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The Art of War
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For other uses, see The Art of War (disambiguation).
The Art of War
Author
(trad.) Sun Tzu
Country
China
Language
Chinese
Subject
Military strategy and tactics
Publication date
5th century BC
Text
The Art of War at Wikisource
The Art of War
Traditional Chinese
孫子兵法
Simplified Chinese
孙子兵法
Literal meaning
"Master Sun's Military Methods"
[show]Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin
Sūnzǐ bīngfǎ
Wade–Giles
Sun1-tzŭ3 ping1-fa3
IPA
[swə́ntsɨ̀ píŋfà]
Wu
Romanization
Sen-tsy pin-fah
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization
Syūn jí bīng faat
IPA
[sýːntsǐː péŋfāːt̚]
Jyutping
Syun1-zi2 bing1-faat3
Southern Min
Tâi-lô
Sun-tzú ping-huat
Old Chinese
Baxter–Sagart (2014)
*[s]ˤu[n] tsəʔ praŋ [p.k]ap
Chinese military texts
Seven Military Classics[show]
The Art of War
Wuzi
The Methods of the Sima
Six Secret Teachings
Wei Liaozi
Three Strategies of Huang Shigong
Questions and Replies
Other texts[show]
Sun Bin's Art of War
Thirty-Six Stratagems
Wujing Zongyao
Huolongjing
Jixiao Xinshu
v
t
e
The Art of War is an ancient Chinese military treatise dating from the Spring and Autumn period in 5th century BC. The work, which is attributed to the ancient Chinese military strategist Sun Tzu ("Master Sun", also spelled Sunzi), is composed of 13 chapters. Each one is devoted to a distinct aspect of warfare and how that applies to military strategy and tactics. For almost 1,500 years it was the lead text in an anthology that would be formalised as the Seven Military Classics by Emperor Shenzong of Song in 1080. The Art of War remains the most influential strategy text in East Asia.[1] It has a profound influence on Eastern and Western military thinking, business tactics, legal strategy and beyond.
The book was first translated and published into French in 1772 (re-published in 1782) by the Jesuit Jean Joseph Marie Amiot and a partial translation into English was attempted by British officer Everard Ferguson Calthrop in 1905 under the title The Book of War. The first annotated English translation was completed and published by Lionel Giles in 1910.[2] Numerous military and political leaders such as Mao Zedong, Võ Nguyên Giáp, and Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr. have drawn inspiration from the work.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Text and commentaries
1.2 Authorship
1.3 Yinqueshan tomb discovery
2 The 13 chapters
3 Chapter summary
4 Quotations
4.1 Chinese
4.2 English
5 Military and intelligence applications
6 Application outside the military
7 Notable translations
8 See also
8.1 Concepts
8.2 Books
9 References
9.1 Bibliography
10 External links
History[edit]
Text and commentaries[edit]
The Art of War is traditionally attributed to a military general from the late 6th century BC known as "Master Sun" (Sunzi or Sun Tzu), though its earliest parts probably date to at least 100 years later.[3] Sima Qian's 1st century BC work Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji), the first of China's 24 dynastic histories, records an early Chinese tradition stating that a text on military matters was written by a "Sun Wu" from the State of Qi, and that this text had been read and studied by King Helü of Wu (r. 514–495 BC).[4] This text was traditionally identified with the received Master Sun's Art of War. The conventional view, which is still widely held in China, was that Sun Wu was a military theorist from the end of the Spring and Autumn period (776–471 BC) who fled his home state of Qi to the southeastern kingdom of Wu, where he is said to have impressed the king with his ability to train even dainty palace ladies in warfare and to have made Wu's armies powerful enough to challenge their western rivals in the state of Chu.[5]
The prominent strategist, poet, and warlord Cao Cao in the early 3rd century AD authored the earliest known commentary to the Art of War.[4] Cao's preface makes clear that he edited the text and removed certain passages, but the extent of his changes were unclear historically.[4] The Art of War appears throughout the bibliographical catalogs of the Chinese dynastic histories, but listings of its divisions and size varied widely.[4] In the early 20th century, the Chinese writer and reformer Liang Qichao, theorized that the text was actually written in the 4th century BC by Sunzi's purported descendant Sun Bin, as a number of historical sources mention a military treatise he wrote.[4]
Authorship[edit]
Around the 12th century, some scholars began to doubt the historical existence of Sunzi, primarily on the grounds that he is not mentioned in the historical classic The Commentary of Zuo (Zuo zhuan 左傳), which mentions most of the notable figures from the Spring and Autumn period.[4] The name "Sun Wu" (孫武) does not appear in any text prior to the Records of the Grand Historian,[6] and has been suspected to be a made-up descriptive cognomen meaning "the fugitive warrior": the surname "Sun" is glossed as the related term "fugitive" (xùn 遜), while "Wu" is the ancient Chinese virtue of "martial, valiant" (wǔ 武), which corresponds to Sunzi's role as the hero's doppelgänger in the story of Wu Zixu.[7] Unlike Sun Wu, Sun Bin appears to have been an actual person who was a genuine authority on military matters, and may have been the inspiration for the creation of the historical figure "Sunzi" through a form of euhemerism.[7]
Yinqueshan tomb discovery[edit]
In 1972, the Yinqueshan Han slips were discovered in two Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220) tombs near the city of Linyi in Shandong Province.[8] Among the many bamboo slip writings contained in the tombs, which had been sealed around 134 and 118 BC, respectively were two separate texts, one attributed to "Sunzi", corresponding to the received text, and another attributed to Sun Bin, which explains and expands upon the earlier The Art of War by Sunzi.[9] The Sun Bin text's material overlaps with much of the "Sunzi" text, and the two may be "a single, continuously developing intellectual tradition united under the Sun name".[10] This discovery showed that much of the historical confusion was due to the fact that there were two texts that could have been referred to as "Master Sun's Art of War", not one.[9] The content of the earlier text is about one-third of the chapters of the modern The Art of War, and their text matches very closely.[8] It is now generally accepted that the earlier The Art of War was completed sometime between 500 and 450 BC.[9]
The 13 chapters[edit]
The Art of War is divided into 13 chapters (or piān); the collection is referred to as being one zhuàn ("whole" or alternatively "chronicle").
