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Boer
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Not to be confused with Boyar.
For the surname, see Boer (surname).
Boer
Boere
Boer family in 1886
Total population
approx. 1.5 million.[1]
Languages
Afrikaans
Religion
Reformed
Related ethnic groups
Afrikaners
Cape Dutch
Cape Coloureds
Basters
Griquas
Boer (/ˈboʊ.ər, bɔːr, bʊər/;[2] Afrikaans: [buːr]) is the Dutch and Afrikaans noun for "farmer", or, as a present tense verb, "to farm". In Afrikaans it still is the only unqualified, context-independent translation of "farmer".[3] In South African contexts, it also denotes the descendants of the then Dutch-speaking settlers of the eastern Cape frontier[4] in Southern Africa during the 18th and much of the 19th century. For a long time the Dutch East India Company controlled this area, but it was eventually taken over by the United Kingdom and incorporated into the British Empire.[5]
In addition, the term also applied to those who left the Cape Colony during the 19th century to settle in the Orange Free State, Transvaal (which are together known as the Boer Republics), and to a lesser extent Natal. They left the Cape primarily to escape British rule and get away from the constant border wars between the British imperial government and the indigenous peoples on the eastern frontier.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Origin
1.1.1 Trekboer
1.2 British involvement
1.2.1 Dislike of British Rule
1.2.2 Slachter's Nek
1.2.3 Sixth Frontier War
1.3 Great Trek
1.4 Anglo-Boer wars
1.5 Boer War diaspora
1.6 Boer Revolt
2 Characteristics
2.1 Culture
2.2 Beliefs
2.2.1 Faith
3 Modern usage
3.1 Politics
3.2 Education
3.3 Media
3.4 Territories
4 Notable Boers
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Origin[edit]
Painting of an account of the arrival of Jan van Riebeeck, by Charles Bell.
The Dutch East India Company had been formed in the Dutch Republic in 1602, and the Dutch had entered keenly into the competition for the colonial and imperial trade of commerce in Southeast Asia. In 1648 one of their ships was stranded in Table Bay, and the shipwrecked crew had to forage for themselves on shore for several months. They were so impressed with the natural resources of the country that on their return to the Republic, they represented to the directors of the company the great advantages to the Dutch Eastern trade to be had from a properly provided and fortified station of call at the Cape. The result was that in 1652, a Dutch expedition led by surgeon Jan van Riebeek constructed a fort and laid out vegetable gardens at Table Bay.
Landing at Table Bay, Van Riebeek took control over Cape Town, the settlement developed during the previous 10 years. In 1671 the Dutch first purchased land from the native Khoikhoi beyond the limits of the fort built by Van Riebeek; this marked the development of the Colony proper. The earliest colonists were for the most part people of low station; but, as the result of the investigations of a 1685 commissioner, the government worked to recruit a greater variety of immigrants to develop a stable community. They formed a class of "vrijlieden", also known as "vrijburgers" (free citizens), former Company employees who remained at the Cape after serving their contracts.[6] A large number of vrijburgers became independent farmers and applied for grants of land, as well as loans of seed and tools, from the Company administration.[6]
More settlers were landed from time to time, including a number of orphan girls from Amsterdam, and during 1688–1689, the colony was greatly strengthened by the arrival of nearly two hundred French Huguenots. Political refugees from the religious wars in France, following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, they were settled at Stellenbosch, Drakenstein, Franschhoek and Paarl.[7] The influence of this small body of immigrants on the character of the Dutch settlers was marked. The Company in 1701 directed that only Dutch should be taught in the schools. This resulted in the Huguenots assimilating by the middle of the 18th century, with a loss to the community in the use and knowledge of French. The little settlement gradually spread eastwards, and in 1754 the country as far as Algoa Bay was included in the colony.
At this time the European colonists numbered eight to ten thousand. They possessed numerous slaves, grew wheat in sufficient quantity to make it a commodity crop for export, and were famed for the good quality of their wines. But their chief wealth was in cattle. They enjoyed considerable prosperity.
Flag of the Dutch East India Company
Through the latter half of the 17th and the whole of the 18th century, troubles arose between the colonists and the government. The administration of the Dutch East India Company was extremely despotic. Its policies were not directed at development of the colony, but to using it to profit the Company. The Company closed the colony against free immigration, kept the whole of the trade in its own hands, combined the administrative, legislative and judicial powers in one body, prescribed to the farmers the nature of the crops they were to grow, demanded a large part of their produce as a kind of tax, and made other exactions.
Trekboer[edit]
From time to time, servants in the direct employment of the company were endowed with the right of "freeburghers"; but the company retained the power to compel them to return into its service whenever they deemed it necessary. This right to force into servitude those who might incur the displeasure of the governor or other high officers was not only exercised with reference to the individuals themselves who had received this conditional freedom; it was claimed by the government to be applicable likewise to the children of all such.
The effect of this tyranny was inevitable: it drove men to desperation. They fled from oppression, and even before 1700 trekking began. In 1780, Joachim van Plettenberg, the governor, proclaimed the Sneeuberge to be the northern boundary of the colony, expressing "the anxious hope that no more extension should take place, and with heavy penalties forbidding the rambling peasants to wander beyond." In 1789, so strong had feeling amongst the burghers become that delegates were sent from the Cape to interview the authorities at Amsterdam. After this deputation, some nominal reforms were granted.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ox-drawn wagons in South Africa.
Descending from the Sneeuberge, a scene near Graaff-Reinet, by Burchell
Passing Cradock Pass, Outeniqua Mountains, by Charles Collier Michell
An aquatint by Samuel Daniell of Trekboers making camp.
Trekboers crossing the Karoo by Charles Davidson Bell
It was largely to escape oppression that the farmers trekked farther and farther from the seat of government. The company, to control the emigrants, established a magistracy at Swellendam in 1745 and another at Graaff Reinet in 1786. The Gamtoos River had been declared, c. 1740, the eastern frontier of the colony; but it was soon passed. In 1780, however, the Dutch, to avoid collision with the warlike Bantu tribes advancing south and west from east central Africa, agreed with them to make the Great Fish River the common boundary. In 1795 the heavily taxed burghers of the frontier districts, who were afforded no protection against the Bantus, expelled the officials of the Dutch East India Company, and set up independent governments at Swellendam and Graaff Reinet.
