text:
History of botany
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Some traditional tools of botanical science
The history of botany examines the human effort to understand life on Earth by tracing the historical development of the discipline of botany—that part of natural science dealing with organisms traditionally treated as plants.
Rudimentary botanical science began with empirically-based plant lore passed from generation to generation in the oral traditions of paleolithic hunter-gatherers. The first written records of plants were made in the Neolithic Revolution about 10,000 years ago as writing was developed in the settled agricultural communities where plants and animals were first domesticated. The first writings that show human curiosity about plants themselves, rather than the uses that could be made of them, appears in the teachings of Aristotle's student Theophrastus at the Lyceum in ancient Athens in about 350 BC; this is considered the starting point for modern botany. In Europe, this early botanical science was soon overshadowed by a medieval preoccupation with the medicinal properties of plants that lasted more than 1000 years. During this time, the medicinal works of classical antiquity were reproduced in manuscripts and books called herbals. In China and the Arab world, the Greco-Roman work on medicinal plants was preserved and extended.
In Europe the Renaissance of the 14th–17th centuries heralded a scientific revival during which botany gradually emerged from natural history as an independent science, distinct from medicine and agriculture. Herbals were replaced by floras: books that described the native plants of local regions. The invention of the microscope stimulated the study of plant anatomy, and the first carefully designed experiments in plant physiology were performed. With the expansion of trade and exploration beyond Europe, the many new plants being discovered were subjected to an increasingly rigorous process of naming, description, and classification.
Progressively more sophisticated scientific technology has aided the development of contemporary botanical offshoots in the plant sciences, ranging from the applied fields of economic botany (notably agriculture, horticulture and forestry), to the detailed examination of the structure and function of plants and their interaction with the environment over many scales from the large-scale global significance of vegetation and plant communities (biogeography and ecology) through to the small scale of subjects like cell theory, molecular biology and plant biochemistry.
Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction
2 Ancient knowledge
2.1 Plant lore and plant selection
2.2 Early botany
2.3 Theophrastus and the origin of botanical science
2.4 Ancient Rome
3 Medieval knowledge
3.1 Medicinal plants of the early Middle Ages
3.2 The Silk Road
3.3 The Age of Herbals
4 The Renaissance and Age of Enlightenment (1550–1800)
4.1 Botanical gardens and herbaria
4.2 From Herbal to Flora
4.3 Botanical exploration
4.4 Classification and morphology
4.5 Anatomy
4.6 Physiology
4.7 Plant sexuality
5 Nineteenth-century foundations of modern botany
5.1 Plant geography and ecology
5.2 Anatomy
5.3 Water relations
5.4 Cytology
5.5 Developmental morphology and evolution
5.6 Carbon fixation (photosynthesis)
5.7 Nitrogen fixation
6 Twentieth century
6.1 Molecules
6.2 Computers, electron microscopes and evolution
6.3 Biogeography and ecology
7 Twenty-first century
8 See also
9 References
10 Bibliography
10.1 Books
10.1.1 History of science
10.1.2 History of botany, agriculture and horticulture
10.1.3 Antiquity
10.1.4 British botany
10.1.5 Cultural studies
10.1.6 Botanical art and illustration
10.1.7 Historical sources
10.1.8 Bibliographic sources
10.2 Articles
10.3 Websites
Introduction[edit]
Main article: Outline of botany
Botany (Greek Βοτάνη - grass, fodder; Medieval Latin botanicus – herb, plant)[1] and zoology are, historically, the core disciplines of biology whose history is closely associated with the natural sciences chemistry, physics and geology. A distinction can be made between botanical science in a pure sense, as the study of plants themselves, and botany as applied science, which studies the human use of plants. Early natural history divided pure botany into three main streams morphology-classification, anatomy and physiology – that is, external form, internal structure, and functional operation.[2] The most obvious topics in applied botany are horticulture, forestry and agriculture although there are many others like weed science, plant pathology, floristry, pharmacognosy, economic botany and ethnobotany which lie outside modern courses in botany. Since the origin of botanical science there has been a progressive increase in the scope of the subject as technology has opened up new techniques and areas of study. Modern molecular systematics, for example, entails the principles and techniques of taxonomy, molecular biology, computer science and more.
Within botany there are a number of sub-disciplines that focus on particular plant groups, each with their own range of related studies (anatomy, morphology etc.). Included here are: phycology (algae), pteridology (ferns), bryology (mosses and liverworts) and palaeobotany (fossil plants) and their histories are treated elsewhere (see side bar). To this list can be added mycology, the study of fungi, which were once treated as plants, but are now ranked as a unique kingdom.
Ancient knowledge[edit]
Main article: Neolithic Revolution
Nomadic hunter-gatherer societies passed on, by oral tradition, what they knew (their empirical observations) about the different kinds of plants that they used for food, shelter, poisons, medicines, for ceremonies and rituals etc. The uses of plants by these pre-literate societies influenced the way the plants were named and classified—their uses were embedded in folk-taxonomies, the way they were grouped according to use in everyday communication.[3] The nomadic life-style was drastically changed when settled communities were established in about twelve centres around the world during the Neolithic Revolution which extended from about 10,000 to 2500 years ago depending on the region. With these communities came the development of the technology and skills needed for the domestication of plants and animals and the emergence of the written word provided evidence for the passing of systematic knowledge and culture from one generation to the next.[4]
Plant lore and plant selection[edit]
Further information: Cultivated plant taxonomy and Herbal
A Sumerian harvester's sickle dated to 3000 BC
During the Neolithic Revolution plant knowledge increased most obviously through the use of plants for food and medicine. All of today's staple foods were domesticated in prehistoric times as a gradual process of selection of higher-yielding varieties took place, possibly unknowingly, over hundreds to thousands of years. Legumes were cultivated on all continents but cereals made up most of the regular diet: rice in East Asia, wheat and barley in the Middle east, and maize in Central and South America. By Greco-Roman times popular food plants of today, including grapes, apples, figs, and olives, were being listed as named varieties in early manuscripts.[5] Botanical authority William Stearn has observed that "cultivated plants are mankind's most vital and precious heritage from remote antiquity".[6]
It is also from the Neolithic, in about 3000 BC, that we glimpse the first known illustrations of plants[7] and read descriptions of impressive gardens in Egypt.[8] However protobotany, the first pre-scientific written record of plants, did not begin with food; it was born out of the medicinal literature of Egypt, China, Mesopotamia and India.[9] Botanical historian Alan Morton notes that agriculture was the occupation of the poor and uneducated, while medicine was the realm of socially influential shamans, priests, apothecaries, magicians and physicians, who were more likely to record their knowledge for posterity.[10]
Early botany[edit]
Ancient India
An early example of ancient Indian plant classification is found in the Rigveda, a collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns from about 3700–3100 BP. Plants are divided into vṛska (trees), osadhi (herbs useful to humans) and virudha (creepers), with further subdivisions. The sacred Hindu text Atharvaveda divides plants into eight classes: visakha (spreading branches), manjari (leaves with long clusters[clarification needed]), sthambini (bushy plants), prastanavati (which expands); ekasṛnga (those with monopodial growth), pratanavati (creeping plants), amsumati (with many stalks), and kandini (plants with knotty joints). The Taittiriya Samhita classifies the plant kingdom into vṛksa, vana and druma (trees), visakha (shrubs with spreading branches), sasa (herbs), amsumali (spreading plant), vratati (climber), stambini (bushy plant), pratanavati (creeper), and alasala (spreading on the ground). Other examples of early Indian taxonomy include Manusmriti, the Law book of Hindus, which classifies plants into eight major categories. Elaborate taxonomies also occur in the Charaka Samhitā, Sushruta Samhita and Vaisesika.[11]
Ancient China
In ancient China lists of different plants and herb concoctions for pharmaceutical purposes date back to at least the time of the Warring States (481 BC-221 BC). Many Chinese writers over the centuries contributed to the written knowledge of herbal pharmaceutics. The Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD) includes the notable work of the Huangdi Neijing and the famous pharmacologist Zhang Zhongjing. There were also the 11th century scientists and statesmen Su Song and Shen Kuo who compiled learned treatises on natural history, emphasising herbal medicine.[12]
Theophrastus and the origin of botanical science[edit]
Main article: Theophrastus
"School of Athens"
Fresco in Apostolic Palace, Rome, Vatican City, by Raphael 1509-1510
Ancient Athens, of the 6th century BC, was the busy trade centre at the confluence of Egyptian, Mesopotamian and Minoan cultures at the height of Greek colonisation of the Mediterranean. The philosophical thought of this period ranged freely through many subjects. Empedocles (490–430 BC) foreshadowed Darwinian evolutionary theory in a crude formulation of the mutability of species and natural selection.[13] The physician Hippocrates (460–370 BC) avoided the prevailing superstition of his day and approached healing by close observation and the test of experience. At this time a genuine non-anthropocentric curiosity about plants emerged. The major works written about plants extended beyond the description of their medicinal uses to the topics of plant geography, morphology, physiology, nutrition, growth and reproduction.[14]
Foremost among the scholars studying botany was Theophrastus of Eressus (Greek: Θεόφραστος; c. 371–287 BC) who has been frequently referred to as the "Father of Botany". He was a student and close friend of Aristotle (384–322 BC) and succeeded him as head of the Lyceum (an educational establishment like a modern university) in Athens with its tradition of peripatetic philosophy. Aristotle's special treatise on plants — θεωρία περὶ φυτῶν — is now lost, although there are many botanical observations scattered throughout his other writings (these have been assembled by Christian Wimmer in Phytologiae Aristotelicae Fragmenta, 1836) but they give little insight into his botanical thinking.[15] The Lyceum prided itself in a tradition of systematic observation of causal connections, critical experiment and rational theorizing. Theophrastus challenged the superstitious medicine employed by the physicians of his day, called rhizotomi, and also the control over medicine exerted by priestly authority and tradition.[16] Together with Aristotle he had tutored Alexander the Great whose military conquests were carried out with all the scientific resources of the day, the Lyceum garden probably containing many botanical trophies collected during his campaigns as well as other explorations in distant lands.[17] It was in this garden where he gained much of his plant knowledge.[18]
Statue of Theophrastus 371–287 BC
"Father of Botany"
Palermo Botanic Gardens
Theophrastus's major botanical works were the Enquiry into Plants (Historia Plantarum) and Causes of Plants (Causae Plantarum) which were his lecture notes for the Lyceum.[19] The opening sentence of the Enquiry reads like a botanical manifesto: "We must consider the distinctive characters and the general nature of plants from the point of view of their morphology, their behaviour under external conditions, their mode of generation and the whole course of their life". The Enquiry is 9 books of "applied" botany dealing with the forms and classification of plants and economic botany, examining the techniques of agriculture (relationship of crops to soil, climate, water and habitat) and horticulture. He described some 500 plants in detail, often including descriptions of habitat and geographic distribution, and he recognised some plant groups that can be recognised as modern-day plant families. Some names he used, like Crataegus, Daucus and Asparagus have persisted until today. His second book Causes of Plants covers plant growth and reproduction (akin to modern physiology).[20] Like Aristotle he grouped plants into "trees", "undershrubs", "shrubs" and "herbs" but he also made several other important botanical distinctions and observations. He noted that plants could be annuals, perennials and biennials, they were also either monocotyledons or dicotyledons and he also noticed the difference between determinate and indeterminate growth and details of floral structure including the degree of fusion of the petals, position of the ovary and more.[21][22] These lecture notes of Theophrastus comprise the first clear exposition of the rudiments of plant anatomy, physiology, morphology and ecology — presented in a way that would not be matched for another eighteen centuries.[23]
