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History of Buddhism in India
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Indian Buddhists
The Great Stupa at Sanchi, located in Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh is a Buddhist shrine in India
Total population
8,442,972 (0.70%) in 2011[1]
Regions with significant populations
Maharashtra · West Bengal · Madhya Pradesh · Uttar Pradesh · Sikkim · Arunachal Pradesh · Jammu and Kashmir · Tripura · Karnataka
Languages
Marathi • Hindi • Bengali • Sikkimese • Tibetan • Kannada
The Mahabodhi Temple, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is one of the four holy sites related to the life of the Lord Buddha, and particularly to the attainment of Enlightenment. The first temple was built by The Indian Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC, and the present temple dates from the 5th century or 6th century AD. It is one of the earliest Buddhist temples built entirely in brick, still standing in India, from the late Gupta period.[2]
Rock-cut Lord --Buddha-- Statue at Bojjanakonda near Anakapalle of Visakhapatnam dist in AP
Ancient Buddhist monasteries near Dhamekh Stupa Monument Site, Sarnath
Devotees performing puja at one of the Buddhist caves in Ellora Caves.
Buddhism is a world religion, which arose in and around the ancient Kingdom of Magadha (now in Bihar, India), and is based on the teachings of Siddhārtha Gautama[note 1] who was deemed a "Buddha" ("Awakened One"[4]). Buddhism spread outside of Magadha starting in the Buddha's lifetime.
With the reign of the Buddhist Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, the Buddhist community split into two branches: the Mahāsāṃghika and the Sthaviravāda, each of which spread throughout India and split into numerous sub-sects.[5] In modern times, two major branches of Buddhism exist: the Theravāda in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, and the Mahāyāna throughout the Himalayas and East Asia.
The practice of Buddhism as a distinct and organized religion lost influence after the Gupta reign (c.7th century CE), and declined from the land of its origin in around 13th century, but not without leaving a significant impact. Except for Himalayan region and south India, Buddhism almost became extinct in India after the arrival of Islam in late 12th century. Presence of Buddhism is still found in the Himalayan areas such as Sikkim, Ladakh, Arunachal Pradesh, the Darjeeling hills in West Bengal, and the Lahaul and Spiti areas of upper Himachal Pradesh. According to the 2011 census, Buddhists make up 0.7% of India's population, or 8.4 million individuals. Traditional Buddhists are 13% and Navayana Buddhists (Converted or Neo-Buddhists) comprise more than 87% of Indian Buddhist community according to 2011 Census of India.[6][7][8][9][6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Siddhārtha Gautama
2 Buddhists
3 Buddhist movements
3.1 Early Buddhism Schools
3.2 Mahāyāna
3.3 Vajrayāna
4 Strengthening of Buddhism in India
4.1 The early spread of Buddhism
4.2 Aśoka and the Mauryan Empire
4.3 Graeco-Bactrians, Sakas and Indo-Parthians
4.4 Kuṣāna Empire
4.5 The Pāla and Sena era
5 Dharma masters
6 Decline of Buddhism in India
6.1 The Hun invasions
6.2 Turkish Muslim conquerors
6.3 Last surviving Buddhists
6.4 Causes within the Buddhist tradition of the time
7 Revival of Buddhism in India
7.1 Dalit Buddhist movement
7.2 Tibetan Buddhism
7.3 Vipassana movement
8 Status in India
8.1 Census of India, 2011
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Siddhārtha Gautama[edit]
Main article: Gautama Buddha
Buddha was born in Lumbini, in Nepal, to a Kapilvastu King of the Shakya Kingdom named Suddhodana. After asceticism and meditation which was a Samana practice, the Buddha discovered the Buddhist Middle Way—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.