The Art of War chapter names in translations by Giles, Wing, Sawyer, and Chow-Hou
Chapter
Lionel Giles (1910)
R.L. Wing (1988)
Ralph D. Sawyer (1996)
Chow-Hou Wee (2003)
I Laying Plans The Calculations Initial Estimations Detail Assessment and Planning
(Chinese: 始計)
II Waging War The Challenge Waging War Waging War
(Chinese: 作戰)
III Attack by Stratagem The Plan of Attack Planning Offensives Strategic Attack
(Chinese: 謀攻)
IV Tactical Dispositions Positioning Military Disposition Disposition of the Army
(Chinese: 軍形)
V Use of Energy Directing Strategic Military Power Forces
(Chinese: 兵勢)
VI Weak Points and Strong Illusion and Reality Vacuity and Substance Weaknesses and Strengths
(Chinese: 虛實)
VII Maneuvering an Army Engaging The Force Military Combat Military Maneuvers
(Chinese: 軍爭)
VIII Variation of Tactics The Nine Variations Nine Changes Variations and Adaptability
(Chinese: 九變)
IX The Army on the March Moving The Force Maneuvering the Army Movement and Development of Troops
(Chinese: 行軍)
X Classification of Terrain Situational Positioning Configurations of Terrain Terrain
(Chinese: 地形)
XI The Nine Situations The Nine Situations Nine Terrains The Nine Battlegrounds
(Chinese: 九地)
XII Attack by Fire The Fiery Attack Incendiary Attacks Attacking with Fire
(Chinese: 火攻)
XIII Use of Spies The Use of Intelligence Employing Spies Intelligence and Espionage
(Chinese: 用間)
Chapter summary[edit]
The beginning of The Art of War in a classical bamboo book from the reign of the Qianlong Emperor
Detail Assessment and Planning (Chinese: 始計) explores the five fundamental factors (the Way, seasons, terrain, leadership, and management) and seven elements that determine the outcomes of military engagements. By thinking, assessing and comparing these points, a commander can calculate his chances of victory. Habitual deviation from these calculations will ensure failure via improper action. The text stresses that war is a very grave matter for the state and must not be commenced without due consideration.
Waging War (Chinese: 作戰) explains how to understand the economy of warfare and how success requires winning decisive engagements quickly. This section advises that successful military campaigns require limiting the cost of competition and conflict.
Strategic Attack (Chinese: 謀攻) defines the source of strength as unity, not size, and discusses the five factors that are needed to succeed in any war. In order of importance, these critical factors are: Attack, Strategy, Alliances, Army and Cities.
Disposition of the Army (Chinese: 軍形) explains the importance of defending existing positions until a commander is capable of advancing from those positions in safety. It teaches commanders the importance of recognizing strategic opportunities, and teaches not to create opportunities for the enemy.
Forces (Chinese: 兵勢) explains the use of creativity and timing in building an army's momentum.
Weaknesses and Strengths (Chinese: 虛實) explains how an army's opportunities come from the openings in the environment caused by the relative weakness of the enemy and how to respond to changes in the fluid battlefield over a given area.
Military Maneuvers (Chinese: 軍爭) explains the dangers of direct conflict and how to win those confrontations when they are forced upon the commander.
Variations and Adaptability (Chinese: 九變) focuses on the need for flexibility in an army's responses. It explains how to respond to shifting circumstances successfully.
Movement and Development of Troops (Chinese: 行軍) describes the different situations in which an army finds itself as it moves through new enemy territories, and how to respond to these situations. Much of this section focuses on evaluating the intentions of others.
Terrain (Chinese: 地形) looks at the three general areas of resistance (distance, dangers and barriers) and the six types of ground positions that arise from them. Each of these six field positions offers certain advantages and disadvantages.
The Nine Battlegrounds (Chinese: 九地) describes the nine common situations (or stages) in a campaign, from scattering to deadly, and the specific focus that a commander will need in order to successfully navigate them.
Attacking with Fire (Chinese: 火攻) explains the general use of weapons and the specific use of the environment as a weapon. This section examines the five targets for attack, the five types of environmental attack and the appropriate responses to such attacks.
Intelligence and Espionage (Chinese: 用間) focuses on the importance of developing good information sources, and specifies the five types of intelligence sources and how to best manage each of them.
Quotations[edit]
Chinese[edit]
Verses from the book occur in modern daily Chinese idioms and phrases, such as the last verse of Chapter 3:
故曰：知彼知己，百戰不殆；不知彼而知己，一勝一負；不知彼，不知己，每戰必殆。
So it is said that if you know your enemies and know yourself, you will not be put at risk even in a hundred battles.
If you only know yourself, but not your opponent, you may win or may lose.
If you know neither yourself nor your enemy, you will always endanger yourself.
This has been more tersely interpreted and condensed into the Chinese modern proverb:
知己知彼，百戰不殆。 (Zhī jǐ zhī bǐ, bǎi zhàn bù dài.)
If you know both yourself and your enemy, you can win numerous (literally, "a hundred") battles without jeopardy.
English[edit]
Common examples can also be found in English use, such as verse 18 in Chapter 1:
兵者，詭道也。故能而示之不能，用而示之不用，近而示之遠，遠而示之近。
All warfare is based on deception. Hence, when we are able to attack, we must seem unable; when using our forces, we must appear inactive; when we are near, we must make the enemy believe we are far away; when far away, we must make him believe we are near.
This has been abbreviated to its most basic form and condensed into the English modern proverb:
All warfare is based on deception.
Military and intelligence applications[edit]
In many East Asian countries, The Art of War was part of the syllabus for potential candidates of military service examinations. Various translations are available.
During the Sengoku period in Japan, a daimyō named Takeda Shingen (1521–1573) is said to have become almost invincible in all battles without relying on guns, because he studied The Art of War.[11] The book even gave him the inspiration for his famous battle standard "Fūrinkazan" (Wind, Forest, Fire and Mountain), meaning fast as the wind, silent as a forest, ferocious as fire and immovable as a mountain.
The translator Samuel B. Griffith offers a chapter on "Sun Tzu and Mao Tse-Tung" where The Art of War is cited as influencing Mao's On Guerrilla Warfare, On the Protracted War and Strategic Problems of China's Revolutionary War, and includes Mao's quote: "We must not belittle the saying in the book of Sun Wu Tzu, the great military expert of ancient China, 'Know your enemy and know yourself and you can fight a thousand battles without disaster."[11]
During the Vietnam War, some Vietcong officers studied The Art of War and reportedly could recite entire passages from memory.[citation needed]
General Võ Nguyên Giáp successfully implemented tactics described in The Art of War during the Battle of Dien Bien Phu ending major French involvement in Indochina and leading to the accords which partitioned Vietnam into North and South. General Võ, later the main PVA military commander in the Vietnam War, was an avid student and practitioner of Sun Tzu's ideas.[12] America's defeat there, more than any other event, brought Sun Tzu to the attention of leaders of American military theory.[12][13][14]
Finnish Field Marshal Mannerheim and general Aksel Airo were avid readers of Art of War. They both read it in French; Airo kept the French translation of the book on his bedside table in his quarters.[citation needed]
The Department of the Army in the United States, through its Command and General Staff College, lists The Art of War as one example of a book that may be kept at a military unit's library.[15]
The Art of War is listed on the Marine Corps Professional Reading Program (formerly known as the Commandant's Reading List). It is recommended reading for all United States Military Intelligence personnel.[16]
According to some authors, the strategy of deception from The Art of War was studied and widely used by the KGB: "I will force the enemy to take our strength for weakness, and our weakness for strength, and thus will turn his strength into weakness".[17] The book is widely cited by KGB officers in charge of disinformation operations in Vladimir Volkoff's novel Le Montage.
Application outside the military[edit]
The Art of War has been applied to many fields well outside of the military. Much of the text is about how to fight wars without actually having to do battle: It gives tips on how to outsmart one's opponent so that physical battle is not necessary. As such, it has found application as a training guide for many competitive endeavors that do not involve actual combat.
