The commercial results of this settlement were scarce and, again, most of the settlers died. One of the survivors, Etienne de Flacourt, published a History of the Great Island of Madagascar and Relations, which was for a long time the main European source of information about the island. Further settlement attempts had no more success but, in 1667, François Martin led the first expedition to the Malgasy heartland, reaching Lake Alaotra. In 1665, France officially claimed Madagascar, under the name of Île Dauphine. However, little colonial activity would take place in Madagascar until the 19th century.
In 1651, the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (a vassal of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) gained a colony in Africa on St. Andrew's Island at the Gambia River and established the Jacob Fort there. The Duchy also took other local land including St. Mary Island (modern day Banjul) and Fort Jillifree
In 1650, Swedish merchants founded Swedish Gold Coast in modern Ghana following the foundation of the Swedish Africa Company (1649). In 1652 the foundations were laid of the fort Carlsborg.In 1658 Fort Carlsborg was seized and made part of the Danish Gold Coast colony,then to the Dutch Gold Coast. Later on the local population started a successful uprising against their new masters and in December 1660 the King of the Akan people subgroup-Efutu again offered Sweden control over the area, but in 1663 were seized by the Danish after a long defense of Fort Christiansborg.
The Dano-Norwegian colonized the Danish Gold Coast, from 1674 to 1755 the settlements were administered by the Danish West India-Guinea Company. From December 1680 to 29 August 1682, the Portuguese occupied Fort Christiansborg. In 1750 it was made a Danish crown colony. From 1782 to 1785 it was under British occupation.From 1814 it was made part of the territory of Denmark.
In 1677, King Frederick William I of Prussia sent an expedition to the western coast of Africa. The commander of the expedition, Captain Blonk, signed agreements with the chieftains of the Gold Coast. There, the Prussians built a fort named Gross Friederichsburg and restored the abandoned Portuguese fort of Arguin. But in 1720, the king decided to sell these bases to the Netherlands for 7,000 ducats and 12 slaves, six of them chained with pure gold chains.
In 1777,the Spanish Empire and Portuguese Empire signed the Treaty of San Ildefonso in which Portugal give the islands of Annobón and Fernando Poo in waters of the Gulf of Guinea, as well as the Guinean coast between the Niger River and the Ogooué River, to Spain.
The British expressed their interest by the formation in 1788 of The Association for Promoting the Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa. The individuals who formed this club were inspired in part by the Scotsman James Bruce, who had ventured to Ethiopia in 1769 and reached the source of the Blue Nile.
Overall, European exploration of Africa in the 17th and 18th centuries was very limited. Instead they were focused on the slave trade, which only required coastal bases and items to trade. The real exploration of the African interior would start well into the 19th century.
The 19th century[edit]
See also: Colonisation of Africa, Scramble for Africa, and Timeline of European exploration § 19th century
Routes of European explorers in Africa to 1853
Although the Napoleonic Wars distracted the attention of Europe from exploratory work in Africa, those wars nevertheless exercised great influence on the future of the continent, both in Egypt and South Africa. The occupation of Egypt (1798–1803), first by France and then by Great Britain, resulted in an effort by the Ottoman Empire to regain direct control over that country. In 1811, Mehemet Ali established an almost independent state, and from 1820 onward established Egyptian rule over the eastern Sudan. In South Africa, the struggle with Napoleon caused the United Kingdom to take possession of the Dutch settlements at the Cape. In 1814, Cape Colony, which had been continuously occupied by British troops since 1806, was formally ceded to the British crown.
Meanwhile, considerable changes had been made in other parts of the continent. The occupation of Algiers by France in 1830 put an end to the piracy of the Barbary states. Egyptian authority continued to expand southward, with the consequent additions to knowledge of the Nile. The city of Zanzibar, on the island of that name, rapidly attained importance. Accounts of a vast inland sea, and the discovery of the snow-clad mountains of Kilimanjaro in 1840–1848, stimulated the desire for further knowledge about Africa in Europe.