Siddhārtha Gautama attained enlightenment sitting under a pipal tree, now known as the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, India. Gautama, from then on, was known as "The Perfectly Self-Awakened One," the Samyaksambuddha. Buddha found patronage in the ruler of Magadha, emperor Bimbisāra. The emperor accepted Buddhism as personal faith and allowed the establishment of many Buddhist "Vihāras." This eventually led to the renaming of the entire region as Bihar.[10]
At the Deer Park in Sarnath near Vārāṇasī in northern India, Buddha set in motion the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the group of five companions with whom he had previously sought enlightenment. They, together with the Buddha, formed the first Saṅgha, the company of Buddhist monks, and hence, the first formation of Triple Gem (Buddha, Dharma and Sangha) was completed.
For the remaining years of his life, the Buddha is said to have travelled in the Gangetic Plain of Northern India and other regions.
Buddha died in Kushinagar, Uttar Pradesh.[11][12]
Buddhists[edit]
Followers of Buddhism, called Buddhists in English, referred to themselves as Saugata.[13] Other terms were Sakyans or Sakyabhiksu in ancient India.[14][15] Sakyaputto was another term used by Buddhists, as well as Ariyasavako[16] and Jinaputto.[17] Buddhist scholar Donald S. Lopez states they also used the term Bauddha.[18] The scholar Richard Cohen in his discussion about the 5th-century Ajanta Caves, states that Bauddha is not attested therein, and was used by outsiders to describe Buddhists, except for occasional use as an adjective.[19]
Buddhist movements[edit]
The Sattapanni caves of Rajgir served as the location for the First Buddhist Council.
The Northern gateway to the great Stupa of Sanchi.
Gurubhaktulakonda Buddhist Monastery Remnants at Ramatheertham
The Buddha did not appoint any successor, and asked his followers to work toward liberation. The teachings of the Buddha existed only in oral traditions. The Sangha held a number of Buddhist councils in order to reach consensus on matters of Buddhist doctrine and practice.
Mahākāśyapa, a disciple of the Buddha, presided over the first Buddhist council held at Rājagṛha. Its purpose was to recite and agree on the Buddha's actual teachings and on monastic discipline. Some scholars consider this council fictitious.[20]
The Second Buddhist Council is said to have taken place at Vaiśālī. Its purpose was to deal with questionable monastic practices like the use of money, the drinking of palm wine, and other irregularities; the council declared these practices unlawful.
What is commonly called the Third Buddhist Council was held at Pāṭaliputra, and was allegedly called by Emperor Aśoka in the 3rd century BCE. Organized by the monk Moggaliputta Tissa, it was held in order to rid the sangha of the large number of monks who had joined the order because of its royal patronage. Most scholars now believe this council was exclusively Theravada, and that the dispatch of missionaries to various countries at about this time was nothing to do with it.
What is often called the Fourth Buddhist council is generally believed to have been held under the patronage of Emperor Kaniṣka at Jālandhar in Kashmir, though the late Monseigneur Professor Lamotte considered it fictitious.[21] It is generally believed to have been a council of the Sarvastivāda school.
Early Buddhism Schools[edit]
Main article: Early Buddhist Schools
The Early Buddhist Schools were the various schools in which pre-sectarian Buddhism split in the first few centuries after the passing away of the Buddha (in about the 5th century BCE). The earliest division was between the majority Mahāsāṃghika and the minority Sthaviravāda. Some existing Buddhist traditions follow the vinayas of early Buddhist schools.
Theravāda: practised mainly in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Bangladesh.
Dharmaguptaka: followed in China, Korea, Vietnam, and Taiwan.
Mūlasarvāstivāda: followed in Tibetan Buddhism.
The Dharmaguptakas made more efforts than any other sect to spread Buddhism outside India, to areas such as Afghanistan, Central Asia, and China, and they had great success in doing so.[22] Therefore, most countries which adopted Buddhism from China, also adopted the Dharmaguptaka vinaya and ordination lineage for bhikṣus and bhikṣuṇīs.