Many business books have applied the lessons taken from the book to office politics and corporate strategy.[18][19][20] Many Japanese companies make the book required reading for their key executives.[21] The book is also popular among Western business circles citing its utilitarian value regarding management practices. Many entrepreneurs and executives have turned to it for inspiration and advice on how to succeed in competitive business situations. The book has also been applied to the field of education.[22]
The Art of War has been the subject of legal books[23] and legal articles on the trial process, including negotiation tactics and trial strategy.[24][25][26][27]
The Art of War has also been applied in the world of sports. National Football League coach Bill Belichick is known to have read the book and used its lessons to gain insights in preparing for games.[28] Australian cricket as well as Brazilian association football coaches Luiz Felipe Scolari and Carlos Alberto Parreira are known to have embraced the text. Scolari made the Brazilian World Cup squad of 2002 study the ancient work during their successful campaign.[29]
The Art of War is often quoted while developing tactics and/or strategy in Electronic Sports. Particularly, one of the fundamental books about e-sports, "Play To Win" by Massachusetts Institute of Technology graduate David Sirlin, is actually just an analysis about possible applications of the ideas from The Art of War in modern Electronic Sports.
The Art of War was released in 2014 as an e-book companion alongside the Art of War DLC for Europa Universalis IV, a PC strategy game by Paradox Development Studios, with a forward by Thomas Johansson.
Notable translations[edit]
Running Press miniature edition of the 1994 Ralph D. Sawyer translation, printed in 2003
Sun Tzu on the Art of War. Lionel Giles, trans. London: Luzac and Company. 1910.
The Art of War. Samuel B. Griffith, trans. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1963. ISBN 0-19-501476-6. Part of the UNESCO Collection of Representative Works.
Sun Tzu, The Art of War. Thomas Cleary, trans. Boston-Shaftsbury: Shambhala. 1987.
The Art of Warfare. Roger Ames, trans. Random House. 1993. ISBN 0-345-36239-X. .
The Art of War. John Minford, trans. New York: Viking. 2002. ISBN 0-670-03156-9.
The Art of War: Sunzi's Military Methods. Victor H. Mair, trans. New York: Columbia University Press. 2007. ISBN 978-0-231-13382-1.
The Art of War: Spirituality for Conflict. Thomas Huynh, trans. Skylight Paths Publishing. 2008. ISBN 978-1594732447.
The book was translated into Manchu as ᠴᠣᠣᡥᠠᡳ
ᠪᠠᡳᡨᠠ
ᠪᡝ
ᡤᡳᠰᡠᡵᡝᠩᡤᡝ Wylie: Tchauhai paita be gisurengge,[30][31] Möllendorff: Coohai baita de gisurengge, Discourse on the art of War.[32]
The first Manchu translations of Chinese works were the Liu-t'ao 六韜, Su-shu 素書, and San-lueh 三略 – all Chinese military texts dedicated to the arts of war due to the Manchu interests in the topic, like Sun-Tzu's work The Art of War.[33][34] The military related texts which were translated into Manchu from Chinese were translated by Dahai.[35] Manchu translations of Chinese texts included the Ming penal code and military texts were performed by Dahai.[36] These translations were requested of Dahai by Nurhaci.[37] The military text Wu-tzu was translated into Manchu along with Sun-Tzu's work The Art of War.[38] Chinese history, Chinese law, and Chinese military theory classical texts were translated into Manchu during the rule of Hong Taiji in Mukden with Manchus placing significance upon military and governance related Chinese texts.[39] A Manchu translation was made of the military themed Chinese novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms.[40][41] Chinese literature, military theory and legal texts were translated into Manchu by Dahai and Erdeni.[42] The translations were ordered in 1629.[43][44] The translation of the military texts San-lüeh, Su-shu, and the Ta Ming hui-tien (the Ming law) done by Dahai was ordered by Nurhaci.[45] While it was mainly administrative and ethical guidance which made up most of San-lüeh and Su Shu, military science was indeed found in the Liu-t'ao and Chinese military manuals were eagerly translated by the Manchus and the Manchus were also attracted to the military content in Romance of the Three Kingdoms which is why it was translated.[46]
Another Manchu translation was made by Aisin Gioro Qiying.[47]
See also[edit]
Concepts[edit]
Philosophy of war
Books[edit]
Commentarii de Bello Gallico (Commentaries on the Gallic War) by Julius Caesar
The Art of War by Niccolò Machiavelli
Arthashastra
The Book of Five Rings (Miyamoto Musashi)
"Seven Military Classics"
"Dream Pool Essays" by Shen Kuo
"Huolongjing" by Liu Bowen
"Hagakure" by Yamamoto Tsunetomo
Epitoma rei militaris of Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus
Guerrilla Warfare by Che Guevara
On Protracted War by Mao Zedong
On War by Carl von Clausewitz
Records of the Grand Historian
Thirty-Six Stratagems
The Utility of Force by General Sir Rupert Smith
Seven Pillars of Wisdom by T. E. Lawrence
Bansenshukai
Infanterie Greift An by Erwin Rommel
"History of the Peloponnesian War" by Thucydides
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Smith (1999), p. 216.
Jump up ^ Giles, Lionel The Art of War by Sun Tzu – Special Edition. Special Edition Books. 2007. p. 62.
Jump up ^ Lewis (1999), p. 604.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Gawlikowski & Loewe (1993), p. 447.
Jump up ^ Mair (2007), pp. 12–13.
Jump up ^ Mair (2007), p. 9.
^ Jump up to: a b Mair (2007), p. 10.
^ Jump up to: a b Gawlikowski & Loewe (1993), p. 448.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gawlikowski & Loewe (1993), p. 449.
Jump up ^ Mark Edward Lewis (2005), quoted in Mair (2007), p. 18.
^ Jump up to: a b Griffith, Samuel B. The Illustrated Art of War. 2005. Oxford University Press. pp. 17, 141–43.
^ Jump up to: a b McCready, Douglas. Learning from Sun Tzu, Military Review, May–June 2003. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-10-11. Retrieved 2009-12-19.
Jump up ^ Interview with Dr. William Duiker, Conversation with Sonshi
Jump up ^ Forbes, Andrew ; Henley, David (2012). The Illustrated Art of War: Sun Tzu. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. ASIN B00B91XX8U
Jump up ^ Army, U. S. (1985). Military History and Professional Development. U. S. Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: Combat Studies Institute. 85-CSI-21 85.
Jump up ^ Marine Corps Professional Reading Program
Jump up ^ Yevgenia Albats and Catherine A. Fitzpatrick. The State Within a State: The KGB and Its Hold on Russia – Past, Present, and Future. 1994. ISBN 0-374-52738-5, chapter Who was behind perestroika?
Jump up ^ Michaelson, Gerald. "Sun Tzu: The Art of War for Managers; 50 Strategic Rules." Avon, MA: Adams Media, 2001
Jump up ^ McNeilly, Mark. "Sun Tzu and the Art of Business : Six Strategic Principles for Managers. New York:Oxford University Press, 1996.
Jump up ^ Krause, Donald G. "The Art of War for Executives: Ancient Knowledge for Today's Business Professional." New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1995.
Jump up ^ Kammerer, Peter. "The Art of Negotiation." South China Morning Post (April 21, 2006) p. 15
Jump up ^ Jeffrey, D (2010). "A Teacher Diary Study to Apply Ancient Art of War Strategies to Professional Development". The International Journal of Learning. 7 (3): 21–36.
Jump up ^ Barnhizer, David. The Warrior Lawyer: Powerful Strategies for Winning Legal Battles Irvington-on-Hudson, NY: Bridge Street Books, 1997.