In the mid-19th century, Protestant missions were carrying on active missionary work on the Guinea coast, in South Africa and in the Zanzibar dominions. Missionaries visited little-known regions and peoples, and in many instances became explorers and pioneers of trade and empire. David Livingstone, a Scottish missionary, had been engaged since 1840 in work north of the Orange River. In 1849, Livingstone crossed the Kalahari Desert from south to north and reached Lake Ngami. Between 1851 and 1856, he traversed the continent from west to east, discovering the great waterways of the upper Zambezi River. In November 1855, Livingstone became the first European to see the famous Victoria Falls, named after the Queen of the United Kingdom. From 1858 to 1864, the lower Zambezi, the Shire River and Lake Nyasa were explored by Livingstone. Nyasa had been first reached by the confidential slave of António da Silva Porto, a Portuguese trader established at Bié in Angola, who crossed Africa during 1853–1856 from Benguella to the mouth of the Rovuma. A prime goal for explorers was to locate the source of the River Nile. Expeditions by Burton and Speke (1857–1858) and Speke and Grant (1863) located Lake Tanganyika and Lake Victoria. It was eventually proved to be the latter from which the Nile flowed.
Henry Morton Stanley, who had in 1871 succeeded in finding and succouring Livingstone (originating the famous line "Dr. Livingstone, I presume"), started again for Zanzibar in 1874. In one of the most memorable of all exploring expeditions in Africa, Stanley circumnavigated Victoria Nyanza (Lake Victoria) and Lake Tanganyika. Striking farther inland to the Lualaba, he followed that river down to the Atlantic Ocean—which he reached in August 1877—and proved it to be the Congo.
In 1895, the British South Africa Company hired the American scout Frederick Russell Burnham to look for minerals and ways to improve river navigation in the central and southern Africa region. Burnham oversaw and led the Northern Territories British South Africa Exploration Company expedition that first established that major copper deposits existed north of the Zambezi in North-Eastern Rhodesia. Along the Kafue River, Burnham saw many similarities to copper deposits he had worked in the United States, and he encountered native peoples wearing copper bracelets.[8] Copper rapidly became the primary export of Central Africa and it remains essential to the economy even today.
Explorers were also active in other parts of the continent. Southern Morocco, the Sahara and the Sudan were traversed in many directions between 1860 and 1875 by Georg Schweinfurth and Gustav Nachtigal.[9] These travellers not only added considerably to geographical knowledge, but obtained invaluable information concerning the people, languages and natural history of the countries in which they sojourned. Among the discoveries of Schweinfurth was one that confirmed Greek legends of the existence beyond Egypt of a "pygmy race". But the first western discoverer of the pygmies of Central Africa was Paul Du Chaillu, who found them in the Ogowe district of the west coast in 1865, five years before Schweinfurth's first meeting with them. Du Chaillu had previously, through journeys in the Gabon region between 1855 and 1859, made popular in Europe the knowledge of the existence of the gorilla, whose existence was thought to be as legendary as that of the Pygmies of Aristotle.
List of Africa explorers[edit]
This article contains embedded lists that may be poorly defined, unverified or indiscriminate. Please help to clean it up to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Where appropriate, incorporate items into the main body of the article. (October 2014)
15th century[edit]
Portuguese map of western Africa, 1571
Diogo Cão
Diogo de Azambuja
Bartolomeu Dias
Pêro de Alenquer
João Infante
João Grego
Álvaro Martins
Pêro Dias
Gil Eanes
Nuno Tristão
Antão Gonçalves
Dinis Dias
Álvaro Fernandes
Pêro de Sintra
Fernão do Pó
Alvise Cadamosto (Venetian born)
António de Noli (Genoese born)
Diogo Gomes
Álvaro Caminha
João de Santarém
Pedro Escobar
Duarte Pacheco Pereira
Lopes Gonçalves (and Atlantic Ocean)
15th/16th century[edit]
Vasco da Gama (and discovered sea route to India)
Diogo Dias (and Indian Ocean, discovered Madagascar)
Pêro da Covilhã (15th/16th century diplomat and explorer in Ethiopia)
Pedro Álvares Cabral (discovered Brazil, explored India along the African coast)
Sancho de Tovar and Vicente Pegado among others (also among the first Europeans ever to contemplate and to describe the ruins of Great Zimbabwe, then referred to by the Portuguese as Monomotapa).