The Trek Boers of the 19th century were the lineal descendants of the Trek Boers of the 18th century. What they had learnt of government from the Dutch East India Company they carried into the wilderness with them. The end of the 19th century saw a revival of this same tyrannical monopolist policy in the Transvaal. If the formula, “In all things political, purely despotic; in all things commercial, purely monopolist,” was true of the government of the Dutch East India Company in the 18th century, it was equally true of Kruger's government in the latter part of the 19th.
The underlying fact which made the trek possible is that the Dutch-descended colonists in the eastern and northeastern parts of the colony were not cultivators of the soil, but of purely pastoral and nomadic habits, ever ready to seek new pastures for their flocks and herds, and possessing no special affection for any particular locality. These people, thinly scattered over a wide territory, had lived for so long with little restraint from law that when, in 1815, by the institution of “Commissions of Circuit,” justice was brought nearer to their homes, various offences were brought to light, the remedying of which caused much resentment.
A map of the expansion of the Trekboers (1700–1800)
Evolution of the Dutch Cape Colony (1700–1800)
Administrative divisions of the Dutch Cape Colony
Map of the Cape Colony in 1809, early British rule
The Dutch colony prospered to the extent that the Cape Town market for agricultural produce became glutted. With market stagnation and with slaves providing most of the manual labour in the colony, there were few economic opportunities for the burgeoning white population. Eventually more than half of these people turned to the self-sufficient life of the trekboeren (literally “wandering farmers” but perhaps better translated as "dispersed ranchers").
The Boers were hostile toward indigenous African peoples, with whom they fought frequent range wars, and toward the government of the Cape, which was attempting to control Boer movements and commerce. They overtly compared their way of life to that of the Israel patriarchs of the Bible, developing independent patriarchal communities based upon a mobile pastoralist economy. Staunch Calvinists, they saw themselves as the children of God in the wilderness, a Christian elect divinely ordained to rule the land and the backward natives therein. By the end of the 18th century the cultural links between the Boers and their urban counterparts were diminishing, although both groups continued to speak a type of Flemish.[8]
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
British involvement[edit]
In 1795, Holland having fallen under the revolutionary government of France, a British force under General Sir James Henry Craig was sent to Cape Town to secure the colony for the Prince of Orange, a refugee in England , from the French. The governor of Cape Town at first refused to obey the instructions from the prince; but, when the British proceeded to take forcible possession, he capitulated. His action was hastened by the fact that the Khoikhoi, deserting their former masters, flocked to the British standard. The burghers of Graaff Reinet did not surrender until a force had been sent against them; in 1799 and again in 1801 they rose in revolt. In February 1803, as a result of the peace of Amiens (February 1803), the colony was handed over to the Batavian Republic, which introduced many needed reforms, as had the British during their eight years' rule. One of the first acts of General Craig had been to abolish torture in the administration of justice. Still the country remained essentially Dutch, and few British settlers were attracted to it. Its cost to the British exchequer during this period was £16,000,000. The Batavian Republic entertained very liberal views as to the administration of the country, but they had little opportunity for giving them effect.
War having broken out in 1803, a British force was once more sent to the Cape. After an engagement (January 1806) on the shores of Table Bay, the Dutch garrison of Cape Castle surrendered to the British under Sir David Baird, and in 1814 the colony was ceded outright by Holland to the British crown. At that time the colony extended to the line of mountains guarding the vast central plateau, then called Bushmansland, and had an area of about 120,000 sq. m. and a population of some 60,000, of whom 27,000 were whites, 17,000 free Khoikhoi and the rest slaves, mostly imported blacks and Malays.
Dislike of British Rule[edit]
Although the colony was fairly prosperous, many of the Dutch farmers were as dissatisfied with British rule as they had been with that of the Dutch East India Company, though their grounds for complaint were not the same. In 1792 Moravian missions had been established for the benefit of the Khoikhoi, and in 1799 the London Missionary Society began work among both Khoikhoi and Bantus. The missionaries' championing of Khoikhoi grievances caused much dissatisfaction among the majority of the colonists, whose views temporarily prevailed, for in 1812 an ordinance was issued which empowered magistrates to bind Khoikhoi children as apprentices under conditions differing little from that of slavery. Meantime, however, the movement for the abolition of slavery was gaining strength in England, and the missionaries appealed from the colonists to the mother country. An incident which occurred in 1815–1816 did much to make permanent the hostility of the frontiersmen to the British.
Slachter's Nek[edit]
A farmer named Frederick Bezuidenhout refused to obey a summons issued on the complaint of a Khoikhoi, and, firing on the party sent to arrest him, was himself killed by the return fire. This caused a small rebellion, known as Slachters Nek, in 1815, called “the most insane attempt ever made by a set of men to wage war against their sovereign” (Henry Cloete). Upon its suppression five ringleaders were publicly hanged at the spot where they had sworn to expel “the English tyrants.” The feeling caused by the hanging of these men was deepened by the circumstances of the execution , for the scaffold on which the rebels were simultaneously hanged broke down from their united weight and the men were afterwards hanged one by one. An ordinance was passed in 1827, abolishing the old Dutch courts of landroost and heemraden (resident magistrates being substituted) and establishing that henceforth all legal proceedings should be conducted in English. The granting in 1828, as a result of the representations of the missionaries, of equal rights with whites to the Khoikhoi and other free coloured people, the imposition (1830) of heavy penalties for harsh treatment of slaves, and finally the emancipation of the slaves in 1834, were measures which combined to aggravate the farmers' dislike of government. Moreover, the inadequate compensation awarded to slave-owners, and the suspicions engendered by the method of payment, caused much resentment; and in 1835 the farmers again removed to unknown country to escape an unloved government. Emigration beyond the colonial border had in fact been continuous for 150 years, but it now took on larger proportions.