Meanwhile, the study of medicinal plants was not being neglected and a full synthesis of ancient Greek pharmacology was compiled in Materia Medica c. 60 AD by Pedanius Dioscorides (c. 40-90 AD) who was a Greek physician with the Roman army. This work proved to be the definitive text on medicinal herbs, both oriental and occidental, for fifteen hundred years until the dawn of the European Renaissance being slavishly copied again and again throughout this period.[24] Though rich in medicinal information with descriptions of about 600 medicinal herbs, the botanical content of the work was extremely limited.[25]
Ancient Rome[edit]
Main article: Roman agriculture
The Romans contributed little to the foundations of botanical science laid by the ancient Greeks, but made a sound contribution to our knowledge of applied botany as agriculture. In works titled De Re Rustica four Roman writers contributed to a compendium Scriptores Rei Rusticae, published from the Renaissance on, which set out the principles and practice of agriculture. These authors were Cato (234–149 BC), Varro (116–27 BC) and, in particular, Columella (4–70 AD) and Palladius (4th century AD).[26] Roman encyclopaedist Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) deals with plants in Books 12 to 26 of his 37-volume highly influential work Naturalis Historia in which he frequently quotes Theophrastus but with a lack of botanical insight although he does, nevertheless, draw a distinction between true botany on the one hand, and farming and medicine on the other.[27] It is estimated that at the time of the Roman Empire between 1300 and 1400 plants had been recorded in the West.[28]
Medieval knowledge[edit]
Medicinal plants of the early Middle Ages[edit]
Further information: Herbalism, Chinese medicine, Byzantine medicine, and Islamic medicine
An Arabic copy of Avicenna's Canon of Medicine dated 1593
In Western Europe, after Theophrastus, botany passed through a bleak period of 1800 years when little progress was made and, indeed, many of the early insights were lost. As Europe entered the Middle Ages (5th to 15th centuries), a period of disorganised feudalism and indifference to learning, China, India and the Arab world enjoyed a golden age. Chinese philosophy had followed a similar path to that of the ancient Greeks. The Chinese dictionary-encyclopaedia Erh Ya probably dates from about 300 BC and describes about 334 plants classed as trees or shrubs, each with a common name and illustration. Between 100 and 1700 AD many new works on pharmaceutical botany were produced including encyclopaedic accounts and treatises compiled for the Chinese imperial court. These were free of superstition and myth with carefully researched descriptions and nomenclature; they included cultivation information and notes on economic and medicinal uses — and even elaborate monographs on ornamental plants. But there was no experimental method and no analysis of the plant sexual system, nutrition, or anatomy.[29]
The 400-year period from the 9th to 13th centuries AD was the Islamic Renaissance, a time when Islamic culture and science thrived. Greco-Roman texts were preserved, copied and extended although new texts always emphasised the medicinal aspects of plants. Kurdish biologist Ābu Ḥanīfah Āḥmad ibn Dawūd Dīnawarī (828–896 AD) is known as the founder of Arabic botany; his Kitâb al-nabât (‘Book of Plants’) describes 637 species, discussing plant development from germination to senescence and including details of flowers and fruits.[30] The Mutazilite philosopher and physician Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (c. 980–1037 AD) was another influential figure, his The Canon of Medicine being a landmark in the history of medicine treasured until the Enlightenment.[31]
In India simple artificial plant classification systems of the Rigveda, Atharvaveda and Taittiriya Samhita became more botanical with the work of Parashara (c. 400 – c. 500 AD), the author of Vṛksayurveda (the science of life of trees). He made close observations of cells and leaves and divided plants into Dvimatrka (Dicotyledons) and Ekamatrka (Monocotyledons). The dicotyledons were further classified into groupings (ganas) akin to modern floral families: Samiganiya (Fabaceae), Puplikagalniya (Rutaceae), Svastikaganiya (Cruciferae), Tripuspaganiya (Cucurbitaceae), Mallikaganiya (Apocynaceae), and Kurcapuspaganiya (Asteraceae).[32][33] Important medieval Indian works of plant physiology include the Prthviniraparyam of Udayana, Nyayavindutika of Dharmottara, Saddarsana-samuccaya of Gunaratna, and Upaskara of Sankaramisra.
The Silk Road[edit]
Following the fall of Constantinople (1453), the newly expanded Ottoman Empire welcomed European embassies in its capital, which in turn became the sources of plants from those regions to the east which traded with the empire. In the following century twenty times as many plants entered Europe along the Silk Road as had been transported in the previous two thousand years, mainly as bulbs. Others were acquired primarily for their alleged medicinal value. Initially Italy benefited from this new knowledge, especially Venice, which traded extensively with the East. From there these new plants rapidly spread to the rest of Western Europe.[34] By the middle of the sixteenth century there was already a flourishing export trade of various bulbs from Turkey to Europe.[35]
The Age of Herbals[edit]
Main article: Herbal
Dioscorides', De Materia Medica, Byzantium, 15th century.
In the European Middle Ages of the 15th and 16th centuries the lives of European citizens were based around agriculture but when printing arrived, with movable type and woodcut illustrations, it was not treatises on agriculture that were published, but lists of medicinal plants with descriptions of their properties or "virtues". These first plant books, known as herbals showed that botany was still a part of medicine, as it had been for most of ancient history.[31] Authors of herbals were often curators of university gardens,[36] and most herbals were derivative compilations of classic texts, especially De Materia Medica. However, the need for accurate and detailed plant descriptions meant that some herbals were more botanical than medicinal. German Otto Brunfels's (1464–1534) Herbarum Vivae Icones (1530) contained descriptions of about 47 species new to science combined with accurate illustrations. His fellow countryman Hieronymus Bock's (1498–1554) Kreutterbuch of 1539 described plants he found in nearby woods and fields and these were illustrated in the 1546 edition.[37] However, it was Valerius Cordus (1515–1544) who pioneered the formal botanical description that detailed both flowers and fruits, some anatomy including the number of chambers in the ovary, and the type of ovule placentation. He also made observations on pollen and distinguished between inflorescence types.[37] His five-volume Historia Plantarum was published about 18 years after his early death aged 29 in 1561-1563. In Holland Rembert Dodoens (1517–1585), in Stirpium Historiae (1583), included descriptions of many new species from the Netherlands in a scientific arrangement[38] and in England William Turner (1515–1568) in his Libellus De Re Herbaria Novus (1538) published names, descriptions and localities of many native British plants.[39]
Herbals contributed to botany by setting in train the science of plant description, classification, and botanical illustration. Up to the 17th century botany and medicine were one and the same but those books emphasising medicinal aspects eventually omitted the plant lore to become modern pharmacopoeias; those that omitted the medicine became more botanical and evolved into the modern compilations of plant descriptions we call Floras. These were often backed by specimens deposited in a herbarium which was a collection of dried plants that verified the plant descriptions given in the Floras. The transition from herbal to Flora marked the final separation of botany from medicine.[40]
The Renaissance and Age of Enlightenment (1550–1800)[edit]
The revival of learning during the European Renaissance renewed interest in plants. The church, feudal aristocracy and an increasingly influential merchant class that supported science and the arts, now jostled in a world of increasing trade. Sea voyages of exploration returned botanical treasures to the large public, private, and newly established botanic gardens, and introduced an eager population to novel crops, drugs and spices from Asia, the East Indies and the New World.
The number of scientific publications increased. In England, for example, scientific communication and causes were facilitated by learned societies like Royal Society (founded in 1660) and the Linnaean Society (founded in 1788): there was also the support and activities of botanical institutions like the Jardin du Roi in Paris, Chelsea Physic Garden, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, and the Oxford and Cambridge Botanic Gardens, as well as the influence of renowned private gardens and wealthy entrepreneurial nurserymen.[41] By the early 17th century the number of plants described in Europe had risen to about 6000.[42] The 18th century Enlightenment values of reason and science coupled with new voyages to distant lands instigating another phase of encyclopaedic plant identification, nomenclature, description and illustration, "flower painting" possibly at its best in this period of history.[43][44] Plant trophies from distant lands decorated the gardens of Europe's powerful and wealthy in a period of enthusiasm for natural history, especially botany (a preoccupation sometimes referred to as "botanophilia") that is never likely to recur.[45] Often such exotic new plant imports (primarily from Turkey), when they first appeared in print in English, lacked common names in the language.[44]
During the 18th century botany was one of the few sciences considered appropriate for genteel educated women. Around 1760, with the popularization of the Linnaean system, botany became much more widespread among educated women who painted plants, attended classes on plant classification, and collected herbarium specimens although emphasis was on the healing properties of plants rather than plant reproduction which had overtones of sexuality. Women began publishing on botanical topics and children's books on botany appeared by authors like Charlotte Turner Smith. Cultural authorities argued that education through botany created culturally and scientifically aware citizens, part of the thrust for 'improvement' that characterised the Enlightenment. However, in the early 19th century with the recognition of botany as an official science, women were again excluded from the discipline.[46]
Botanical gardens and herbaria[edit]
Further information: Botanical garden, List of botanical gardens, and Herbarium
A 16th century print of the Botanical Garden of Padova (Garden of the Simples) — the oldest academic botanic garden that is still in its original location
Preparing a herbarium specimen
Public and private gardens have always been strongly associated with the historical unfolding of botanical science.[47] Early botanical gardens were physic gardens, repositories for the medicinal plants described in the herbals. As they were generally associated with universities or other academic institutions the plants were also used for study. The directors of these gardens were eminent physicians with an educational role as "scientific gardeners" and it was staff of these institutions that produced many of the published herbals.
The botanical gardens of the modern tradition were established in northern Italy, the first being at Pisa (1544), founded by Luca Ghini (1490–1556). Although part of a medical faculty, the first chair of materia medica, essentially a chair in botany, was established in Padua in 1533. Then in 1534, Ghini became Reader in materia medica at Bologna University, where Aldrovandi established a similar garden in 1568 (see below).[48] Collections of pressed and dried specimens were called a hortus siccus (garden of dry plants) and the first accumulation of plants in this way (including the use of a plant press) is attributed to Ghini.[49][50] Buildings called herbaria housed these specimens mounted on card with descriptive labels. Stored in cupboards in systematic order they could be preserved in perpetuity and easily transferred or exchanged with other institutions, a taxonomic procedure that is still used today.
By the 18th century the physic gardens had been transformed into "order beds" that demonstrated the classification systems that were being devised by botanists of the day — but they also had to accommodate the influx of curious, beautiful and new plants pouring in from voyages of exploration that were associated with European colonial expansion.
From Herbal to Flora[edit]
Main article: Flora