Jump up ^ Balch, Christopher D., "The Art of War and the Art of Trial Advocacy: Is There Common Ground?" (1991), 42 Mercer L. Rev. 861–73
Jump up ^ Beirne, Martin D. and Scott D. Marrs, The Art of War and Public Relations: Strategies for Successful Litigation [1]
Jump up ^ Pribetic, Antonin I., "The Trial Warrior: Applying Sun Tzu's The Art of War to Trial Advocacy" April 21, 2007, [2]
Jump up ^ Solomon, Samuel H., "The Art of War: Pursuing Electronic Evidence as Your Corporate Opportunity" [3]
Jump up ^ "Put crafty Belichick's patriot games down to the fine art of war". The Sydney Morning Herald. 2005-02-04.
Jump up ^ Winter, Henry (June 29, 2006). "Mind games reach new high as Scolari studies art of war". Irish Independent.
Jump up ^ Shou-p'ing Wu Ko (1855). Translation (by A. Wylie) of the Ts'ing wan k'e mung, a Chinese grammar of the Manchu Tartar language (by Woo Kĭh Show-ping, revised and ed. by Ching Ming-yuen Pei-ho) with intr. notes on Manchu literature. p. 39.
Jump up ^ http://library.umac.mo/ebooks/b31043252.pdf
Jump up ^ Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. North China Branch, Shanghai (1890). Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Kelly & Walsh. pp. 40–.
Jump up ^ Early China. Society for the Study of Early China. 1975. p. 53.
Jump up ^ Durrant, Stephen (1977). “Manchu Translations of Chou Dynasty Texts”. Early China 3. [Cambridge University Press, Society for the Study of Early China]: 52–54. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23351361.
Jump up ^ Sin-wai Chan (2009). A Chronology of Translation in China and the West: From the Legendary Period to 2004. Chinese University Press. pp. 60–61. ISBN 978-962-996-355-2.
Jump up ^ Peter C Perdue (30 June 2009). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. Harvard University Press. pp. 122–. ISBN 978-0-674-04202-5.
Jump up ^ Frederic Wakeman Jr. (1985). The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China. University of California Press. pp. 44–. ISBN 978-0-520-04804-1.
Jump up ^ Early China. Society for the Study of Early China. 1977. p. 53.
Jump up ^ Claudine Salmon (13 November 2013). Literary Migrations: Traditional Chinese Fiction in Asia (17th-20th Centuries). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 94–. ISBN 978-981-4414-32-6.
Jump up ^ Cultural Hybridity in Manchu Bannermen Tales (zidishu). ProQuest. 2007. pp. 25–. ISBN 978-0-549-44084-0.
Jump up ^ West, Andrew. "The Textual History of Sanguo Yanyi: The Manchu Translation". Retrieved 11 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Arthur W. Hummel (1991). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing period: 1644–1912. SMC publ. p. vi. ISBN 978-957-638-066-2.
Jump up ^ Shou-p'ing Wu Ko (1855). Translation (by A. Wylie) of the Ts'ing wan k'e mung, a Chinese grammar of the Manchu Tartar language (by Woo Kĭh Show-ping, revised and ed. by Ching Ming-yuen Pei-ho) with intr. notes on Manchu literature. pp. xxxvi–.
Jump up ^ Translation of the Ts'ing wan k'e mung, a Chinese Grammar of the Manchu Tartar Language; with introductory notes on Manchu Literature: (translated by A. Wylie.). Mission Press. 1855. pp. xxxvi–.
Jump up ^ http://www.dartmouth.edu/~qing/WEB/DAHAI.html
Jump up ^ Durrant, Stephen. 1979. “Sino-manchu Translations at the Mukden Court”. Journal of the American Oriental Society 99 (4). American Oriental Society: 653–61. doi:10.2307/601450. https://www.jstor.org/stable/601450?seq=2 pp. 654–56.
Jump up ^ Soldierly Methods: Vade Mecum for an Iconoclastic Translation of Sun Zi bingfa (Art of War). p. 82
Bibliography[edit]
Gawlikowski, Krzysztof; Loewe, Michael (1993). "Sun tzu ping fa 孫子兵法". In Loewe, Michael. Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide. Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China; Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. pp. 446–55. ISBN 1-55729-043-1.
Graff, David A. (2002). Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Warfare and History. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415239559.
Griffith, Samuel (2005). Sun Tzu: The Illustrated Art of War. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019518999X.
Lewis, Mark Edward (1999). "Warring States Political History". In Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward. The Cambridge History of Ancient China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 587–650. ISBN 0-521-47030-7.
Mair, Victor H. (2007). The Art of War: Sun Zi's Military Methods. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-13382-1.
Smith, Kidder (1999). "The Military Texts: The Sunzi". In de Bary, Wm. Theodore. Sources of Chinese Tradition: From Earliest Times to 1600, Volume 1 (2nd ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 213–24. ISBN 978-0-231-10938-3.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The Art of War
Wikiquote has quotations related to: The Art of War
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sun Tzu.
The Art of War Chinese-English bilingual edition, Chinese Text Project
The Art of War translated by Lionel Giles (1910), various formats. The original book is partly written in Chinese, so PDF format is generally preferable. Also available from Project Gutenberg and Librivox below.
The Art of War translated by Lionel Giles (1910) at Project Gutenberg
The Book of War translated by E.F. Calthrop (1908) at Project Gutenberg
The Art of War public domain audiobook at LibriVox (English and Chinese original available)
Sun Tzu's Art of War at Sonshi
Sun Tzu and Information Warfare at the Institute for National Strategic Studies of National Defense University
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VIAF: 20999252
LCCN: n81022565
GND: 4202549-7
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Sinai Peninsula
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Sinai" redirects here. For other uses, see Sinai (disambiguation).
Relief map of the Sinai Peninsula
The Sinai Peninsula or simply Sinai (/ˈsaɪnaɪ/;[1][2] Arabic: سيناء Sīnāʼ ; Egyptian Arabic: سينا Sīna, IPA: [ˈsiːnæ]; Hebrew: סיני Sinai; Coptic: ⲥⲓⲛⲁ) is a peninsula in Egypt, the only part of the country located in Asia. It is situated between the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Red Sea to the south, and is a land bridge between Asia and Africa. Sinai has a land area of about 60,000 km2 (23,000 sq mi) and a population of approximately 1,400,000 people. Administratively, the Sinai Peninsula is divided into two governorates: the South Sinai Governorate and the North Sinai Governorate. Three other governorates span the Suez Canal, crossing into African Egypt: Suez Governorate on the southern end of the Suez Canal, Ismailia Governorate in the center, and Port Said Governorate in the north.
The Sinai Peninsula has been a part of Egypt from the First Dynasty of ancient Egypt (c. 3100 BC). This comes in stark contrast to the region north of it, the Levant (present-day territories of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel and Palestine), which, due largely to its strategic geopolitical location and cultural convergences, has historically been the centre of conflict between Egypt and various states of Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. In periods of foreign occupation, the Sinai was, like the rest of Egypt, also occupied and controlled by foreign empires, in more recent history the Ottoman Empire (1517–1867) and the United Kingdom (1882–1956). Israel invaded and occupied Sinai during the Suez Crisis (known in Egypt as the Tripartite Aggression due to the simultaneous coordinated attack by the UK, France and Israel) of 1956, and during the Six-Day War of 1967. On 6 October 1973, Egypt launched the Yom Kippur War to retake the peninsula, which was the site of fierce fighting between Egyptian and Israeli forces. By 1982, as a result of the Israel–Egypt Peace Treaty of 1979, Israel had withdrawn from all of the Sinai Peninsula except the contentious territory of Taba, which was returned after a ruling by a commission of arbitration in 1989.
