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Appointment and confirmation to the Supreme Court of the United States
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The appointment and confirmation of Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States involves several steps set forth by the United States Constitution, which have been further refined and developed by decades of tradition. Candidates are nominated by the President of the United States and must face a series of hearings in which both the nominee and other witnesses make statements and answer questions before the Senate Judiciary Committee, which can vote to send the nomination to the full United States Senate. Confirmation by the Senate allows the President to formally appoint the candidate to the court.
Contents
[hide]
1 Nomination
2 Confirmation
3 Recess appointments
4 Tenure and vacancies
5 References
Nomination[edit]
Article Two of the United States Constitution requires the President of the United States to nominate Supreme Court Justices and, with Senate confirmation, requires Justices to be appointed. This was for the division of power between the President and Senate by the founders, who wrote:
"he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint ... Judges of the supreme Court..."
Upon the election of a new President, incoming White House staff prepare profiles of possible candidates for the Supreme Court, considering not only judges but also politicians and other individuals whom they consider appropriate for the role. Besides considering national figures whose views are well-known, they consider others who are less recognized. They go through published rulings, articles, speeches, and other background material to get an idea of candidates' values and views on constitutional issues. Age, health, race, gender, and likelihood of confirmation are also factored into considerations. Once a Supreme Court vacancy opens, the President discusses the candidates with advisors. Senators also call the President with suggestions. After a first choice is decided, the candidate is contacted and called on by the President to serve on the highest court. Staffers send a vetting form for the candidate to fill out. They visit the candidate to go over tax records and payments to domestic help. Candidates whom the President has never met are interviewed by White House officials before being sent to the White House to be interviewed in person by the President. After making a final decision, the President calls the candidate, who is told to prepare a statement for an appearance in front of the national press for the President's formal announcement.
Most Presidents nominate individuals who broadly share their ideological views.[1] In many cases, however, a Justice's decisions may be contrary to what the nominating President anticipated. A famous instance was Chief Justice Earl Warren; President Dwight D. Eisenhower expected him to be a conservative judge, but his decisions are arguably among the most liberal in the Court's history. Eisenhower later called the appointment "the biggest damn fool mistake I ever made".[2] Another Justice whose decisions ran contrary to what was believed to be his ideology was David Souter, who was nominated to the high court in 1990 by President George H. W. Bush. Many pundits and politicians at the time expected Souter to be a conservative; however, after becoming a Justice, his opinions generally fell on the liberal side of the political spectrum.
Because the Constitution does not set any qualifications for service as a Justice, the President may nominate any individual to serve on the Court. However, that person must receive the confirmation of the Senate.
Confirmation[edit]
In modern times, the confirmation process has attracted considerable attention from special-interest groups, many of which lobby senators to confirm or to reject a nominee, depending on whether the nominee's track record aligns with the group's views. The Senate Judiciary Committee conducts hearings, questioning nominees to determine their suitability. By convention, nominees avoid revealing too much about their views on potential cases that may come before the Court. At the close of confirmation hearings, the Committee votes on whether the nomination should go to the full Senate with a positive, negative or neutral report.
The Roberts Court (April 2017 - present). Front row (left to right): Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Anthony Kennedy, John Roberts (Chief Justice), Clarence Thomas, and Stephen Breyer. Back row (left to right): Elena Kagan, Samuel A. Alito, Sonia Sotomayor, and Neil Gorsuch.
The Committee's practice of personally interviewing nominees is relatively recent, beginning with Harlan Fiske Stone in 1925. Some western senators were concerned with his links to Wall Street and expressed their opposition when Stone was nominated. Stone proposed what was then the novelty of appearing before the Judiciary Committee to answer questions; his testimony helped secure a confirmation vote with very little opposition. The second nominee to appear before the Committee was Felix Frankfurter, who only addressed (at the Committee's request) what he considered to be slanderous allegations against him.[3] The modern practice of the Committee questioning nominees on their judicial views began with the nomination of John Marshall Harlan II in 1955; the nomination came shortly after the Court handed down the landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision, and several Southern senators attempted to block Harlan's confirmation, hence the decision to testify.[4][5]
Once the Committee reports out the nomination, the whole Senate considers it. A simple majority vote is required to confirm or to reject a nominee. Prior to 2017, a successful filibuster threat could add the requirement of a supermajority of 60 needed in favor of cloture, which would allow debate to end and force a final vote on confirmation. Rejections are relatively uncommon; the Senate has explicitly rejected twelve Supreme Court nominees in its history. The most recent rejection of a nominee by vote of the full Senate came in 1987, when the Senate refused to confirm Robert Bork.
Not everyone nominated by the President has received a floor vote in the Senate. Prior to 2017 a nominee could be filibustered once debate on the nomination had begun in the full Senate. A filibuster indefinitely prolongs the debate, preventing a final vote on the nominee. President Lyndon Johnson's nomination of sitting Associate Justice Abe Fortas to succeed Earl Warren as Chief Justice in 1968 was the first successful filibuster of a Supreme Court nominee. It included both Republican and Democratic senators concerned with Fortas's ethics. President Donald Trump's nomination of Neil Gorsuch to the seat vacated by Antonin Scalia was the second. Unlike the Fortas filibuster, however, only Democratic Senators voted against cloture on the Gorsuch nomination, citing his perceived conservative judicial philosophy, and the Republican majority's prior refusal to take up Obama's nomination of Merrick Garland to fill the vacancy.[6][7][8] This led the Republican majority to change the rules and eliminate the filibuster for Supreme Court nominations.[9]
Not every Supreme Court nominee has received a floor vote in the Senate. A president may withdraw a nomination before an actual confirmation vote occurs, typically because it is clear that the Senate will reject the nominee; this occurred most recently with the nomination of Harriet Miers in 2006 before Committee hearings had begun, citing concerns about Senate requests during her confirmation process for access to internal Executive Branch documents resulting from her position as White House Counsel. In 1987, President Ronald Reagan withdrew the nomination of Douglas H. Ginsburg because of news reports containing marijuana use allegations.
The Senate may also fail to act on the nomination, which expires at the end of the session. For example, President Dwight Eisenhower's first nomination of John Marshall Harlan II in November 1954 was not acted on by the Senate; Eisenhower re-nominated Harlan in January 1955, and Harlan was confirmed two months later. Most recently, the Senate failed to act on President Barack Obama's nomination of Merrick Garland in March 2016 to fill the vacancy left by the death of Antonin Scalia; the nomination expired in January 2017, and the vacancy was later filled by President Trump's appointment of Neil Gorsuch.[10]
Before 1981 the approval process of Justices was usually rapid. From the Truman through Nixon administrations, Justices were typically approved within one month. From the Reagan administration to the present, however, the process has taken much longer. According to the Congressional Research Service, the average number of days from nomination to final Senate vote since 1975 is 67 days (2.2 months), while the median is 71 days (or 2.3 months).[11][12] Some believe this is because Congress sees Justices as playing a more political role than in the past.[13] The perceived politicization of the process has drawn criticism. For example, columnist George F. Will termed the defeat of Robert Bork's nomination "unjust" and, more generally, that the nomination process does "not delve deeply into the nominee's jurisprudential thinking."[14] Supreme Court nominations have caused media speculation about whether the judge leans to the left, middle, or right.[15] One indication of the politicized selection process is how much time each nominee spends being questioned under the glare of media coverage; before 1925, nominees were never questioned;[16] after 1955, every nominee has been required to appear before the Senate Judiciary Committee and answer questions; and the hours spent being grilled have lengthened from single digits (before 1980) to double digits today.[17] Another example of the politicization of the process was the Merrick Garland Supreme Court nomination, which remained before the Senate far longer than any other nominee.