Plant classification systems of the 17th and 18th centuries now related plants to one another and not to man, marking a return to the non-anthropocentric botanical science promoted by Theophrastus over 1500 years before. In England, various herbals in either Latin or English were mainly compilations and translations of continental European works, of limited relevance to the British Isles. This included the rather unreliable work of Gerard (1597).[51] The first systematic attempt to collect information on British plants was that of Thomas Johnson (1629),[52][53] who was later to issue his own revision of Gerard's work (1633–1636).[54]
However Johnson was not the first apothecary or physician to organise botanical expeditions to systematise their local flora. In Italy Ulysse Aldrovandi (1522 – 1605) organised an expedition to the Sibylline mountains in Umbria in 1557, and compiled a local Flora. He then began to disseminate his findings amongst other European scholars, forming an early network of knowledge sharing "molti amici in molti luoghi" (many friends in many places),[55][56] including Charles de l'Écluse (Clusius) (1526 – 1609) at Montpellier and Jean de Brancion at Malines. Between them they started developing Latin names for plants, in addition to their common names.[57] The exchange of information and specimens between scholars was often associated with the founding of botanical gardens (above), and to this end Aldrovandi founded one of the earliest at his university in Bologna, the Orto Botanico di Bologna in 1568.[48]
In France, Clusius journeyed throughout most of Western Europe, making discoveries in the vegetable kingdom along the way. He compiled Flora of Spain (1576), and Austria and Hungary (1583). He was the first to propose dividing plants into classes.[58][59] Meanwhile, in Switzerland, from 1554, Conrad Gessner (1516 – 1565) made regular explorations of the Swiss Alps from his native Zurich and discovered many new plants. He proposed that there were groups or genera of plants. He said that each genus was composed of many species and that these were defined by similar flowers and fruits. This principle of organization laid the groundwork for future botanists. He wrote his important Historia Plantarum shortly before his death. At Malines, in Flanders he established and maintained the botanical gardens of Jean de Brancion from 1568 to 1573, and first encountered tulips.[60][61]
This approach coupled with the new Linnaean system of binomial nomenclature resulted in plant encyclopaedias without medicinal information called Floras that meticulously described and illustrated the plants growing in particular regions.[62] The 17th century also marked the beginning of experimental botany and application of a rigorous scientific method, while improvements in the microscope launched the new discipline of plant anatomy whose foundations, laid by the careful observations of Englishman Nehemiah Grew[63] and Italian Marcello Malpighi, would last for 150 years.[64]
Botanical exploration[edit]
Main article: Plant geography
More new lands were opening up to European colonial powers, the botanical riches being returned to European botanists for description. This was a romantic era of botanical explorers, intrepid plant hunters and gardener-botanists. Significant botanical collections came from: the West Indies (Hans Sloane (1660–1753)); China (James Cunningham); the spice islands of the East Indies (Moluccas, George Rumphius (1627–1702)); China and Mozambique (João de Loureiro (1717–1791)); West Africa (Michel Adanson (1727–1806)) who devised his own classification scheme and forwarded a crude theory of the mutability of species; Canada, Hebrides, Iceland, New Zealand by Captain James Cook's chief botanist Joseph Banks (1743–1820).[65]
Classification and morphology[edit]
Further information: List of systems of plant taxonomy, Plant taxonomy, and History of plant systematics
Portrait of Carl Linnaeus by Alexander Roslin, 1775
By the middle of the 18th century the botanical booty resulting from the era of exploration was accumulating in gardens and herbaria – and it needed to be systematically catalogued. This was the task of the taxonomists, the plant classifiers.
Plant classifications have changed over time from "artificial" systems based on general habit and form, to pre-evolutionary "natural" systems expressing similarity using one to many characters, leading to post-evolutionary "natural" systems that use characters to infer evolutionary relationships.[66]
Italian physician Andrea Caesalpino (1519–1603) studied medicine and taught botany at the University of Pisa for about 40 years eventually becoming Director of the Botanic Garden of Pisa from 1554 to 1558. His sixteen-volume De Plantis (1583) described 1500 plants and his herbarium of 260 pages and 768 mounted specimens still remains. Caesalpino proposed classes based largely on the detailed structure of the flowers and fruit;[59] he also applied the concept of the genus.[67] He was the first to try and derive principles of natural classification reflecting the overall similarities between plants and he produced a classification scheme well in advance of its day.[68] Gaspard Bauhin (1560–1624) produced two influential publications Prodromus Theatrici Botanici (1620) and Pinax (1623). These brought order to the 6000 species now described and in the latter he used binomials and synonyms that may well have influenced Linnaeus's thinking. He also insisted that taxonomy should be based on natural affinities.[69]
Cover page of Species Plantarum of Carl Linnaeus published in 1753
To sharpen the precision of description and classification Joachim Jung (1587–1657) compiled a much-needed botanical terminology which has stood the test of time. English botanist John Ray (1623–1705) built on Jung's work to establish the most elaborate and insightful classification system of the day.[70] His observations started with the local plants of Cambridge where he lived, with the Catalogus Stirpium circa Cantabrigiam Nascentium (1860) which later expanded to his Synopsis Methodica Stirpium Britannicarum, essentially the first British Flora. Although his Historia Plantarum (1682, 1688, 1704) provided a step towards a world Flora as he included more and more plants from his travels, first on the continent and then beyond. He extended Caesalpino's natural system with a more precise definition of the higher classification levels, deriving many modern families in the process, and asserted that all parts of plants were important in classification. He recognised that variation arises from both internal (genotypic) and external environmental (phenotypic) causes and that only the former was of taxonomic significance. He was also among the first experimental physiologists. The Historia Plantarum can be regarded as the first botanical synthesis and textbook for modern botany. According to botanical historian Alan Morton, Ray "influenced both the theory and the practice of botany more decisively than any other single person in the latter half of the seventeenth century".[71] Ray's family system was later extended by Pierre Magnol (1638–1715) and Joseph de Tournefort (1656–1708), a student of Magnol, achieved notoriety for his botanical expeditions, his emphasis on floral characters in classification, and for reviving the idea of the genus as the basic unit of classification.[72]
Above all it was Swedish Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) who eased the task of plant cataloguing. He adopted a sexual system of classification using stamens and pistils as important characters. Among his most important publications were Systema Naturae (1735), Genera Plantarum (1737), and Philosophia Botanica (1751) but it was in his Species Plantarum (1753) that he gave every species a binomial thus setting the path for the future accepted method of designating the names of all organisms. Linnaean thought and books dominated the world of taxonomy for nearly a century.[73] His sexual system was later elaborated by Bernard de Jussieu (1699–1777) whose nephew Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu (1748–1836) extended it yet again to include about 100 orders (present-day families).[74] Frenchman Michel Adanson (1727–1806) in his Familles des Plantes (1763, 1764), apart from extending the current system of family names, emphasized that a natural classification must be based on a consideration of all characters, even though these may later be given different emphasis according to their diagnostic value for the particular plant group. Adanson's method has, in essence, been followed to this day.[75]
18th century plant taxonomy bequeathed to the 19th century a precise binomial nomenclature and botanical terminology, a system of classification based on natural affinities, and a clear idea of the ranks of family, genus and species — although the taxa to be placed within these ranks remains, as always, the subject of taxonomic research.
Anatomy[edit]
Further information: Microscopy and Plant anatomy
Robert Hooke's microscope which he described in the 1665 Micrographia: he coined the biological use of the term cell
In the first half of the 18th century botany was beginning to move beyond descriptive science into experimental science. Although the microscope was invented in 1590 it was only in the late 17th century that lens grinding by Antony van Leeuwenhoek provided the resolution needed to make major discoveries. Important general biological observations were made by Robert Hooke (1635–1703) but the foundations of plant anatomy were laid by Italian Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694) of the University of Bologna in his Anatome Plantarum (1675) and Royal Society Englishman Nehemiah Grew (1628–1711) in his The Anatomy of Plants Begun (1671) and Anatomy of Plants (1682). These botanists explored what is now called developmental anatomy and morphology by carefully observing, describing and drawing the developmental transition from seed to mature plant, recording stem and wood formation. This work included the discovery and naming of parenchyma and stomata.[76]
Physiology[edit]
Main article: Plant physiology
In plant physiology research interest was focused on the movement of sap and the absorption of substances through the roots. Jan Helmont (1577–1644) by experimental observation and calculation, noted that the increase in weight of a growing plant cannot be derived purely from the soil, and concluded it must relate to water uptake.[77] Englishman Stephen Hales[78] (1677–1761) established by quantitative experiment that there is uptake of water by plants and a loss of water by transpiration and that this is influenced by environmental conditions: he distinguished "root pressure", "leaf suction" and "imbibition" and also noted that the major direction of sap flow in woody tissue is upward. His results were published in Vegetable Staticks (1727) He also noted that "air makes a very considerable part of the substance of vegetables".[79] English chemist Joseph Priestley (1733–1804) is noted for his discovery of oxygen (as now called) and its production by plants. Later Jan Ingenhousz (1730–1799) observed that only in sunlight do the green parts of plants absorb air and release oxygen, this being more rapid in bright sunlight while, at night, the air (CO2) is released from all parts. His results were published in Experiments upon vegetables (1779) and with this the foundations for 20th century studies of carbon fixation were laid. From his observations he sketched the cycle of carbon in nature even though the composition of carbon dioxide was yet to be resolved.[80] Studies in plant nutrition had also progressed. In 1804 Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure's (1767–1845) Recherches Chimiques sur la Végétation was an exemplary study of scientific exactitude that demonstrated the similarity of respiration in both plants and animals, that the fixation of carbon dioxide includes water, and that just minute amounts of salts and nutrients (which he analysed in chemical detail from plant ash) have a powerful influence on plant growth.[81]
Plant sexuality[edit]
Further information: Plant sexuality and Alternation of generations
Diagram showing the sexual parts of a mature flower
It was Rudolf Camerarius (1665–1721) who was the first to establish plant sexuality conclusively by experiment. He declared in a letter to a colleague dated 1694 and titled De Sexu Plantarum Epistola that "no ovules of plants could ever develop into seeds from the female style and ovary without first being prepared by the pollen from the stamens, the male sexual organs of the plant".[82]
Much was learned about plant sexuality by unravelling the reproductive mechanisms of mosses, liverworts and algae. In his Vergleichende Untersuchungen of 1851 Wilhelm Hofmeister (1824–1877) starting with the ferns and bryophytes demonstrated that the process of sexual reproduction in plants entails an "alternation of generations" between sporophytes and gametophytes.[83] This initiated the new field of comparative morphology which, largely through the combined work of William Farlow (1844–1919), Nathanael Pringsheim (1823–1894), Frederick Bower, Eduard Strasburger and others, established that an "alternation of generations" occurs throughout the plant kingdom.[84]
Some time later the German academic and natural historian Joseph Kölreuter (1733–1806) extended this work by noting the function of nectar in attracting pollinators and the role of wind and insects in pollination. He also produced deliberate hybrids, observed the microscopic structure of pollen grains and how the transfer of matter from the pollen to the ovary inducing the formation of the embryo.[85]
Angiosperm (flowering plant) life cycle showing alternation of generations