Sixth Frontier War[edit]
Eastern frontier of the colony, c. 1835
Settled colonial area, showing districts established in 1820 (in various shades)
Neutral zone since 1820, as agreed by Lord Somerset and the Gaika (Xhosa)
Tribal areas under British administration
Military forts and district boundaries
The year which witnessed the emancipation of the slaves and the creation of the first treaty state also saw the beginning of another disastrous Frontier war. Fighting began in December 1834, and lasted nearly a year. The Xhosa wrought great havoc; and Sir Benjamin D'Urban, the governor, in order to secure peace, extended the boundary of the colony to the Kei River. The Xhosa had suffered much injustice, especially from the commando-reprisal system, but they had also committed many injustices, and the vacillating policy of the Cape government was largely to blame for the disturbed state of the border. Sir Benjamin's policy , which had support of both Dutch and British colonists , was one of close settlement by whites in certain districts and military control of the Bantus in other regions, and it would have done much to ensure peace.
Lord Glenelg, secretary for the colonies in Lord Melbourne's second administration, held that the Xhosa were in the right in the quarrel, and he compelled D'Urban to abandon the conquered territory, an unwise decision adopted largely on the advice of John Philip and his supporters. By 1836 a critical state had arisen in South Africa. The colonists had lost their slaves, the eastern frontier was in a state of insecurity, the British immigrants of 1820 were still struggling against heavy odds, and the Dutch colonists were in a state of great indignation.[9]
Great Trek[edit]
Main article: Great Trek
The Great Trek occurred between 1835 and the early 1840s. During that period some 12,000 to 14,000 Boers (including women and children), impatient of British rule, emigrated from Cape Colony into the great plains beyond the Orange River, and across them again into Natal and the vastness of the Zoutspansberg, in the northern part of the Transvaal. Those Trekboere who occupied the eastern Cape were semi-nomadic. A significant number in the eastern Cape frontier later became Grensboere ("border farmers") who were the direct ancestors of the Voortrekkers.
Map of the Route of the Dorsland Trekkers (solid line)
Anglo-Boer wars[edit]
Main articles: First Boer War and Second Boer War
Though the Boers accepted British rule without resistance in 1877, they fought two Boer Wars in the late 19th century to defend their internationally recognised independent countries, the republics of the Transvaal (the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek, or ZAR) and the Orange Free State (OFS), against the threat of annexation by the British Crown. This led the key figure in organising the resistance, Paul Kruger, into conflict with the British.[10]
Boer War diaspora[edit]
See also: Boer War diaspora
After the second Anglo-Boer War, a Boer diaspora occurred. Starting in 1903, the largest group emigrated to the Patagonia region of Argentina. Another group emigrated to British-ruled Kenya, from where most returned to South Africa during the 1930s, while a third group under the leadership of General Ben Viljoen emigrated to Mexico and to New Mexico and Texas in the southwestern United States.
Jopie Fourie, executed by firing squad for treason
Boer Revolt[edit]
Main article: Maritz Rebellion
The Maritz Rebellion (also known as the Boer Revolt, the Five Shilling Rebellion or the Third Boer War) occurred in 1914 at the start of World War I, in which men who supported the re-creation of the old Boer republics rose up against the government of the Union of South Africa because they did not want to side with the British against Germany so soon after a long bloody war with the British. Many Boers had German ancestry and many members of the government were themselves former Boer military leaders who had fought with the Maritz rebels against the British in the Second Boer War. The rebellion was put down by Louis Botha and Jan Smuts, and the ringleaders received heavy fines and terms of imprisonment. One, Jopie Fourie, was convicted for treason when, as an officer in the Union Defence Force, he refused to take up arms with the British, and was executed in 1914.
Characteristics[edit]
Painting depicting the Bullock waggons moving over the billowy plains, January 2, 1860.
Culture[edit]
Trekboere crossing the Karoo.
The desire to wander, known as trekgees, was a notable characteristic of the Boers. It figured prominently in the late 17th century when the Trekboere began to inhabit the northern and eastern Cape frontiers, again during the Great Trek when the Voortrekkers left the eastern Cape en masse, and after the major republics were established during the Thirstland (Dorsland) Trek.[11] When one such trekker was asked why he has emigrated he explained, "a drifting spirit was in our hearts, and we ourselves could not understand it. We just sold our farms and set out northwestwards to find a new home."[11] A rustic characteristic and tradition was developed quite early on as Boer society was born on the frontiers of white settlement and on the outskirts of civilisation.[4]
The Boer quest for independence manifested in a tradition of declaring republics, which predates the arrival of the British; when the British arrived, Boer republics had already been declared and were in rebellion from the VOC (Dutch East India Company).[12]
Beliefs[edit]
The Boers of the frontier were known for their independent spirit, resourcefulness, hardiness, and self-sufficiency, whose political notions verged on anarchy but had begun to be influenced by republicanism.[12] Most of the men were also skilled with the use of guns as they would hunt and also were able to protect their families with them.
The Boers had cut their ties to Europe as they emerged from the Trekboer group.[13]
Faith[edit]
Main article: Afrikaner Calvinism
The Boers possessed a distinct Calvinist culture and the majority of Boers and their descendants were members of a Reformed Church. The Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk was the national Church of the South African Republic (1852–1902). The "Orange" in Orange Free State (1854–1902) was named after the Protestant House of Orange in the Netherlands.
The Calvinist influence, in such fundamental Calvinist doctrines such as unconditional predestination and divine providence, remains present in much of Boer culture, who see their role in society as abiding by the national laws and accepting calamity and hardship as part of their Christian duty.[14]
A small number of Boers may also be members of Baptist, Pentecostal or Lutheran Churches.
Modern usage[edit]