Following is a table of the approximate number of hours that media sources estimate were spent on the questioning of Supreme Court nominees:
Supreme Court Nominees:
Hours Spent Being Questioned
Year
Nominee
Hours
1925 Harlan Fiske Stone 7000500000000000000♠5
1938 Felix Frankfurter *
1955 John Marshall Harlan II *
1957 William J. Brennan, Jr. 7000300000000000000♠3
1967 Thurgood Marshall 7000700000000000000♠7
1971 William H. Rehnquist 7000700000000000000♠7
1975 John Paul Stevens 7000600000000000000♠6
1981 Sandra Day O'Connor 7001120000000000000♠12
1987 Robert Bork (not confirmed) 7001300000000000000♠30
1987 Anthony Kennedy 7001110000000000000♠11
1990 David H. Souter 7001200000000000000♠20
1991 Clarence Thomas 7001250000000000000♠25
1993 Ruth Bader Ginsburg 7001200000000000000♠20
1994 Stephen G. Breyer 7001200000000000000♠20
2005 John G. Roberts, Jr. 7001200000000000000♠20
2016 Merrick Garland (not confirmed) 5000000000000000000♠0
2017 Neil Gorsuch 7001200000000000000♠20
Sources: The New York Times (2005, 2009), MSNBC (2005).[3][4][17]
Once the Senate confirms the nomination by an affirmative vote, the Secretary of the Senate attests to a resolution of confirmation and transmits it to the White House.[18] The President then prepares and signs a commission, and causes the Seal of the United States Department of Justice to be affixed to the document before the new Justice can take office.[19] The date of commission determines a Justice's seniority.[20] A ceremony is held in which the Justice must take the Constitutional Oath, which is used for every federal and state officeholder below the President, and the Judicial Oath used for federal judges before entering into the execution of their office.
Recess appointments[edit]
Potter Stewart, appointed by President Dwight Eisenhower, was the last Supreme Court Justice initially placed on the Court through a recess appointment.
Article II, Section 2 of the U.S. Constitution provides that:
The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session.
Thus, when the Senate is in recess, the President may make a temporary appointment to any office requiring Senate approval, including filling vacancies on the Supreme Court, without the Senate's advice and consent. Such a recess appointee to the Supreme Court holds office only until the end of the next Senate session (always less than two years). To continue to serve thereafter and be compensated for his or her service, the nominee must be formally nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Of the ten Justices who have received recess appointments - two Chief Justices and eight Associate Justices - only Chief Justice John Rutledge was not subsequently confirmed for a regular appointment. No president since Dwight Eisenhower (who made three such appointments) has made a recess appointment to the Supreme Court and the practice has become highly controversial even when applied to lower federal courts. During the 110th Congress, the Democratic leadership of the Senate specifically blocked Republican President George W. Bush from making any recess appointments with the use of pro forma sessions.
In 1960 the Senate passed a resolution stating that it was the sense of the Senate that recess appointments to the Supreme Court should not be made except under unusual circumstances.[21] Being a resolution, it has no legally binding effect, but was intended as an expression of the position of the Senate and as a guide to executive actions. The resolution passed by a vote of 48 to 37, mainly along party lines.[21] [22]
Following is a list of recess appointments that have been made to the Supreme Court:
Justice Appointed by Date of
Appointment Date of
Nomination Date of
Senate action Senate
action
Johnson, ThomasThomas Johnson Washington 000000001791-08-05-0000August 5, 1791 000000001791-10-31-0000October 31, 1791 000000001791-11-07-0000November 7, 1791 Confirmed
Rutledge, JohnJohn Rutledge
(as Chief Justice) Washington 000000001795-07-01-0000July 1, 1795 000000001795-12-10-0000December 10, 1795 000000001795-12-15-0000December 15, 1795 Rejected
Thompson, SmithSmith Thompson Monroe 000000001823-09-01-0000September 1, 1823 000000001823-12-05-0000December 5, 1823 000000001823-12-09-0000December 9, 1823 Confirmed
Woodbury, LeviLevi Woodbury Polk 000000001845-09-20-0000September 20, 1845 000000001845-12-23-0000December 23, 1845 000000001846-01-03-0000January 3, 1846 Confirmed
Curtis, Benjamin RobbinsBenjamin Robbins Curtis Fillmore 000000001851-09-22-0000September 22, 1851 000000001851-12-11-0000December 11, 1851 000000001851-12-20-0000December 20, 1851 Confirmed
Davis, DavidDavid Davis Lincoln 000000001862-10-17-0000October 17, 1862 000000001862-12-01-0000December 1, 1862 000000001862-12-08-0000December 8, 1862 Confirmed
Holmes, Jr., Oliver WendellOliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. T. Roosevelt 000000001902-08-11-0000August 11, 1902 000000001902-12-02-0000December 2, 1902 000000001902-12-04-0000December 4, 1902 Confirmed
Warren, EarlEarl Warren
(as Chief Justice) Eisenhower 000000001953-10-02-0000October 2, 1953 000000001954-03-01-0000March 1, 1954 000000001954-03-01-0000March 1, 1954 Confirmed
Brennan, Jr., William J.William J. Brennan, Jr. Eisenhower 000000001956-10-15-0000October 15, 1956 000000001957-01-14-0000January 14, 1957 000000001957-03-19-0000March 19, 1957 Confirmed
Stewart, PotterPotter Stewart Eisenhower 000000001958-10-14-0000October 14, 1958 000000001959-01-17-0000January 17, 1959 000000001959-12-05-0000December 5, 1959 Confirmed
Tenure and vacancies[edit]
The ability of a president to appoint new justices depends on the occurrence of a vacancy on the Court. The Constitution provides that justices "shall hold their offices during good behavior" (unless appointed during a Senate recess). The term "good behavior" is well understood to mean Justices may serve for the remainder of their lives, although they can voluntarily resign or retire. A Justice can also be removed by Congressional impeachment and conviction. However, only one Justice has been impeached by the House (Samuel Chase, in 1805) and he was acquitted in the Senate. Moves to impeach sitting justices have occurred more recently (for example, William O. Douglas was the subject of hearings twice, once in 1953 and again in 1970), but they have not reached a vote in the House. No mechanism presently exists for removing a Justice who is permanently incapacitated by illness or injury, both unable to resign and unable to resume service.[23]
Because Justices have indefinite tenure, it is impossible to know when a vacancy will next occur. Sometimes vacancies arise in quick succession, as in the early 1970s when Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr. and William H. Rehnquist were nominated to replace Hugo Black and John Marshall Harlan II, who retired within a week of each other. Sometimes a great length of time passes between nominations such as the eleven years between Stephen Breyer's nomination in 1994 and the departures of Chief Justice Rehnquist and Justice Sandra Day O'Connor (by death and retirement, respectively) in 2005 and 2006.