One hundred years after Camerarius, in 1793, Christian Sprengel (1750–1816) broadened the understanding of flowers by describing the role of nectar guides in pollination, the adaptive floral mechanisms used for pollination, and the prevalence of cross-pollination, even though male and female parts are usually together on the same flower.[86]
Nineteenth-century foundations of modern botany[edit]
In about the mid-19th century scientific communication changed. Until this time ideas were largely exchanged by reading the works of authoritative individuals who dominated in their field: these were often wealthy and influential "gentlemen scientists". Now research was reported by the publication of "papers" that emanated from research "schools" that promoted the questioning of conventional wisdom. This process had started in the late 18th century when specialist journals began to appear.[87] Even so, botany was greatly stimulated by the appearance of the first "modern" textbook, Matthias Schleiden's (1804–1881) Grundzüge der Wissenschaftlichen Botanik, published in English in 1849 as Principles of Scientific Botany.[88] By 1850 an invigorated organic chemistry had revealed the structure of many plant constituents.[89] Although the great era of plant classification had now passed the work of description continued. Augustin de Candolle (1778–1841) succeeded Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu in managing the botanical project Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis (1824–1841) which involved 35 authors: it contained all the dicotyledons known in his day, some 58000 species in 161 families, and he doubled the number of recognized plant families, the work being completed by his son Alphonse (1806–1893) in the years from 1841 to 1873.[90]
Plant geography and ecology[edit]
Further information: Ecology and Plant community
Alexander von Humboldt 1769–1859 painted by Joseph Stieler in 1843
The opening of the 19th century was marked by an increase in interest in the connection between climate and plant distribution. Carl Willdenow (1765–1812) examined the connection between seed dispersal and distribution, the nature of plant associations and the impact of geological history. He noticed the similarities between the floras of N America and N Asia, the Cape and Australia, and he explored the ideas of "centre of diversity" and "centre of origin". German Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859) and Frenchman Aime Bonpland (1773–1858) published a massive and highly influential 30 volume work on their travels; Robert Brown (1773–1852) noted the similarities between the floras of S Africa, Australia and India, while Joakim Schouw (1789–1852) explored more deeply than anyone else the influence on plant distribution of temperature, soil factors, especially soil water, and light, work that was continued by Alphonse de Candolle (1806–1893).[91] Joseph Hooker (1817–1911) pushed the boundaries of floristic studies with his work on Antarctica, India and the Middle East with special attention to endemism. August Grisebach (1814–1879) in Die Vegetation der Erde (1872) examined physiognomy in relation to climate and in America geographic studies were pioneered by Asa Gray (1810–1888).[92]
Physiological plant geography, perhaps more familiarly termed ecology, emerged from floristic biogeography in the late 19th century as environmental influences on plants received greater recognition. Early work in this area was synthesised by Danish professor Eugenius Warming (1841–1924) in his book Plantesamfund (Ecology of Plants, generally taken to mark the beginning of modern ecology) including new ideas on plant communities, their adaptations and environmental influences. This was followed by another grand synthesis, the Pflanzengeographie auf Physiologischer Grundlage of Andreas Schimper (1856–1901) in 1898 (published in English in 1903 as Plant-geography upon a physiological basis translated by W. R. Fischer, Oxford: Clarendon press, 839 pp.)[93]
Anatomy[edit]
Further information: Plant anatomy and Cell theory
Plant cells with visible chloroplasts
During the 19th century German scientists led the way towards a unitary theory of the structure and life-cycle of plants. Following improvements in the microscope at the end of the 18th century, Charles Mirbel (1776–1854) in 1802 published his Traité d'Anatomie et de Physiologie Végétale and Johann Moldenhawer (1766–1827) published Beyträge zur Anatomie der Pflanzen (1812) in which he describes techniques for separating cells from the middle lamella. He identified vascular and parenchymatous tissues, described vascular bundles, observed the cells in the cambium, and interpreted tree rings. He found that stomata were composed of pairs of cells, rather than a single cell with a hole.[94]
Anatomical studies on the stele were consolidated by Carl Sanio (1832–1891) who described the secondary tissues and meristem including cambium and its action. Hugo von Mohl (1805–1872) summarized work in anatomy leading up to 1850 in Die Vegetabilische Zelle (1851) but this work was later eclipsed by the encyclopaedic comparative anatomy of Heinrich Anton de Bary in 1877. An overview of knowledge of the stele in root and stem was completed by Van Tieghem (1839–1914) and of the meristem by Karl Nägeli (1817–1891). Studies had also begun on the origins of the carpel and flower that continue to the present day.[95]
Water relations[edit]
Main article: Transpiration
The riddle of water and nutrient transport through the plant remained. Physiologist Von Mohl explored solute transport and the theory of water uptake by the roots using the concepts of cohesion, transpirational pull, capillarity and root pressure.[89] German dominance in the field of physiology was underlined by the publication of the definitive textbook on plant physiology synthesising the work of this period, Sach's Vorlesungen über Pflanzenphysiologie of 1882. There were, however, some advances elsewhere such as the early exploration of geotropism (the effect of gravity on growth) by Englishman Thomas Knight, and the discovery and naming of osmosis by Frenchman Henri Dutrochet (1776–1847).[96]
Cytology[edit]
Main article: Cell theory
The cell nucleus was discovered by Robert Brown in 1831. Demonstration of the cellular composition of all organisms, with each cell possessing all the characteristics of life, is attributed to the combined efforts of botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Schwann (1810–1882) in the early 19th century although Moldenhawer had already shown that plants were wholly cellular with each cell having its own wall and Julius von Sachs had shown the continuity protoplasm between cell walls.[97]
From 1870 to 1880 it became clear that cell nuclei are never formed anew but always derived from the substance of another nucleus. In 1882 Flemming observed the longitudinal splitting of chromosomes in the dividing nucleus and concluded that each daughter nucleus received half of each of the chromosomes of the mother nucleus: then by the early 20th century it was found that the number of chromosomes in a given species is constant. With genetic continuity confirmed and the finding by Eduard Strasburger that the nuclei of reproductive cells (in pollen and embryo) have a reducing division (halving of chromosomes, now known as meiosis) the field of heredity was opened up. By 1926 Thomas Morgan was able to outline a theory of the gene and its structure and function. The form and function of plastids received similar attention, the association with starch being noted at an early date.[98] With observation of the cellular structure of all organisms and the process of cell division and continuity of genetic material, the analysis of the structure of protoplasm and the cell wall as well as that of plastids and vacuoles – what is now known as cytology, or cell theory became firmly established.
Later, the cytological basis of the gene-chromosome theory of heredity extended from about 1900–1944 and was initiated by the rediscovery of Gregor Mendel's (1822–1884) laws of plant heredity first published in 1866 in Experiments on Plant Hybridization and based on cultivated pea, Pisum sativum: this heralded the opening up of plant genetics. The cytological basis for gene-chromosome theory was explored through the role of polyploidy and hybridization in speciation and it was becoming better understood that interbreeding populations were the unit of adaptive change in biology.[99]
Developmental morphology and evolution[edit]
Main article: Evolution
Until the 1860s it was believed that species had remained unchanged through time: each biological form was the result of an independent act of creation and therefore absolutely distinct and immutable. But the hard reality of geological formations and strange fossils needed scientific explanation. Charles Darwin's Origin of Species (1859) replaced the assumption of constancy with the theory of descent with modification. Phylogeny became a new principle as "natural" classifications became classifications reflecting, not just similarities, but evolutionary relationships. Wilhelm Hofmeister established that there was a similar pattern of organization in all plants expressed through the alternation of generations and extensive homology of structures.[100]
Polymath German intellect Johann Goethe (1749–1832) had interests and influence that extended into botany. In Die Metamorphose der Pflanzen (1790) he provided a theory of plant morphology (he coined the word "morphology") and he included within his concept of "metamorphosis" modification during evolution, thus linking comparative morphology with phylogeny. Though the botanical basis of his work has been challenged there is no doubt that he prompted discussion and research on the origin and function of floral parts.[101] His theory probably stimulated the opposing views of German botanists Alexander Braun (1805–1877) and Matthias Schleiden who applied the experimental method to the principles of growth and form that were later extended by Augustin de Candolle (1778–1841).[102]
Carbon fixation (photosynthesis)[edit]
Further information: Soil plant atmosphere continuum and Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis splits water to liberate O2 and fixes CO2 into sugar
At the start of the 19th century the idea that plants could synthesise almost all their tissues from atmospheric gases had not yet emerged. The energy component of photosynthesis, the capture and storage of the Sun's radiant energy in carbon bonds (a process on which all life depends) was first elucidated in 1847 by Mayer, but the details of how this was done would take many more years.[103] Chlorophyll was named in 1818 and its chemistry gradually determined, to be finally resolved in the early 20th century. The mechanism of photosynthesis remained a mystery until the mid-19th century when Sachs, in 1862, noted that starch was formed in green cells only in the presence of light and in 1882 he confirmed carbohydrates as the starting point for all other organic compounds in plants.[104] The connection between the pigment chlorophyll and starch production was finally made in 1864 but tracing the precise biochemical pathway of starch formation did not begin until about 1915.
Nitrogen fixation[edit]
Main article: Nitrogen fixation
Significant discoveries relating to nitrogen assimilation and metabolism, including ammonification, nitrification and nitrogen fixation (the uptake of atmospheric nitrogen by symbiotic soil microorganisms) had to wait for advances in chemistry and bacteriology in the late 19th century and this was followed in the early 20th century by the elucidation of protein and amino-acid synthesis and their role in plant metabolism. With this knowledge it was then possible to outline the global nitrogen cycle.[105]
Twentieth century[edit]
Thin layer chromatography is used to separate components of chlorophyll
20th century science grew out of the solid foundations laid by the breadth of vision and detailed experimental observations of the 19th century. A vastly increased research force was now rapidly extending the horizons of botanical knowledge at all levels of plant organization from molecules to global plant ecology. There was now an awareness of the unity of biological structure and function at the cellular and biochemical levels of organisation. Botanical advance was closely associated with advances in physics and chemistry with the greatest advances in the 20th century mainly relating to the penetration of molecular organization.[106] However, at the level of plant communities it would take until mid century to consolidate work on ecology and population genetics.[107] By 1910 experiments using labelled isotopes were being used to elucidate plant biochemical pathways, to open the line of research leading to gene technology. On a more practical level research funding was now becoming available from agriculture and industry.
Molecules[edit]
Main article: Molecular biology
In 1903 Chlorophylls a and b were separated by thin layer chromatography then, through the 1920s and 1930s, biochemists, notably Hans Krebs (1900–1981) and Carl (1896–1984) and Gerty Cori (1896–1957) began tracing out the central metabolic pathways of life. Between the 1930s and 1950s it was determined that ATP, located in mitochondria, was the source of cellular chemical energy and the constituent reactions of photosynthesis were progressively revealed. Then, in 1944 DNA was extracted for the first time.[108] Along with these revelations there was the discovery of plant hormones or "growth substances", notably auxins, (1934) gibberellins (1934) and cytokinins (1964)[109] and the effects of photoperiodism, the control of plant processes, especially flowering, by the relative lengths of day and night.[110]