Today, Sinai has become a tourist destination due to its natural setting, rich coral reefs, and biblical history. Mount Sinai is one of the most religiously significant places in the Abrahamic faiths.
Contents
[hide]
1 Name
2 Geography
2.1 Climate
3 History
3.1 Ancient Egypt
3.2 Assyrian Period
3.3 Achaemenid Persian Period
3.4 Hellenistic Period
3.5 Roman and Byzantine Periods
3.6 Early Muslim Period
3.7 Ayyubid Period
3.8 Mamluk and Ottoman Periods
3.9 British control
3.10 Wars with Israel (1948, 56, 67, 67–70, 73)
3.11 1979 Peace Treaty with Israel and aftermath
3.12 Early 21st Century security issues
4 Demographics
5 Economy
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Name[edit]
Mount Sinai (Gabal Musa)
The name Sinai may have been derived from the ancient moon-god Sin[3] or from the Hebrew word Seneh (Hebrew: סֶ֫נֶּה Senneh)[4] The peninsula acquired the name due to the assumption that a mountain near Saint Catherine's Monastery is the Biblical Mount Sinai. However this assumption is contested.[5]
In addition to its formal name, Egyptians also refer to it as Arḍ ul-Fairūz (أرض الفيروز "the land of turquoise"). The ancient Egyptians called it Ta Mefkat, or "land of turquoise".[6]
Geography[edit]
Image from Gemini 11 spacecraft, featuring part of Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula in the foreground and the Levant in the background
Sinai is triangular in shape, with northern shore lying on the southern Mediterranean Sea, and southwest and southeast shores on Gulf of Suez and Gulf of Aqaba of the Red Sea. It is linked to the African continent by the Isthmus of Suez, 125 kilometres (78 mi) wide strip of land, containing the Suez Canal. The eastern isthmus, linking it to the Asian mainland, is around 200 kilometres (120 mi) wide. The peninsula's eastern shore separates the Arabian plate from the African plate.[7]
The southernmost tip is the Ras Muhammad National Park.
Most of the Sinai Peninsula is divided among the two governorates of Egypt: South Sinai (Ganub Sina) and North Sinai (Shamal Sina).[8] Together, they comprise around 60,000 square kilometres (23,000 sq mi) and have a population (January 2013) of 597,000. Three more governates span the Suez Canal, crossing into African Egypt: Suez (el-Sewais) is on the southern end of the Suez Canal, Ismailia (el-Isma'ileyyah) in the centre, and Port Said in the north.
The largest city of Sinai is Arish, capital of the North Sinai, with around 160,000 residents. Other larger settlements include Sharm el-Sheikh and El-Tor, on the southern coast. Inland Sinai is arid, mountainous and sparsely populated, the largest settlements being Saint Catherine and Nekhel.[8]
Climate[edit]
Sinai is one of the coldest provinces in Egypt because of its high altitudes and mountainous topographies. Winter temperatures in some of Sinai's cities and towns reach −16 °C (3 °F).[citation needed]
History[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Sinai Peninsula in hieroglyphs
Biau
Bj3w[9]
"Mining country"[9]
Ancient Egypt[edit]
Sinai was called Mafkat or "country of turquoise" by the ancient Egyptians [10][11] From the time of the First Dynasty or before, the Egyptians mined turquoise in Sinai at two locations, now called by their Egyptian Arabic names Wadi Magharah and Serabit El Khadim. The mines were worked intermittently and on a seasonal basis for thousands of years. Modern attempts to exploit the deposits have been unprofitable. These may be the first historically attested mines.[citation needed]
Assyrian Period[edit]
Achaemenid Persian Period[edit]
At the end of the time of Darius I, the Great (521–486 BCE) Sinai was part of the Persian province of Abar-Nahra, which means "beyond the river [Euphrates].[12]
Cambyses successfully managed the crossing of the hostile Sinai Desert, traditionally Egypt's first and strongest line of defence, and brought the Egyptians under Psamtik III, son and successor of Ahmose, to battle at Pelusium. The Egyptians lost and retired to Memphis; the city fell to the Persian control and the Pharaoh was carried off in captivity to Susa in mainland Persia.
Hellenistic Period[edit]
Roman and Byzantine Periods[edit]
St. Catherine's Monastery is the oldest working Christian monastery in the world and the most popular tourist attraction on the peninsula.
After the death of the last Nabatean king, Rabbel II Soter, in 106,[13] the Roman emperor Trajan faced practically no resistance and conquered the kingdom on 22 March 106. With this conquest, the Roman Empire went on to control all shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The Sinai Peninsula became part of the Roman province of Arabia Petraea.[14]
Saint Catherine's Monastery on the foot of Mount Sinai was constructed by order of the Emperor Justinian between 527 and 565. Most of the Sinai Peninsula became part of the province of Palaestina Salutaris in the 6th century.
Early Muslim Period[edit]
Ayyubid Period[edit]
During the Crusades it was under control of Fatimid Caliphate. Later, Saladin abolished the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt and took this region under his control too. It was the military route from Cairo to Damascus during the Crusades.[citation needed]
Mamluk and Ottoman Periods[edit]
The peninsula was governed as part of Egypt under the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt from 1260 until 1517, when the Ottoman Sultan, Selim the Grim, defeated the Egyptians at the Battles of Marj Dabiq and al-Raydaniyya, and incorporated Egypt into the Ottoman Empire. From then until 1906, Sinai was administered by the Ottoman provincial government of the Pashalik of Egypt, even following the establishment of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty's rule over the rest of Egypt in 1805.
The wilderness of Sinai, 1862
British control[edit]
In 1906, the Ottoman Porte formally transferred administration of Sinai to the Egyptian government, which essentially meant that it fell under the control of the United Kingdom, who had occupied and largely controlled Egypt since 1882. The border imposed by the British runs in an almost straight line from Rafah on the Mediterranean shore to Taba on the Gulf of Aqaba. This line has served as the eastern border of Egypt ever since.
Wars with Israel (1948, 56, 67, 67–70, 73)[edit]
Canadian and Panamanian UNEF UN peacekeepers in Sinai, 1974
At the beginning of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Egyptian forces entered the former British Mandate of Palestine from Sinai to support Palestinian and other Arab forces against the newly declared State of Israel. For a period during the war, Israeli forces entered the north-eastern corner of Sinai.[15] With the exception of Palestine's Gaza Strip, which came under the administration of the All-Palestine Government,[16] the western frontier of the former Mandate of Palestine became the Egyptian–Israeli frontier under the 1949 Armistice Agreement. In 1958, the Gaza Strip came under direct Egyptian military administration, though it was governed separately from Sinai, and was never annexed by Egypt. The Egyptian government maintained that Egyptian administration would be terminated upon the end of the conflict with Israel.