16th century[edit]
Paulo Dias de Novais
António Fernandes (he travalled to Monomotapa and beyond, exploring most of the present day Zimbabwe and possibly northeastern South Africa)[10]
Lourenço Marques (trader and explorer in East Africa)
Francisco Álvares (missionary and explorer in Ethiopia)
Gonçalo da Silveira (jesuit missionary, travalled up the Zambezi River to the capital of the Monomotapa which appears to have been the N'Pande kraal, close by the M'Zingesi River, a southern tributary of the Zambezi)
18th century[edit]
Francisco de Lacerda (explorer in Zambia)
19th century[edit]
Heinrich Barth approaching Timbuktu in 1853
Hermenegildo Capelo and Roberto Ivens in 1883
Heinrich Barth
Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza (Italian born)
Johann Ludwig Burckhardt
Frederick Russell Burnham (1861-1947), an American explorer of south, west, central, and east Africa.
Richard Francis Burton (1821–1890) (African Great Lakes)
René Caillié
Hermenegildo Capelo
Roberto Ivens
Candido José da Costa Cardoso (visited Lake Malawi [also known as Lake Nyasa or Lake Niassa] in 1846)
Paul Du Chaillu
Hugh Clapperton (1788–1827), explored west and central Africa
'Victor de Compiègne'
Dixon Denham (1786–1828), explored west central Africa.
James Frederic Elton (1840–1877)
Emil Holub
Ignatius Knoblecher (1819–1858), explored the White Nile basin
Alexander Gordon Laing (1793–1826)
Macgregor Laird (1808–1861)
Richard Lemon Lander (1804–1834)
Oskar Lenz (1848–1925), expeditions in 1879-80 (trans-Sahara) and 1885-87 (Congo)
David Livingstone (1813–1873)
Emin Pasha Relief Expedition
Frederick Lugard (1858–1945)
Serpa Pinto (soldier and colonizer of Africa)
António da Silva Porto
Arthur Henry Neumann (1850-1907)
Mungo Park (explorer) (1771–1806)
Georg Schweinfurth (Latvian born)
Frederick Courtney Selous (1851-1917)
Henry Morton Stanley (1841–1904) (Welsh born)
William Edgar Geil (1 October 1865, Doylestown, Pennsylvania – 11 April 1925, Venice)
John Hanning Speke (1827–1864) (discovered the source of the Nile)
James Hingston Tuckey (1776–1816) (Irish born)
Early 20th century[edit]
Jan Czekanowski
William Edgar Geil
Kazimierz Nowak
See also[edit]
Saharan explorers
Cartography of Africa
Age of Discovery
List of European expeditions to Egypt (de)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Alan B. Lloyd, Herodotus, Book II (1975, 1988 Leiden). Lloyd, Alan B. (1977). "Necho and the Red Sea: Some Considerations". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 63: 142–155. JSTOR 3856314. Alan Lloyd suggests that the Greeks at this time understood that anyone going south far enough and then turning west would have the sun on their right but found it unbelievable that Africa reached so far south. He suggests that "It is extremely unlikely that an Egyptian king would, or could, have acted as Necho is depicted as doing" and that the story might have been triggered by the failure of Sataspes attempt to circumnavigate Africa under Xerxes the Great. See also Jona Lendering, The circumnavigation of Africa, Livius.
Jump up ^ The Periplus of Hanno; a voyage of discovery down the west African coast (1912)
Jump up ^ Harden, Donald (1971) [1962]. The Phoenicians. Harmondsworth: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-021375-9.