Following the establishment of Mendel's laws, the gene-chromosome theory of heredity was confirmed by the work of August Weismann who identified chromosomes as the hereditary material. Also, in observing the halving of the chromosome number in germ cells he anticipated work to follow on the details of meiosis, the complex process of redistribution of hereditary material that occurs in the germ cells. In the 1920s and 1930s population genetics combined the theory of evolution with Mendelian genetics to produce the modern synthesis. By the mid-1960s the molecular basis of metabolism and reproduction was firmly established through the new discipline of molecular biology. Genetic engineering, the insertion of genes into a host cell for cloning, began in the 1970s with the invention of recombinant DNA techniques and its commercial applications applied to agricultural crops followed in the 1990s. There was now the potential to identify organisms by molecular "fingerprinting" and to estimate the times in the past when critical evolutionary changes had occurred through the use of "molecular clocks".
Computers, electron microscopes and evolution[edit]
Further information: Ultrastructure and Palynology
Electron microscope constructed by Ernst Ruska in 1933
Increased experimental precision combined with vastly improved scientific instrumentation was opening up exciting new fields. In 1936 Alexander Oparin (1894–1980) demonstrated a possible mechanism for the synthesis of organic matter from inorganic molecules. In the 1960s it was determined that the Earth's earliest life-forms treated as plants, the cyanobacteria known as stromatolites, dated back some 3.5 billion years.[111]
Mid-century transmission and scanning electron microscopy presented another level of resolution to the structure of matter, taking anatomy into the new world of "ultrastructure".[112]
New and revised "phylogenetic" classification systems of the plant kingdom were produced, perhaps the most notable being that of August Eichler (1839–1887), and the massive 23 volume Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien of Adolf Engler (1844–1930) & Karl Prantl (1849–1893) published over the period 1887 and 1915. Taxonomy based on gross morphology was now being supplemented by using characters revealed by pollen morphology, embryology, anatomy, cytology, serology, macromolecules and more.[113] The introduction of computers facilitated the rapid analysis of large data sets used for numerical taxonomy (also called taximetrics or phenetics). The emphasis on truly natural phylogenies spawned the disciplines of cladistics and phylogenetic systematics. The grand taxonomic synthesis An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants (1981) of American Arthur Cronquist (1919–1992) was superseded when, in 1998, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group published a phylogeny of flowering plants based on the analysis of DNA sequences using the techniques of the new molecular systematics which was resolving questions concerning the earliest evolutionary branches of the angiosperms (flowering plants). The exact relationship of fungi to plants had for some time been uncertain. Several lines of evidence pointed to fungi being different from plants, animals and bacteria – indeed, more closely related to animals than plants. In the 1980s-90s molecular analysis revealed an evolutionary divergence of fungi from other organisms about 1 billion years ago – sufficient reason to erect a unique kingdom separate from plants.[114]
Biogeography and ecology[edit]
Main article: Biogeography
Map of terrestrial biomes classified by vegetation type
The publication of Alfred Wegener's (1880–1930) theory of continental drift 1912 gave additional impetus to comparative physiology and the study of biogeography while ecology in the 1930s contributed the important ideas of plant community, succession, community change, and energy flows.[115] From 1940 to 1950 ecology matured to become an independent discipline as Eugene Odum (1913–2002) formulated many of the concepts of ecosystem ecology, emphasising relationships between groups of organisms (especially material and energy relationships) as key factors in the field. Building on the extensive earlier work of Alphonse de Candolle, Nikolai Vavilov (1887–1943) from 1914 to 1940 produced accounts of the geography, centres of origin, and evolutionary history of economic plants.[116]
Twenty-first century[edit]
In reviewing the sweep of botanical history it is evident that, through the power of the scientific method, most of the basic questions concerning the structure and function of plants have, in principle, been resolved. Now the distinction between pure and applied botany becomes blurred as our historically accumulated botanical wisdom at all levels of plant organisation is needed (but especially at the molecular and global levels) to improve human custodianship of planet earth. The most urgent unanswered botanical questions now relate to the role of plants as primary producers in the global cycling of life's basic ingredients: energy, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and ways that our plant stewardship can help address the global environmental issues of resource management, conservation, human food security, biologically invasive organisms, carbon sequestration, climate change, and sustainability.[117]
See also[edit]
International Botanical Congress
History of plant systematics
Botanical illustration
History of phycology
List of botanists
List of botanists by author abbreviation
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 49
Jump up ^ Sachs 1890, p. v
Jump up ^ Walters 1981, p. 3
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 2
Jump up ^ Stearn 1986.
Jump up ^ Stearn 1965, pp. 279–91, 322–41
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, p. 3
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 5
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, pp. 7–29
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 15
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 12
Jump up ^ Needham et al 1986.
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 23
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 25
Jump up ^ Vines in Oliver 1913, p. 8
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, pp. 29–43
Jump up ^ Singer 1923, p. 98
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, p. 34
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 42
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, p. 37
Jump up ^ Thanos 2005.
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, pp. 36–43
Jump up ^ Harvey-Gibson 1919, p. 9
Jump up ^ Singer 1923, p. 101
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 68
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 69
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, pp. 70–1
Jump up ^ Sengbusch 2004.
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, pp. 58–64
Jump up ^ Fahd 1996, p. 815
^ Jump up to: a b Morton 1981, p. 82
Jump up ^ Tiwari 2003.
Jump up ^ Majumdar 1982, pp. 356–411
Jump up ^ Pavord 2005, pp. 11–13
Jump up ^ Pavord 1999.
Jump up ^ Sachs 1890, p. 19
^ Jump up to: a b Reed 1942, p. 65
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, p. 68
Jump up ^ Arber 1986, pp. 119–124
Jump up ^ Arber in Oliver 1913, pp. 146–246
Jump up ^ Henrey 1975, pp. 631–46
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 145
Jump up ^ Buck 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Jacobson 2014.
Jump up ^ Williams 2001.
Jump up ^ Shteir 1996, Prologue.
Jump up ^ Spencer & Cross 2017, pp. 43-93
^ Jump up to: a b Conan 2005, p. 96.
Jump up ^ Sachs 1890, p. 18
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, pp. 120–4
Jump up ^ Gerard 1597
Jump up ^ Johnson 1629
Jump up ^ Pavord 2005, pp. 5–10
Jump up ^ Johnson 1636
Jump up ^ Conan 2005, pp. 121, 123.
Jump up ^ Bethencourt & Egmond 2007.
Jump up ^ Pavord 2005, p. 16
Jump up ^ Helmsley & Poole 2004.
^ Jump up to: a b Meyer & 1854–57
Jump up ^ Willes 2011, p. 76.
Jump up ^ Goldgar 2007, p. 34.
Jump up ^ Arber 1986, p. 270
Jump up ^ Arber in Oliver 1913, pp. 44–64
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, pp. 178–80
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, pp. 110–1
Jump up ^ Woodland 1991, pp. 372–408
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, pp. 71–3
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, pp. 130–40
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, pp. 147–8
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, pp. 82–3
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, pp. 196–216
Jump up ^ Woodland 1991, pp. 372–375
Jump up ^ Stafleu 1971, p. 79
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, p. 102
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, pp. 301–11
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, pp. 88–9
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, p. 91
Jump up ^ Darwin in Oliver 1913, pp. 65–83
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 250
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, p. 107
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 338
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, p. 96
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, p. 138
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, p. 140
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, p. 97
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, p. 98
Jump up ^ Reynolds Green 1909, p. 502
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 377
^ Jump up to: a b Morton 1981, p. 388
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 372
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 364
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 413
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, pp. 126–33
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, pp. 368–370
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, pp. 386–395
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, pp. 390–1
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, pp. 381–2
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, pp. 154–75
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 453
Jump up ^ Reynolds Green 1909, pp. 7–10, 501
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, pp. 343–6
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, pp. 371–3
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, p. 207
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, p. 197
Jump up ^ Reed 1942, pp. 214–40
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 448
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 451
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 460
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 461
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 464
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 454
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 459
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 456
Jump up ^ Bruns 2006.
Jump up ^ Morton 1981, p. 457
Jump up ^ de Candolle 1885.
Jump up ^ BSA 2015.
Bibliography[edit]
See also: Bibliography of botany
Books[edit]
History of science[edit]
Harkness, Deborah E. (2007). The Jewel house of art and nature: Elizabethan London and the social foundations of the scientific revolution. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300111965. (see also The Jewel House)
Huff, Toby (2003). The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52994-8.
Majumdar, G. P. (1982). "Studies in History of Science in India". In Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad. The history of botany and allied sciences in India (c. 2000 B.C. to 100 A.D.). Asha Jyoti, New Delhi: Editorial Enterprise.
Needham, Joseph & Lu, Gwei-Djen (2000). Sivin, Nathan, ed. Science and Civilisation in China, Vol. 6 Part 6 Medicine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ogilvie, Brian W. (2006). The Science of Describing Natural History in Renaissance Europe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226620862.
Stafleu, Frans A. (1971). Linnaeus and the Linnaeans. Utrecht: International Association of Plant Taxonomy. ISBN 90-6046-064-2.
History of botany, agriculture and horticulture[edit]
Arber, Agnes (1986) [1912; 2nd ed. 1938]. Stearn, William T., ed. Herbals: their origin and evolution. A chapter in the history of botany, 1470-1670 (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521338790.
Conan, Michel, ed. (2005). Baroque garden cultures: emulation, sublimation, subversion. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. ISBN 978-0-88402-304-3. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
Erichsen-Brown, Charlotte (1979). Medicinal and Other Uses of North American Plants: A Historical Survey with Special Reference to the Eastern Indian Tribes. Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-25951-2.
Ewan, Joseph; Arnold, Chester Arthur (1969). A short history of botany in the United States. Hafner Publishing Co.
Fahd, Toufic (1996). "Botany and agriculture". In Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi. Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science. 3. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-12410-7.
Fischer, Hubertus; Remmert, Volker R.; Wolschke-Bulmahn, Joachim (2016). Gardens, Knowledge and the Sciences in the Early Modern Period. Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-3-319-26342-7.