During recent times, mainly during the apartheid reform and post-1994 eras, some white Afrikaans-speaking people, mainly with "conservative" political views and of Trekboer and Voortrekker descent, have chosen to be called "Boere", rather than "Afrikaners," to distinguish their identity.[15] They believe that many people of Voortrekker descent were not assimilated into what they see as the Cape-based Afrikaner identity. They suggest that this developed after the Second Anglo-Boer War and the subsequent establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910. Certain Boer nationalists have asserted that they do not identify as a right-wing element of the political spectrum.[16]
They contend that the Boers of the South African Republic (ZAR) and Orange Free State republics were recognised as a separate people or cultural group under international law by the Sand River Convention (which created the South African Republic in 1852),[17] the Bloemfontein Convention (which created the Orange Free State Republic in 1854), the Pretoria Convention (which re-established the independence of the South African Republic 1881), the London Convention (which granted the full independence to the South African Republic in 1884), and the Vereeniging Peace Treaty, which formally ended the Second Anglo-Boer War on 31 May 1902. Others contend, however, that these treaties dealt only with agreements between governmental entities and do not imply the recognition of a Boer cultural identity per se.
The supporters of these views feel that the Afrikaner designation (or label) was used from the 1930s onwards as a means of unifying (politically at least) the white Afrikaans speakers of the Western Cape with those of Trekboer and Voortrekker descent (whose ancestors began migrating eastward during the late 17th century and throughout the 18th century and later northward during the Great Trek of the 1830s) in the north of South Africa, where the Boer Republics were established.[15]
Since the Anglo-Boer war, the term "Boerevolk" was rarely used in the 20th century by the various regimes because of the effort to assimilate the Boerevolk with the Afrikaners. A portion of those who are the descendants of the Boerevolk have reasserted use of this designation.[15]
The supporters of the "Boer" designation view the term "Afrikaner" as an artificial political label which usurped their history and culture, turning "Boer" achievements into "Afrikaner" achievements. They feel that the Western-Cape based Afrikaners – whose ancestors did not trek eastwards or northwards – took advantage of the republican Boers' destitution following the Anglo-Boer War. At that time, the Afrikaners attempted to assimilate the Boers into a new politically based cultural label as "Afrikaners".[18][19][20]
In contemporary South Africa, Boer and Afrikaner have often been used interchangeably. The Boers are the smaller segment within the Afrikaner designation, as the Afrikaners of Cape Dutch origin are more numerous. Afrikaner directly translated means "African," and thus refers to all Afrikaans-speaking people in Africa who have their origins in the Cape Colony founded by Jan Van Riebeeck. Boer is the specific group within the larger Afrikaans-speaking population.[21]
Politics[edit]
Freedom Front Plus
Herstigte Nasionale Party
Front National
National Conservative Party of South Africa
Education[edit]
The BCVO (Movement for Christian-National Education) is a federation of 47 Calvinist private schools, primarily in the Free State and the Transvaal, committed to educating Boer children from grade 0 through to 12.[22]
Media[edit]
Some local Radio stations promote the ideals of those who identify with the Boer people, like Radio Rosestad (in Bloemfontein), Overvaal Stereo and Radio Pretoria. An internet-based radio station, Boerevolk Radio, serves as a mouthpiece for Boer separatists.
Territories[edit]
See also: Volkstaat
Territorial areas in the form of a Boerestaat(Farmer's State) are being developed as settlements exclusively for Boer/Afrikaners, notably Orania in the Northern Cape and Kleinfontein near Pretoria.
Notable Boers[edit]
Voortrekker leaders
Sarel Cilliers
Andries Hendrik Potgieter
Andries Pretorius
Piet Retief
Great trek
Racheltjie de Beer
Dirkie Uys
Marthinus Oosthuizen
Participants in the Second Anglo-Boer War
Koos de la Rey, general and regarded as being one of the great military leaders of the Second Anglo-Boer War.
Danie Theron, soldier
Christiaan Rudolf de Wet, general
Siener van Rensburg, considered a prophet by some.
Politicians
Louis Botha, first prime minister of South Africa (1910–1919) and former Boer general
Petrus Jacobus Joubert, general and cabinet member of the Transvaal Republic
Paul Kruger, president of the Transvaal Republic
Eugene Terre'Blanche, founder of the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging
Spies
Fritz Joubert Duquesne, a Boer Captain known as the Black Panther, served in the Second Boer War. Captured in Mozambique, he escaped prison in Portugal and returned to South Africa as a British officer. In 1901, he was caught planning to sabotage strategic British installations in Cape Town and sentenced to life in prison; however, he escaped and was re-captured several times again throughout his life. In World War I, Duquesne spied for Germany, earning the Iron Cross for allegedly sinking the HMS Hampshire thereby killing Lord Kitchener in 1916. He also served as a Nazi spy in the United States and, in 1941, he was caught by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in the largest espionage case in US history: The Duquesne Spy Ring.
See also[edit]
Boerboel
Boerehaat
Boer goat
Boer music
Great Trek
Natalia Republic
Orange Free State
South African farm attacks
South African Republic
Transvaal Colony
Volkstaat
Voortrekker
Transvaal civil war, 1854 conflict
Notes[edit]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Stürmann, Jan (2005). New Coffins, Old Flags, Microorganisms and the Future of the Boer. Retrieved 2011-12-02.
Jump up ^ Jones, Daniel; Gimson, Alfred C. (1977) [1917]. Everyman's English Pronunciation Dictionary. Everyman's Reference Library (14 ed.). London: J. M. Dent & Sons. ISBN 0-460-03029-9.
Jump up ^ Bosman, D. B.; Van der Merwe, I. W.; Hiemstra, L. W. (1984). Tweetalige Woordeboek Afrikaans-Engels. Tafelberg-uitgewers. ISBN 0-624-00533-X. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Du Toit, Brian M. (1998). The Boers in East Africa: Ethnicity and Identity. p. 1. Retrieved 2011-12-02.
^ Jump up to: a b Trewhella Cameron; S. B. Spies (October 1991). A new illustrated history of South Africa. Southern Book Publishers.
^ Jump up to: a b Hunt, John (2005). Campbell, Heather-Ann, ed. Dutch South Africa: Early Settlers at the Cape, 1652–1708. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 13–35. ISBN 978-1904744955.
Jump up ^ H. C. Viljoen, The Contribution of the Huguenots in South Africa, 25 OCtober 2009
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Online Boer (people)
Jump up ^ Ransford, Oliver. The Great Trek. John Murray. Great Britain. 1972. p. 28.
Jump up ^ Meredith, Martin (2007). Diamonds, Gold, and War: The British, the Boers, and the Making of South Africa. Public Affairs. p. 74. ISBN 978-1-58648-473-6.
^ Jump up to: a b Ransford, Oliver (1973). "13: Epilogue". The Great Trek. Retrieved 2011-12-02.
