text:
List of territorial entities where English is an official language
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Nations in which English is an official language (de facto or de jure). Anglosphere countries are those where English is the main native language.
Anglosphere
Official as majority language
Official as minority language
Co-official as majority language
Co-official as minority language
Unofficial[clarification needed]
Not official as majority language
Not official as minority language
All areas of the world that were ever part of the British Empire. Current British Overseas Territories have their names underlined in red.
The following is a list of territories where English is an official language, that is, a language used in citizen interactions with government officials. In 2015, there were 54 sovereign states and 27 non-sovereign entities where English was an official language. Many country subdivisions have declared English an official language at the local or regional level.
The majority of states where English is an official language are former territories of the British Empire. Notable exceptions include Rwanda, which was formerly a Belgian territory, Cameroon, where only part of national territory were under British mandate, and Liberia, the Philippines, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau, which were under American rule. English is the sole official language of the Commonwealth of Nations and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. English is one of the official languages of the United Nations, the European Union, NAFTA, African Union, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Caribbean Community, Union of South American Nations and many other international organizations. Although English is de jure not an official language at the national level in the United States, most states and territories within the United States have English as an official language. Only Puerto Rico uses a language other than English as a primary working language.
The United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand, where the overwhelming majority of native English speakers reside, do not have English as an official language de jure, but English is considered to be their de facto official language due to its dominant position in these countries.
Contents
[hide]
1 Sovereign states
2 Non-sovereign entities
3 Country subdivisions
4 See also
5 Footnotes
6 References
Sovereign states[edit]
Countries where English is a de jure official language
Country
Region
Population1
Primary language?
Antigua and Barbuda[1] Caribbean 85,000 Yes
Bahamas[1] Caribbean 331,000 Yes
Barbados[2] Caribbean 294,000 Yes
Belize[3] Central America 288,000 Yes
Botswana[3] Africa 1,882,000 No
Burundi[4] Africa 10,114,505 No
Cameroon[1] Africa 22,534,532 No
Canada[1] North America 35,985,751 Yes
Cook Islands14[1] Oceania 20,000 Yes
Dominica[1] Caribbean 73,000 Yes
Federated States of Micronesia[1] Oceania 110,000 No
Fiji[1] Oceania 828,000 No
Gambia[1] Africa 1,709,000 No
Ghana[1] Africa 27,000,000 Yes (used as lingua franca)
Grenada[1] Caribbean 106,000 Yes
Guyana[5] South America 738,000 Yes
India[3][6] Asia 1,247,540,000 No (but official and educational)
Ireland[7][8] Europe 4,581,000 Yes (Irish is first official language)
Jamaica[9] Caribbean 2,714,000 Yes
Kenya[1] Africa 45,010,056 Yes (used in business and education)
Kiribati[1] Oceania 95,000 No
Lesotho[1] Africa 2,008,000 No
Liberia[1] Africa 3,750,000 No (Majority of people speaks English)
Malawi[10] Africa 16,407,000 No
Malta[1] Europe 430,000 No (but official and educational)
Marshall Islands[1] Oceania 59,000 No
Mauritius[1] Africa / Indian Ocean 1,262,000 No
Namibia[1] Africa 2,074,000 No (used as lingua franca)
Nauru[11] Oceania 10,000 No
Nigeria[1][12] Africa 182,202,000 Yes (used as lingua franca)
Niue14[1] Oceania 1,600 No
Pakistan[1] Asia 199,085,847 No (but official and educational)
Palau[3] Oceania 20,000 No
Papua New Guinea[13][14] Oceania 7,059,653 No
Philippines[1][15] Asia 102,885,100 No (but official and educational)
Rwanda[1] Africa 11,262,564 No (but official and educational)
Saint Kitts and Nevis[16] Caribbean 50,000 Yes
Saint Lucia[1] Caribbean 165,000 Yes
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines[17] Caribbean 120,000 Yes
Samoa[18] Oceania 188,000 No
Seychelles[1] Africa / Indian Ocean 87,000 No
Sierra Leone[1] Africa 6,190,280 Yes
Singapore[19] Asia 5,469,700[20] No (but official and educational)
Solomon Islands[1] Oceania 507,000 No
South Africa[21] Africa 54,956,900 No (but official, educated and
lingua franca in formal economy )
South Sudan[22] Africa 12,340,000 No
Sudan[1] Africa 40,235,000 No
Swaziland[1] Africa 1,141,000 No
Tanzania[1] Africa 51,820,000 No
Tonga[23] Oceania 100,000 No
Trinidad and Tobago[1] Caribbean 1,333,000 Yes
Tuvalu[3] Oceania 11,000 No
Uganda[1] Africa 37,873,253 No (official and educated)[24]
Vanuatu[25] Oceania 226,000 No
Zambia[1] Africa 16,212,000 No
Zimbabwe[1] Africa 13,061,239 No (used as lingua franca)
Countries where English is a de facto official language
Country
Region
Population
Primary language?
Australia Oceania 23,520,000 Yes
New Zealand[26] Oceania 4,294,000 Yes
United Kingdom Europe 63,705,000 Yes
United States North America 318,224,000 Yes
Countries where English is a de facto official, but not primary language
Country
Region
Population1
Bahrain[27][28] Asia / Middle East 1,378,000
Bangladesh[29] Asia 150,039,000
Brunei[30][31] Asia 415,717
Cyprus[32] Europe 1,141,166
Eritrea[1] Africa 6,234,000
Ethiopia[1] Africa 85,000,000
Israel[33][34][35] Asia / Middle East 8,051,200
Jordan[36] Asia / Middle East 9,882,401
Kuwait[37] Asia / Middle East 4,348,395
Malaysia[38] Asia 30,018,242
Maldives[39] Asia 427,756
Myanmar Asia 51,486,253
Qatar[40] Asia / Middle East 2,675,522
Sri Lanka[41][42] Asia 20,277,597
United Arab Emirates[43] Asia / Middle East 5,779,760
Non-sovereign entities[edit]
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de jure official language
Entity
Region
Population1
Akrotiri and Dhekelia Europe 15,700
American Samoa11 Oceania 67,700
Anguilla[1] Caribbean 13,101
Bermuda9[1] North America 65,000
British Virgin Islands[1] Caribbean 23,000
Cayman Islands[3] Caribbean 47,000
Curacao[44] Caribbean 150,563
Falkland Islands South Atlantic 3,000
Gibraltar[1] Europe 29,257
Guam4 Oceania 173,000
Hong Kong2[1] Asia 7,097,600
Isle of Man8 Europe 80,058
Jersey6[1] Europe 89,300
Norfolk Island[1] Australia 1,828
Northern Mariana Islands7 Oceania 53,883
Pitcairn Islands13[1] Oceania 50
Puerto Rico3 Caribbean 3,991,000
Sint Maarten[45] Caribbean 40,900
Turks and Caicos Islands[1] Caribbean 26,000
U.S. Virgin Islands5 Caribbean 111,000
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de facto official language
Entity
Region
Population1
British Indian Ocean Territory Indian Ocean 3,000
Guernsey10 Europe 61,811
Montserrat[1] Caribbean 5,900
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha[3] South Atlantic 5,660
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de facto official, but not primary, language
Entity
Region
Population1
Christmas Island12[1] Australia 1,508
Cocos (Keeling) Islands[1] Australia 596
Tokelau[46] Oceania 1,400
Country subdivisions[edit]
In these country subdivisions, English has de jure official status, but English is not official in their respective countries at the national level.
Country subdivisions where English is a de jure official language
Subdivision
Country
Region
Population
Alabama[47] United States North America 4,833,722
Alaska[48] United States North America 735,132
Arizona[49] United States North America 6,626,624
Arkansas[47] United States North America 2,959,373
California[47] United States North America 38,332,521
Colorado[47] United States North America 5,268,367
Florida[47] United States North America 19,552,860
Georgia[47] United States North America 9,992,167
Hawaii[47] United States Oceania 1,404,054
Idaho[47] United States North America 1,612,136
Illinois[47] United States North America 12,882,135
Indiana[47] United States North America 6,570,902
Iowa[47] United States North America 3,090,416
Kansas[47] United States North America 2,893,957
Kentucky[47] United States North America 4,395,295
Louisiana[50] United States North America 4,670,724
Massachusetts[50] United States North America 6,794,422
Mississippi[47] United States North America 2,991,207
Missouri[47] United States North America 6,083,672
Montana[47] United States North America 1,015,165
Nebraska[47] United States North America 1,868,516
New Hampshire[47] United States North America 1,323,459
North Carolina[47] United States North America 9,848,060
North Dakota[47] United States North America 723,393
Northern Ireland United Kingdom Europe
Oklahoma[51] United States North America 3,850,568
Saba[52] Netherlands Caribbean 1,991
San Andrés y Providencia[53] Colombia South America 75,167
Sarawak[54][55][56] Malaysia Asia 2,471,140
Scotland[57] United Kingdom Europe 5,313,600
Sint Eustatius[52] Netherlands Caribbean 3,897
South Carolina[47] United States North America 4,774,839
South Dakota[47] United States North America 844,877
Tennessee[47] United States North America 6,495,978
Texas[47] United States North America 27,469,114
Utah[47] United States North America 2,900,872
Virginia[47] United States North America 8,260,405
Wales[58] United Kingdom Europe 3,063,456
West Virginia[59] United States North America 1,844,128
Wyoming[47] United States North America 582,658
See also[edit]
Commonwealth realms portal
British Empire portal
Anglo-America
Commonwealth of Nations
British Overseas Territories
English-speaking world
List of countries by English-speaking population
British Empire
Footnotes[edit]
^1 The population figures are based on the sources in List of countries by population, with information as of 23 January 2009 (UN estimates, et al.), and refer to the population of the country and not necessarily to the number of inhabitants that speak English in the country in question.
^2 Hong Kong is a former British Crown colony (1843-1981) and British Dependent Territory (1981-1997); it is currently a Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (1997- present)
^3 Puerto Rico is, historically and culturally, connected to the Spanish-speaking Caribbean; Spanish is also an official language on the island. Puerto Rico is an unincorporated United States territory referred to as a "Commonwealth"
^4 Guam is an organized unincorporated territory of the United States
^5 The US Virgin Islands is an insular area of the United States
^6 Jersey is a British Crown dependency
^7 The Northern Mariana Islands is a commonwealth in political union with the United States
^8 Isle of Man is a British Crown dependency
^9 Bermuda is a British Overseas Territory
^10 Guernsey is a British Crown dependency
^11 American Samoa is an unincorporated U.S. territory
^12 Christmas Island is an external territory of Australia
^13 Pitcairn Islands is a British Overseas Territory
^14 The Cook Islands and Niue are associated states of New Zealand that lack general recognition.
^15 Somaliland is a de facto state, recognized internationally as an autonomous region of Somalia.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw Official language; "Field Listing - Languages". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2009-01-11.
Jump up ^ "Society". Government Information Service (Barbados). Archived from the original on 2009-02-13. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g English usage; "Field Listing - Languages". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2009-01-11.
Jump up ^ "English is now official language of Burundi". IWACU English News. 17 July 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "National Profile". Government Information Agency (Guyana). Archived from the original on 2008-08-20. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
Jump up ^ N. Krishnaswamy; Lalitha Krishnaswamy (6 January 2006). "3.14 English Becomes a Second Language". The story of English in India. Foundation Books. ISBN 978-81-7596-312-2.
Jump up ^ The Constitution
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-01-06. Retrieved 2013-01-02.
Jump up ^ The Constitution of Jamaica (section 20(6e) ? implicit)
Jump up ^ Malawi Investment Promotion Agency (August 2005). "Opportunities for investment and Trade in Malawi ? the Warm Heart of Africa". Government of Malawi. Archived from the original on 2009-02-25. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
Jump up ^ "Nauru". New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. 2008-12-03. Retrieved 2009-01-18. English and Nauruan are official.
Jump up ^ "Country profile: Nigeria". BBC News. April 30, 2008. Retrieved November 10, 2008.
Jump up ^ "General Information on Papua New Guinea". Papua New Guinea Tourism Promotion Authority. Archived from the original on January 31, 2009. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
Jump up ^ "Country profile: Papua New Guinea". BBC News. 2008-11-28.
Jump up ^ "Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines, Article XIV". Chanrobles Law Library. 1987. Retrieved October 27, 2007. (See Article XIV, Section 7)
Jump up ^ "Primary Schools". Government of St Christopher (St Kitts) and Nevis. Archived from the original on 2009-01-03. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
Jump up ^ "St. Vincent and the Grenadines Profile". Agency for Public Information (Saint Vincent and the Grenadines). Archived from the original on 2010-11-12. Retrieved 2011-06-18.
Jump up ^ "Legislations: List of Acts and Ordinances". The Parliament of Samoa. Archived from the original on October 1, 2006. Retrieved 2009-01-18. Languages for official legislation are Samoan and English.
Jump up ^ Wong, Aline (2000-11-24). "Education in a Multicultural Setting - The Singapore Experience". Ministry of Education, Government of Singapore. Archived from the original on 2008-05-04. Retrieved 2009-01-18. There are four official languages: English, Chinese, Malay and Tamil.
Jump up ^ "Statistics Singapore - Latest Data - Population (Mid-Year Estimates)". Statistics Singapore. June 2014. Archived from the original on 5 November 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
Jump up ^ "Constitution of the Republic of South Africa". Constitutional Court of South Africa. Archived from the original on 2009-01-16. Retrieved 2009-01-11.
Jump up ^ "The Constitution of Southern Sudan". Southern Sudan Civil Society Initiative. Retrieved 2011-07-09.
Jump up ^ Kingdom of Tonga (March 2008). "The United Nations / Universal Periodic Review by the United Nations Human Rights Council". Archived from the original on January 25, 2009. Retrieved 2009-01-18. English and Tongan are listed as official.