In 1956, Egypt nationalised the Suez Canal,[17] a waterway marking the boundary between Egyptian territory in Africa and the Sinai Peninsula. Thereafter, Israeli ships were prohibited from using the Canal,[18] owing to the state of war between the two states. Egypt also prohibited ships from using Egyptian territorial waters on the eastern side of the peninsula to travel to and from Israel, effectively imposing a blockade on the Israeli port of Eilat. Subsequently, in what is known in Egypt as the Tripartite Aggression, Israeli forces, aided by Britain, and France (which sought to reverse the nationalisation and regain control over the Suez Canal), invaded Sinai and occupied much of the peninsula within a few days. Several months later Israel withdrew its forces from Sinai, following strong pressure from the United States and the Soviet Union. Thereafter, the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) was stationed in Sinai to prevent any further conflict in the Sinai.
In 1967, Egypt reinforced its military presence in Sinai and on 16 May ordered the UNEF out of Sinai with immediate effect.[19] Secretary-General U Thant eventually complied and ordered the withdrawal without Security Council authorisation. In the course of the Six-Day War that broke out shortly thereafter, Israel captured the entire Sinai Peninsula, and Gaza Strip from Egypt, the West Bank (including East Jerusalem) from Jordan (which it had ruled since 1949), and the Golan Heights from Syria. The Suez Canal, the east bank of which was now occupied by Israel, was closed. Israel commenced efforts at large scale Israeli settlement in the peninsula.
Following the Israeli conquest of Sinai, Egypt launched the War of Attrition (1967–70) aimed at forcing Israel to withdraw from Egyptian territory. The war saw protracted conflict in the Suez Canal Zone, ranging from limited to large scale combat. Israeli shelling of the cities of Port Said, Ismailia, and Suez on the west bank of the canal, led to high civilian casualties (including the virtual destruction of Suez), and contributed to the flight of 700,000[20] Egyptian internal refugees. Ultimately, the war concluded in 1970 with no change in the front line.[21]
On 6 October 1973, Egypt commenced Operation Badr to retake the Sinai, while Syria launched a simultaneous operation to retake the Golan Heights,[citation needed] thereby beginning the Yom Kippur War (known in Egypt as the October War). Egyptian engineering forces built pontoon bridges to cross the Suez Canal, and stormed the Bar-Lev Line, Israel's defensive line along the canal. Though the Egyptians maintained control of most of the east bank of the Canal, in the later stages of the war, the Israeli military crossed the southern section of Canal, cutting off the Egyptian 3rd Army, and occupied a section of the west bank. The war ended following a mutually agreed-upon ceasefire. After the war, as part of the subsequent Sinai Disengagement Agreements, Israel withdrew from the Canal, with Egypt agreeing to permit passage of Israeli ships. The canal was reopened in 1975, with President Sadat leading the first convoy through the canal aboard an Egyptian destroyer.
1979 Peace Treaty with Israel and aftermath[edit]
Egypt-Israel border. Looking north from the Eilat Mountains
In 1979, Egypt and Israel signed a peace treaty in which Israel agreed to withdraw from the entirety of Sinai. Israel subsequently withdrew in several stages, ending in 1982. The Israeli pull-out involved dismantling almost all Israeli settlements, including the settlement of Yamit in north-eastern Sinai. The exception was the coastal city of Sharm el-Sheikh, which the Israelis had founded as Ofira during the period of their occupation. The Treaty allows monitoring of Sinai by the Multinational Force and Observers, and limits the number of Egyptian military forces in the peninsula.
Early 21st Century security issues[edit]
Since the early 2000s, Sinai has been the site of several terror attacks against tourists, the majority of whom are Egyptian. Investigations have shown that these were mainly motivated by a resentment of the poverty faced by many Bedouin in the area. Attacking the tourist industry was viewed as a method of damaging the industry so that the government would pay more attention to their situation.[22] (See 2004 Sinai bombings, 2005 Sharm El Sheikh bombings and 2006 Dahab bombings). Since the 2011 Egyptian Revolution, unrest has become more prevalent in the area including the 2012 Egyptian-Israeli border attack in which 16 Egyptian soldiers were killed by militants. (See Sinai insurgency).
Also on the rise are kidnappings of refugees. According to Meron Estifanos, Eritrean refugees are often kidnapped by Bedouin in the northern Sinai, tortured, raped, and only released after receiving a large ransom.[23][24]
Under President el-Sisi, Egypt has implemented a rigorous policy of controlling the border to the Gaza Strip, including the dismantling of tunnels between Gaza and Sinai.[25]
Demographics[edit]
Two young Bedouins making bread in the desert
The two governorates of North and South Sinai have a total population of 597,000 (January 2013). This figure rises to 1,400,000 by including Western Sinai, the parts of the Port Said, Ismailia and Suez Governorates lying east of the Suez Canal. Port Said alone has a population of roughly 500,000 people (January 2013). Portions of the populations of Ismailia and Suez live in west Sinai, while the rest live on the western side of the Suez Canal.
Population of Sinai has largely consisted of desert-dwelling Bedouins with their colourful traditional costumes and significant culture.[26] Large numbers of Egyptians from the Nile Valley and Delta moved to the area to work in tourism, but development adversely affected the native Bedouin population.[citation needed] In order to help alleviate their problems, various NGOs began to operate in the region, including the Makhad Trust, a UK charity that assists the Bedouin in developing a sustainable income while protecting Sinai's natural environment, heritage and culture.[citation needed]
Economy[edit]
Dahab in Southern Sinai is a popular beach and diving resort
See also: Tourism in Egypt
Since the Israeli–Egyptian peace treaty, Sinai's scenic spots (including coral reefs offshore) and religious structures have become important to the tourism industry. The most popular tourist destination in Sinai are Mount Sinai (Jabal Musa) and St Catherine's Monastery, which is considered to be the oldest working Christian monastery in the world, and the beach resorts of Sharm el-Sheikh, Dahab, Nuweiba and Taba. Most tourists arrive at Sharm el-Sheikh International Airport, through Eilat, Israel and the Taba Border Crossing, by road from Cairo or by ferry from Aqaba in Jordan.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Isthmus of Suez
Operation Eagle
Multinational Force and Observers
Negev Bedouin
Natural places
Desert of Paran
Mitla Pass
Manmade structures
Biblical Mount Sinai
Nawamis
Wildlife
Sinai leopard
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Definition of Sinai". The Free Dictionary. Retrieved 2014-05-03.
Jump up ^ "Define Sinayi". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2014-05-03.
Jump up ^ "Sinai Peninsula (peninsula, Egypt) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved 14 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "Sinai, Mount". JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 14 January 2012.
Jump up ^ See Biblical Mount Sinai for a fuller discussion.
Jump up ^ "Étude de la turquoise : de ses traitements et imitations" Archived 15 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine., thesis by Claire Salanne, Université de Nantes, 2009.
Jump up ^ Homberg, Catherine and Martina Bachmann, Evolution of the Levant Margin and Western Arabia Platform Since the Mesozoic, The Geological Society of London, 2010, p 65 ISBN 978-1862393066
^ Jump up to: a b Ned Greenwood (1 January 2010). The Sinai: A Physical Geography. University of Texas Press. pp. 4–. ISBN 978-0-292-77909-9.