Jump up ^ "Some taking Hanno to the Cameroons, or even Gabon, while others say he stopped at Sierre Leone." (Harden 1971, p. 169).
Jump up ^ R.C.C. Law (1979). "North Africa in the period of Phoenician and greek colonization". In Fage, J.D. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 135. ISBN 9780521215923. Retrieved 20 February 2016.
Jump up ^ The limit of Ptolemy's knowledge in the west is Cape Spartel (35° 48′ N); while he does assume that the coast eventually retreats in a "Great Gulf of the Western Ocean", this is not likely based on any knowledge of the Gulf of Guinea. Eric Anderson Walker, The Cambridge history of the British Empire, Volume 7, Part 1, 1963, p. 66. In the east, Ptolemy is aware of the Red Sea (Sinus Arabicus) and the protrusion of the Horn of Africa, describing the gulf south of the Horn of Africa as Sinus Barbaricus.
Jump up ^ Astengo C, Balla M., Brigati I., Ferrada de Noli M., Gomes L., Hall T., Pires V., Rosetti C. Da Noli a Capo Verde. Antonio de Noli e l'inizio delle scoperte del Nuovo Mondo. Marco Sabatelli Editore. Savona, 2013. ISBN 9788888449821 [4]
Jump up ^ Burnham, Frederick Russell (1899). "Northern Rhodesia". In Wills, Walter H. Bulawayo Up-to-date; Being a General Sketch of Rhodesia. Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent & Co. pp. 177–180.
Jump up ^ "Sahara and Sudan: The Results of Six Years Travel in Africa". World Digital Library. 1879–1889. Retrieved 2013-10-02.
Jump up ^ [1]
Bibliography[edit]
Michael Crowder, The Story of Nigeria, Faber and Faber, London, 1978 (1962)
Basil Davidson, The African Past, Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1966 (1964)
Donald Harden, The Phoenicians, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1971 (1962)
Herodotus, transl. Aubrey de Selincourt, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1968 (1954)
Historia Universal Siglo XXI. Africa: desde la prehistoria hasta los años sesenta. Pierre Bertaux, 1972. Siglo XXI Editores S.A. ISBN 84-323-0069-1
Vincent B. Khapoya, The African Experience, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1998 (1994)
Louise Levanthes, When China Ruled the Seas, Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford, 1994
Kevin Shillington, History of Africa, St Martin's Press, New York, 1995 (1989)
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All Writs Act
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"The All Writs Act", lecture by Jonathan Mayer
The All Writs Act is a United States federal statute, codified at 28 U.S.C. § 1651, which authorizes the United States federal courts to "issue all writs necessary or appropriate in aid of their respective jurisdictions and agreeable to the usages and principles of law."
The act in its original form was part of the Judiciary Act of 1789. The current form of the act was first passed in 1911[1] and the act has been amended several times since then,[2] but it has not changed significantly in substance since 1789.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Act
2 Conditions for use
3 Application to electronic devices
4 References
Act[edit]
The text of the Act is:[2]
(a) The Supreme Court and all courts established by Act of Congress may issue all writs necessary or appropriate in aid of their respective jurisdictions and agreeable to the usages and principles of law.
(b) An alternative writ or rule nisi may be issued by a justice or judge of a court which has jurisdiction.
Conditions for use[edit]
Application of the All Writs Act requires the fulfillment of four conditions:[4]
The absence of alternative remedies—the act is only applicable when other judicial tools are not available.
An independent basis for jurisdiction—the act authorizes writs in aid of jurisdiction, but does not in itself create any federal subject-matter jurisdiction.
Necessary or appropriate in aid of jurisdiction—the writ must be necessary or appropriate to the particular case.
Usages and principles of law—the statute requires courts to issue writs "agreeable to the usages and principles of law".