Jump up ^ "East Africa Living Encyclopedia". The University of Pennsylvania African Studies Center.
Jump up ^ "Constitution of the Republic of Vanuatu". Government of the Republic of Vanuatu. 1980. Archived from the original on 2009-01-24. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
Jump up ^ New Zealand Government (21 December 2007). International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Fifth Periodic Report of the Government of New Zealand (PDF) (Report). p. 89. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 January 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2015. In addition to the M?ori language, New Zealand Sign Language is also an official language of New Zealand. The New Zealand Sign Language Act 2006 permits the use of NZSL in legal proceedings, facilitates competency standards for its interpretation and guides government departments in its promotion and use. English, the medium for teaching and learning in most schools, is a de facto official language by virtue of its widespread use. For these reasons, these three languages have special mention in the New Zealand Curriculum.
Jump up ^ "Bahrain: Languages". Britannica Online. Retrieved June 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Living in Bahrain". BSB. Archived from the original on June 24, 2012. Retrieved June 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ "[T]eaching of English continued in primary, secondary and tertiary level not because it was the official language but it became thelanguage of trade and commerce. Over the years, the prominence of English continued to rise. ... English language is dominantly present in every side of our national life while on the other hand in our constitution it is clearly declared that the language of the country is Bengali. In fact, nothing is said about the status of English language in our constitution. On one hand, economic activities in the private companies are carried out in English while there is a government law (Bengali procholon ain1987) that government offices must use Bengali in their official works. So from the government point of view Bengali is the national-official language of Bangladesh and English is the most important foreign language. But in reality English is the second language of the country and in many places English is more important than Bengali in Bangladesh." https://www.scribd.com/doc/53272796/Sucess-of-English-language-in-Bangladesh-rec
Jump up ^ English is a "Statutory national working language." Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2013. "Brunei." Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online edition: https://www.ethnologue.com/country/BN Accessed 30 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Under the constitution of 1959, Malay is the official language of Brunei; but English may be used "for all official purposes." Laws are written in English and Malay, with the English version being the authoritative one. "Laws of Brunei: Revised Edition. Section 82" (PDF). 1984. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Ammon, Ulrich; Dittmar, Norbert; Mattheier, Klaus J.; Trudgill, Peter, eds. (2006). "Greece and Cyprus". Sociolinguistics: an international handbook of the science of language and society / Soziolinguistik: ein internationales Handbuch zur Wissenschaft von Sprache und Gesellschaft. Handbooks of linguistics and communication science / Handbucher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft. 3 (2nd ed.). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1881?1889.
Jump up ^ Spolsky, Bernard (1999). Round Table on Language and Linguistics. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. pp. 169?70. ISBN 0-87840-132-6. In 1948, the newly independent state of Israel took over the old British regulations that had set English, Arabic, and Hebrew as official languages for Mandatory Palestine but, as mentioned, dropped English from the list. In spite of this, official language use has maintained a de facto role for English, after Hebrew but before Arabic.
Jump up ^ Bat-Zeev Shyldkrot, Hava (2004). "Part I: Language and Discourse". In Diskin Ravid, Dorit; Bat-Zeev Shyldkrot, Hava. Perspectives on Language and Development: Essays in Honor of Ruth A. Berman. Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 90. ISBN 1-4020-7911-7. English is not considered official but it plays a dominant role in the educational and public life of Israeli society. ... It is the language most widely used in commerce, business, formal papers, academia, and public interactions, public signs, road directions, names of buildings, etc. English behaves 'as if' it were the second and official language in Israel.
Jump up ^ Shohamy, Elana (2006). Language Policy: Hidden Agendas and New Approaches. Routledge. pp. 72?73. ISBN 0-415-32864-0. In terms of English, there is no connection between the declared policies and statements and de facto practices. While English is not declared anywhere as an official language, the reality is that it has a very high and unique status in Israel. It is the main language of the academy, commerce, business, and the public space.
Jump up ^ " English, though without official status, is widely spoken throughout the country and is the de facto language of commerce and banking, as well as a co-official status in the education sector; almost all university-level classes are held in English and almost all public schools teach English along with Standard Arabic." de Gruyter, Walter (2006). Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society. Ulrich Ammon. p. 1921. ISBN 9783110184181. Retrieved June 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ " English is widely spoken. It is used in business and is a compulsory second language in schools." "Kuwait Guide". Commisceo Global. Retrieved June 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ "English remains an active second language, and serves as the medium of instruction for maths and sciences in all public schools. Malaysian English, also known as Malaysian Standard English, is a form of English derived from British English. Malaysian English is widely used in business, along with Manglish, which is a colloquial form of English with heavy Malay, Chinese, and Tamil influences. The government discourages the misuse of Malay and has instituted fines for public signs that mix Malay and English." "About Malaysia:Language". My Government: The Government of Malaysia's Official Portal. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Other languages spoken in Maldives include English, which is also recognized as the second main language. Initially, Dhivehi was used as the medium of teaching in schools, but the need to promote higher education led to the conversion of syllabus in English. Now, English is widely spoken by the locals of Maldives." "Maldives Languages". Retrieved Feb 2, 2017.
Jump up ^ Baker, Colin; Jones, Sylvia Prys (1998). Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education. Multilingual Matters. p. 429. ISBN 978-1853593628.
Jump up ^ English is a "De facto national working language, used in government." Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2013. "Sri Lanka." Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online edition: https://www.ethnologue.com/country/LK Accessed 30 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Under the constitution of 1978, Sinhala and Tamil are the official languages of Sri Lanka, but English is "the link language." Any person is entitled "to receive communications from, and to communicate and transact business with, any official in his official capacity" in English, to receive an English translation of "any official register, record, publication or other document," and "to communicate and transact business in English." English translations must be made for "all laws and subordinate legislation," "all Orders, Proclamations, rules, by-laws, regulations and notifications." "THE CONSTITUTION OF THE DEMOCRATIC SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF SRI LANKA: Chapter IV". 1978. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Hanani, Fatiha (December 2009). Impact of English on Young Arabs' Use of Arabic in the UAE (Master of Arts thesis). American University of Sharjah.
Jump up ^ "LANDSVERORDENING van de 28ste maart 2007 houdende vaststelling van de officiele talen (Landsverordening officiele talen)" (in Dutch). Government of the Netherlands. Retrieved 21 August 2013.
Jump up ^ According to Art. 1 para 2. Constitution of Sint Maarten Archived 2013-03-03 at WebCite: "The official languages are Dutch and English"
Jump up ^ "Associated Countries and External Territories: Tokelau". Commonwealth Secretariat. Archived from the original on 24 March 2014. Retrieved 20 March 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa Crawford, James (June 24, 2008). "Language Legislation in the U.S.A." languagepolicy.net. Retrieved April 27, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Alaska Supreme Court Upholds State's Official English Law". Business Wire. November 5, 2007. Retrieved April 28, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Arizona makes English official". Washington Times. November 8, 2006. Retrieved April 28, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-03-20. Retrieved 2016-03-18.
Jump up ^ Slipke, Darla (November 3, 2010). "Oklahoma elections: Republican-backed measures win approval". NewsOK. The Oklahoman. Retrieved April 28, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b English can be used in relations with the government
"Invoeringswet openbare lichamen Bonaire, Sint Eustatius en Saba" (in Dutch). wetten.nl. Retrieved 2012-10-14.
Jump up ^ "Consulta de la Norma:". alcaldiabogota.gov.co.
Jump up ^ "Sarawak makes English official language along with BM". themalaymailonline.com.
Jump up ^ "Sarawak to recognise English as official language besides Bahasa Malaysia". BorneoPost Online - Borneo, Malaysia, Sarawak Daily News. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05.
Jump up ^ "Sarawak adopts English as official language". thesundaily.my.
Jump up ^ Scottish Government. "Scottish Facts and Information". Scotland.org. Retrieved March 19, 2014.
Jump up ^ National Assembly for Wales (2012). "National Assembly for Wales (Official Languages) Act 2012". Legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved March 19, 2014.
Jump up ^ "West Virginia is the 32nd State to pass Official English". Pro English. March 5, 2016. Retrieved March 28, 2017.
[show]
v
t
e
Countries and languages lists
[hide]
Countries
By languages
Spoken
Countries by spoken languages
Official
Countries by the number of recognized official languages
Arabic
Chinese
Dutch/Afrikaans
English
French
German
Malay
Portuguese
Romanian
Russian
Spanish
Tamil
Endonyms
Countries and capitals in native languages
Exonyms
Country names in various languages
A–C
D–I
J–P
Q–Z
Languages of the European Union
[hide]
Languages
By continent
Africa
Americas
North
South
Asia
East
South
Europe
Oceania
By country
Official languages
by state
List of languages without official status
Countries by the number of recognized official languages
Languages by the number of countries in which they are recognized as an official language
By population
By number of native speakers
By number of total speakers
Languages in censuses
By family
Language families
Language-based
geopolitical
organizations
Arab League (Arabic)
Dutch Language Union (Dutch)
English Speaking Union
Francophonie (French)
Community of Portuguese Language Countries (Portuguese)
Países Africanos de Língua Oficial Portuguesa (Portuguese)
Latin Union (Romance)
Hispanidad (Spanish)
Turkic Council (Turkic)
International Organization of Turkic Culture (Turkic)
See also
Lists of languages
Category:Languages
[show]
v
t
e
English-speaking world
Click on a coloured area to see an article about English in that country or region
[show]
Further links
Articles
English-speaking world
History of the English language
British Empire
English in the Commonwealth of Nations
Anglosphere
Lists
List of countries by English-speaking population
List of countries where English is an official language
Countries and territories where English is the national language or the native language of the majority
Africa
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
Americas
Anguilla
Antigua and Barbuda
The Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
Bermuda
British Virgin Islands
Canada
Cayman Islands
Dominica
Falkland Islands
Grenada
Guyana
Jamaica
Montserrat
Saba
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Sint Eustatius
Sint Maarten
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Trinidad and Tobago
Turks and Caicos Islands
United States
United States Virgin Islands
Europe
Guernsey
Ireland
Isle of Man
Jersey
United Kingdom
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
Norfolk Island
Pitcairn Islands
Countries and territories where English is an official language, but not the majority first language
Africa
Botswana
Cameroon
The Gambia
Ghana
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Malawi
Mauritius
Namibia
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sierra Leone
Somaliland
South Africa
South Sudan
Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Americas
Puerto Rico
Asia
Christmas Island
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
India
Pakistan
Philippines
Singapore
Europe
Gibraltar
Akrotiri and Dhekelia
Malta
Oceania
American Samoa
Cook Islands
Fiji
Guam
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Micronesia
Nauru
Niue
Northern Mariana Islands
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tokelau
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
Dependencies shown in italics.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_territorial_entities_where_English_is_an_official_language&oldid=837571954"
Categories:
English language
Lists of administrative territorial entities by language
English as a global language
English as official language
Hidden categories:
CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl)
Webarchive template webcite links
Wikipedia articles needing clarification from June 2017
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Español
فارسی
Français
Gagauz
한국어
Bahasa Indonesia
ქართული
Latviešu
مصرى
Bahasa Melayu
Nederlands
日本語
Português
Română
Русский
Simple English
தமிழ்
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
中文
13 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 April 2018, at 17:51.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