Fries, Robert Elias (1950). A short history of botany in Sweden. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksells boktr. OCLC 3954193
Greene, Edward Lee & Egerton, Frank N. (ed.) (1983a). Landmarks of Botanical History: Part 1. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1075-6. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link) ; originally published as Greene, Edward L. (1909). Landmarks of Botanical History 1. Prior to 1562 A.D. Washington: Smithsonian Institution. OCLC 174698401.
Greene, Edward Lee & Egerton, Frank N. (ed.) (1983b). Landmarks of Botanical History: Part 2. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1075-6. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Harvey-Gibson, Robert J. (1919). Outlines of the history of botany. London: A. & C. Black. ISBN 9788171415083. Retrieved 29 April 2015. 1999 reprint Google Books
Helmsley, Alan R.; Poole, Imogen (eds) (2004). The Evolution of Plant Physiology: From Whole Plants to Ecosystems. London: Elsevier Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-339552-6. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Henrey, Blanche (1975). British botanical and horticultural literature before 1800 (Vols 1–3). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-211548-0.
Jackson, Benjamin D. (1881). Guide to the Literature of Botany, Being a Classified Selection of Botanical Works. London: Longmans, Green.
Jacobson, Miriam (2014). Barbarous Antiquity: Reorienting the Past in the Poetry of Early Modern England. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-8122-9007-3.
Morton, Alan G. (1981). History of Botanical Science: An Account of the Development of Botany from Ancient Times to the Present Day. London: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-508382-3.
Meyer, Ernst H.F. (1854–57). Geschichte der Botanik. Köningsberg: Verlag de Gebrűder Bornträger. Retrieved 2009-12-11.
Needham, Joseph; Lu, Gwei-djen & Huang, Hsing-Tsung (1986). Science and Civilisation in China, Vol. 6 Part 1 Botany. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rakow, Donald; Lee, Sharon, eds. (2013). Public garden management. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. ISBN 9780470904596. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
Reed, Howard S. (1942). A Short History of the Plant Sciences. New York: Ronald Press.
Reynolds Green, Joseph (1909). History of Botany 1860–1900. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Sachs, Julius von (1875). Geschichte der Botanik vom 16. Jahrhundert bis 1860. Munich: Oldenbourg. Retrieved 13 December 2015.
Sachs, Julius von (1890) [1875]. Geschichte der Botanik vom 16. Jahrhundert bis 1860 [History of botany (1530-1860)]. translated by Henry E. F. Garnsey, revised by Isaac Bayley Balfour. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.30585. Retrieved 13 December 2015. , see also History of botany (1530-1860) at Google Books
Green, J Reynolds. A history of botany 1860-1900; being a continuation of Sachs History of botany, 1530-1860. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 13 December 2015.
Stace, Clive A. (1989) [1980]. Plant taxonomy and biosystematics (2nd. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521427852. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
Vavilov, Nicolai I. (1992). Origin and Geography of Cultivated Plants. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-40427-4.
Williams, Roger L. (2001). Botanophilia in Eighteenth-Century France: The Spirit of the Enlightenment. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-0-7923-6886-1.
Winterborne, Jeffrey (2005). Hydroponics: indoor horticulture. Guildford: Pukka Press. ISBN 978-0-9550112-0-7. Retrieved 2009-12-14.
Woodland, Dennis W. (1991). Contemporary Plant Systematics. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-205-12182-9.
Antiquity[edit]
Baumann, Hellmut (1993) [1986]. Die griechische Pflanzenwelt in Mythos, Kunst und Literatur [The Greek Plant World in Myth, Art, and Literature]. trans. William Thomas Stearn, Eldwyth Ruth Stearn. Timber Press.
Hardy, Gavin; Totelin, Laurence (2016). Ancient Botany. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 9781134386796.
Raven, J.E. (2000). Stearn, W.T., ed. Plants and plant lore in ancient Greece. Oxford: Leopard's Press. ISBN 9780904920406.
Thanos, Costas A. (2005). "The Geography of Theophrastus' Life and of his Botanical Writings (Περι Φυτων)" (PDF). In Karamanos, A.J.; Thanos C.A. (eds). Biodiversity and Natural Heritage in the Aegean, Proceedings of the Conference 'Theophrastus 2000' (Eressos - Sigri, Lesbos, July 6–8, 2000). Athens: Fragoudis. pp. 23–45. Retrieved 2009-11-11. CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link)
British botany[edit]
Barlow, Horace Mallinson (1913). Old English herbals 1525-1640. London: John Bale, Sons & Danielsson.
Grubb, Peter J; Snow, E Anne; Walters, S Max (2004). 100 Years of Plant Sciences in Cambridge: 1904–2004. Department of Plant Sciences, Cambridge University.
Gunther, Robert Theodore (1922). Early British botanists and their gardens, based on unpublished writings of Goodyer, Tradescant, and others. Oxford University Press.
Hoeniger, F. David; Hoeniger, J. F. M. (1969). The Development of Natural History in Tudor England. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-918016-29-4.
Hoeniger, F.D.; Hoeniger, J.F.M. (1969). The Growth of Natural History in Stuart England: From Gerard to the Royal Society. Charlottesville: Folger Books. ISBN 978-0-918016-14-0.
Oliver, Francis W., ed. (1913). Makers of British Botany. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Raven, Charles E. (1950) [1942]. John Ray, naturalist: his life and works (2nd ed.). Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521310833.
Raven, Charles E. (1947). English naturalists from Neckham to Ray: a study of the making if the modern world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108016346.
Walters, Stuart M. (1981). The shaping of Cambridge botany: a short history of whole-plant botany in Cambridge from the time of Ray into the present century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521237956.
Willes, Margaret (2011). The making of the English gardener. Plants, Books and Inspiration, 1560-1660. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300163827.
Cultural studies[edit]
Alic, Margaret (1986). Hypatia's Heritage: A History of Women in Science from Antiquity Through the Nineteenth Century. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 9780807067314. Retrieved 7 March 2015.
Bethencourt, Francisco; Egmond, Florike, eds. (2007). Cultural exchange in Early Modern Europe. Volume 3 Correspondence and Cultural Exchange in Europe, 1400-1700. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 9780521845489. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
Fara, Patricia (2003). Sex, Botany and Empire: The Story of Carl Linnaeus and Joseph Banks. Cambridge: Icon Books. ISBN 9781840464443. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
George, Sam (2007). Botany, sexuality, and women's writing 1760-1830 : from modest shoot to forward plant. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 9780719076978. Retrieved 23 February 2015.
Goldgar, Anne (2007). Tulipmania: money, honor, and knowledge in the Dutch golden age. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226301303. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
Kelley, Theresa M. (2012). Clandestine marriage botany and Romantic culture. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9781421407609. Retrieved 6 March 2015.
Page, Judith W.; Smith, Elise L. (2011). Women, literature, and the domesticated landscape: England's disciples of Flora, 1780-1870. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521768658. Retrieved 6 March 2015.
Pavord, Anna (1999). The Tulip. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 0-7475-4296-1.
Pavord, Anna (2005). The naming of names: the search for order in the world of plants. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-59691-071-3.
Shteir, Ann B. (1996). Cultivating women, cultivating science: Flora's daughters and botany in England, 1760-1860. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6175-6. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
Thomas, Vivian; Faircloth, Nicki (2014). Shakespeare's Plants and Gardens: A Dictionary. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4725-5858-9.
Botanical art and illustration[edit]
Kusukawa, Sachiko (2012). Picturing the Book of Nature: Image, Text, and Argument in Sixteenth-Century Human Anatomy and Medical Botany. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-46529-6.
Lefèvre, Wolfgang; Renn, Jürgen; Schoepflin, Urs, eds. (2003). The Power of Images in Early Modern Science. Basel: Birkhäuser Basel. ISBN 9783034880992.
Tomasi, Lucia Tongiorgi; Hirschauer, Gretchen A. (2002). The flowering of Florence: botanical art for the Medici. 3 March-27 May (PDF) (Exhibition catalogue). Washington: National Gallery of Art. ISBN 0-85331-857-3.
Historical sources[edit]
Gerard, John (1597). The Herball or Generall Historie of Plantes. London: John Norton. Retrieved 26 November 2014.
Johnson, Thomas, ed. (1636). Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes, gathered by John Gerarde. London: Adam Islip, Joice Norton and Richard Whitakers. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
Johnson, Thomas (1629). Iter Plantarum Investigationis ergo susceptum a decem Sociis in Agrum Cantianum, anno Dom. 1629, Julii 13. London.
Fuchs, Leonhart (1642). De Historia Stirpium Commentarii Insignes. Basileae: In officina Isingriniana. Retrieved 20 February 2015.
Pulteney, Richard (1790). Historical and biographical sketches of the progress of botany in England from its origin to the introduction of the Linnæan system. London: T. Cadell.
Penny Cyclopedia (1828–1843). The Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. London: Charles Knight.
Penny Cyclopaedia vol. V Blois–Buffalo. 1836. , in Penny Cyclopedia (1828–1843)Botany pp. 243–254
de Candolle, Alphonse (1885) [1882]. Origine des Plantes Cultivées [Origin of Cultivated Plants] (in French). New York: Appleton. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
Bibliographic sources[edit]
Johnston, Stanley H. (1992). The Cleveland Herbal, Botanical, and Horticultural Collections: A Descriptive Bibliography of Pre-1830 Works from the Libraries of the Holden Arboretum, the Cleveland Medical Library Association, and the Garden Center of Greater Cleveland. Kent State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87338-433-9.
Stafleu, Frans A.; Cowan, Richard S. (1976–1988). Taxonomic literature: a selective guide to botanical publications and collections with dates, commentaries and types. 7 vols. + VIII supplements (2nd ed.). Utrecht: Bohn, Scheltema & Holkema.
Articles[edit]
Bruns, Tom (2006). "Evolutionary biology: a kingdom revised". Nature. 443 (7113): 758–61. Bibcode:2006Natur.443..758B. doi:10.1038/443758a. PMID 17051197.
Denham, Tim; Haberle, SG; Lentfer, C; Fullagar, R; Field, J; Therin, M; Porch, N; Winsborough, B; et al. (2003). "Origins of Agriculture at Kuk Swamp in the Highlands of New Guinea". Science. 301 (5630): 189–193. doi:10.1126/science.1085255. PMID 12817084.
Johnson, Dale E. (1985). "Literature on the history of botany and botanic gardens 1730–1840: A bibliography" (PDF). Huntia. 6 (1): 1–121.
Singer, Charles (1923). "Herbals". The Edinburgh Review. 237: 95–112.
Spencer, Roger; Cross, Rob (2017). "The origins of botanic gardens and their relation to plant science with special reference to horticultural botany and cultivated plant taxonomy". Muelleria. 35: 43–93.
Stearn, William T. (1965). "The Origin and Later Development of Cultivated Plants". Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society. 90: 279–291, 322–341.
Stearn, William T. (1986). "Historical Survey of the Naming of Cultivated Plants". Acta Horticulturae. 182: 18–28.
Vavilov, Nicolai I. (1951). trans. K. Starr Chester. "The Origin, Variation, Immunity and Breeding of Cultivated Plants". Chronica Botanica. 13: 1–366.
Raven, John A. (April 2004). "Building botany in Cambridge. 1904–2004: the centenary of the opening of the Botany School, University of Cambridge, UK". New Phytologist. 162 (1): 7–8. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01040.x.
George, Sam (June 2005). "'Not Strictly Proper For A Female Pen': Eighteenth-Century Poetry and the Sexuality of Botany". Comparative Critical Studies. 2 (2): 191–210. doi:10.3366/ccs.2005.2.2.191. Retrieved 23 February 2015.
Shteir, Ann B. (Spring 1990). "Botanical Dialogues: Maria Jacson and Women's Popular Science Writing in England". Eighteenth-Century Studies. 23 (3): 301–317. doi:10.2307/2738798. JSTOR 2738798.
Shteir, Ann B. (2007). "Flora primavera or Flora meretrix ? Iconography, Gender, and Science". Studies in Eighteenth Century Culture. 36 (1): 147–168. doi:10.1353/sec.2007.0014. Retrieved 2 March 2015.
Williams, roger L. (2011). "On the establishment of the principal gardens of botany: a bibliographical essay by Jean-Philippe-François Deleuze" (PDF). Huntia. 14 (2): 147–176.
Websites[edit]
BSA. "Evolution and Diversity". Botany for the Next Millennium: I. The intellectual: evolution, development, ecosystems. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
Buck, Jutta (2017). "A Brief History of Botanical Art". American Society of Botanical Artists. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
Sengbusch, Peter (2004). "Botany: The History of a Science". Botany online. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