It is also theoretically possible for Congress to create additional vacancies by expanding the Court itself. The United States Constitution does not specify the size of the Supreme Court, but in Article III it authorizes the Congress to fix the number of justices. The Judiciary Act of 1789 called for the appointment of six justices. As the country grew geographically, Congress increased the number of justices to correspond with the growing number of judicial circuits. In 1807, the court was expanded to seven members, allowing Thomas Jefferson to appoint Thomas Todd as a new Justice. The expansion to nine members in 1837 allowed Andrew Jackson to appoint John Catron, and Martin Van Buren to appoint John McKinley; and the addition of a tenth seat in 1863 allowed Abraham Lincoln to name Stephen Johnson Field to the Court. However, at the request of Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase, Congress passed the Judicial Circuits Act (1866) which provided that the next three justices to retire would not be replaced; thus, the size of the Court should have eventually reached seven by attrition. Consequently, one seat was removed in 1866 and a second in 1867. However, this law did not play out to completion, for in the Judiciary Act of 1869,[24] also known as the Circuit Judges Act, the number of justices was again set at nine, where it has since remained. The new seat created in 1869 was filled the following year by Ulysses S. Grant's appointment of Joseph P. Bradley - the last justice to be appointed to a newly created seat on the Court.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt attempted to expand the Court in 1937, seeking to appoint an additional justice for each incumbent justice who reached the age of 70 years 6 months and refused retirement; under Roosevelt's proposal, such appointments would continue until the Court reached a maximum size of 15 justices. Ostensibly, the proposal was made to ease the burdens of the docket on the elderly judges, but the President's actual purpose was to pack the Court with justices who would support New Deal policies and legislation.[25] This plan, usually called the "Court-packing Plan", failed in Congress and proved a political disaster for Roosevelt.[26] The balance of the Court shifted with the retirement of Willis Van Devanter and the confirmation of Hugo Black in August 1937. By the end of 1941, Roosevelt had appointed seven Supreme Court justices and elevated Harlan Fiske Stone to Chief Justice.[27]
Despite the variability, nearly all Presidents so far have been able to appoint at least one Justice. The four exceptions are William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Andrew Johnson, and Jimmy Carter. Harrison died a month after taking office, though his successor (John Tyler) made an appointment during that presidential term. Taylor likewise died early in his presidential term, although his successor (Millard Fillmore) also made a Supreme Court nomination before the end of that term. Johnson was denied the opportunity to appoint a Justice by a contraction in the size of the Supreme Court, which Congress may dictate. Jimmy Carter is the only President who completed at least one full term in office without making a nomination to the Court during his presidency.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ See Black, Ryan C.; Owens, Ryan J. "Courting the President: How Circuit Court Judges Alter Their Behavior for Promotion to the Supreme Court". American Journal of Political Science. 60 (1): 30–43. doi:10.1111/ajps.12132.
Jump up ^ Todd S., Purdum (July 5, 2005). "Presidents, Picking Justices, Can Have Backfires". Courts in Transition: Nominees and History. New York Times. p. A4. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b Tom Curry (Nov 5, 2005). "A guide to the Supreme Court nomination (quote:) "...1939, when he went before the Judiciary Committee, nominee Felix Frankfurter told senators..."". MSNBC.com. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
^ Jump up to: a b STEPHEN L. CARTER (May 9, 2009). "Let the Nominee Stay Home (quote:) "...The first was John Marshall Harlan in 1955, who declined invitations to discuss either specific cases or judicial philosophy as 'a matter of propriety'..."". New York Times. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
Jump up ^ "United States Senate. "Nominations"".
Jump up ^ Jim Brunner (24 March 2017). "Sen. Patty Murray will oppose Neil Gorsuch for Supreme Court". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 9 April 2017. In a statement Friday morning, Murray cited Republicans’ refusal to confirm or even seriously consider President Obama’s nomination of Judge Merrick Garland, a similarly well-qualified jurist — and went on to lambaste President Trump’s conduct in his first few months in office. [...] And Murray added she’s “deeply troubled” by Gorsuch’s “extreme conservative perspective on women’s health,” citing his “inability” to state a clear position on Roe v. Wade, the landmark abortion-legalization decision, and his comments about the “Hobby Lobby” decision allowing employers to refuse to provide birth-control coverage.
Jump up ^ McCaskill, Claire (31 March 2017). "Gorsuch:Good for corporations, bad for working people". Retrieved 9 April 2017. I cannot support Judge Gorsuch because a study of his opinions reveal a rigid ideology that always puts the little guy under the boot of corporations. He is evasive, but his body of work isn’t. Whether it is a freezing truck driver or an autistic child, he has shown a stunning lack of humanity. And he has been an activist - for example, writing a dissent on a case that had been settled, in what appears to be an attempt to audition for his current nomination.
Jump up ^ Schallhorn, Kaitlyn (23 March 2017). "Schumer: Democrats will filibuster SCOTUS nominee Neil Gorsuch". The Blaze. Retrieved 7 April 2017. Schumer added that Gorsuch’s record shows he has a “deep-seated conservative ideology” and “groomed by the Federalist Society,” a conservative nonprofit legal organization.
Jump up ^ Matt Flegenheimer (6 April 2017). "Senate Republicans Deploy 'Nuclear Option' to Clear Path for Gorsuch". New York Times. After Democrats held together Thursday morning and filibustered President Trump’s nominee, Republicans voted to lower the threshold for advancing Supreme Court nominations from 60 votes to a simple majority.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Senate: Supreme Court Nominations, Present-1789". United States Senate. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Stakes Of The 2016 Election Just Got Much, Much Higher". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 2016-02-14.
Jump up ^ McMillion, Barry J. (19 October 2015). "Supreme Court Appointment Process: Senate Debate and Confirmation Vote" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
Jump up ^ Balkin, Jack M. "The passionate intensity of the confirmation process". Jurist. Archived from the original on 17 February 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-13.
Jump up ^ George F. Will (May 27, 2009). "Identity Justice: Obama's Conventional Choice". Washington Post. Retrieved 2009-10-22.
Jump up ^ NEIL A. LEWIS (June 27, 1993). "Balanced Jurist at Home in the Middle". New York Times. Retrieved 2009-10-22.
Jump up ^ Steve Padilla (July 15, 2009). "Sotomayor hearings: The grilling of Supreme Court nominees is a relatively new invention (quote:) "Harlan Stone became the first Supreme Court nominee to appear and testify before the Judiciary Committee in 1925" ALSO "Every nominee to the high court since President Eisenhower's 1955 nomination of John Harlan has testified before the committee."". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "COURT IN TRANSITION; Republicans Speak of Respect of Roberts's Peers, and Democrats Issue Warnings -- their sources: Courts and Congress by Judge Robert A. Katzmann; Senate transcripts". New York Times. September 16, 2005. Retrieved 2009-10-22.
Jump up ^ Rutkus, Supreme Court Nominations, p. 57
Jump up ^ 5 U.S.C. § 2902.
Jump up ^ See 28 U.S.C. § 4.
^ Jump up to: a b Fisher, Louis (2001-09-05). "Recess Appointments of Federal Judges" (PDF). CRSN Report for Congress. Congressional Research Service. The Library of Congress. RL31112: 16–18. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-06. Resolved, That it is the sense of the Senate that the making of recess appointments to the Supreme Court of the United States may not be wholly consistent with the best interests of the Supreme Court, the nominee who may be involved, the litigants before the Court, nor indeed the people of the United States, and that such appointments, therefore, should not be made except under unusual circumstances and for the purpose of preventing or ending a demonstrable breakdown in the administration of the Court’s business.
Jump up ^ Democrats supported the resolution 48-4, and Republicans opposed it 33-0.
Jump up ^ Appel, Jacob M. (2009-08-22). "Anticipating the Incapacitated Justice". Huffington Post. Retrieved 2009-08-23.
Jump up ^ 16 Stat. 44
Jump up ^ Mintz, S. (2007). "The New Deal in Decline". Digital History. University of Houston. Archived from the original on 2008-05-05. Retrieved 2009-10-27.