value: mw-page-base noprint

value: mw-head-base noprint

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attr: href class

tag: span

attr: class style

value: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #00d921; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

value: -webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column

value: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #088a4b; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

value: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #16c46d; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

value: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #045fb4; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

value: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #5599ff; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

value: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #f1ff59; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

value: The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (June 2017)

value:
noprint Inline-Template
margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;

value: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ffc34a; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

value: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ffffff; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

value:
/wiki/The_United_Nations
mw-redirect
The United Nations

value:
headerSort
0
columnheader button
Sort ascending

value:
/wiki/Formal_economy
mw-redirect
Formal economy

value:
/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population
mw-redirect
List of countries by population

value: Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha

value: Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina

value: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

value: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

value: List of countries by English-speaking population

value:
/wiki/British_Overseas_Territory
mw-redirect
British Overseas Territory

value: Commonwealth (United States insular area)

value:
/wiki/Crown_dependency
mw-redirect
Crown dependency

value:
/wiki/Associated_states
mw-redirect
Associated states

value:
nofollow
external text
http://www.barbados.gov.bb/society.htm

value:
nofollow
external free
https://www.ethnologue.com/country/BN

value:
nofollow
external free
https://www.ethnologue.com/country/LK

value:
nofollow
external text
http://newsok.com/article/3510853

value:
nofollow
external text
http://www.thesundaily.my/news/1615945

value: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

value: Template talk:Countries and languages lists

value: List of countries by the number of recognized official languages

value: List of countries where Arabic is an official language

value: List of territorial entities where Chinese is an official language

value: List of territorial entities where Afrikaans and Dutch are official languages

value: List of countries where French is an official language

value: List of countries where German is an official language

value: List of territorial entities where Malay is an official language

value: List of territorial entities where Portuguese is an official language

value: List of countries where Romanian is an official language

value: List of countries where Russian is an official language

value: List of countries where Spanish is an official language

value: List of territorial entities where Tamil is an official language

value: List of countries and dependencies and their capitals in native languages

value: List of country names in various languages

value: List of country names in various languages (A–C)

value: List of country names in various languages (D–I)

value: List of country names in various languages (J–P)

value: List of country names in various languages (Q–Z)

value: nowraplinks collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup

value: List of languages without official status

value: List of languages by the number of countries in which they are recognized as an official language

value: List of languages by number of native speakers

value: List of languages by total number of speakers

value:
/wiki/English_Speaking_Union
mw-redirect
English Speaking Union

value: Organisation internationale de la Francophonie

value: Community of Portuguese Language Countries

value: International Organization of Turkic Culture

value: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value: Template:English official language clickable map

value: Template talk:English official language clickable map

value: /wiki/Mauritius#Language circle 357,205,16 Mauritius#Language Mauritius#Language

value: /wiki/Rwanda#Demographics poly 299,161,307,166,303,171,296,168 Rwanda#Demographics Rwanda#Demographics

value: /wiki/Palau#Demographics circle 494,151,7 Palau#Demographics Palau#Demographics

value: Federated States of Micronesia#Languages

value: Demographics of the Cayman Islands#Languages

value: Demographics of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha

value: English of the Windward Islands and Leeward Islands

attr: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height usemap

value:
/wiki/History_of_the_English_language
mw-redirect
History of the English language

value: List of countries where English is an official language

value: South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

value: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup

value: Category:Lists of administrative territorial entities by language

value: Category:CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl)

value: Category:Webarchive template webcite links

value: Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from June 2017

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

value:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

value: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

value: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

value:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

value:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

value:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Find background information on current events

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: قائمة الدول المتخذة الإنجليزية لغة رسمية – Arabic

value: Anexo:Países donde el inglés es el idioma oficial – Spanish

value: فهرست سرزمین‌هایی که انگلیسی در آنها زبان رسمی است – Persian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

value: Liste des pays ayant l'anglais pour langue officielle – French

value: İngiliz dilinin ofițial dil olduu devletler listasi – Gagauz

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gag
display: none;

value: 영어를 공용어로 사용하는 나라별 영어 사용자 수 – Korean

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

value: Daftar negara yang menuturkan bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa resmi – Indonesian

value: ქვეყნების და ტერიტორიების სია, სადაც ინგლისური ოფიციალური ენაა – Georgian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

value: Valstis ar oficiālo angļu valodu – Latvian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

value: الدول الناطقه بالانجليزيه كلغه رسميه – Egyptian Arabic

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-arz
display: none;

value: Senarai negara-negara di mana bahasa Inggeris adalah bahasa rasmi – Malay

value: Lijst van landen waar Engels een officiële taal is – Dutch

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

value: 英語を公用語としている国の一覧 – Japanese

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

value: Lista de países onde o inglês é a língua oficial – Portuguese

value: Listă de țări în care engleza este limbă oficială – Romanian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

value: Список стран, где английский является официальным языком – Russian

value: English as an official language – Simple English

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

value: ஆங்கிலத்தை ஆட்சி மொழியாகக் கொண்ட நாடுகளின் பட்டியல் – Tamil

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

value: İngilizcenin resmî dil olduğu ülkelerin listesi – Turkish

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

value: Список англомовних країн та регіонів – Ukrainian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

value: فہرست ممالک انگریزی بطور سرکاری زبان – Urdu

value: 英语国家和地区列表 – Chinese

value: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-List_of_territorial_entities_where_English_is_an_official_language rootpage-List_of_territorial_entities_where_English_is_an_official_language skin-vector action-view