Tiwari, Lalit (24 June 2003). "Ancient Indian Botany and Taxonomy". The Infinity Foundation. Retrieved 15 December 2009.
Widder, Agnes Haigh. "Women and Botany in 18th and Early 19th-Century England". Michigan State University Libraries. Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
National Library of Medicine
North, Michael. "Curious Herbals". The Historical Collections of the National Library of Medicine. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
North, Michael (14 May 2015). "1. The Earliest Herbals". The Historical Collections of the National Library of Medicine. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
North, Michael (9 July 2015). "2. Medieval Herbals in Movable Type". The Historical Collections of the National Library of Medicine. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
North, Michael (29 September 2015). "3. A German Botanical Renaissance". The Historical Collections of the National Library of Medicine. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
[show]
v
t
e
Botany
History of botany
Subdisciplines
Plant systematics
Ethnobotany
Paleobotany
Plant anatomy
Plant ecology
Phytogeography
Geobotany
Flora
Phytochemistry
Plant pathology
Bryology
Phycology
Floristics
Dendrology
Plant groups
Algae
Archaeplastida
Bryophyte
Non-vascular plants
Vascular plants
Spermatophytes
Pteridophyte
Gymnosperm
Angiosperm
Plant morphology
(glossary)
Plant cells
Cell wall
Phragmoplast
Plastid
Plasmodesma
Vacuole
Tissues
Meristem
Vascular tissue
Vascular bundle
Ground tissue
Mesophyll
Cork
Wood
Storage organs
Vegetative
Root
Rhizoid
Bulb
Rhizome
Shoot
Stem
Leaf
Petiole
Cataphyll
Bud
Sessility
Reproductive
(Flower)
Flower development
Inflorescence
Umbel
Raceme
Bract
Pedicellate
Flower
Whorl
Floral symmetry
Floral diagram
Floral formula
Receptacle
Hypanthium (Floral cup)
Perianth
Tepal
Petal
Sepal
Sporophyll
Gynoecium
Ovary
Ovule
Stigma
Archegonium
Androecium
Stamen
Staminode
Pollen
Tapetum
Gynandrium
Gametophyte
Sporophyte
Plant embryo
Fruit
Fruit anatomy
Berry
Capsule
Seed
Seed dispersal
Endosperm
Surface structures
Epicuticular wax
Plant cuticle
Epidermis
Stoma
Nectary
Trichome
Prickle
Plant physiology
Materials
Nutrition
Photosynthesis
Chlorophyll
Plant hormone
Transpiration
Turgor pressure
Bulk flow
Aleurone
Phytomelanin
Sugar
Sap
Starch
Cellulose
Plant growth and habit
Secondary growth
Woody plants
Herbaceous plants
Habit
Vines
Lianas
Shrubs
Subshrubs
Trees
Succulent plants
Reproduction
Evolution
Ecology
Alternation of generations
Sporangium
Spore
Microsporangia
Microspore
Megasporangium
Megaspore
Pollination
Pollinators
Pollen tube
Double fertilization
Germination
Evolutionary development
Evolutionary history
timeline
Hardiness zone
Plant taxonomy
History of plant systematics
Herbarium
Biological classification
Botanical nomenclature
Botanical name
Correct name
Author citation
International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN)
- for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
Taxonomic rank
International Association for Plant Taxonomy (IAPT)
Plant taxonomy systems
Cultivated plant taxonomy
Citrus taxonomy
cultigen
cultivar
Group
grex
Practice
Agronomy
Floriculture
Forestry
Horticulture
Lists
Related topics
Botanical terms
Botanists
by author abbreviation
Botanical expedition
Category
Portal
WikiProject
[show]
v
t
e
History of botany
Fields and
disciplines
Agriculture
Biogeography
Bryology
Cladistics
Comparative anatomy
Cytology
Economic botany
Ethnobotany
Floristics
Forestry
Genetic engineering
Horticulture
Lichenology
Molecular phylogenetics
Mycology
Natural history
Numerical taxonomy
Paleobotany
Palynology
Phycology
Phytochemistry
Phytogeography
Plant anatomy
Plant ecology
Plant genetics
Plant morphology
Plant pathology
Plant physiology
Pteridology
Institutions
Jardin des Plantes
Natural History Museum, London
Orto botanico di Padova
Orto botanico di Pisa
Rothamsted Research
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
Publications
Historia Plantarum and Causes of Plants of Theophrastus c. 300 BC
De Plantis of Nicolaus of Damascus c. 1st-century BC
De Materia Medica of Dioscorides c. 60 AD
Naturalis Historia 77–79 AD
De Vegetabilibus of Albertus Magnus c. 1256
Herbarum Vivae Icones 1530
Libellus De Re Herbaria Novus 1538
Kreütterbuch of Hieronymus Bock 1539
De plantis libri XVI of Caesalpino 1583
Stirpium Historiae 1583
Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes 1597
Prodromus Theatrici Botanici 1620
Pinax theatri botanici 1623
Anatome Plantarum 1675
Anatomy of Plants 1682
Historia Plantarum of John Ray 1686–1704
De Sexu Plantarum Epistola 1694
Éléments de botanique 1694
Vegetable Staticks 1727
Systema Naturae 1735
Genera Plantarum 1737
Philosophia Botanica 1751
Species Plantarum 1753
Systema Naturae, 10th ed. 1758–9
Familles des Plantes 1763–4
Experiments Upon Vegetables 1779
Die Metamorphose der Pflantzen 1790
Traité d'Anatomie et de Physiologie Végétale 1802
Recherches Chimiques sur la Végétation 1804
Beyträge zur Anatomie der Pflanzen 1812
Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis 1824–73
Nepenthaceae
Die Vegetabilische Zelle 1851
Vergleichende Untersuchungen 1851
On the Origin of Species 1859
Experiments on Plant Hybridization 1865
Die Vegetation der Erde 1872
Plantesamfund 1895
Pflanzengeographie auf Physiologischer Grundlage 1898
Variation and Evolution in Plants 1950
Ontogeny and Phylogeny 1977
An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants 1981
Theories and
concepts
Alternation of generations
Cell theory
Center of diversity
Phylogenetic nomenclature
Spontaneous generation
Taxonomy
Ultrastructure
Influential
figures
Theophrastus c. 371–287 BC
Pliny the Elder 23–79 AD
Pedanius Dioscorides c. 40–90 AD
Otto Brunfels 1464–1534
Hieronymus Bock 1498–1554
Valerius Cordus 1515–1544
William Turner 1515–1568
Rembert Dodoens 1517–1585
Andrea Cesalpino 1519–1603
Gaspard Bauhin 1560–1624
Joachim Jungius 1587–1657
John Ray 1623–1705
Nehemiah Grew 1628–1711
Marcello Malpighi 1628–1694
Joseph Pitton de Tournefort 1656–1708
Rudolf Jakob Camerarius 1665–1721
Stephen Hales 1677–1761
Bernard de Jussieu 1699–1777
Carolus Linnaeus 1707–1778
Michel Adanson 1727–1806
Jan Ingenhousz 1730–1799
Joseph Banks 1743–1820
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1749–1832
Carl Ludwig Willdenow 1765–1812
Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure 1767–1845
Alexander von Humboldt 1769–1859
Aimé Bonpland 1773–1858
Thomas Nuttall 1786–1859
Joakim Frederik Schouw 1789–1852
Matthias Jakob Schleiden 1804–1881
Alexander Braun 1805–1877
George Engelmann 1809–1884
Asa Gray 1810–1888
August Grisebach 1814–1879
Joseph Hooker 1817–1911
Gregor Mendel 1822–1884
Nathanael Pringsheim 1823–1894
Wilhelm Hofmeister 1824–1877
Julius von Sachs 1832–1897
Eugenius Warming 1841–1924
William Gilson Farlow 1844–1919
Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper 1856–1901
Nikolai Vavilov 1887–1943
Barbara McClintock 1902–1992
G. Ledyard Stebbins 1906–2000
Eugene Odum 1913–2002
Arthur Cronquist 1919–1992
Related
Botanical garden
Herbal
Plant taxonomy
History of plant systematics
Systems of plant taxonomy
Herbalism
History of agricultural science
History of agriculture
History of biochemistry
History of biology
History of biotechnology
History of ecology
History of evolutionary thought
History of genetics
History of geology
History of medicine
History of molecular biology
History of molecular evolution
History of paleontology
History of phycology
History of science
Natural philosophy
Philosophy of biology
Timeline of biology and organic chemistry
Category
Commons
Portal
[show]
v
t
e
History of biology
Fields,
disciplines
Agricultural science
Anatomy
Biochemistry
Biotechnology
Botany
Ecology
Evolutionary thought
Genetics
Geology
Immunology
Medicine
Model organisms
Molecular biology
Molecular evoluton
Paleontology
Phycology
Plant systematics
RNA biology
Zoology (since 1859)
Zoology (through 1859)
Institutions
Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
Laboratory of Molecular Biology
Marine Biological Laboratory
Max Planck Society
Pasteur Institute
Rockefeller University
Rothamsted Experimental Station
Stazione Zoologica
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
Theories,
concepts
Germ theory of disease
Central dogma of molecular biology
Darwinism
Great chain of being
Hierarchy of life
Lamarckism
One gene–one enzyme hypothesis
Protocell
RNA world hypothesis
Sequence hypothesis
Spontaneous generation
History
Classical
antiquity
Aristotle
Aristotle's biology
On Generation and Corruption
History of Animals
Theophrastus
Historia Plantarum
Dioscorides
De Materia Medica
Galen
Renaissance,
Early Modern
Conrad Gessner
Historia animalium
Andreas Vesalius
De humani corporis fabrica
William Harvey
De Motu Cordis
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
Micrographia
Francesco Redi
Evolution
19th
century
Linnaeus
Systema Naturae
Buffon
Histoire Naturelle
Lamarck
Philosophie Zoologique
Humboldt
Charles Lyell
Principles of Geology
Charles Darwin
On the Origin of Species
The Descent of Man
Gregor Mendel
Alfred Russel Wallace
Henry Walter Bates
Modern
synthesis
William Bateson
Theodosius Dobzhansky
Genetics and the Origin of Species
R. A. Fisher
E. B. Ford
J. B. S. Haldane
Ernst Mayr
Thomas Hunt Morgan
George Gaylord Simpson
Hugo de Vries
Sewall Wright
Recent
Stephen Jay Gould
W. D. Hamilton
Lynn Margulis
Aleksandr Oparin
George C. Williams
Carl Woese
Microbiology
Ferdinand Cohn
Alexander Fleming
Felix d'Herelle
Robert Koch
Louis Pasteur
Lazzaro Spallanzani
Sergei Winogradsky
Develop. biol.,
Evo-devo
Karl Ernst von Baer
Gavin de Beer
Sean B. Carroll
Scott F. Gilbert
Walter Gehring
Ernst Haeckel
François Jacob
Edward B. Lewis
Jacques Monod
Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard
Eric Wieschaus
E. B. Wilson
Genetics,
Molecular
biology
Experiments
Griffith's (1928)
Luria–Delbrück (1943)
Avery–MacLeod–McCarty (1944)
Miller–Urey (1952)
Hershey–Chase (1952)
Meselson–Stahl (1958)
Crick, Brenner et al. (1961)
Nirenberg–Matthaei (1961)
Nirenberg–Leder (1964)
People
Barbara McClintock
George Beadle
Seymour Benzer
Rosalind Franklin
Photo 51
James D. Watson and Francis Crick
"Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids"
Linus Pauling
"Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease"
Fred Sanger
Max Perutz
John Kendrew
Sydney Brenner
Joshua Lederberg
Walter Gilbert
Kary Mullis
Emmanuelle Charpentier
Jennifer Doudna
Ecology
Rachel Carson
Frederic Clements
Charles Elton
Henry Gleason
Arthur Tansley
Eugenius Warming
Ethology
Karl von Frisch
Jane Goodall
Konrad Lorenz
Ivan Pavlov
Niko Tinbergen
Related
History of science
Philosophy of biology
Teleology
Ethnobotany
Eugenics
History of the creation-evolution controversy
Human Genome Project
Humboldtian science
Natural history
Natural philosophy
Natural theology
Relationship between religion and science
Timeline of biology and organic chemistry
Category
Commons
Portal
[show]
v
t
e
History of science
Background
Theories and sociology
Historiography
Pseudoscience
By era
Early cultures
Classical Antiquity
The Golden Age of Islam
Renaissance
Scientific Revolution
Romanticism
By culture
African
Byzantine
Medieval European
Chinese
Indian
Medieval Islamic
Natural sciences
Astronomy
Biology
Botany
Chemistry
Ecology
Evolution
Geology
Geophysics
Paleontology
Physics
Mathematics
Algebra
Calculus
Combinatorics
Geometry
Logic
Probability
Statistics
Trigonometry
Social sciences
Anthropology
Economics
Geography
Linguistics
Political science
Psychology
Sociology
Sustainability
Technology
Agricultural science
Computer science
Materials science
Engineering
Medicine
Human medicine
Veterinary medicine
Anatomy
Neuroscience
Neurology
Nutrition
Pathology
Pharmacy
Timelines
Portal
Category
[show]
v
t
e
Branches of life science and biology
Anatomy
Astrobiology
Biochemistry
Biogeography
Biohistory
Biomechanics
Biophysics
Bioinformatics
Biostatistics
Botany
Cell biology
Cellular microbiology
Chemical biology
Chronobiology
Computational biology
Conservation biology
Cytogenetics
Developmental biology
Ecology
Embryology
Epidemiology
Epigenetics
Evolutionary biology
Freshwater biology
Geobiology
Genetics
Genomics
Histology
Human biology
Immunology
Marine biology
Mathematical biology
Microbiology
Molecular biology
Mycology
Neontology
Neuroscience
Nutrition
Origin of life
Paleontology
Parasitology
Pathology
Pharmacology
Phylogenetics
Physiology
Quantum biology
Sociobiology
Structural biology
Systematics
Systems biology
Taxonomy
Teratology
Toxicology
Virology
Virophysics
Zoology
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_botany&oldid=813293828"
Categories:
History of botany
Botany
History of biology by subdiscipline
History of science by discipline
Hidden categories:
Articles containing Greek-language text
Articles containing Latin-language text
Articles containing Sanskrit-language text
Wikipedia articles needing clarification from November 2017
Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text
Articles containing French-language text
Articles containing German-language text
Articles containing Danish-language text
CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list
CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list
CS1 French-language sources (fr)
Pages using web citations with no URL
Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL
Good articles
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
العربية
Asturianu
Català
Español
فارسی
Français
Galego
हिन्दी
Occitan
Português
Русский
Српски / srpski
Edit links
This page was last edited on 2 December 2017, at 22:51.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