Jump up ^ Hodak, George (2007). "February 5, 1937: FDR Unveils Court Packing Plan". ABAjournal.com. American Bar Association. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
Jump up ^ "Justices, Number of", in Hall, Ely Jr., Grossman, and Wiecek (editors), The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. Oxford University Press 1992, ISBN 0-19-505835-6
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Dil Sambhal Jaa Zara
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Dil Sambhal Jaa Zara
Also known as
Ishq Gunaah
Genre
Drama
Romantic
Based on
Aşk-ı Memnu
Starring
Sanjay Kapoor
Smriti Kalra
Aashim Gulati
Opening theme
"Jeene Bhi De'" by Yasser Deshai
Ending theme
"Ae Dil Na Kar Tu Chahate" by Soham Naik
Composer(s)
Harish Sagane
Country of origin
India
Original language(s)
Hindi (primary)
English (minor)
No. of seasons
1
No. of episodes
75
Production
Producer(s)
Vikram Bhatt
Location(s)
Mumbai
Camera setup
Multi-camera
Running time
21 minutes
Distributor
Star India
Release
Original network
Star Plus
Picture format
SDTV 576i
HDTV 1080i
Original release
23 October 2017 (2017-10-23) – 2 February 2018 (2018-02-02)
External links
Hotstar
Dil Sambhal Jaa Zara (English: Be Careful My Heart) is an Indian drama television series broadcast on Star Plus from 23 October 2017 to 2 February 2018. The series was produced by Vikram Bhatt.[1] The show was earlier titled as Ishq Gunaah.[2][3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Synopsis
2 Cast
3 Soundtrack
4 References
5 External links
Synopsis[edit]
It’s a story about a married couple with an age gap of 20 years. Ahana was always loved by her father. Her mother Laila Raichand is a sly, ambitious, greedy woman who cheated on her husband. Ahana’s father dies of shock taking his wife's betrayal too hard. Ahana witnesses their argument hereby developing an intense hatred for her mother. Ahana, frustrated at her life at home after her father's death, finds solace in Anant Mathur, a friend of her dad. Saloni, Ahana's elder sister is about to be married to her sweetheart Tarun. Tarun's father, Mr Gupta is not keen on letting them get married since he is aware of Laila's gold-digging tendencies. He wants Saloni to sign a prenup. When Laila finds out she is infuriated and wants to cancel the wedding. The plot twist comes in the form of Saloni's pregnancy. Laila agrees to the wedding on the condition that Tarun provides 3 crore rupees to her. Tarun and Saloni get married. Meanwhile, Laila sets her eyes on marrying Anant Mathur as he is a rich businessman in order to pay off her debts and increase her social status. But Anant proposes to Ahana and they decide to get married. Rehaan convinces Roshni, Anant's daughter to give her blessings. Anant goes to Laila to ask for Ahana's hand in marriage to him. Laila is furious. She agrees to the marriage and puts forward a condition to Anant. As the story continues Ahana and Anant face many obstacles in their marriage due to the age difference, society, rivalry and family. Rehaan begins to fall for Ahana, while simultaneously learning that she married Anant just to defy and insult her mother for revenge. As he loves Anant who is like a father-figure to him, he doesn't want to see him cheated and tells Anant that Ahana didn't actually love him, not realizing that Ahana truly loves Anant and revenge against her mother was a bonus. On revealing her supposed intentions, it is not taken up well by Anant at first, which leads Rehaan to leave the house. Later being asked for answers, Ahana reveals the initial reason behind the marriage before Anant that shatters him. Misunderstandings brew up. Soon after, Ahana gets pregnant. Elated, she tries to reveal this to Anant. In a series of misunderstandings and the growing distance between them, she is forced to take up the decision of aborting her unborn child. Laila is left broke by Gupta, she has an accident. Rehaan realizes his mistakes. After knowing the abortion bit, Anand again hates Ahana. Rehaan asks for ahana's forgiveness. She forgives him soon after and is taken care of by him. He supports her through the hard times and they go for a Goa trip. Rehaan and Ahana grow closer during the trip. Meanwhile, Anant realizes his mistake and wants to give a second chance to their marriage. Laila gets discharged and is brought home by Anant. She notices Ahana behave weirdly and asks her about her closeness with Rehaan. Ahana struggles to get Rehaan off her mind. She realizes that she actually loves Rehaan and not Anant after getting taunted by Laila that she's turning up to be just like her mother. A frustrated Ahana tries to keep a distance from Rehaan but ends up having more troubles. Rehaan breaks up with Vyoma, his girlfriend. A scorned Vyoma writes a letter to let Anant know about the supposed brewing closeness of Rehaan and Ahana. But Laila rewrites the letter describing Rehaan's relationship with Vyoma. But Roshni misplaces the original letter in order to create trouble between the two. The show ends abruptly with Anant reading the letter and screaming at Rehaan and Ahana asking if what's written is true.
Cast[edit]
Actor
Role
Description
Sanjay Kapoor[5] Anant Mathur [6] Ahana's husband and her father's friend. He loves Ahana but misunderstandings ruin their relationship.
Smriti Kalra Ahana Mathur Laila Raichand's daughter and Anant Mathur’s wife.
Aashim Gulati Rehan Khanna Anant's friend’s son and Saloni's ex-boyfriend. He loves Ahaana.
Niki Aneja Walia Laila Raichand Saloni and Ahana's mother. A greedy woman who cheats her husband and earlier wanted to marry Anant for money.
Cheshtha Bhagat Saloni Gupta (Raichand) Laila Raichand's daughter and Tarun's wife. She loved Rehaan earlier.
Puneet Sharma Tarun Gupta Saloni’s husband.
Indraneel Bhattacharya Mahendra Gupta Tarun's father and Laila Raichand's business rival.
Beena Banerjee Reema Anant's elder sister
Anandita Pagnis Roshni Mathur Anant’s daughter. She hates Ahana and creates trouble between Anant and Ahana.
Kriish Wawa Aarav Mathur Anant's son
Bidisha Ghosh Sharma Yamini Roshni and Aarav's nanny and Massi. She loves Anant secretly.
Naveen Pandita Karan Driver at Anant’s house. He was orphaned at the age of six so when Anant found him, he brought him home and raised him along with Roshni. He is in love with Roshni and would go to any length to keep her happy.
Geet Sharma Kavita Servant at Anant's house Hiralal and Uma's daughter. Loves Karan. A greedy girl who hates Roshni
Nakuul Mehta Shivaay Singh Oberoi Ahana's Friend. (Cameo)
Surbhi Chandna Anika Shivaay Singh Oberoi Ahana's Friend. (Cameo)
Soundtrack[edit]
Harish Sagane had composed the original songs and background score for the show. The tracks become an instant hit among viewers.
Track list
No.
Title
Vocalist
Length
1. "Jeene Bhi De" Yasser Desai 6:31
2. "Ae Dil Na Kar Tu Chahate" Soham Naik 3:33
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Dil Sambhal Jaa Zara promo: Sanjay Kapoor romances Smriti Kalra and Niki Aneja Walia in this mature love story". Bollywoodlife. 11 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "This is what Vikram Bhatt's TV show with Sanjay Kapoor is all about". Bollywood hungama. Retrieved 5 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Tum Bin 2's Aashim Gulati to be seen on Vikram Bhatt's bold TV show, Ishq Gunaah". Bollywoodlife. 5 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "SHOCKING ! Star Plus show Dil Sambhal Jaa Zara is going OFF-AIR !". ABP Live. 23 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "Dil Sambhal Jaa Zara Written Updates, Latest News". dilsambhaljazara.com. Retrieved 25 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Sanjay Kapoor's Busy Birthday Schedule, Courtesy Dil Sambhal Ja Zara". ndtv.com. Retrieved 23 October 2017.