The U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that federal administrative agencies can invoke the All Writs Act to preserve the status quo when a party within the agency's jurisdiction is about to take action that will prevent or impair the agency from carrying out its functions. In FTC v. Dean Foods Co.,[5] the Supreme Court held that a court of appeals to which an appeal could be taken against an FTC order banning a merger could properly issue a preliminary injunction under the All Writs Act while the FTC determined the merger's legality, if the need for injunctive relief was "compelling". In that case the acquired company would cease to exist since the acquiring company was about to sell all acquired milk routes, its plants and equipment, and other assets, precluding its restoration as a viable independent company if the merger were subsequently ruled illegal. This would prevent a meaningful order from being entered in the case. The Court held that the All Writs Act extends to the potential jurisdiction of an appellate court where an appeal is not then pending, but may later be perfected.
In a later similar case, the Second Circuit denied relief, because an All Writs preliminary injunction should issue only if the FTC can show that "an effective remedial order, once the merger was implemented, would otherwise be virtually impossible, thus rendering the enforcement of any final decree of divestiture futile." The Second Circuit opined that the merger probably violated the antitrust laws but did not believe that effective relief would be "virtually impossible."[6] The Supreme Court reached a similar result in a later case involving an agency's dismissal of an employee. The reason was that judicial review would not be defeated as in Dean Foods.[7]
In 1984, the D.C. Circuit relied on Dean Foods as authority for issuance of an All Writs order to compel the FCC to act on a petition that it had allegedly delayed for almost five years without acting on it.[8]
The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in United States v. New York Telephone Co. 434 U.S. 159 (1977) that the act provided authority for a U.S. District Court to order a telephone company to assist law enforcement officials in installing a device on a rotary phone in order to track the phone numbers dialed on that phone, which was reasonably believed to be used in furtherance of criminal activity.:[9])
Application to electronic devices[edit]
Main article: FBI–Apple encryption dispute
State-by-state usage of the All Writs Act by the federal government of the United States against Apple Inc. and Google.[10]
Apple Inc.
Google
Apple Inc. and Google
The U.S. Government has revived the All Writs Act in the 21st century, notably to gain access to password protected mobile phones in domestic terrorism and narcotics investigations.
The government has been trying to use the All Writs Act since at least 2008 to force various companies to provide assistance in cracking their customers’ phones. The American Civil Liberties Union has confirmed at least 76 cases in 22 states where the government applied for an order under the All Writs Act. In addition, Apple has identified 12 pending cases in its court documents, and the ACLU has found one additional case in Massachusetts.[11]
Here are some specific examples:
On October 31, 2014, a U.S. District Court in New York authorized a writ directing a mobile phone manufacturer, whose identity was not disclosed, to assist an investigation of credit card fraud by bypassing a phone's password screen.[12]
On November 3, 2014, the Oakland Division of the U.S. Attorney's Office named Apple Inc. in papers invoking the Act, which were filed in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California. Federal law enforcement sought to require Apple to extract data from a locked iPhone 5S as part of a criminal case.[13][14]
On February 16, 2016, the Act was invoked again in an order that Apple Inc. create a special version of its iOS operating system, with certain security features removed, for Federal law enforcement officers to use as part of an investigation into the 2015 San Bernardino terrorist attack.[15] The head of the FBI stated that what was requested was that Apple disable the iPhone's feature which erases encrypted data on the device after ten incorrect password attempts. Apple claimed that complying with the order would make brute force password attacks trivial for anyone with access to a phone using this software.[16] Apple CEO Tim Cook in an open letter warned of the precedent that following the order would create.[17] On the same day, the Electronic Frontier Foundation announced its support for Apple's position.[18] Several public figures have joined the debate.[19]
On March 20, 2017, the Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit stated that a decryption order issued under the Act did not violate the Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination if the contents of a hard drive were a "foregone conclusion."[20]
In court filings, Apple has argued that Congress has established guidelines for what is required of private entities in such circumstances in the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act of 1992 (CALEA).[21] The DOJ has argued, both in October in Brooklyn and in filings on February 19, 2016, against Apple that CALEA does not apply to these cases, which involve "data at rest rather than in transit", an important distinction for determining whether CALEA applies, nor does it alter the authority granted the courts under the All Writs Act. On February 29, 2016, Magistrate Judge James Orenstein issued an order denying the government's request in its effort to decrypt an iPhone for admission as evidence.[22]
Sen. Ron Wyden, D-Ore., a privacy advocate on the Senate Intelligence Committee, argued: "If the FBI can force Apple to build a key, you can be sure authoritarian regimes like China and Russia will turn around and force Apple to hand it over to them .... They will use that key to oppress their own people and steal U.S. trade secrets."[23]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "TOPN: Table of Popular Names". Legal Information Institute.