^ Jump up to: a b Mills, Wallace G. "White Settlers in South Africa to 1870". Archived from the original on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 2 December 2011.
Jump up ^ Ransford, Oliver (1973). "1: Trekboers". The Great Trek. Retrieved 2011-12-02.
Jump up ^ Calvinist Corner. Archived 5 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b c Yolandi Groenewald. "Bang bang – you’re dead", Mail & Guardian Online.
Jump up ^ Dr. Tobias Louw. "Open Letter to the Institute for Security Studies", 1 October 2003
Jump up ^ The Sand River Convention.
Jump up ^ Yolandi Groenewald. Bang bang – you're dead.", Mail & Guardian Online, March 2007
Jump up ^ Sandra Swart. Journal of Southern African Studies. 30.4, Dec 2004 Archived 8 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine..
Jump up ^ Adriana Stuijt (former South African journalist). "Boer, Afrikaner Or White – Which Are You?" 2004.
Jump up ^ Christopher, Riches; Palmowski, Jan (1965). A dictionary of contemporary world history : over 2800 entries. ISBN 9780191802997. OCLC 965506087.
Jump up ^ "Beweging vir Christelik Volkseie Onderwys". Retrieved 2011-12-01.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Boer
Media related to Boers at Wikimedia Commons
"South Africa § III. History". Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 469–81.
"Boer". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
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Boer – Simple English
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text:
Coinage of India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Hoard of mostly Maurya Empire coins.
Outline of South Asian history
Palaeolithic (2,500,000–250,000 BC)[show]
Madrasian Culture
Soanian Culture
Neolithic (10,800–3300 BC)[show]
Bhirrana Culture (7570–6200 BC)
Mehrgarh Culture (7000–3300 BC)
Edakkal Culture (5000–3000 BC)
Chalcolithic (3500–1500 BC)[show]
Ahar-Banas Culture (3000–1500 BC)
Pandu Culture (1600–1500 BC)
Malwa Culture (1600–1300 BC)
Jorwe Culture (1400–700 BC)
Bronze Age (3300–1300 BC)[show]
Indus Valley Civilisation (3300–1300 BC)
– Early Harappan Culture (3300–2600 BC)
– Mature Harappan Culture (2600–1900 BC)
– Late Harappan Culture (1900–1300 BC)
Vedic Civilisation (2000–500 BC)
– Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (2000–1600 BC)
– Swat culture (1600–500 BC)
Iron Age (1200–200 BC)[show]
Vedic Civilisation (1500–500 BC)
– Janapadas (1500–600 BC)
– Black and Red ware culture (1300–1000 BC)
– Painted Grey Ware culture (1200–600 BC)
– Northern Black Polished Ware (700–200 BC)
Pradyota Dynasty (799–684 BC)
Haryanka Dynasty (684–424 BC)
Three Crowned Kingdoms (c. 600 BC–AD 1600)
Maha Janapadas (c. 600–300 BC)
Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC)
Ror Dynasty (450 BC–AD 489)
Shishunaga Dynasty (424–345 BC)
Nanda Empire (380–321 BC)
Macedonian Empire (330–323 BC)
Maurya Empire (321–184 BC)
Seleucid India (312–303 BC)
Pandya Empire (c. 300 BC–AD 1345)
Chera Kingdom (c. 300 BC-AD 1102)
Chola Empire (c. 300 BC–AD 1279)
Pallava Empire (c. 250 BC–AD 800)
Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire (c. 250 BC–c. AD 500)
Parthian Empire (247 BC– AD 224)
Middle Kingdoms (230 BC– AD 1206)[show]
Satavahana Empire (230 BC–AD 220)
Kuninda Kingdom (200 BC–AD 300)
Mitra Dynasty (c. 150 –c. 50 BC)
Shunga Empire (185–73 BC)
Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC–AD 10)
Kanva Empire (75–26 BC)
Indo-Scythian Kingdom (50 BC–AD 400)
Indo-Parthian Kingdom (AD 21–c. 130)
Western Satrap Empire (AD 35–405 )
Kushan Empire (AD 60–240)
Bharshiva Dynasty (170–350)
Nagas of Padmavati (210–340)
Sasanian Empire (224–651)
Indo-Sassanid Kingdom (230–360)
Vakataka Empire (c. 250–c. 500)
Kalabhras Empire (c. 250–c. 600)
Gupta Empire (280–550)
Kadamba Empire (345–525)
Western Ganga Kingdom (350–1000)
Kamarupa Kingdom (350–1100)
Vishnukundina Empire (420–624)
Maitraka Empire (475–767)
Huna Kingdom (475–576)
Rai Kingdom (489–632)
Kabul Shahi Empire (c. 500–1026)
Chalukya Empire (543–753)
Maukhari Empire (c. 550–c. 700)
Harsha Empire (606–647)
Tibetan Empire (618–841)
Eastern Chalukya Kingdom (624–1075)
Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)
Gurjara-Pratihara Empire (650–1036)
Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)
Pala Empire (750–1174)
Rashtrakuta Empire (753–982)
Paramara Kingdom (800–1327)
Yadava Empire (850–1334)
Chaulukya Kingdom (942–1244)
Western Chalukya Empire (973–1189)
Lohara Kingdom (1003–1320)
Hoysala Empire (1040–1346)
Sena Empire (1070–1230)
Eastern Ganga Empire (1078–1434)
Kakatiya Kingdom (1083–1323)
Zamorin Kingdom (1102–1766)
Kalachuris of Tripuri (675-1210)
Kalachuris of Kalyani (1156–1184)
Chutiya Kingdom (1187–1673)
Deva Kingdom (c. 1200–c. 1300)
Late Medieval Period (1206–1526)[show]
Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)
– Mamluk Sultanate (1206–1290)
– Khalji Sultanate (1290–1320)
– Tughlaq Sultanate (1320–1414)
– Sayyid Sultanate (1414–1451)
– Lodi Sultanate (1451–1526)
Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826)
Chitradurga Kingdom (1300–1779)
Reddy Kingdom (1325–1448)
Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646)
Bengal Sultanate (1352–1576)
Garhwal Kingdom (1358–1803)
Mysore Kingdom (1399–1947)
Gajapati Kingdom (1434–1541)
Deccan Sultanates (1490–1596)
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Coinage of India, issued by imperial dynasties and middle kingdoms, began anywhere between 6th century BCE to 1st millennium BCE and consisted mainly of copper and silver coins in its initial stage.[1] Scholars remain divided over the origins of Indian coinage.[2]
Cowry shells was first used in India as commodity money.[3] In recent discoveries punched mark 'Mudras' (coins) of stone have been found in lost city of Dwaraka, which is said to have existed at least 5,000 years ago. The Indus Valley Civilization dates back between 2500 BCE and 1750 BCE.[4] What is known, however, is that metal currency was minted in India well before the Mauryan Empire (322–185 BCE),[5] and as radio carbon dating indicates, before the 5th century BCE.[6]
The practice of minted coins spread to the Indo-Gangetic Plain from West Asia. The coins of this period were called Puranas, Karshapanas or Pana.[7] These earliest Indian coins, however, are unlike those circulated in West Asia, were not disk-shaped but rather stamped bars of metal, suggesting that the innovation of stamped currency was added to a pre-existing form of token currency which had already been present in the Mahajanapada kingdoms of the Indian Iron Age. Mahajanapadas that minted their own coins included Gandhara, Kuntala, Kuru, Panchala, Shakya, Surasena and Surashtra.[8]
The tradition of Indian coinage was further influenced by the coming of Turkic and Mughal invaders in India.[1] The East India Company introduced uniform coinage in the 19th century CE, and these coins were later imitated by the modern nation states of Republic of India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh.[9] Numismatics plays a valuable role in determining certain period of Indian history.[9]
Contents
[hide]
1 Post Maha Janapadas period (600 BCE – 200 BCE)
2 Classical period (300 BCE – 1100 CE)
2.1 Coins of the Mauryas