External links[edit]
Dil Sambhal Jaa Zara Streaming on Hotstar
[hide]
v
t
e
Current broadcasts on Star Plus
Currently broadcast
Primetime soap opera
Har Shaakh Pe Ullu Baithaa Hai
Ikyawann
Ishqbaaaz
Kullfi Kumarr Bajewala
Naamkarann
Tu Sooraj, Main Saanjh Piyaji
Yeh Hai Mohabbatein
Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai
Weekend
Khichdi
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dil_Sambhal_Jaa_Zara&oldid=837123872"
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Hindi-language television programs
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Garth Brooks (album)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Garth Brooks
Studio album by Garth Brooks
Released
April 12, 1989
Recorded
Late 1987 – Early 1988
Studio
Jack's Tracks Recording Studios
Genre
Country
Length
32:43
Label
Capitol Nashville
Producer
Allen Reynolds
Garth Brooks chronology
Garth Brooks
(1989) No Fences
(1990)No Fences1990
Singles from Garth Brooks
"Much Too Young (To Feel This Damn Old)"
Released: March 6, 1989
"If Tomorrow Never Comes"
Released: August 21, 1989
"Not Counting You"
Released: January 8, 1990
"The Dance"
Released: April 30, 1990
Professional ratings
Review scores
Source
Rating
Allmusic [1]
Chicago Tribune [2]
The Rolling Stone Album Guide [3]
Garth Brooks is the debut studio album of American country music artist Garth Brooks, released on April 12, 1989 through Capitol Nashville. It was both a critical and chart success, peaking at #13 on the Billboard 200 and at #2 on the Top Country Albums chart. The album has been certified diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments over ten million copies. This is Garth's only album to have a neotraditional country sound before developing a more crossover-friendly country-pop sound.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Singles
3 Notable covers
4 Commercial performance
5 Track listing
6 Personnel
7 Charts
7.1 Weekly charts
7.2 Singles
8 Certifications
9 See also
10 References
Background[edit]
Brooks commented on the album, saying:
This album was released in April 1989, in the States. Definitely scared to death. I thought the album was very very innocent. And I gotta be truthful with you, every time I hear those songs off the radio or off the album itself, or even when we play them live. I really get that same kind of scared feeling, that I had, way back in 1988, and 1989. Whether you get the album or not, or whether you have the album or not. Thanks, for just, the interest. That first album is always a big one for any artist and I, without trying to sound egotistical, I'm very proud of my first one.[4]
Singles[edit]
This album contains Brooks' earliest hits, for instance his first ever single, "Much Too Young (To Feel This Damn Old)", which peaked at #8 on the Country Billboard Charts in 1989. It put the name of an independent cowboy singer, Chris LeDoux, into the mainstream due to the lyric "A worn out tape of Chris LeDoux" Two other strong starts include his first #1, "If Tomorrow Never Comes" and the Academy of Country Music's 1990 Song of the Year and Video of the Year, "The Dance" (another #1). It also features his first hit he wrote entirely in "Not Counting You", another top 10 success.
Notable covers[edit]
Punk rock cover artists Me First and the Gimme Gimmes released a version of "Much Too Young (To Feel This Damn Old)" as the first track on their October 2006 album Me First and the Gimme Gimmes Love Their Country.
"If Tomorrow Never Comes" has been covered by Ronan Keating (former lead singer of Irish group Boyzone), and many other famous singers including Barry Manilow.
Moe Bandy also recorded "Nobody Gets Off in This Town" on his 1990 album No Regrets.[5]
Commercial performance[edit]
Garth Brooks peaked at #13 on the US Billboard 200, and peaked at #2 on the Top Country Albums. In November 2006, it was certified diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of over ten million copies in the United States. To date, the album has sold ten million copies in the US and thirteen million copies worldwide.
Track listing[edit]
Original Release
"Not Counting You" (Garth Brooks) – 2:30
"I've Got a Good Thing Going" (Larry Bastian, Sandy Mahl, Brooks) – 2:50
"If Tomorrow Never Comes" (Kent Blazy, Brooks) – 3:42
"Everytime That It Rains" (Charlie Stefl, Ty England, Brooks) – 4:07
"Alabama Clay" (Larry Cordle, Ronny Scaife) – 3:35
"Much Too Young (To Feel This Damn Old)" (Randy Taylor, Brooks) – 2:53
"Cowboy Bill" (Bastian, Ed Berghoff) – 4:28
"Nobody Gets Off in This Town" (Bastian, DeWayne Blackwell) – 2:17
"I Know One" (Jack Clement) – 2:49
"The Dance" (Tony Arata) – 3:40
Limited Series Release
"Not Counting You"
"I've Got a Good Thing Going"
"Uptown Down Home Good Ol' Boy"
"If Tomorrow Never Comes"
"Everytime That It Rains"
"Alabama Clay"
"Much Too Young (To Feel This Damn Old)"
"Cowboy Bill"
"Nobody Gets Off in This Town"
"I Know One"
"The Dance"
Personnel[edit]
Bruce Bouton – pedal steel guitar
Garth Brooks – lead, harmony and backing vocals
Mark Casstevens – acoustic guitar
Mike Chapman – bass guitar
Kathy Chiavola – harmony and backing vocals
Rob Hajacos – fiddle
Wendy Johnson – harmony and backing vocals
Chris Leuzinger – electric guitar
Jennifer O'Brien – harmony and backing vocals
Wayland Patton – harmony and backing vocals
Milton Sledge – drums
Hurshel Wiginton – harmony and backing vocals
Bobby Wood – keyboards, synthesizer
Trisha Yearwood – harmony and backing vocals
Nashville String Machine – string orchestra
Charts[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Charts (1989/1990)
Peak
position
Canadian RPM Albums Chart 60
Canadian RPM Country Albums 22
US Billboard 200[6] 13
US Billboard Top Country Albums[6] 2
Singles[edit]
Year
Single
Peak chart positions
US Country
CAN Country
UK
1989 "Much Too Young (To Feel This Damn Old)" 8 9 —
"If Tomorrow Never Comes" 1 2 —
1990 "Not Counting You" 2 1 —
"The Dance" 1 1 36
Certifications[edit]
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales
United States (RIAA)[7]
Diamond 10,000,000^
*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone
See also[edit]
List of best-selling albums in the United States
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Erlewine, Stephen Thomas. Garth Brooks at AllMusic. Retrieved February 17, 2013.
Jump up ^ Hurst, Jack (April 6, 1989). "Garth Brooks (Capitol)". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved April 13, 2013.
Jump up ^ Brackett, Nathan; Christian Hoard (2004). The Rolling Stone Album Guide. New York City, New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 105. ISBN 0-7432-0169-8.
Jump up ^ "Garth's CD's". Angelfire.com. Archived from the original on November 11, 2012. Retrieved February 17, 2013.
Jump up ^ http://www.allmusic.com/album/no-regrets-mw0000200539
^ Jump up to: a b [1][dead link]
Jump up ^ "American album certifications – Garth Brooks – Garth Brooks". Recording Industry Association of America. If necessary, click Advanced, then click Format, then select Album, then click SEARCH
[hide]
v
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Garth Brooks
Discography
Awards and nominations
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Studio albums
Garth Brooks
No Fences
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In Pieces
Fresh Horses
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Scarecrow
Man Against Machine
Gunslinger
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Compilation albums
The Garth Brooks Collection
The Hits
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Live albums
Double Live
Box sets
The Limited Series (1998)
The Limited Series (2005)
The Entertainer
Blame It All on My Roots: Five Decades of Influences
The Ultimate Collection
Concert tours
The Garth Brooks World Tour (1993–94)
The Garth Brooks World Tour (1996–98)
World Tour (2014–present)
Residency shows
Garth at Wynn (2009–14)
Specials
Garth: Live from Central Park
Garth Brooks: Live in Kansas City
Garth Brooks: Live in LA
Other ventures
GhostTunes
Pearl Records
Teammates for Kids Foundation
Associated acts
Ty England
James Garver
Allen Reynolds
Trisha Yearwood
Books
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Garth_Brooks_(album)&oldid=826479749"
Categories:
1989 debut albums
Garth Brooks albums
Capitol Records albums
Albums produced by Allen Reynolds
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This page was last edited on 19 February 2018, at 10:22.
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Somatic cell nuclear transfer
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Somatic cell nuclear transfer can create clones for both reproductive and therapeutic purposes. The diagram depicts the removal of the donor nucleus for schematic purposes; in practice the whole donor cell is transferred.