text:
The Wealth of Nations
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (August 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Wealth of Nations
Author
Adam Smith
Country
Scotland
Language
English
Genre
Economics, Philosophy
Publisher
W. Strahan and T. Cadell, London
Publication date
1776
An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, generally referred to by its shortened title The Wealth of Nations, is the magnum opus of the Scottish economist and moral philosopher Adam Smith. First published in 1776, the book offers one of the world's first collected descriptions of what builds nations' wealth, and is today a fundamental work in classical economics. By reflecting upon the economics at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the book touches upon such broad topics as the division of labour, productivity, and free markets.
It is the second most cited book in the social sciences published before 1950, behind Karl Marx's Capital.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Summary of Wealth of Nations
2 History
2.1 Publishing history
3 Reception and impact
3.1 United States
4 Modern evaluations
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Summary of Wealth of Nations[edit]
An important theme that persists throughout the work is the idea that the economic system is automatic, and, when left with substantial freedom, able to regulate itself. This is often referred to as the "invisible hand." The ability to self-regulate and to ensure maximum efficiency, however, is limited by externalities, monopolies, tax preferences, lobbying groups, and other "privileges" extended to certain members of the economy at the expense of others.[2]
History[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Wealth of Nations was published 9 March 1776, during the Scottish Enlightenment and the Scottish Agricultural Revolution.[3] It influenced a number of authors and economists, as well as governments and organisations. For example, Alexander Hamilton was influenced in part by The Wealth of Nations to write his Report on Manufactures, in which he argued against many of Smith's policies. Interestingly, Hamilton based much of this report on the ideas of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, and it was, in part, Colbert's ideas that Smith responded to with The Wealth of Nations.
The Wealth of Nations was the product of seventeen years of notes, an observation of conversation among economists of the time concerning economic and societal conditions during the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, and took Smith ten years to produce. The result, An Inquiry to the Wealth of Nations, was a treatise which sought to offer a practical application for reformed economic theory to replace the mercantilist and physiocratic economic theories that were becoming less relevant in the time of industrial progress and innovation. It provided the foundation for new economists, politicians, mathematicians, biologists, and thinkers of all fields to build upon. Irrespective of historical influence, The Wealth of Nations represented a clear shift in the field of economics, comparable to Sir Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica for physics, Antoine Lavoisier's Traité Élémentaire de Chimie for chemistry, or Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species for biology.
Publishing history[edit]
Bust of Smith in the Adam Smith Theatre, Kirkcaldy
Five editions of The Wealth of Nations were published during Smith's lifetime: in 1776, 1778,[4] 1784, 1786 and 1789.[5] Numerous editions appeared after Smith's death in 1790. To better understand the evolution of the work under Smith's hand, a team led by Edwin Cannan collated the first five editions. The differences were published along with an edited sixth edition in 1904.[6] They found minor but numerous differences (including the addition of many footnotes) between the first and the second editions, both of which were published in two volumes. The differences between the second and third editions, however, are major: In 1784, Smith annexed these first two editions with the publication of Additions and Corrections to the First and Second Editions of Dr. Adam Smith’s Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, and he also had published the three-volume third edition of the Wealth of Nations, which incorporated Additions and Corrections and, for the first time, an index. Among other things, the Additions and Corrections included entirely new sections. The fourth edition, published in 1786, had only slight differences from the third edition, and Smith himself says in the Advertisement at the beginning of the book, "I have made no alterations of any kind." Finally, Cannan notes only trivial differences between the fourth and fifth editions—a set of misprints being removed from the fourth and a different set of misprints being introduced.
Reception and impact[edit]
The first edition of the book sold out in six months.[7] The printer William Strahan wrote on 12 April 1776 that David Hume had said that The Wealth of Nations required too much thought to be as popular as Edward Gibbon's The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Strahan also wrote: "What you say of Mr. Gibbon's and Dr. Smith's book is exactly just. The former is the most popular work; but the sale of the latter, though not near so rapid, has been more than I could have expected from a work that requires much thought and reflection (qualities that do not abound among modern readers) to peruse to any purpose".[8] Gibbon wrote to Adam Ferguson on 1 April: "What an excellent work is that with which our common friend Mr. Adam Smith has enriched the public! An extensive science in a single book, and the most profound ideas expressed in the most perspicuous language".[9] The review of the book in the Annual Register was probably written by Whig MP Edmund Burke.[10]
Smith's biographer John Rae contends that The Wealth of Nations shaped government policy soon after it was published. In 1777 the Prime Minister, Lord North, in the first budget after the book was published, got the idea for two new taxes from the book: one on man-servants and the other on property sold at auction. The budget of 1778 introduced the inhabited house duty and the malt tax, both recommended by Smith. In 1779 Smith was consulted by politicians Henry Dundas and Lord Carlisle on the subject of giving Ireland free trade.[11]
The Wealth of Nations was first mentioned in Parliament by the Whig leader Charles James Fox on 11 November 1783: "There was a maxim laid down in an excellent book upon the Wealth of Nations which had been ridiculed for its simplicity, but which was indisputable as to its truth. In that book it was stated that the only way to become rich was to manage matters so as to make one's income exceed one's expenses. This maxim applied equally to an individual and to a nation. The proper line of conduct therefore was by a well-directed economy to retrench every current expense, and to make as large a saving during the peace as possible".[12] However Fox once told Charles Butler sometime after 1785 that he had never read the book and that "There is something in all these subjects which passes my comprehension; something so wide that I could never embrace them myself nor find any one who did".[13] In 1796 when Fox was dining with Lord Lauderdale, Lauderdale remarked that they knew nothing of political economy before Adam Smith wrote. "Pooh," replied Fox, "your Adam Smiths are nothing, but" (he added, turning to the company) "that is his love; we must spare him there". Lauderdale replied: "I think he is everything", to which Fox rejoined: "That is a great proof of your affection".[13] Fox also found Adam Smith "tedious" and believed that one half of The Wealth of Nations could be "omitted with much benefit to the subject".[14]
In an editorial of The Times on 3 August 1787, it was stated: "It is astonishing to consider, how few merchants are acquainted with Smith's Wealth of Nations, or Anderson's History of Commerce, which are certainly books that should be perused by every man who makes trade his pursuit".[15]
The Wealth of Nations was next mentioned in Parliament by Robert Thornton MP in 1787 to support the Commercial Treaty with France. In the same year George Dempster MP referenced it in the debate on the proposal to farm the post-horse duties and in 1788 by a Mr. Hussy on the Wool Exportation Bill.[12] In 1791 the English radical Thomas Paine wrote in his Rights of Man that "Had Mr. Burke possessed talents similar to the author ‘On the Wealth of Nations,’ he would have comprehended all the parts which enter into, and, by assemblage, form a constitution".[16] The Prime Minister, William Pitt, praised Smith in the House of Commons on 17 February 1792: "…an author of our own times now unfortunately no more (I mean the author of a celebrated treatise on the Wealth of Nations), whose extensive knowledge of detail, and depth of philosophical research will, I believe, furnish the best solution to every question connected with the history of commerce, or with the systems of political economy".[17] In the same year it was quoted by Samuel Whitbread MP and Fox (on the division of labour) in the debate on the armament against Russia and also by William Wilberforce in introducing his Bill against the slave trade. It was not mentioned in the House of Lords until 1793, by Lord Lansdowne and Lord Loughborough. Lansdowne said: "With respect to French principles, as they had been denominated, those principles had been exported from us to France, and could not be said to have originated among the population of the latter country. The new principles of government founded on the abolition of the old feudal system were originally propagated among us by the Dean of Gloucester, Mr. Tucker, and had since been more generally inculcated by Dr. Smith in his work on the Wealth of Nations, which had been recommended as a book necessary for the information of youth by Mr. Dugald Stewart in his Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind". Loughborough replied that "in the works of Dean Tucker, Adam Smith, and Mr. Stewart, to which allusion had been made, no doctrines inimical to the principles of civil government, the morals or religion of mankind, were contained, and therefore to trace the errors of the French to these causes was manifestly fallacious".[18] On 16 May 1797 Pitt said in the debate on the suspension of cash payments by the Bank of England that Smith was "that great author" but his arguments "though always ingenious" were "sometimes injudicious".[19]