2.2 Introduction of cast die-struck technique (end of 3rd century BCE)
2.3 Coins of the Indo-Greeks
2.4 Coins of the Sakas and the Pahlavas (200 BCE – 400 CE)
2.5 Coins of Kanishka and Huvishka (100 CE – 200 CE)
2.6 Coinage of the Guptas Empire (320 CE – 480 CE)
2.7 Coinage of the Rajputs (900 CE – 1400 CE)
3 Late Middle Ages – contemporary history (1300 CE – 2000 CE)
3.1 The Alf Coins of King Akbar (1582 CE – 1610 CE)
4 Gallery
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Post Maha Janapadas period (600 BCE – 200 BCE)[edit]
See also: Punch-marked coins
Magadha kingdom, circa 430–320 BCE, Karshapana.
Magadha Kingdom coin, circa 350 BCE, Karshapana.
Punch-marked coins are a type of early Coinage of India, dating to between about the 6th and 2nd centuries BCE.
The first coins in India were minted around the 6th century BCE by the Mahajanapadas of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, and certainly before the invasion of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE. The coins of this period were punch-marked coins called Puranas, Karshapanas or Pana. Several of these coins had a single symbol, for example, Saurashtra had a humped bull, and Dakshin Panchala had a Swastika, others, like Magadha, had several symbols. These coins were made of silver of a standard weight but with an irregular shape. This was gained by cutting up silver bars and then making the correct weight by cutting the edges of the coin.[10]
They are mentioned in the Manu, Panini, and Buddhist Jataka stories and lasted three centuries longer in the south than the north (600 BCE – 300 CE).[11]
Shurasena
Surashtra[12]
Early coins of India (400 BCE – 100 CE) were made of silver and copper, and bore animal and plant symbols on them.[1]
Classical period (300 BCE – 1100 CE)[edit]
Coins of the Mauryas[edit]
The Mauryan Empire coins were punch marked with the royal standard to ascertain their authenticity.[13] The Arthashastra, written by Kautilya, mentions minting of coins but also indicates that the violation of the Imperial Maurya standards by private enterprises may have been an offence.[13] Kautilya also seemed to advocate a theory of bimetallism for coinage, which involved the use of two metals, copper and silver, under one government.[14]
Maurya Empire coinage
Hoard of mostly Mauryan coins.
Silver punch mark coin of the Maurya empire, with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century BCE.[citation needed]
Mauryan coin with arched hill symbol on reverse.[citation needed]
Mauryan Empire coin. Circa late 4th-2nd century BCE.[citation needed]
Mauryan Empire, Emperor Salisuka or later. Circa 207-194 BCE.[15]
Introduction of cast die-struck technique (end of 3rd century BCE)[edit]
Main article: Post-Mauryan coinage
Ancient Indian Coin from Taxila, India, dating back to the 304-232 BC. One of the earliest style coins from ancient India. On the obverse, it has an Elephant advancing right, and on the reverse, a Lion standing left, with hill to left and swastika above.
Punch marked coins were replaced at the fall of the Maurya Empire by cast, die-struck coins.[16] Each individual coins was first cast by pouring a molten metal, usually copper or silver, into a cavity formed by two molds. These were then usually die-struck while still hot, first on just one side, and then later on the two sides. The coin devices are Indian, but it is thought that this coin technology was introduced from the West, either from the Achaemenid Empire or from the neighboring Greco-Bactrian kingdom.[17]
Coins of the Indo-Greeks[edit]
Silver tetradrachm of Indo-Greek king Philoxenus.
Obv: Helmetted, diademed and draped bust of Philoxenus. Greek legend BASILEOS ANIKETOU PHILOXENOU "Of the Invincible King Philoxenus"
Rev: King on prancing horse in military dress. Kharoshti legend MAHARAJASA APADIHATASA PHILASINASA "Undefeatable King Philoxenus".
Coin of Apollodotus I, with a nandipada taurine symbol on the hump of the zebu bull.
Further information: Post-Mauryan coinage of Gandhara
The Indo-Greek kings introduced Greek types, and among them the portrait head, into the Indian coinage, and their example was followed for eight centuries.[18] Every coin has some mark of authority in it, this is what known as "types". It appears on every Greek and Roman coin.[18] Demetrios was the first Bactrian king to strike square copper coins of the Indian type, with a legend in Greek on the obverse, and in Kharoshthi on the reverse.[18] Copper coins, square for the most part, are very numerous. The devices are almost entirely Greek, and must have been engraved by Greeks, or Indians trained in the Greek traditions. The rare gold staters and the splendid tetradrachms of Bactria disappear.[18] The silver coins of the Indo-Greeks, as these later princes may conveniently be called, are the didrachm and the hemidrachm. With the exception of certain square hemidrachms of Apollodotos and Philoxenos, they are all round, are struck to the Persian (or Indian) standard, and all have inscriptions in both Greek and Kharoshthi characters.[18]
Coinage of Indo-Greek kingdom began to increasingly influence coins from other regions of India by the 1st century BCE.[1] By this time a large number of tribes, dynasties and kingdoms began issuing their coins; Prākrit legends began to appear.[1] The extensive coinage of the Kushan empire (1st–3rd centuries CE) continued to influence the coinage of the Guptas (320 to 550 CE) and the later rulers of Kashmir.[1]
During the early rise of Roman trade with India up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India.[19] Gold coins, used for this trade, was apparently being recycled by the Kushan empire for their own coinage. In the 1st century CE, the Roman writer Pliny the Elder complained about the vast sums of money leaving the Roman empire for India:
“ India, China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million sesterces from our empire per annum at a conservative estimate: that is what our luxuries and women cost us. For what percentage of these imports is intended for sacrifices to the gods or the spirits of the dead? - Pliny, Historia Naturalis 12.41.84. ”
The trade was particularly focused around the regions of Gujarat, ruled by the Western Satraps, and the tip of the Indian peninsular in Southern India. Large hoards of Roman coins have been found and especially in the busy maritime trading centers of South India.[20] The South Indian kings reissued Roman-like coinage in their own name, either producing their own copies or defacing real ones in order to signify their sovereignty.[21]
Coins of the Sakas and the Pahlavas (200 BCE – 400 CE)[edit]
Coin of Indo-Scythian Northern Satrap Rajuvula. Obv. Bust of king and Greek legend. Rev. Athena Alkidemos and Kharoshthi legend chatrapasa apratihatachakrasa rajuvulasa "the Satrap Rajuvula whose discus [cakra] is irresistible".The coins are derived from the Indo-Greek types of Strato II.[22]