^ Jump up to: a b The translation "mining country" is not certain, see also Rainer Hannig: Großes Handwörterbuch Ägyptisch-Deutsch : (2800 - 950 v. Chr.). p. 1135.
Jump up ^ http://www.egyptsearch.com/forums/ultimatebb.cgi?ubb=print_topic;f=8;t=008397
Jump up ^ Joseph Davidovits and Ralph Davidovits (2007). "Why Djoser's blue Egyptian faience tiles are not blue? Manufacturing Djoser's faience tiles at temperatures as low as 250 °C?". In Jean Claude Goyon, Christine Cardin. Proceedings of the ninth International Congress of Egyptologists (PDF). 1. Louvain/Paris/Dudley. p. 375.
Jump up ^ Iranchamber
Jump up ^ Schürer, Emil; Millar, Fergus; Vermes, Geza (26 March 2015). The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ:. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 583. ISBN 978-0-567-50161-5.
Jump up ^ Taylor, Jane: Petra And the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans. I. B. Tauris 2001, ISBN 1860645089, p. 73-74 (online copy, p. 73, at Google Books)
Jump up ^ Rogan, Eugene L. and Avi Shlaim, eds. The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948. 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, p. 99, 2007
Jump up ^ Shlaim, Avi (2001). Israel and the Arab Coalition. In Eugene Rogan and Avi Shlaim (eds.). The War for Palestine (pp. 97). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79476-3
Jump up ^ http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/egypt-nationalizes-the-suez-canal
Jump up ^ "1956: Egypt Seizes Suez Canal". BBC. 26 July 1956.
Jump up ^ Samir A. Mutawi (18 July 2002). Jordan in the 1967 War. Cambridge University Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-521-52858-0. Although Eshkol denounced the Egyptians, his response to this development was a model of moderation. His speech on 21 May demanded that Nasser withdraw his forces from Sinai but made no mention of the removal of UNEF from the Straits nor of what Israel would do if they were closed to Israeli shipping. The next day Nasser announced to an astonished world that henceforth the Straits were, indeed, closed to all Israeli ships
Jump up ^ Spencer, Tucker. Encyclopedia or the Arab-Israeli Conflict. p. 175.
Jump up ^ "War of Attrition".
Jump up ^ Serene Assir (23 July 2005). "Shock in Sharm". Al-Ahram Weekly. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Meron Stefanos on the torture houses in north Sinai
Jump up ^ Sound of Torture documentary
Jump up ^ http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/04/egypt-sinai-gaza-tunnels-sanctions-sisi-terrorist.html#
Jump up ^ Leonard, William R. and Michael H. Crawford, The Human Biology of Pastoral Populations, Cambridge University Press, 2002, p. 67 ISBN 978-0521780162
Further reading[edit]
Gardner, Ann. "At Home in South Sinai". Nomadic Peoples 2000. Vol. 4, Iss. 2; pp. 48–67. Detailed account of Bedouin women
H. J. L. Beadnell (May 1926). "Central Sinai". Geographical Journal. 67 (5): 385–398. doi:10.2307/1782203. JSTOR 1782203.
C. W. Wilson (1873). "Recent Surveys in Sinai and Palestine". Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London. 43: 206–240. doi:10.2307/1798627. JSTOR 1798627.
Jacobs, Jessica (2006). "Tourist Places and Negotiating Modernity: European Women and Romance Tourism in the Sinai". In Minca, Claudio; Oakes, Tim. Travels in Paradox: Remapping Tourism. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-2876-5. Retrieved 7 January 2010.
Teague, Matthew; Moyer, Matt (March 2009). "The Sinai's Separate Peace". National Geographic Magazine. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. 215 (3): 99–121. ISSN 0027-9358. Retrieved 7 January 2010.
Jarvis, C.S.,Yesterday and To-day in Sinai (Edinburgh/London: W. Blackwood & Sons, 1931).
New terrorist challenges in the Sinai peninsula, prominent jihadists organisations, Strategic Impact (52), issue: 3 / 2014, pp. 39-47
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sinai Peninsula.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Sinai Peninsula.
Guide to Sinai, covering background information on history, flora, fauna, desert, Bedouin, safaris and geology of Sinai
Sinai Local Magazine
The Complete Guide To: The Sinai, The Independent, 15 March 2008.
Sinai in ancient Egypt
Broadcasting videos from Sinai
Images of the Sinai Desert
IRIN humanitarian news: EU grant to tackle rural poverty in South Sinai
Sinai trekking and safari: route maps and photo archive
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Animals
Related
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Mentioned
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Dhabih Ullah
Isma'il Ṣādiq al-Wa‘d (Fulfiller of the Promise)
Lūṭ (Lot)
Ṣāliḥ
Shu‘ayb (Jethro, Reuel or Hobab?)
Sulaymān ibn Dāwūd (Solomon son of David)
‘Uzair (Ezra?)
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Other names and titles of Muhammad
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Al-Masīḥ (The Messiah)
Ibn Maryam (Son of Mary)
Mūsā Kalīmullāh (Moses He who spoke to God)
Ibrāhīm Khalīlullāh (Abraham Friend of God)
Nūḥ (Noah)
Debatable ones
Dhūl-Qarnain (Cyrus the Great?)
Luqmân
Maryam (Mary)
Ṭâlûṫ (Saul or Gideon?)
Implied
Ermia/Jeremiah
Ṣamû’îl (Samuel)
Yusha' ibn Nūn/Joshua (companion and successor of Musa)
People of Prophets
Mentioned evil ones
Āzar (possibly Terah)
Fir'aun (Pharaoh of Moses)
Hāmān
Jâlûṫ (Goliath)
Qarun/Korah (cousin of Musa/Moses)
As-Sāmirī
Abu Lahab
Specified good ones
Zechariah's wife
Adam's immediate relatives
Martyred son
Wife
Women of Moses
Moses' mother
Sister
Wife
Sister-in-law
Isaac's mother
Zayd
Non-specified good ones
Abiona/Amtelai daughter of Karnebo (mother of Ibrahim)
Bathsheba (wife of Dawud, mother of Sulayman)
Hājar/Hagar (wife of Ibrahim, mother of Isma'il)
Hannah/Anne daughter of Faquz (mother of Maryam, wife of Imran)
Imran/Amram (father of Musa)
Lamech (father of Nuh)
Rāhil/Rachel (wife of Ya'qub, mother of Yūsuf)
Rahma/Dinah (wife of Ayyub)
Shamkha bint Anush/Betenos (mother of Nuh)
Son of Luqman
Implied
Asiyah bint Muzahim/Bithiah (wife of Fir'aun)
Asif ibn Barkhiya (vizier and successor of Sulayman)
Bilquis (Queen of Saba/Sheba)
Believer of Fir'aun Family (Hizbil/Hizqil ibn Sabura)
Benyamin/Benjamin
Habib the Carpenter (believer of Ya-Sin)
Kaleb/Caleb (companion of Yusha')
Khidr
Magicians of Fir'aun
Simon Cephas/Simon Peter
Abrahah
Bal'am/Balaam
Barsisa
Nebuchadnezzar II
Nimrod
Potiphar (Al-Aziz)
Shaddad
Simeon (son of Ya'qub)
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Valid ibn Rayyan (king of Egypt in the account of Yūsuf)
Zuleikha (wife of al-Aziz)
Groups
Mentioned
Aş-ḥāb al-Jannah
People of Paradise
People of the Burnt Garden
Aş-ḥāb as-Sabṫ (Companions of the Sabbath)
Christian apostles
Disciples of Jesus
Companions of Noah's Ark
Aş-ḥāb al-Kahf war-Raqīm (Companions of the Cave and Al-Raqaim?