Sir John Mitford, the Solicitor-General, said on 22 December 1798 in speaking on cross-bills (a bill of exchange given in consideration of another bill) that Smith "in his Wealth of Nations, explains the nature and pernicious consequences of this practice with his usual perspicuity and philosophical accuracy".[20] On 5 December 1800 Lord Warwick said in a debate on the price of corn that:
There was hardly any kind of property on which the law did not impose some restraints and regulations with regard to the sale of them, except that of provisions. This was probably done on the principles laid down by a celebrated and able writer, Doctor Adam Smith, who had maintained that every thing ought to be left to its own level. He knew something of that Gentleman, whose heart he knew was as sound as his head; and he was sure that had he lived to this day and beheld the novel state of wretchedness to which the country was now reduced – a state, which as the like had never occurred before, could never have entered into his mind; that Great Man would have reason to blush for some of the doctrines he had laid down. He would now have abundant opportunities of observing that all those artificial means of enhancing the price of provisions, which he had considered as no way mischievous, were practised at this time to a most alarming extent. He would see the Farmer keeping up his produce while the poor were labouring under all the miseries of want, and he would see Forestallers, Regraters, and all kinds of Middle-men making large profits upon it.[21]
Lord Grenville replied that "he must remind him, that so far from there having been any difference in the state of the Country when that great man lived, and the present times, his book was first published at a period, previous to which there had been two or three seasons of great dearth and distress; and during those seasons there were speculators without number, who raised an unfounded and unjust clamour against Forestallers and Regraters, and who proposed that a certain price should be fixed on every article: but all their plans were wisely rejected, and the Treatise on the Wealth of Nations, which came forward soon after, pointed out in the clearest light how absurd and futile they must have been".[21]
In 1800 the Anti-Jacobin Review criticised The Wealth of Nations and Robert Southey in 1812 in the Quarterly Review condemned The Wealth of Nations as a "tedious and hard-hearted book".[22]
In 1803 The Times argued against war with Spain: "She is our best customer; and by the gentle and peaceable stream of commerce, the treasures of the new world flow with greater certainty into English reservoirs, than it could do by the most successful warfare. They come in this way to support our manufactures, to encourage industry, to feed our poor, to pay taxes, to reward ingenuity, to diffuse riches among all classes of people. But for the full understanding of this beneficial circulation of wealth, we must refer to Dr. Adam Smith's incomparable Treatise on the Wealth of Nations".[23] In 1810 a correspondent writing under the pseudonym of Publicola included at the head of his letter Smith's line that "Exclusive Companies are nuisances in every respect" and called him "that learned writer".[24] In 1821 The Times quoted Smith's opinion that the interests of corn dealers and the people were the same.[25]
In 1826 the English radical William Cobbett criticised in his Rural Rides the political economists' hostility to the Poor Law: "Well, amidst all this suffering, there is one good thing; the Scotch political economy is blown to the devil, and the Edinburgh Review and Adam Smith along with it".[26]
The Radical MP Richard Cobden as a young man studied The Wealth of Nations; his copy is still in the library of his home at Dunford House and there are lively marginal notes on the places where Smith condemns British colonial policy. There are none on the passage about the invisible hand.[27] Cobden campaigned for free trade in his agitation against the Corn Laws. On 13 October 1843 Cobden quoted (accurately) Smith's protest against the "plain violation of the most sacred property" of every man derived from his labour.[28] On 8 May 1844 he cited Smith's opposition to slave labour[29] and on 3 July 1844 claimed that Smith had been misrepresentated by protectionists as a monopolist.[30] On 8 October 1849 Cobden claimed that he had "gone through the length and breadth of this country, with Adam Smith in my hand, to advocate the principles of Free Trade." He also said he had tried "to popularise to the people of this country, and of the Continent, those arguments with which Adam Smith, David Hume, Ricardo, and every man who has written on this subject, have demonstrated the funding system to be injurious to mankind, and unjust in principle".[31] Cobden believed it to be morally wrong to lend money to be spent on war. When The Times claimed the political economists were against Cobden on this, Cobden wrote on 16 October 1849: "I can quote Adam Smith whose authority is without appeal now in intellectual circles, it gives one the basis of science upon which to raise appeals to the moral feelings".[32] When in 1850 the Russian government attempted to raise a loan, ostensibly for the construction of a railway from St. Petersburg to Moscow, but actually to cover the deficit brought about by its war against Hungary, Cobden said on 18 January: "I take my stand on one of the strongest grounds in stating that Adam Smith and other great authorities on political economy are opposed to the very principle of such loans".[33] In 1863, during Cobden's dispute with The Times over its claims that his fellow Radical John Bright wanted to divide the land of the rich amongst the poor, Cobden read to a friend the passage in the Wealth of Nations which criticised primogeniture and entail. Cobden said that if Bright had been as plain-speaking as Smith, "how he would have been branded as an incendiary and Socialist".[34] On 23 November 1864 Cobden proclaimed: "If I were five-and-twenty or thirty, instead of, unhappily, twice that number of years, I would take Adam Smith in hand—I would not go beyond him, I would have no politics in it – I would take Adam Smith in hand, and I would have a League for free trade in Land just as we had a League for free trade in Corn. You will find just the same authority in Adam Smith for the one as for the other; and if it were only taken up as it must be taken up to succeed, not as a political, revolutionary, Radical, Chartist notion, but taken up on politico-economic grounds, the agitation would be certain to succeed".[35]
The Liberal statesman William Ewart Gladstone chaired the meeting of the Political Economy Club to celebrate the centenary of the publication of The Wealth of Nations.[36]
The Liberal historian Lord Acton believed that The Wealth of Nations gave a "scientific backbone to liberal sentiment"[37] and that it was the "classic English philosophy of history".[38]
United States[edit]
James Madison, in a speech given in Congress on 2 February 1791, cited The Wealth of Nations in opposing a national bank: "The principal disadvantages consisted in, 1st. banishing the precious metals, by substituting another medium to perform their office: This effect was inevitable. It was admitted by the most enlightened patrons of banks, particularly by Smith on the Wealth of Nations".[39] Thomas Jefferson, writing to John Norvell on 14 June 1807, claimed that on "the subjects of money & commerce, Smith's Wealth of Nations is the best book to be read, unless Say's Political Economy can be had, which treats the same subject on the same principles, but in a shorter compass & more lucid manner".[40]
Modern evaluations[edit]
Bustling with work and activity, "The Wealth of the Nation" by Seymour Fogel is an interpretation of the theme of Social Security.
George Stigler attributes to Smith "the most important substantive proposition in all of economics" and foundation of resource-allocation theory. It is that, under competition, owners of resources (labour, land, and capital) will use them most profitably, resulting in an equal rate of return in equilibrium for all uses (adjusted for apparent differences arising from such factors as training, trust, hardship, and unemployment).[41] He also describes Smith's theorem that "the division of labour is limited by the extent of the market" as the "core of a theory of the functions of firm and industry" and a "fundamental principle of economic organisation."[42]
Paul Samuelson finds in Smith's pluralist use of supply and demand—as applied to wages, rents, and profit—a valid and valuable anticipation of the general equilibrium modelling of Walras a century later. Moreover, Smith's allowance for wage increases in the short and intermediate term from capital accumulation and invention added a realism missed later by Malthus, Ricardo, and Marx in their propounding a rigid subsistence-wage theory of labour supply.[43]
In noting the last words of the Wealth of Nations,
If any of the provinces of the British empire cannot be made to contribute towards the support of the whole empire, it is surely time that Great Britain should free herself from the expence of defending those provinces in time of war, and of supporting any part of their civil or military establishments in time of peace, and endeavour to accommodate her future views and designs to the real mediocrity of her circumstances.[44]
Ronald Coase suggests that if Smith's earlier proposal of granting colonies representation in the British parliament proportional to their contributions to public revenues had been followed, "there would have been no 1776, … America would now be ruling England, and we [in America] would be today celebrating Adam Smith not simply as the author of the Wealth of Nations, but hailing him as a founding father."[45]
Mark Blaug argues that it was Smith's achievement to shift the burden of proof against those maintaining that the pursuit of self-interest does not achieve social good. But he notes Smith's relevant attention to definite institutional arrangements and process as disciplining self-interest to widen the scope of the market, accumulate capital, and grow income.[46]