During the Indo-Scythians period whose era begins from 200 BCE to 400 CE, a new kind of the coins of two dynasties were very popular in circulation in various parts of the then India and parts of central and northern South Asia (Sogdiana, Bactria, Arachosia, Gandhara, Sindh, Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar).[18] These dynasties were Saka and The Pahlavas.After the conquest of Bactria by the Sakas in 135 BCE there must have been considerable intercourse sometimes of a friendly, sometimes of a hostile character, between them and the Parthians, who occupied the neighboring territory.[18]
Maues, whose coins are found only in the Punjab, was the first king of what may be called the Azes group of princes. His silver is not plentiful; the finest type is that with a "biga" (two-horsed chariot) on the obverse, and this type belongs to a square Hemi drachm, the only square aka silver coin known. His most common copper coins, with an elephant's head on the obverse and a "Caduceus" (staff of the god Hermes) on the reverse are imitated from a round copper coin of Demetrius. On another copper square coin of Maues the king is represented on horseback. This striking device is characteristic both of the Saka and Pahlava coinage; it first appears in a slightly different form on coins of the Indo-Greek Hippostratos; the Gupta kings adopted it for their "horseman" type, and it reappears in Medieval India on the coins of numerous Hindu kingdoms until the 14th century CE.[18]
Coins of Kanishka and Huvishka (100 CE – 200 CE)[edit]
Coin of Kanishka in Greek script, with illustration of the Buddha on the reverse.
Kanishka's copper coinage which came into the scene during 100–200 CE was of two types: one had the usual "standing king" obverse, and on the rarer second type the king is sitting on a throne. At about the same time there was Huvishka's copper coinage which was more varied; on the reverse, as on Kanishka's copper, there was always one of the numerous deities; on the obverse the king was portrayed (1) riding on an elephant, or (2) reclining on a couch, or (3) seated cross-legged, or (4) seated with arms raised.
Coinage of the Guptas Empire (320 CE – 480 CE)[edit]
Silver coin of Chandragupta II of Gupta Empire, in the style of the Western Satrap, with pseudo-Greek script on the obverse, 400 CE.
Gold coins of Chandragupta II of Gupta Empire, 400 CE.
The Gupta Empire produced large numbers of gold coins depicting the Gupta kings performing various rituals, as well as silver coins clearly influenced by those of the earlier Western Satraps by Chandragupta II.[1]
The splendid gold coinage of Guptas, with its many types and infinite varieties and its inscriptions in Sanskrit, are the finest examples of the purely Indian art that we possess.[18] Their era starts from around 320 with Chandragupta I's accession to the throne.[18]Son of Chandragupta I-Samudragupta, the real founder of the Gupta Empire had coinage made of gold only.[18] There were seven different varieties of coins that appeared during his reign.[18] Out of them the archer type is the most common and characteristic type of the Gupta dynasty coins, which were struck by at least eight succeeding kings and was a standard type in the kingdom.[18]
The silver coinage of Guptas starts with the overthrow of the Western Satraps by Chandragupta II. Kumaragupta and Skandagupta continued with the old type of coins (the Garuda and the Peacock types) and also introduced some other new types.[18] The copper coinage was mostly confined to the era of Chandragupta II and was more original in design. Eight out of the nine types known to have been struck by him have a figure of Garuda and the name of the King on it. The gradual deterioration in design and execution of the gold coins and the disappearance of silver money, bear ample evidence to their curtailed territory.[18] The percentage of gold in Indian coins under the reign of Gupta rulers showed a steady financial decline over the centuries as it decreases from 90% pure gold under Chandragupta I (319-335) to a mere 75-80% under Skandagupta (467).
Coinage of the Rajputs (900 CE – 1400 CE)[edit]
The coins of various Rajput princes's ruling in Hindustan and Central India were usually of gold, copper or billon, very rarely silver. These coins had the familiar goddess of wealth, Lakshmi on the obverse. In these coins, the Goddess was shown with four arms than the usual two arms of the Gupta coins; the reverse carried the Nagari legend. The seated bull and horseman were almost invariable devices on Rajput copper and bullion coins.[18]
Late Middle Ages – contemporary history (1300 CE – 2000 CE)[edit]
The Alf Coins of King Akbar (1582 CE – 1610 CE)[edit]
Silver coin of Akbar with inscriptions of the Islamic declaration of faith, the declaration reads: "There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah."
Political orders in Medieval India were based on a relationship and association of power by which the supreme ruler, especially a monarch was able to influence the actions of the subjects.[23]
In order for the relationship to work, it had to be expressed and communicated in the best possible way. In other words, power was by nature declarative from the point of view of its intelligibility and comprehensibility to the audience and required modes of communication to take effect by means of which sovereign power was articulated in the 16th century India.[23]
An examination was done of a series of coins officially issued and circulated by the Mughal emperor Akbar (r 1556-1605) to illustrate and project a particular view of time, religion, and political supremacy being fundamental and co-existing in nature.
Coins constitute part of the evidence that project the transmission of religious and political ideas in the last quarter of the 16th century.
The word 'Alf' refers to the millennium.[23] The following are the extraordinary decisions, though bizarre, were taken by King Akbar.
The date in coins were written in words and not in figures.
If the intention was to refer to the year 1000 (yak hazar) of the Islamic calendar (hijri era) as is traditionally believed, the expression adopted for it (Alf) was unorthodox and eccentric.
Akbar, ultimately and more importantly, commanded Alf to be imprinted on the coins in 990 hijri (1582 CE ), or ten years before the date (1000 hijri) was due.
The order was a major departure and extremely unconventional and eccentric from the norm of striking coins in medieval India. Till the advent of Alf, all gold and silver coins had been stuck with figure of the current hijri year.[23]
Akbar's courtier and critic, Abdul Badani, presents and explains in brevity the motive for these unconventional decisions while describing the events that took place in 990 hijri (1582 CE):
And having thus convinced himself that the thousand years from the prophethood of the apostle (B'isat I Paighambar) the duration for which Islam [lit. religion] would last was now over, and nothing prevented him from articulating the desires he so secretly held in his heart, and the space became empty of the theologians (ulema) and mystics (mashaikh) who had carried awe and dignity and no need was felt for them: he [Akbar] felt himself at liberty to refute the principles of Islam and to institute new regulations, obsolete and corrupt but considered precious by his pernicious beliefs. The first order, which was given to write the date Alf on coins (Dar Sikka tank half Navisand) and to write the Tarikh-i-Alfi [history of the millennium] from the demise (Rihlat) of the prophet (Badauni II: 301).[23]