tag: div

attr: id class

value: mw-page-base noprint

key: html

type: local

value: mw-head-base noprint

tag: a

tag: img

attr: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

value: This is a good article. Follow the link for more information.

attr: href title

attr: class id

attr: id class lang

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attr: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attr: href class

attr: href class title

value: /wiki/File:Botany.jpg internal Enlarge

tag: center

attr: class style

tag: b

tag: p

value:
/wiki/Biological_classification
mw-redirect
Biological classification

value:
/wiki/Molecular_systematics
mw-redirect
Molecular systematics

value: Edit section: Plant lore and plant selection

value:
/wiki/William_Stearn
mw-redirect
William Stearn

value:
/wiki/Magician_(paranormal)
mw-redirect
Magician (paranormal)

value: what does this refer to? Clusters of what? Leaves don't have clusters (November 2017)

value:
noprint Inline-Template
margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;

value:
/wiki/Taittiriya_Samhita
mw-redirect
Taittiriya Samhita

value:
/wiki/Charaka_Samhit%C4%81
mw-redirect
Charaka Samhitā

value:
/wiki/Warring_States
mw-redirect
Warring States

value:
/wiki/Han_Dynasty
mw-redirect
Han Dynasty

value: Edit section: Theophrastus and the origin of botanical science

value:
/wiki/School_of_Athens
mw-redirect
School of Athens

value:
/wiki/Determinate_growth
mw-redirect
Determinate growth

value:
/wiki/Gaius_Plinius_Secundus
mw-redirect
Gaius Plinius Secundus

value:
/wiki/Naturalis_Historia
mw-redirect
Naturalis Historia

value: Edit section: Medicinal plants of the early Middle Ages

value:
/wiki/Chinese_medicine
mw-redirect
Chinese medicine

value:
/wiki/Islamic_medicine
mw-redirect
Islamic medicine

value:
/wiki/Arabic_language
mw-redirect
Arabic language

value:
/wiki/Islamic_Renaissance
mw-redirect
Islamic Renaissance

value:
/wiki/De_Materia_Medica_(Dioscorides)
mw-redirect
De Materia Medica (Dioscorides)

value: Edit section: The Renaissance and Age of Enlightenment (1550–1800)

value:
/wiki/Linnaean_Society
mw-redirect
Linnaean Society

value:
/wiki/Jardin_du_Roi
mw-redirect
Jardin du Roi

value:
/wiki/Royal_Botanic_Gardens_Kew
mw-redirect
Royal Botanic Gardens Kew

value:
/wiki/Oxford_Botanic_Garden
mw-redirect
Oxford Botanic Garden

value:
/wiki/Cambridge_Botanic_Garden
mw-redirect
Cambridge Botanic Garden

value: Edit section: Botanical gardens and herbaria

value:
/wiki/Ulysse_Aldrovandi
mw-redirect
Ulysse Aldrovandi

value:
/wiki/Sibylline_mountains
mw-redirect
Sibylline mountains

value:
/wiki/Orto_Botanico_di_Bologna
mw-redirect
Orto Botanico di Bologna

value:
/wiki/Plant_geography
mw-redirect
Plant geography

value:
/wiki/Captain_James_Cook
mw-redirect
Captain James Cook

value: Edit section: Classification and morphology

value:
/wiki/Andrea_Caesalpino
mw-redirect
Andrea Caesalpino

value:
/wiki/Orto_Botanico_di_Pisa
mw-redirect
Orto Botanico di Pisa

value:
/wiki/Joachim_Jung
mw-redirect
Joachim Jung

value:
/wiki/Antoine-Laurent_de_Jussieu
mw-redirect
Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu

value:
/wiki/Antony_van_Leeuwenhoek
mw-redirect
Antony van Leeuwenhoek

value:
/wiki/Plant_sexuality
mw-redirect
Plant sexuality

value:
/wiki/Comparative_morphology
mw-redirect
Comparative morphology

value: Edit section: Nineteenth-century foundations of modern botany

value: Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis

value:
/wiki/Alphonse_de_Candolle
mw-redirect
Alphonse de Candolle

value: Edit section: Plant geography and ecology

value:
/wiki/Joseph_Stieler
mw-redirect
Joseph Stieler

value:
/wiki/Centre_of_diversity
mw-redirect
Centre of diversity

value:
/wiki/Centre_of_origin
mw-redirect
Centre of origin

value:
/wiki/Aime_Bonpland
mw-redirect
Aime Bonpland

value:
/wiki/Karl_Wilhelm_von_N%C3%A4geli
mw-redirect
Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli

value:
/wiki/Eduard_Adolf_Strasburger
mw-redirect
Eduard Adolf Strasburger

value:
/wiki/Gregor_Johann_Mendel
mw-redirect
Gregor Johann Mendel

value: Edit section: Developmental morphology and evolution

value:
/wiki/Origin_of_Species
mw-redirect
Origin of Species

value: Edit section: Carbon fixation (photosynthesis)

value:
/wiki/Julius_Robert_von_Mayer
mw-redirect
Julius Robert von Mayer

value:
/wiki/Mendelian_genetics
mw-redirect
Mendelian genetics

value:
/wiki/DNA_fingerprinting
mw-redirect
DNA fingerprinting

value: Edit section: Computers, electron microscopes and evolution

value:
/wiki/Phylogenetic_systematics
mw-redirect
Phylogenetic systematics

value:
/wiki/Eugene_P._Odum
mw-redirect
Eugene P. Odum

value:
/wiki/Nikolai_Ivanovich_Vavilov
mw-redirect
Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov

value: List of botanists by author abbreviation

value: div-col columns column-count column-count-2

value: -moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;

value: -moz-column-width: 20em; -webkit-column-width: 20em; column-width: 20em; list-style-type: decimal;

value:
/wiki/The_Jewel_House
mw-redirect
The Jewel House

value: Edit section: History of botany, agriculture and horticulture

value: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection

value:
/wiki/Courier_Corporation
mw-redirect
Courier Corporation

value: Category:CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/174698401

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.5962%2Fbhl.title.30585

value:
nofollow
http://www.hydroponicist.com/
external text

value:
/wiki/William_Thomas_Stearn
mw-redirect
William Thomas Stearn

value: Category:CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list

value:
nofollow
external text
https://archive.org/details/b22439687

value:
/wiki/S._M._Walters
mw-redirect
S. M. Walters

value: Edit section: Botanical art and illustration

value:
/wiki/Penny_Cyclopedia
mw-redirect
Penny Cyclopedia

value:
/wiki/Kent_State_University_Press
mw-redirect
Kent State University Press

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2F443758a

value:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17051197

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1085255

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12817084

value:
/wiki/Roger_Spencer
mw-redirect
Roger Spencer

value:
/wiki/John_A._Raven
mw-redirect
John A. Raven

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.3366%2Fccs.2005.2.2.191

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F2738798

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2738798

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1353%2Fsec.2007.0014

value:
/wiki/National_Library_of_Medicine
mw-redirect
National Library of Medicine

value: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;

value:
navbox-abovebelow
2
background: #90EE90;

value:
row
navbox-group
background: #90EE90;;width:1%

value: Plant evolutionary developmental biology

value: International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants

value: International Association for Plant Taxonomy

value: List of botanists by author abbreviation (W–Z)

attr: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

value: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value:
navbox-image
6
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

value:
/wiki/Jardin_des_Plantes
mw-redirect
Jardin des Plantes

value: Herbarum Vivae Icones (page does not exist)

value: Libellus De Re Herbaria Novus (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/De_plantis_libri_XVI
mw-redirect
De plantis libri XVI

value: Stirpium Historiae (page does not exist)

value: Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes

value: Prodromus Theatrici Botanici (page does not exist)

value: Pinax theatri botanici (page does not exist)

value: De Sexu Plantarum Epistola (page does not exist)

value: Éléments de botanique (page does not exist)

value: Vegetable Staticks (page does not exist)

value: Familles des Plantes (page does not exist)

value: Experiments Upon Vegetables (page does not exist)

value: Die Metamorphose der Pflantzen (page does not exist)

value: Traité d'Anatomie et de Physiologie Végétale (page does not exist)

value: Recherches Chimiques sur la Végétation (page does not exist)

value: Beyträge zur Anatomie der Pflanzen (page does not exist)

value: Die Vegetabilische Zelle (page does not exist)

value: Vergleichende Untersuchungen (page does not exist)

value: Die Vegetation der Erde (page does not exist)

value: Pflanzengeographie auf Physiologischer Grundlage (page does not exist)

value: An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Center_of_diversity
mw-redirect
Center of diversity

value: Timeline of biology and organic chemistry

value:
/wiki/History_of_zoology_(since_1859)
mw-redirect
History of zoology (since 1859)

value:
/wiki/File:HomunculusLarge.png
image
The homonculus

value:
navbox-image
5
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

value:
/wiki/Rothamsted_Experimental_Station
mw-redirect
Rothamsted Experimental Station

value:
/wiki/RNA_world_hypothesis
mw-redirect
RNA world hypothesis

value:
/wiki/The_Renaissance
mw-redirect
The Renaissance

value:
/wiki/Early_Modern
mw-redirect
Early Modern

value: Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus

value:
/wiki/The_Descent_of_Man
mw-redirect
The Descent of Man

value:
/wiki/Felix_d%27Herelle
mw-redirect
Felix d'Herelle

value:
/wiki/Walter_Gehring
mw-redirect
Walter Gehring

value:
/wiki/Eric_Wieschaus
mw-redirect
Eric Wieschaus

value:
/wiki/George_Wells_Beadle
mw-redirect
George Wells Beadle

value:
/wiki/James_D._Watson
mw-redirect
James D. Watson

value: Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid

value:
/wiki/Henry_Gleason
mw-redirect
Henry Gleason

value:
/wiki/Niko_Tinbergen
mw-redirect
Niko Tinbergen

value: History of the creation–evolution controversy

value: Relationship between religion and science

value:
/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_science
mw-redirect
Template talk:History of science

value:
navbox-image
8
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

value: History of science in classical antiquity

value:
/wiki/Scientific_Revolution
mw-redirect
Scientific Revolution

value: History of science and technology in Africa

value: History of science and technology in China

value: History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent

value:
/wiki/History_of_natural_science
mw-redirect
History of natural science

value:
/wiki/History_of_elementary_algebra
mw-redirect
History of elementary algebra

value:
/wiki/History_of_veterinary_medicine
mw-redirect
History of veterinary medicine

value:
/wiki/History_of_neurology
mw-redirect
History of neurology

value:
/wiki/History_of_nutrition
mw-redirect
History of nutrition

value: margin-right:0.5em; padding:0.1em 0 0.4em;line-height:1.7em;

value:
/wiki/Life_science
mw-redirect
Life science

value: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value: Category:History of biology by subdiscipline

value: Category:History of science by discipline

value: Category:Articles containing Greek-language text

value: Category:Articles containing Latin-language text

value: Category:Articles containing Sanskrit-language text

value: Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from November 2017

value: Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text

value: Category:Articles containing French-language text

value: Category:Articles containing German-language text

value: Category:Articles containing Danish-language text

value: Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)

value: Category:Pages using web citations with no URL

value: Category:Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value:
/wiki/History_of_botany
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

value:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

value: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

value: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

value:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

value:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

value:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Find background information on current events

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

value: تاريخ علم النبات – Arabic

value: interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

value: تاریخ گیاه‌شناسی – Persian

value: वनस्पतिविज्ञान का इतिहास – Hindi

value: История ботаники – Russian

value: Историја ботанике – Serbian

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-History_of_botany rootpage-History_of_botany skin-vector action-view