Economic anthropologist David Graeber argues that throughout antiquity, one can identify many different systems of credit and later monetary exchange, drawing evidence for his argument from historical and also ethnographical records, that the traditional explanation for the origins of monetary economies from primitive bartering systems, as laid out by Adam Smith, doesn't find empirical support.[47] The author argues that credit systems developed as means of account long before the advent of coinage around 600 BCE, and can still be seen operating in non-monetary economies. The idea of barter, on the other hand, seems only to apply to limited exchanges between societies that had infrequent contact and often in a context of ritualised warfare, rendering its conceptualisation among economists as a myth.[48] As an alternative explanation for the creation of economic life, the author suggests that it originally related to social currencies, closely related to non-market quotidian interactions among a community and based on the "everyday communism" that is based on mutual expectations and responsibilities among individuals. This type of economy is, then, contrasted with the moral foundations of exchange based on formal equality and reciprocity (but not necessarily leading to market relations) and hierarchy, based on clear inequalities that tend to crystallise in customs and castes.[48]
See also[edit]
The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759), Adam Smith's other major work
The National Gain, a pamphlet by Finnish–Swedish economist and politician Anders Chydenius which preceded The Wealth of Nations and which had similar ideas.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Green, Elliott (12 May 2016). "What are the most-cited publications in the social sciences (according to Google Scholar)?". LSE Impact Blog. London School of Economics.
Jump up ^ GradeSaver. "The Wealth of Nations Summary". www.gradesaver.com. Retrieved 2016-10-02.
Jump up ^ See Smith, Adam (1776). An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. 1 (1 ed.). London: W. Strahan. Retrieved 2012-12-07. , volume 2 via Google Books
Jump up ^ See Smith, Adam (1778). An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. 1 (2 ed.). London: W. Strahan; T.Cadell. Retrieved 10 March 2015. ; Smith, Adam (1778). An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. 2 (2 ed.). London: W. Strahan; T.Cadell. Retrieved 10 March 2015. via Google Books
Jump up ^ See Smith, Adam (1789). An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. 1 (5 ed.). London: A. Strahan; T.Cadell. Retrieved 9 March 2015. ; Smith, Adam (1789). An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. 2 (5 ed.). London: A. Strahan; T.Cadell. Retrieved 9 March 2015. ; Smith, Adam (1789). An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. 3 (5 ed.). London: A. Strahan; T.Cadell. Retrieved 9 March 2015. via Google Books
Jump up ^ An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, by Adam Smith. London: Methuen and Co., Ltd., ed. Edwin Cannan, 1904. Fifth edition.
Jump up ^ John Rae, Life of Adam Smith (London: Macmillan & Co., 1895), p. 285.
Jump up ^ Rae, pp. 285–86.
Jump up ^ Rae, p. 287.
Jump up ^ Rae, p. 286.
Jump up ^ Rae, p. 294.
^ Jump up to: a b Rae, p. 290.
^ Jump up to: a b Rae, p. 289.
Jump up ^ L. G. Mitchell, Charles James Fox (Penguin, 1997), p. 185.
Jump up ^ The Times (3 August 1787), p. 2.
Jump up ^ Thomas Paine, Rights of Man, Common Sense, and Other Political Writings (Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 126.
Jump up ^ John Ehrman, The Younger Pitt. The Years of Acclaim (London: Constable, 1969), p. 267, n. 1.
Jump up ^ Rae, p. 291.
Jump up ^ John Ehrman, The Younger Pitt. The Consuming Struggle (London: Constable, 1996), p. 12.
Jump up ^ The Times (24 December 1798), p. 4.
^ Jump up to: a b The Times (6 December 1800), p. 2.
Jump up ^ J. J. Sack, From Jacobite to Conservative. Reaction and orthodoxy in Britain, c. 1760–1832 (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 182.
Jump up ^ The Times (25 October 1803), p. 2.
Jump up ^ The Times (8 February 1810), p. 2.
Jump up ^ The Times (17 September 1821), p. 2.
Jump up ^ William Cobbett, Rural Rides (Penguin, 2001), p. 335.
Jump up ^ William D. Grampp, The Manchester School of Economics (London: Oxford University Press, 1960), p. 103.
Jump up ^ John Bright and J. E. Thorold Rogers (eds.), Speeches on Questions of Public Policy by Richard Cobden, M.P. Volume I (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1908), p. 45.
Jump up ^ Bright and Thorold Rogers, Volume I, p. 92.
Jump up ^ Bright and Thorold Rogers, Volume I, pp. 104–05.
Jump up ^ John Bright and J. E. Thorold Rogers (eds.), Speeches on Questions of Public Policy by Richard Cobden, M.P. Volume II (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1908), pp. 399–400.
Jump up ^ Wendy Hinde, Richard Cobden. A Victorian Outsider (Yale University Press, 1987), p. 204.
Jump up ^ Bright and Thorold Rogers, Volume II, p. 406.
Jump up ^ Donald Read, Cobden and Bright. A Victorian Political Partnership (Edward Arnold, 1967), p. 189.
Jump up ^ Bright and Thorold Rogers, Volume II, p. 493.
Jump up ^ H. C. G. Matthew, Gladstone. 1875–1898 (Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 20.
Jump up ^ G. E. Fasnacht, Acton's Political Philosophy. An Analysis (London: Hollis and Carter, 1952), p. 145.
Jump up ^ Fasnacht, p. 241.
Jump up ^ James Madison, Writings (The Library of America, 1999), p. 481.
Jump up ^ Thomas Jefferson, Writings (The Library of America, 1984), p. 1176.
Jump up ^ George J. Stigler (1976). "The Successes and Failures of Professor Smith," Journal of Political Economy, 84(6), p. 1202 (pp. 1199–1213). Also published as Selected Papers, No. 50 (PDF), Graduate School of Business, University of Chicago.
Jump up ^ George J. Stigler, 1951. "The Division of Labor Is Limited by the Extent of the Market." Journal of Political Economy, 59(3), pp. 185, 193. Reprinted in J.M. Buchanan and Y.J. Yoon, ed., 1994, The Return to Increasing Returns, pp. 47, 58.
Jump up ^ Paul A. Samuelson (1977). "A Modern Theorist's Vindication of Adam Smith," American Economic Review, 67(1), p. 42. Reprinted in J.C. Wood, ed., Adam Smith: Critical Assessments, pp. 498–509. Preview.
Jump up ^ Smith (1776). Bk. V: Of the Revenue of the Sovereign or Commonwealth, ch. 3 Of Public Debts, para. 92.
Jump up ^ R. H. Coase (1977). "The Wealth of Nations," Economic Inquiry 15(3), pp. 323–25 (309–25). Press + button or Ctrl+.
Jump up ^ Mark Blaug (1997). Economic Theory in Retrospect, 5th ed., in ch. 2, sect. 19, "Adam Smith as an Economist, pp. 59–62.
Jump up ^ Graeber, David (2010). Debt: the first 5,000 years. Brooklyn, NY: Melville House. ISBN 9781933633862.
^ Jump up to: a b Johnson, David V. (February 15, 2012). "What We Owe to Each Other An Interview with David Graeber, Part 1". Boston Review. Retrieved February 20, 2012.
References[edit]
Smith, Adam. The Wealth of Nations: A Translation into Modern English, Industrial Systems Research, 2015. ISBN 978-0-906321-70-6 [1]
An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations: A Selected Edition Adam Smith (Author), Kathryn Sutherland (Editor), 2008, Oxford Paperbacks, Oxford, UK; ISBN 978-0-19-953592-7
Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations: A modern-day interpretation of an economic classic. Karen McCreadie, 2009, Infinite Ideas, Oxford, UK; ISBN 978-1-906821-03-6
O'Rourke, P. J. (2006), On The Wealth of Nations, Books That Changed the World, Atlantic Monthly Press, ISBN 978-0871139498
External links[edit]
Media related to The Wealth of Nations at Wikimedia Commons
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The Wealth of Nations
The Wealth of Nations at MetaLibri Digital Library
The Theory of Moral Sentiments at MetaLibri Digital Library
[show]
v
t
e
Adam Smith
Books
Essays on Philosophical Subjects
Lectures on Jurisprudence
The Theory of Moral Sentiments
The Wealth of Nations
Theories
Classical economics
Invisible hand
[show]
v
t
e
Property
By owner
Communal land
Marital property (USA)
Cooperative
Estate in land
Private
Public
State
Crown land
By nature
Croft
Intangible
Intellectual
indigenous
Personal
Tangible
immovable
real
Common resources
Common land
Common-pool resource
Digital
Global
Information
Knowledge
Theory
Bundle of rights
Commodity
fictitious commodities
Common good (economics)
Excludability
First possession
appropriation
homestead principle
Free rider problem
Game theory
Georgism
Gift economy
Labor theory of property
Law of rent
rent-seeking
Legal plunder
Natural rights
Ownership
common
customary
self
state
Property rights
primogeniture
usufruct
women's
Right to property
Rivalry
Tragedy of the commons
anticommons
Applications
Acequia (watercourse)
Ejido (agrarian land)
Forest types
Inheritance
Land tenure
Property law
alienation
easement
restraint on alienation
real estate
title
Rights
Air
Fishing
Forest-dwelling (India)
Freedom to roam
Grazing
pannage
Hunting
Land
aboriginal
indigenous
squatting
Littoral
Mineral
Bergregal
Right of way
Water
prior-appropriation
riparian
Disposession/
redistribution
Bioprospecting
Collectivization
Eminent domain
Enclosure
Eviction
Expropriation
Farhud
Forced migration
population transfer
Illegal fishing
Illegal logging
Land reform
Legal plunder
Piracy
Poaching
Primitive accumulation
Privatization
Regulatory taking
Slavery
bride-buying
human trafficking
wage
wife selling
Tax
inheritance
poll
progressive
property
Theft
Scholars
(key work)
Frédéric Bastiat
Ronald Coase
Henry George
Garrett Hardin
David Harvey
John Locke
Two Treatises of Government
Karl Marx
Marcel Mauss
The Gift
John Stuart Mill
Elinor Ostrom
Karl Polanyi
The Great Transformation
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
What Is Property?
David Ricardo
Murray N. Rothbard
The Ethics of Liberty
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
The Social Contract
Adam Smith
The Wealth of Nations
Categories: Property
Property law
by country
Authority control
BNF: cb12099112r (data)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Wealth_of_Nations&oldid=823613490"
Categories:
1776 books
1776 in economics
1776 in Scotland
Books about capitalism
Books about wealth distribution
Books by Adam Smith
Classical liberalism
Classical economics books
History books about civilization
Political philosophy literature
Hidden categories:
Articles that may contain original research from August 2016
All articles that may contain original research
Use British English from March 2012
Use dmy dates from March 2012
Articles needing additional references from March 2017
All articles needing additional references
Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikisource
Languages
العربية
Български
Català
Čeština
Deutsch
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Galego
ગુજરાતી
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Ido
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
עברית
ქართული
Македонски
Bahasa Melayu
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Shqip
Simple English
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
Tiếng Việt
文言
吴语
粵語
中文
36 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 2 February 2018, at 09:24.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