^ Jump up to: a b "28 U.S. Code § 1651 - Writs". Legal Information Institute.
Jump up ^ Section 14 of the 1789 Act provided that all courts of the United States should "have power to issue writs of scire facias, habeas corpus, and all other writs not specially provided for by statute, which may be necessary for the exercise of their respective jurisdiction, and agreeable to the principles and usages of law." Findlaw, Power to Issue Writs: The Act of 1789.
Jump up ^ Portnoi, D. D. (March 19, 2009). "Resorting to Extraordinary Writs: How the All Writs Act Rises to Fill the Gaps in the Rights of Enemy Combatants" (PDF). New York University Law Review: 293–322. Retrieved February 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ 384 U.S. 597 (1966).
Jump up ^ FTC v. PepsiCo, Inc., 477 F.2d 24 (2d Cir. 1973).
Jump up ^ Sampson v. Murray, 415 U.S. 61, 77-78 (1974).
Jump up ^ Telecommunications Research & Action Center v. FCC, 750 F.2d 70 (D.C. Cir. 1984).
Jump up ^ "United States v. New York Telephone Co". Google Scholar. Supreme Court of United States. Retrieved February 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Pagliery, Jose (March 30, 2016). "Here are the places feds are using a controversial law to unlock phones". CNN. Time Warner. Retrieved April 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ Raymundo, Oscar (March 30, 2016). "Here's a map of where Apple and Google are fighting the All Writs Act nationwide". Macworld. Retrieved March 31, 2016.
Jump up ^ "In Re Order Requiring [XXX], Inc. to Assist in the Execution of a Search Warrant ... by Unlocking a Cell Phone". Google Scholar. United States District Court, S.D. New York. Retrieved February 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Farivar, Cyrus (December 1, 2014). "Feds want Apple's help to defeat encrypted phones, new legal case shows". Ars Technica. Condé Nast. Retrieved February 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ United States of America v. Apple (October 3, 2014) (“Order requiring Apple, Inc. to assist in the execution of a search warrant”). Text
Jump up ^ United States of America v. Apple (February 16, 2016) (“In the matter of the search of an Apple iPhone seized during the execution of a search warrant on a black Lexus IS300, California license plate 35KGD203”). Text
Jump up ^ Ellen Nakashima (February 17, 2016). "Apple vows to resist FBI demand to crack iPhone linked to San Bernardino attacks". The Washington Post. Retrieved February 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ Cook, Tim (February 16, 2016). "A Message to our Customers". Apple Inc. Retrieved February 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ Opsahl, Kurt (February 16, 2016). "EFF to Support Apple in Encryption Battle". Electronic Frontier Foundation. Retrieved February 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ O'Neill, Maggie (February 19, 2016). "Apple vs. FBI: See who's taking sides". CNN. Turner Broadcasting System. Retrieved February 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ United States of America v. Apple Macpro Computer et al. , No. 15-3537 (3d Cir. 2017) (“[T]hough the Fifth Amendment may be implicated by Doe’s decryption of the devices, any testimonial aspects of that production were a foregone conclusion.”).
Jump up ^ "Can an 18th-century law force Apple into hacking killer's phone?". New York Post. February 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Magistrate Judge James Orenstein's Order". The New York Times. February 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Wyden, Ron. "This Isn't about One iPhone. It's About Millions of Them". Medium.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=All_Writs_Act&oldid=814826567"
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