The evidence, both textual and numismatic, actually makes it clear that Akbar's decisions to mint the Alf coins and commission the Tarikh-i-Alfi were based on a new communication and interpretation of the terminal dates of the Islamic millennium.
What the evidence doesn't explain is the source of the idea as well as the reason for persisting with the same date on the imperial coinage even after the critical year had passed.[23]
Gallery[edit]
Queen Kumaradevi and King Chandragupta I on a coin of their son Samudragupta 380 CE.
Gold coin of Gupta era, depicting a Gupta king holding a bow, 300 CE.
Alf coin of king Akbar
Maratha Empire, Chhatrapati Shivaji, Gold hon, c. 1674–80 CE.
Silver Rupee coin of Rudra Simha of Ahom kingdom, 1696 CE.
Maratha Kingdom of Baroda, Sayaji Rao III, 1870 CE.
Gold coin of Raja Raja Chola I, 985–1014 CE.
See also[edit]
Coinage of Asia
History of the rupee
Indian rupee
Modern Indian coins
Pre-modern coinage in Sri Lanka
Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Allan & Stern (2008)
Jump up ^ Dhavalikar (1975)
Jump up ^ Kramer, History Begins at Sumer, pp. 52–55.
Jump up ^ https://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-ancient.html
Jump up ^ Sellwood (2008)
Jump up ^ Dhavalikar, M. K. (1975), "The beginning of coinage in India", World Archaeology, 6 (3): 330-338, Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
Jump up ^ See P.L. Gupta: Coins, New Delhi, National Book Trust, 1996, Chapter II.
Jump up ^ "The COININDIA Coin Galleries: Gandhara Janapada". Coinindia.com. Retrieved 2012-05-22. "The COININDIA Coin Galleries: Kuntala Janapada". Coinindia.com. Retrieved 2012-05-22. "The COININDIA Coin Galleries: Kuru Janapada". Coinindia.com. Retrieved 2012-05-22. "The COININDIA Coin Galleries: Panchala Janapada". Coinindia.com. Retrieved 2012-05-22. "The COININDIA Coin Galleries: Shakya Janapada". Coinindia.com. Retrieved 2012-05-22. "The COININDIA Coin Galleries: Shurasena Janapada". Coinindia.com. Archived from the original on 2012-06-05. Retrieved 2012-05-22. "The COININDIA Coin Galleries: Surashtra Janapada". Coinindia.com. Retrieved 2012-05-22.
^ Jump up to: a b Sutherland (2008)
Jump up ^ Śrīrāma Goyala (1994). The Coinage of Ancient India. Kusumanjali Prakashan.
Jump up ^ "Puranas or Punch-Marked Coins (circa 600 BC – circa 300 AD)". Government Museum Chhennai. Retrieved 2007-09-06.
Jump up ^ http://coinindia.com/galleries-surashtra.html Accessed 06/03/2007
^ Jump up to: a b Prasad, 168
Jump up ^ Prasad, 166
Jump up ^ CNG Coins [1]
Jump up ^ Recent Perspectives of Early Indian History Book Review Trust, New Delhi, Popular Prakashan, 1995, p.151 [2]
Jump up ^ The Coins Of India, by Brown, C.J. p.13-20 [3]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Brown C.J (1992)
Jump up ^ "The Geography of Strabo published in Vol. I of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1917".
Jump up ^ Curtin, 100
Jump up ^ Kulke & Rothermund, 108
Jump up ^ The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans, by John M. Rosenfield, University of California Press, 1967 p.135 [4]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Himanshu, P. R. (2006)
References[edit]
Himanshu Prabha Ray (2006), "Coins in India", ISBN 81-85026-73-4.
Allan, J. & Stern, S. M. (2008), coin, Encyclopædia Britannica.
Agrawal, Ashvini (1989), Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0592-5.
Chaudhuri, K. N. (1985), Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-28542-9.
Curtin, Philip DeArmond etc. (1984), Cross-Cultural Trade in World History, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-26931-8.
Dhavalikar, M. K. (1975), "The beginning of coinage in India", World Archaeology, 6 (3): 330-338, Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
Kulke, Hermann & Rothermund, Dietmar (2004), A History of India, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-32919-1.
Prasad, P.C. (2003), Foreign trade and commerce in ancient India, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 81-7017-053-2.
Sellwood, D. G. J. (2008), coin, Encyclopædia Britannica.
Srivastava, A.L. & Alam, Muzaffar (2008), India, Encyclopædia Britannica.
Sutherland, C. H. V. (2008), coin, Encyclopædia Britannica.
Himanshu, P. R. (2006), Coins in India:Power and Communication, J.J. Bhabha Marg Publication, ISBN 81-85026-73-4.
Brown, C.J. (1992), The Coins of India, Association Press(Y.M.C.A), ISBN 978-81-8090-192-8.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Coins of India.
British India Coins Wiki
Persian & Devanagari Legends on Silver Rupees of India
India Coin News & Forums
Indian Coins Encyclopedia
Reserve Bank of India Monetary Museum (RBI)
Oriental Coins Database at Zeno.ru
Indian Coins-Numismatics Forum - Coins of India
CoinIndia: The Virtual Museum of Indian Coins
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Manu Smriti

value: Edit section: Classical period (300 BCE – 1100 CE)

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value: Edit section: Introduction of cast die-struck technique (end of 3rd century BCE)

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Punch marked coins

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Indo-Greek kingdom

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Kushan empire

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Gupta empire

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Roman trade with India

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value: Edit section: Coins of the Sakas and the Pahlavas (200 BCE – 400 CE)

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Northern Satrap

value: Edit section: Coins of Kanishka and Huvishka (100 CE – 200 CE)

value: Edit section: Coinage of the Guptas Empire (320 CE – 480 CE)

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/wiki/Western_Satrap
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Western Satrap

value: Edit section: Coinage of the Rajputs (900 CE – 1400 CE)

value: Edit section: Late Middle Ages – contemporary history (1300 CE – 2000 CE)

value: Edit section: The Alf Coins of King Akbar (1582 CE – 1610 CE)

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/wiki/Chhatrapati_Shivaji
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Chhatrapati Shivaji

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/wiki/Modern_Indian_coins
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Modern Indian coins

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Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay

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http://bi.maunishshah.com/
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http://inagnum.blogspot.in

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http://www.indiacoinnews.com

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http://www.IndianCoins.org

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http://coinsindia.info

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Indian coinage

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Travancore rupee

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