tag: div

attr: id class

value: mw-page-base noprint

key: html

type: local

value: mw-head-base noprint

tag: a

tag: i

attr: id class lang

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

tag: img

attr: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

tag: td

attr: href title

tag: b

attr: class href

tag: small

tag: tr

value: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Original_research

value: Edit section: Summary of Wealth of Nations

value: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

value: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove

value: Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica

attr: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

value:
/wiki/Annual_Register
mw-redirect
Annual Register

value:
/wiki/George_Dempster_(lawyer)
mw-redirect
George Dempster (lawyer)

value: Alexander Wedderburn, 1st Earl of Rosslyn

value: John Freeman-Mitford, 1st Baron Redesdale

value:
/wiki/Allocation_of_resources
mw-redirect
Allocation of resources

value:
/wiki/Industrial_organisation
mw-redirect
Industrial organisation

value:
/wiki/General_equilibrium
mw-redirect
General equilibrium

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/pss/1831274

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/pss/1826433

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/pss/1815879

value: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

value:
nofollow
http://metalibri.wikidot.com/
external text

value: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value:
/wiki/State_property
mw-redirect
State property

value:
/wiki/Common_resources
mw-redirect
Common resources

value:
/wiki/Appropriation_(economics)
mw-redirect
Appropriation (economics)

value:
/wiki/Free_rider_problem
mw-redirect
Free rider problem

value: List of types of formally designated forests

value: The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006

value:
/wiki/Forced_migration
mw-redirect
Forced migration

value:
/wiki/Illegal_fishing
mw-redirect
Illegal fishing

value:
/wiki/Tax_per_head
mw-redirect
Tax per head

value:
/wiki/Murray_N._Rothbard
mw-redirect
Murray N. Rothbard

attr: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

value: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value: Category:Books about wealth distribution

value: Category:History books about civilization

value: Category:Articles that may contain original research from August 2016

value: Category:All articles that may contain original research

value: Category:Use British English from March 2012

value: Category:Articles needing additional references from March 2017

value: Category:All articles needing additional references

value: Category:Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value:
/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

value:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

value: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

value: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

value:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

value:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

value:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Find background information on current events