In genetics and developmental biology, somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) is a laboratory strategy for creating a viable embryo from a body cell and an egg cell. The technique consists of taking an enucleated oocyte (egg cell) and implanting a donor nucleus from a somatic (body) cell. It is used in both therapeutic and reproductive cloning. Dolly the Sheep became famous for being the first successful case of the reproductive cloning of a mammal.[1] "Therapeutic cloning" refers to the potential use of SCNT in regenerative medicine; this approach has been championed as an answer to the many issues concerning embryonic stem cells (ESC) and the destruction of viable embryos for medical use, though questions remain on how homologous the two cell types truly are.
Contents
[hide]
1 Process
2 Applications
2.1 Stem cell research
2.2 Reproductive cloning
2.3 Interspecies nuclear transfer
3 Limitations
4 Controversy
5 Policies regarding human SCNT
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Process[edit]
The process of somatic cell nuclear transplant involves two different cells. The first being a female gamete, known as the ovum (egg/oocyte). In human SCNT (Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer) experiments, these eggs are obtained through consenting donors, utilizing ovarian stimulation. The second being a somatic cell, referring to the cells of the human body. Skin cells, fat cells, and liver cells are only a few examples. The nucleus of the donor egg cell is removed and discarded, leaving it 'deprogrammed.' What is left is a somatic cell and an unnucleated egg cell. These are then fused by inserting the somatic cell into the 'empty' ovum.[2] After being inserted into the egg, the somatic cell nucleus is reprogrammed by its host egg cell. The ovum, now containing the somatic cell's nucleus, is stimulated with a shock and will begin to divide. The egg is now viable and capable of producing an adult organism containing all the necessary genetic information from just one parent. Development will ensue normally and after many mitotic divisions, this single cell forms a blastocyst (an early stage embryo with about 100 cells) with an identical genome to the original organism (i.e. a clone).[3] Stem cells can then be obtained by the destruction of this clone embryo for use in therapeutic cloning or in the case of reproductive cloning the clone embryo is implanted into a host mother for further development and brought to term.
Applications[edit]
Stem cell research[edit]
Somatic cell nuclear transplantation has become a focus of study in stem cell research. The aim of carrying out this procedure is to obtain pluripotent cells from a cloned embryo. These cells genetically matched the donor organism from which they came.This gives them the ability to create patient specific pluripotent cells, which could then be used in therapies or disease research.[4]
Embryonic stem cells are undifferentiated cells of an embryo. These cells are deemed to have a pluripotent potential because they have the ability to give rise to all of the tissues found in an adult organism. This ability allows stem cells to create any cell type, which could then be transplanted to replace damaged or destroyed cells. Controversy surrounds human ESC work due to the destruction of viable human embryos. Leading scientists to seek an alternative method of obtaining stem cells, SCNT is one such method.
Human Embryonic Stem cell colony on mouse embryonic fibroblast feeder layer.
A potential use of stem cells genetically matched to a patient would be to create cell lines that have genes linked to a patient's particular disease. By doing so, an in vitro model could be created, would be useful for studying that particular disease, potentially discovering its pathophysiology, and discovering therapies.[5] For example, if a person with Parkinson's disease donated his or her somatic cells, the stem cells resulting from SCNT would have genes that contribute to Parkinson's disease. The disease specific stem cell lines could then be studied in order to better understand the condition.[6]
Another application of SCNT stem cell research is using the patient specific stem cell lines to generate tissues or even organs for transplant into the specific patient.[7] The resulting cells would be genetically identical to the somatic cell donor, thus avoiding any complications from immune system rejection.[6][8]
Only a handful of the labs in the world are currently using SCNT techniques in human stem cell research. In the United States, scientists at the Harvard Stem Cell Institute, the University of California San Francisco, the Oregon Health & Science University,[9] Stemagen (La Jolla, CA) and possibly Advanced Cell Technology are currently researching a technique to use somatic cell nuclear transfer to produce embryonic stem cells.[10] In the United Kingdom, the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority has granted permission to research groups at the Roslin Institute and the Newcastle Centre for Life.[11] SCNT may also be occurring in China.[12]
In 2005, a South Korean research team led by Professor Hwang Woo-suk, published claims to have derived stem cell lines via SCNT,[13] but supported those claims with fabricated data.[14] Recent evidence has proved that he in fact created a stem cell line from a parthenote.[15][16]
Though there has been numerous successes with cloning animals, questions remain concerning the mechanisms of reprogramming in the ovum. Despite many attempts, success in creating human nuclear transfer embryonic stem cells has been limited. There lies a problem in the human cell's ability to form a blastocyst; the cells fail to progress past the eight cell stage of development. This is thought to be a result from the somatic cell nucleus being unable to turn on embryonic genes crucial for proper development. These earlier experiments used procedures developed in non-primate animals with little success. A research group from the Oregon Health & Science University demonstrated SCNT procedures developed for primates successfully reprogrammed skin cells into stem cells. The key to their success was utilizing oocytes in metaphase II (MII) of the cell cycle. Egg cells in MII contain special factors in the cytoplasm that have a special ability in reprogramming implanted somatic cell nuclei into cells with pluripotent states. When the ovum's nucleus is removed, the cell loses its genetic information. This has been blamed for why enucleated eggs are hampered in their reprogramming ability. It is theorized the critical embryonic genes are physically linked to oocyte chromosomes, enucleation negatively affects these factors. Another possibility is removing the egg nucleus or inserting the somatic nucleus causes damage to the cytoplast, affecting reprogramming ability. Taking this into account the research group applied their new technique in an attempt to produce human SCNT stem cells. In May 2013, the Oregon group reported the successful derivation of human embryonic stem cell lines derived through SCNT, using fetal and infant donor cells. Using MII oocytes from volunteers and their improved SCNT procedure, human clone embryos were successfully produced. These embryos were of poor quality, lacking a substantial inner cell mass and poorly constructed trophectoderm. The imperfect embryos prevented the acquisition of human ESC. The addition of caffeine during the removal of the ovum's nucleus and injection of the somatic nucleus improved blastocyst formation and ESC isolation. The ESC obtain were found to be capable of producing teratomas, expressed pluripotent transcription factors, and expressed a normal 46XX karyotype, indicating these SCNT were in fact ESC-like.[9] This was the first instance of successfully using SCNT to reprogram human somatic cells. This study used fetal and infantile somatic cells to produce their ESC.
In April 2014, an international research team expanded on this break through. There remained the question of whether the same success could be accomplished using adult somatic cells. Epigenetic and age related changes were thought to possibly hinder an adult somatic cells ability to be reprogrammed. Implementing the procedure pioneered by the Oregon research group they indeed were able to grow stem cells generated by SCNT using adult cells from two donors, aged 35 and 75.Indicating age does not impede a cells ability to be reprogrammed[17][18]
Late April 2014, the New York Stem Cell Foundation was successful in creating SCNT stem cells derived from adult somatic cells. One of these lines of stem cells was derived from the donor cells of a type 1 diabetic. The group was then able to successfully culture these stem cells and induce differentiation. When injected into mice, cells of all three of the germ layers successfully formed. The most significant of these cells, were those who expressed insulin and were capable of secreting the hormone.[19] These insulin producing cells could be used for replacement therapy in diabetics, demonstrating real SCNT stem cell therapeutic potential.
The impetus for SCNT-based stem cell research has been decreased by the development and improvement of alternative methods of generating stem cells. Methods to reprogram normal body cells into pluripotent stem cells were developed in humans in 2007. The following year, this method achieved a key goal of SCNT-based stem cell research: the derivation of pluripotent stem cell lines that have all genes linked to various diseases.[20] Some scientists working on SCNT-based stem cell research have recently moved to the new methods of induced pluripotent stem cells. Though recent studies have put in question how similar iPS cells are to embryonic stem cells. Epigenetic memory in iPS affects the cell lineage it can differentiate into. For instance, an iPS cell derived from a blood cell will be more efficient at differentiating into blood cells, while it will be less efficient at creating a neuron.[21] This raises the question of how well iPS cells can mimic the gold standard ESC in experiments, as stem cells are defined as having the ability to differentiate into any cell type. SCNT stem cells do not pose such a problem and continue to remain relevant in stem cell studies.