Companions of the Elephant
People of al-Ukhdūd
People of the City (People of Ya-Sin)
People of Yathrib or Medina
Folk of Dawud
Folk of Lut
Folk of Musa and Harun
Nation of Nuh
Tribes, ethnicities or families
A‘rāb (Arabs or Bedouins)
'Ād (people of Hud)
Companions of the Rass
Qawm Tubba‘ (People of Tubba)
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Quraysh
Thamûd (people of Saleh)
Aṣ-ḥâb al-Ḥijr ("Companions of the Stoneland")
Ajam
Ar-Rûm (literally "The Romans")
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Mu’ṫafikāṫ (The overthrown cities of Sodom and Gomorrah)
People of Ibrahim
People of Ilyas
People of Nuh
People of Shuaib
Ahl Madyan People of Madyan)
Aṣ-ḥāb al-Aykah ("Companions of the Wood")
Qawm Yûnus (People of Jonah)
Ya'juj and Ma'juj/Gog and Magog
Ahl al-Bayṫ ("People of the Household")
Household of Abraham
Brothers of Yūsuf
Daughters of Abraham's nephew Lot (Ritha, Za'ura, et al.)
Progeny of Imran
Household of Moses
Household of Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim
Daughters of Muhammad
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Anṣār Muslims of Medina who helped Muhammad and his Meccan followers, literally 'Helpers')
People of Mecca
Umm Jamil (wife of Abu Lahab)
Children of Ayyub
Dead son of Sulaiman
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Wali'ah or Wa'ilah/Waala (wife of Nuh)
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Yam or Kan'an (son of Nuh)
Implicitly
mentioned
Amalek
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Ahbār (Jewish scholars)
Rabbani/Rabbi
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Polytheists
Meccan polytheists at the time of Muhammad
Mesopotamian polytheists at the time of Abraham and Lot
Locations
Mentioned
Al-Arḍ Al-Mubārakah ("The Land The Blessed")
Al-Arḍ Al-Muqaddasah ("The Land The Holy")
In the Arabian Peninsula (excluding Madyan)
Al-Aḥqāf ("The Sandy Plains," or "the Wind-curved Sand-hills")
Iram dhāṫ al-‘Imād (Iram of the Pillars)
Al-Madīnah (formerly Yathrib)
‘Arafāṫ
Al-Ḥijr (Hegra)
Badr
Ḥunayn
Makkah (Mecca)
Bakkah
Ka‘bah (Kaaba)
Maqām Ibrāhīm (Station of Abraham)
Safa and Marwah
Saba’ (Sheba)
‘Arim Saba’ (Dam of Sheba)
Rass
In Mesopotamia:
Al-Jūdiyy
Munzalanm-Mubārakan ("Place-of-Landing Blessed")
Bābil (Babylon)
Qaryaṫ Yūnus ("Township of Jonah," that is Nineveh)
Door of Hittah
Madyan (Midian)
Majma' al-Bahrain
Miṣr (Mainland Egypt)
Sinai Region or Tīh Desert
Al-Wād Al-Muqaddas Ṭuwan (The Holy Valley of Tuwa)
Al-Wādil-Ayman (The valley on the 'righthand' side of the Valley of Tuwa and Mount Sinai)
Mount Sinai or Mount Tabor
Mu'tafikat (Sodom)
Implied
Antioch
Antakya
Arabia
Ayla
Barrier of Dhul-Qarnayn
Bayt al-Muqaddas & 'Ariha
Bilād ar-Rāfidayn (Mesopotamia)
Canaan
Cave of Seven Sleepers
Dār al-Nadwa
Al-Ḥijāz (literally "The Barrier")
Black Stone (Al-Ḥajar al-Aswad) & Al-Hijr of Isma'il
Cave of Hira & Ghar al-Thawr (Cave of the Bull)
Ta'if
Hudaybiyyah
Jordan River
Nile River
Palestine River
Paradise of Shaddad
Religious locations
Bay'a (Church)
Mihrab
Monastery
Masjid (Mosque, literally "Place of Prostration")
Al-Mash‘ar Al-Ḥarām ("The Monument the Sacred")
Al-Masjid Al-Aqṣā (Al-Aqsa Mosque, literally "The Place-of-Prostration The Farthest")
Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred Mosque of Mecca)
Masjid al-Dirar
A Mosque in the area of Medina, possibly:
Masjid Qubâ’ (Quba Mosque)
The Prophet's Mosque
Salat (Synagogue)
Non-human
physical
entities
Religious texts
Al-Injîl (The Gospel of Jesus)
Al-Qur’ân (The book of Muhammad)
Ṣuḥuf-i Ibrâhîm (Scroll(s) of Abraham)
Aṫ-Ṫawrâṫ (The Torah)
Ṣuḥuf-i-Mûsâ (Scroll(s) of Moses)
Tablets of Stone
Az-Zabûr (The Psalms of David)
Related objects
Forbidden fruit of Adam
Heavenly Food of Christian Apostles
Noah's Ark
Staff of Musa
Tabut al-Sakina (Casket of Shekhinah)
Throne of Bilqis
Trumpet of Israfil
Mentioned idols
(cult images)
'Ansāb
Idols of Israelites:
Baal
The ‘ijl (golden calf statue) of Israelites
Idols of Noah's people:
Nasr
Suwā‘
Wadd
Yaghūth
Ya‘ūq
Idols of Quraysh:
Lāt
Manāṫ
'Uzza
Jibt and Taghut
Events
Battle of al-Aḥzāb ("the Confederates")
Battle of Badr
Battle of Hunayn
Battle of Khaybar
Battle of Tabouk
Battle of Uhud
Conquest of Mecca
Incident of Ifk
Laylat al-Mabit
Mubahala
Sayl al-‘Arim (Flood of the Great Dam of Marib in Sheba)
The Farewell Pilgrimage (Hujja al-Wada')
Treaty of Hudaybiyyah
Umrah al-Qaza
Yawm al-Dār
Implied
The event of Ghadir Khumm
Note: The names are sorted alphabetically. Standard form: Islamic name / Biblical name (title or relationship)
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 162783451
GND: 4104369-8
NDL: 00628596
Coordinates: 29°30′N 33°50′E / 29.500°N 33.833°E / 29.500; 33.833
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sinai_Peninsula&oldid=816580927"
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value: የሲና ልሳነ ምድር – Amharic

value: شبه جزيرة سيناء – Arabic

value: ܣܝܢܝ (ܓܙܪܬܐ ܝܒܫܢܝܬܐ) – Aramaic

value: Синаялъул бащдаб чІинкІиллъи – Avaric

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value: സീനായ് ഉപദ്വീപ് – Malayalam

value: सिनाई द्वीपकल्प – Marathi

value: სინაიშ ჩქონი – Mingrelian

value: سینا جزیره‌مونا – Mazanderani

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