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

value:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

value: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

value: Permanent link to this revision of the page

value: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

value: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

value: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

value: ثروة الأمم – Arabic

value: Богатството на народите – Bulgarian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

value: Indagació sobre la naturalesa i les causes de la riquesa de les nacions – Catalan

value: interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

value: Pojednání o podstatě a původu bohatství národů – Czech

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

value: Ο Πλούτος των Εθνών – Greek

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

value: interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

value: ثروت ملل – Persian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

value: Recherches sur la nature et les causes de la richesse des nations – French

value: interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

value: ધ વેલ્થ ઑફ નેશનઝ – Gujarati

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gu
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

value: Ազգերի հարստություն – Armenian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

value: द वेल्थ ऑफ नेशन्स – Hindi

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-io
display: none;

value: An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations – Indonesian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

value: עושר העמים – Hebrew

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

value: გამოკვლევა ხალხთა სიმდიდრის ბუნებისა და მიზეზების შესახებ – Georgian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

value: Богатството на народите – Macedonian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

value: 諸国民の富の性質と原因の研究 – Japanese

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

value: ਦ ਵੈਲਥ ਆਫ਼ ਨੇਸ਼ਨਜ – Punjabi

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

value: دی ویلتھ آف نیشنز – Western Punjabi

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb
display: none;

value: Badania nad naturą i przyczynami bogactwa narodów – Polish

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pt
display: none;

value: Исследование о природе и причинах богатства народов – Russian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

value: ความมั่งคั่งของประชาชาติ – Thai

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

value: Дослідження про природу і причини багатства народів – Ukrainian

value: Tìm hiểu về bản chất và nguồn gốc của cải của các quốc gia – Vietnamese

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

value: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

value: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

value:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-The_Wealth_of_Nations rootpage-The_Wealth_of_Nations skin-vector action-view


text:
Dialysis tubing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the use of dialysis in a laboratory, research, production or educational setting. For information on the use of dialysis as a treatment for kidney or liver failure see, dialysis or liver dialysis. For information on dialysis or reverse osmosis usage in water treatment see, reverse osmosis. For additional information of laboratory dialysis see Dialysis (biochemistry).
Dialysis tubing
Dialysis tubing, also known as Visking tubing, is a type of semi-permeable membrane tubing[1] used in separation techniques, that facilitates the removal or exchange of small molecules from macromolecules in solution based on differential diffusion. In the context of life science research, dialysis tubing is typically used in the sample clean-up and processing of proteins and DNA samples or complex biological samples such as blood or serums. Dialysis tubing is also frequently used as a teaching aid to demonstrate the principles of diffusion, osmosis, Brownian motion and the movement of molecules across a restrictive membrane. For the principles and usage of dialysis in a research setting, see Dialysis (biochemistry).
History, properties and composition[edit]
Dialysis occurs throughout nature and the principles of dialysis have been exploited by humans for thousands of years using natural animal or plant based membranes.[2][3][4] The term dialysis was first routinely used for scientific or medical purposes in the late 1800s and early 1900s, pioneered by the work of Thomas Graham. The first mass-produced man-made membranes suitable for dialysis were not available until the 1930s based on materials used in the food packaging industry such as Cellophane. In the 1940s, Willem Kolff constructed the first dialyzer (artificial kidney), and successfully treated patients with renal failure using dialysis across semi-permeable membranes. Today, dialysis tubing for laboratory applications comes in a variety of dimensions and molecular-weight cutoffs (MWCO). In addition to tubing, dialysis membranes are also found in a wide range of different preformatted devices, significantly improving the performance and ease of use of dialysis.
Different dialysis tubing or flat membranes are produced and characterized as differing molecular-weight cutoffs (MWCO) ranging from 1-1,000,000 kDa. The MWCO determination is the result of the number and average size of the pores created during the production of the dialysis membrane. The MWCO typically refers to the smallest average molecular mass of a standard molecule that will not effectively diffuse across the membrane upon extended dialysis. Thus, a dialysis membrane with a 10K MWCO will generally retain >90% of a protein having a molecular mass of at least 10 kDa. Pore sizes typically range from ~10-100 Angstroms for 1K to 50K MWCO membranes.
It is important to note that the MWCO of a membrane is not a sharply defined value. Molecules with mass near the MWCO of the membrane will diffuse across the membrane slower than molecules significantly smaller than the MWCO. In order for a molecule to rapidly diffuse across a membrane it typically needs to be at least 20-50 times smaller than the membranes MWCO rating. Therefore, it is not practical to try separating a 30kDa protein from a 10kDa protein using dialysis across a 20K rated dialysis membrane. Dialysis tubing for laboratory use is typically made of a film of regenerated cellulose or cellulose ester. However; dialysis membranes made of polysulfone, polyethersulfone (PES), etched polycarbonate, or collagen are also extensively used for specific medical, food, or water treatment applications.
Manufacturing[edit]
Membranes composed of either regenerated cellulose or cellulose esters are manufactured through distinct processes of modifying and cross-linking cellulose fibers derived from wood pulp or cotton fibers to form films with differing properties and pore sizes. Variations in the manufacturing process significantly change the properties and pores sizes of the film. While similar in composition, most of the cellulosed-based membranes manufactured are not necessarily useful for dialysis. Cellulose-based membranes are also widely used for applications ranging from food wrapping, film stock, or “plastic” wrap. See reference for a review of cellulose membranes and manufacturing.[5]
For dialysis applications, regenerated cellulose-based membranes are extruded as tubing or sheets and then dried. Glycerol is frequently added as a humectant to prevent cracking during drying and to help maintain the desired pore structure. Regenerated cellulose membranes are very hydrophilic and hydrate rapidly when introduced to water. Due to their additional crosslinking, regenerated cellulose membranes have better chemical compatibility and heat stability than membranes made from cellulose esters. Regenerated cellulose membranes are more resistant to organic solvents and to the weak or dilute acids and bases that are commonly used in protein and molecular biology applications. Membranes based on cellulose esters are typically supplied wet and come in a greater range of MWCOs. Pore sizes are typically more consistent across cellulose acetate membranes.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Dialysis Tubing, York High School
Jump up ^ "Separation characteristics of dialysis membranes".
Jump up ^ "Fundamentals of membrane Dialysis".
Jump up ^ Ing, Todd S. (2012). Dialysis: History, Development and Promise. World Scientific Publishing Co Pte Ltd. ISBN 9789814289757.
Jump up ^ Klemm, Dieter; Brigitte Heublein; Hans-Peter Fink; Andreas Bohn (2005). "Cellulose: Fascinating Biopolymer and Sustainable Raw Material". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 44 (22): 3358–3393. doi:10.1002/anie.200460587. PMID 15861454.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dialysis_tubing&oldid=805553565"
Categories:
Diffusion
Filters
Chemical engineering
Tubing (material)
Membrane technology
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Add links
This page was last edited on 16 October 2017, at 03:46.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

value: mw-page-base noprint

value: mw-head-base noprint

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attr: role class

value:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

attr: href class title

value:
/wiki/Tubing_(material)
mw-redirect
Tubing (material)

tag: sup

value: Edit section: History, properties and composition

attr: alt src width height data-file-width data-file-height

value: Small-molecule dialysis using dialysis tubing

value:
/wiki/Willem_Kolff
mw-redirect
Willem Kolff

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Fanie.200460587

value:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15861454

value:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

value:
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
interface

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value:
/wiki/Dialysis_tubing
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

value:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

value: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

value: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

value:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

value:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

value:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Find background information on current events

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

value:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

value: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

value: Permanent link to this revision of the page

value: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

value: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

value:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Dialysis_tubing rootpage-Dialysis_tubing skin-vector action-view


text:
Abolition of Corporal Punishment Act, 1997
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Abolition of Corporal Punishment Act, 1997
Act to provide for the abolishment of corporal punishment authorised in legislation; and to provide for matters connected therewith.
Citation
Act No. 33 of 1997
Enacted by
Parliament of South Africa
Date assented to
28 August 1997
Date commenced
5 September 1997
Status: Spent
The Abolition of Corporal Punishment Act, 1997 (Act No. 33 of 1997) is an act of the Parliament of South Africa that abolished judicial corporal punishment.[1] It followed the Constitutional Court's 1995 decision in the case of S v Williams and Others that caning of juveniles was unconstitutional. Although the ruling in S v Williams was limited to the corporal punishment of males under the age of 21, Justice Langa mentioned in dicta that there was a consensus that corporal punishment of adults was also unconstitutional.[2]
The act contains two substantive sections. The first provides that "any law which authorises corporal punishment by a court of law, including a court of traditional leaders," is repealed to the extent that it authorises such a punishment. The second makes specific textual amendments various statutes, including the Black Administration Act, the Magistrates' Courts Act and the Criminal Procedure Act, to remove references to corporal punishment.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Section 13: The abolition of JCP". Judicial Corporal Punishment in South Africa. World Corporal Punishment Research. 2005. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
Jump up ^ S v Williams and Others [1995] ZACC 6 at para. 10, 1995 (3) SA 632, 1995 (7) BCLR 861 (9 June 1995), Constitutional Court (South Africa)
External links[edit]
Abolition of Corporal Punishment Act, 1997
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abolition_of_Corporal_Punishment_Act,_1997&oldid=742293306"
Categories:
South African legislation
Penal system in South Africa
1997 in South African law
Corporal punishments
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Add links
This page was last edited on 2 October 2016, at 21:20.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

value: mw-page-base noprint

value: mw-head-base noprint

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

tag: th

attr: colspan style

value:
/wiki/S_v_Williams_and_Others
mw-redirect
S v Williams and Others

value:
/wiki/Black_Administration_Act
mw-redirect
Black Administration Act

value: Magistrates' Courts Act (South Africa) (page does not exist)

value:
nofollow
external text
http://www.corpun.com/jcpza12.htm

value:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

value:
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
interface

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

value:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

value: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

value: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

value:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

value:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

value:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

value: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

value:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Abolition_of_Corporal_Punishment_Act_1997 rootpage-Abolition_of_Corporal_Punishment_Act_1997 skin-vector action-view