Reproductive cloning[edit]
Main article: Cloning
BTX ECM 2001 Electrofusion generator used for SCNT and Cloning applications
This technique is currently the basis for cloning animals (such as the famous Dolly the sheep),[22] and has been theoretically proposed as a possible way to clone humans. Using SCNT in reproductive cloning has proven difficult with limited success. High fetal and neonatal death make the process very inefficient. Resulting cloned offspring are also plagued with development and imprinting disorders in non-human species. For these reasons, along with moral and ethical objections, reproductive cloning in humans is proscribed in more than 30 countries.[23] Most researchers believe that in the foreseeable future it will not be possible to use the current cloning technique to produce a human clone that will develop to term. It remains a possibility, though critical adjustments will be required to overcome current limitations during early embryonic development in human SCNT.[24][25]
There is also the potential for treating diseases associated with mutations in mitochondrial DNA. Recent studies show SCNT of the nucleus of a body cell afflicted with one of these diseases into a healthy oocyte prevents the inheritance of the mitochondrial disease. This treatment does not involve cloning but would produce a child with three genetic parents. A father providing a sperm cell, one mother providing the egg nucleus and another mother providing the enucleated egg cell.[7]
Interspecies nuclear transfer[edit]
Interspecies nuclear transfer (iSCNT) is a means of somatic cell nuclear transfer used to facilitate the rescue of endangered species, or even to restore species after their extinction. The technique is similar to SCNT cloning which typically is between domestic animals and rodents, or where there is a ready supply of oocytes and surrogate animals. However, the cloning of highly endangered or extinct species requires the use of an alternative method of cloning. Interspecies nuclear transfer utilizes a host and a donor of two different organisms that are closely related species and within the same genus. In 2000, Robert Lanza was able to produce a cloned fetus of a gaur, Bos gaurus, combining it successfully with a domestic cow, Bos taurus.[26]
Interspecies nuclear transfer provides evidence of the universality of the triggering mechanism of the cell nucleus reprogramming. For example, Gupta et al.,[27] explored the possibility of producing transgenic cloned embryos by interspecies somatic cell nuclear transfer (iSCNT) of cattle, mice, and chicken donor cells into enucleated pig oocytes. Moreover, NCSU23 medium, which was designed for in vitro culture of pig embryos, was able to support the in vitro development of cattle, mice, and chicken iSCNT embryos up to the blastocyst stage. Furthermore, ovine oocyte cytoplast may be used for remodeling and reprogramming of human somatic cells back to the embryonic stage.[28]
Limitations[edit]
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SCNT can be inefficient. Stresses placed on both the egg cell and the introduced nucleus in early research were enormous, resulting in a low percentage of successfully reprogrammed cells. For example, in 1996 Dolly the sheep was born after 277 eggs were used for SCNT, which created 29 viable embryos. Only three of these embryos survived until birth, and only one survived to adulthood.[22] As the procedure was not automated, but had to be performed manually under a microscope, SCNT was very resource intensive. The biochemistry involved in reprogramming the differentiated somatic cell nucleus and activating the recipient egg was also far from understood. However, by 2014, researchers were reporting success rates of 70-80% with cloning pigs[29] and in 2016 a Korean company, Sooam Biotech, was reported to be producing 500 cloned embryos a day.[30]
In SCNT, not all of the donor cell's genetic information is transferred, as the donor cell's mitochondria that contain their own mitochondrial DNA are left behind. The resulting hybrid cells retain those mitochondrial structures which originally belonged to the egg. As a consequence, clones such as Dolly that are born from SCNT are not perfect copies of the donor of the nucleus. This fact may also hamper the potential benefits of SCNT derived tissues/organs for therapy, as there may be an immunoresponse to the non-self mtDNA after transplant.
Controversy[edit]
Further information: stem cell controversy
Human Blastocyst, showing the inner cell mass (top, right).
Proposals to use nucleus transfer techniques in human stem cell research raise a set of concerns beyond the moral status of any created embryo. These have led to some individuals and organizations who are not opposed to human embryonic stem cell research to be concerned about, or opposed to, SCNT research.[31][32][33]
One concern is that blastula creation in SCNT-based human stem cell research will lead to the reproductive cloning of humans. Both processes use the same first step: the creation of a nuclear transferred embryo, most likely via SCNT. Those who hold this concern often advocate for strong regulation of SCNT to preclude implantation of any derived products for the intention of human reproduction,[34] or its prohibition.[31]
A second important concern is the appropriate source of the eggs that are needed. SCNT requires human eggs, which can only be obtained from women. The most common source of these eggs today are eggs that are produced and in excess of the clinical need during IVF treatment. This is a minimally invasive procedure, but it does carry some health risks, such as ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome.
One vision for successful stem cell therapies is to create custom stem cell lines for patients. Each custom stem cell line would consist of a collection of identical stem cells each carrying the patient's own DNA, thus reducing or eliminating any problems with rejection when the stem cells were transplanted for treatment. For example, to treat a man with Parkinson's disease, a cell nucleus from one of his cells would be transplanted by SCNT into an egg cell from an egg donor, creating a unique lineage of stem cells almost identical to the patient's own cells. (There would be differences. For example, the mitochondrial DNA would be the same as that of the egg donor. In comparison, his own cells would carry the mitochondrial DNA of his mother.)
Potentially millions of patients could benefit from stem cell therapy, and each patient would require a large number of donated eggs in order to successfully create a single custom therapeutic stem cell line. Such large numbers of donated eggs would exceed the number of eggs currently left over and available from couples trying to have children through assisted reproductive technology. Therefore, healthy young women would need to be induced to sell eggs to be used in the creation of custom stem cell lines that could then be purchased by the medical industry and sold to patients. It is so far unclear where all these eggs would come from.
Stem cell experts consider it unlikely that such large numbers of human egg donations would occur in a developed country because of the unknown long-term public health effects of treating large numbers of healthy young women with heavy doses of hormones in order to induce hyperovulation (ovulating several eggs at once). Although such treatments have been performed for several decades now, the long-term effects have not been studied or declared safe to use on a large scale on otherwise healthy women. Longer-term treatments with much lower doses of hormones are known to increase the rate of cancer decades later. Whether hormone treatments to induce hyperovulation could have similar effects is unknown. There are also ethical questions surrounding paying for eggs. In general, marketing body parts is considered unethical and is banned in most countries. Human eggs have been a notable exception to this rule for some time.
To address the problem of creating a human egg market, some stem cell researchers are investigating the possibility of creating artificial eggs. If successful, human egg donations would not be needed to create custom stem cell lines. However, this technology may be a long way off.
Policies regarding human SCNT[edit]
SCNT involving human cells is currently legal for research purposes in the United Kingdom, having been incorporated into the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990.[35][36] Permission must be obtained from the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority in order to perform or attempt SCNT.
In the United States, the practice remains legal, as it has not been addressed by federal law.[37] However, in 2002, a moratorium on United States federal funding for SCNT prohibits funding the practice for the purposes of research. Thus, though legal, SCNT cannot be federally funded.[38] American scholars have recently argued that because the product of SCNT is a clone embryo, rather than a human embryo, these policies are morally wrong and should be revised.[39]
In 2003, the United Nations adopted a proposal submitted by Costa Rica, calling on member states to "prohibit all forms of human cloning in as much as they are incompatible with human dignity and the protection of human life."[40] This phrase may include SCNT, depending on interpretation.
The Council of Europe's Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine and its Additional Protocol to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine, on the Prohibition of Cloning Human Being appear to ban SCNT of human beings. Of the Council's 45 member states, the Convention has been signed by 31 and ratified by 18. The Additional Protocol has been signed by 29 member nations and ratified by 14.[41]
See also[edit]
Induced stem cells
Stem cell research
Stem cell controversy
Embryogenesis
In vitro fertilisation
Cloning
New Jersey legislation S1909/A2840
Rejuvenation
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Lomax, G. P.; Dewitt, N. D. (2013). "Somatic cell nuclear transfer in Oregon: Expanding the pluripotent space and informing research ethics". Stem Cells and Development. 22 Suppl 1: 25–8. PMID 24304071. doi:10.1089/scd.2013.0402.
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^ Jump up to: a b Pera, M; Trounson, A (2013). "Cloning debate: Stem-cell researchers must stay engaged". Nature. 498 (7453): 159–61. PMID 23765475. doi:10.1038/498159a.
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^ Jump up to: a b Tachibana M (2013). "Human Embryonic Stem Cells Derived by Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer". Cell. 153: 1228–38. PMC 3772789  . PMID 23683578. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2013.05.006.
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Jump up ^ "Dolly scientists' human clone bid", BBC News (September 28, 2004, retrieved October 6, 2006)
Jump up ^ Charles C. Mann, "The First Cloning Superpower", Wired (January 2003, retrieved October 6, 2006)
Jump up ^ Hwang WS, Roh SI, Lee BC, et al. (June 2005). "Patient-specific embryonic stem cells derived from human SCNT blastocysts". Science. 308 (5729): 1777–83. PMID 15905366. doi:10.1126/science.1112286. (Retracted)
Jump up ^ Kennedy D (January 2006). "Editorial retraction". Science. 311 (5759): 335. PMID 16410485. doi:10.1126/science.1124926.
Jump up ^ [1], Nature Stem Cell Blog.
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Jump up ^ Human Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer Using Adult Cells Cell Stem Cell. Retrieved 18 April 2014
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Jump up ^ Yamada, M; Johannesson, B; Sagi, I; Burnett, L. C.; Kort, D. H.; Prosser, R. W.; Paull, D; Nestor, M. W.; Freeby, M; Greenberg, E; Goland, R. S.; Leibel, R. L.; Solomon, S. L.; Benvenisty, N; Sauer, M. V.; Egli, D (2014). "Human oocytes reprogram adult somatic nuclei of a type 1 diabetic to diploid pluripotent stem cells". Nature. 510 (7506): 533–6. PMID 24776804. doi:10.1038/nature13287.
Jump up ^ Gretchen Vogel (December 2008). "Breakthrough of the year: Reprogramming Cells". Science. 322 (5909): 1766–1767. PMID 19095902. doi:10.1126/science.322.5909.1766.
Jump up ^ Kim, K.; Doi, A.; Wen, B.; Ng, K.; Zhao, R.; Cahan, P.; Kim, J.; Aryee, M. J.; Ji, H.; Ehrlich, L. I. R.; Yabuuchi, A.; Takeuchi, A.; Cunniff, K. C.; Hongguang, H.; McKinney-Freeman, S.; Naveiras, O.; Yoon, T. J.; Irizarry, R. A.; Jung, N.; Seita, J.; Hanna, J.; Murakami, P.; Jaenisch, R.; Weissleder, R.; Orkin, S. H.; Weissman, I. L.; Feinberg, A. P.; Daley, G. Q. (2010). "Epigenetic memory in induced pluripotent stem cells". Nature. 467 (7313): 285–90. PMC 3150836  . PMID 20644535. doi:10.1038/nature09342.
^ Jump up to: a b Campbell KH, McWhir J, Ritchie WA, Wilmut I (March 1996). "Sheep cloned by nuclear transfer from a cultured cell line". Nature. 380 (6569): 64–6. PMID 8598906. doi:10.1038/380064a0.
Jump up ^ Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine (2012). "Human somatic cell nuclear transfer and cloning". Fertility and Sterility. 98 (4): 804–7. PMID 22795681. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2012.06.045.
Jump up ^ Revel M (2000). "Research on animal cloning technologies and their implications in medical ethics: an update". Med Law. 19 (3): 527–43. PMID 11143888.
Jump up ^ Rhind SM, Taylor JE, De Sousa PA, King TJ, McGarry M, Wilmut I (November 2003). "Human cloning: can it be made safe?". Nat. Rev. Genet. 4 (11): 855–64. PMID 14634633. doi:10.1038/nrg1205.
Jump up ^ Lanza, Robert P.; Jose B. Cibelli; Francisca A. Diaz; Carlos T. Moraes; Peter W. Farin; Charlotte E. Farin; Carolyn J. Hammer; Michael D. West; Philip Damiani (2000). "Cloning of an endangered species (Bos gaurus) using interspecies nuclear transfer" (PDF). Cloning. 2 (2): 79–90. doi:10.1089/152045500436104. Retrieved 10 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Gupta, M. K.; Das, Z. C.; Heo, Y. T.; Uhm, S. J. (2013). "Transgenic Chicken, Mice, Cattle, and Pig Embryos by Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer into Pig Oocytes". Cellular Reprogramming. 15 (4): 322–328. doi:10.1089/cell.2012.0074.
Jump up ^ Hosseini, S. Morteza; Hajian, Mehdi; Forouzanfar, Mohsen; Nasr-Esfahani, Mohammad H. (April 2012). "Enucleated Ovine Oocyte Supports Human Somatic Cells Reprogramming Back to the Embryonic Stage". Cellular Reprogramming. 14 (2): 155–163. PMID 22384929. doi:10.1089/cell.2011.0061.
Jump up ^ Shukman, David (14 January 2014) China cloning on an 'industrial scale' BBC News Science and Environment, Retrieved 10 April 2014
Jump up ^ Zastrow, Mark (8 February 2016). "Inside the cloning factory that creates 500 new animals a day". New Scientist. Retrieved 23 February 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Jeremy Rifkin. (February 18, 2002). "Fusion Biopolitics". The Nation. Retrieved on August 7, 2006.
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Jump up ^ Lori B. Andrews et al. (March 19, 2002)."Open Letter to US Senators on Human Cloning and Eugenic Engineering". Retrieved on August 7, 2006
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Jump up ^ "Chapter 5: Legal and Policy Considerations. Cloning Human Beings" Report and Recommendations of the National Bioethics Advisory Commission, June 1997. Accessed 21 Oct 06
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Further reading[edit]
Wilmut I, Beaujean N, de Sousa PA, et al. (October 2002). "Somatic cell nuclear transfer". Nature. 419 (6907): 583–6. PMID 12374931. doi:10.1038/nature01079.
Kikyo N, Wolffe AP (January 2000). "Reprogramming nuclei: insights from cloning, nuclear transfer and heterokaryons". J. Cell. Sci. 113. ( Pt 1): 11–20. PMID 10591621.
Tian XC, Kubota C, Enright B, Yang X (November 2003). "Cloning animals by somatic cell nuclear transfer—biological factors". Reprod. Biol. Endocrinol. 1 (1): 98. PMC 521203  . PMID 14614770. doi:10.1186/1477-7827-1-98.
Gurdon JB, Byrne JA, Simonsson S (September 2003). "Nuclear reprogramming and stem cell creation". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 100. Suppl 1 (90001): 11819–22. PMC 304092  . PMID 12920185. doi:10.1073/pnas.1834207100.
External links[edit]
Research Cloning: Medical and scientific, legal and ethical aspects
The Basics: Stem Cells and Public Policy The Century Foundation, June 2005
"Research Cloning Basic Science", Center for Genetics and Society, (Last modified October 4, 2004, retrieved October 6, 2006)
Cloning: present uses and promises National Institutes of Health, Paper giving background information on cloning in general and SCNT from The Office of Science Policy Analysis.
Nuclear Transfer – Stem Cells or Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT) The International Society for Stem Cell Research
The Hinxton Group: An International Consortium on Stem Cells, Ethics & Law
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somatic_cell_nuclear_transfer&oldid=806184232"
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