During the early period of Chinese Buddhism, the Indian Buddhist sects recognized as important, and whose texts were studied, were the Dharmaguptakas, Mahīśāsakas, Kāśyapīyas, Sarvāstivādins, and the Mahāsāṃghikas.[23] Complete vinayas preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon include the Mahīśāsaka Vinaya (T. 1421), Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya (T. 1425), Dharmaguptaka Vinaya (T. 1428), Sarvāstivāda Vinaya (T. 1435), and the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya (T. 1442). Also preserved are a set of Āgamas (Sūtra Piṭaka), a complete Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma Piṭaka, and many other texts of the early Buddhist schools.
Early Buddhist schools in India often divided modes of Buddhist practice into several "vehicles" (yāna). For example, the Vaibhāṣika Sarvāstivādins are known to have employed the outlook of Buddhist practice as consisting of the Three Vehicles:[24]
Śrāvakayāna
Pratyekabuddhayāna
Bodhisattvayāna
Mahāyāna[edit]
Main article: Mahāyāna
Several scholars have suggested that the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, which are among the earliest Mahāyāna sūtras,[25][26] developed among the Mahāsāṃghika along the Kṛṣṇa River in the Āndhra region of South India.[27]
The earliest Mahāyāna sūtras to include the very first versions of the Prajñāpāramitā genre, along with texts concerning Akṣobhya Buddha, which were probably written down in the 1st century BCE in the south of India.[28][29] Guang Xing states, "Several scholars have suggested that the Prajñāpāramitā probably developed among the Mahāsāṃghikas in southern India, in the Āndhra country, on the Kṛṣṇa River."[30] A.K. Warder believes that "the Mahāyāna originated in the south of India and almost certainly in the Āndhra country."[31]
Anthony Barber and Sree Padma note that "historians of Buddhist thought have been aware for quite some time that such pivotally important Mahayana Buddhist thinkers as Nāgārjuna, Dignaga, Candrakīrti, Āryadeva, and Bhavaviveka, among many others, formulated their theories while living in Buddhist communities in Āndhra."[32] They note that the ancient Buddhist sites in the lower Kṛṣṇa Valley, including Amaravati, Nāgārjunakoṇḍā and Jaggayyapeṭa "can be traced to at least the third century BCE, if not earlier."[33] Akira Hirakawa notes the "evidence suggests that many Early Mahayana scriptures originated in South India."[34]
Vajrayāna[edit]
Main article: Vajrayāna
Various classes of Vajrayana literature developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and Saivism.[35] The Mañjusrimulakalpa, which later came to classified under Kriyatantra, states that mantras taught in the Shaiva, Garuda and Vaishnava tantras will be effective if applied by Buddhists since they were all taught originally by Manjushri.[36] The Guhyasiddhi of Padmavajra, a work associated with the Guhyasamaja tradition, prescribes acting as a Shaiva guru and initiating members into Saiva Siddhanta scriptures and mandalas.[37] The Samvara tantra texts adopted the pitha list from the Shaiva text Tantrasadbhava, introducing a copying error where a deity was mistaken for a place.[38]
Strengthening of Buddhism in India[edit]
The early spread of Buddhism[edit]
"During the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E. (Before Common Era), commerce and cash became increasingly important in an economy previously dominated by self-sufficient production and bartered exchange. Merchants found Buddhist moral and ethical teachings an attractive alternative to the esoteric rituals of the traditional Brahmin priesthood, which seemed to cater exclusively to Brahmin interests while ignoring those of the new and emerging social classes." [39]
"Furthermore, Buddhism was prominent in communities of merchants, who found it well suited to their needs and who increasingly established commercial links throughout the Mauryan empire."[40]
"Merchants proved to be an efficient vector of the Buddhist faith, as they established diaspora communities in the string of oasis towns-Merv, Bukhara, Samarkand, Kashgar, Khotan, Kuqa, Turpan, Dunhuang - that served as lifeline of the silk roads through central Asia."[41]
Aśoka and the Mauryan Empire[edit]
Further information: Ashoka the great and Mauryan empire
The Maurya empire reached its peak at the time of emperor Aśoka, who converted to Buddhism after the Battle of Kaliṅga. This heralded a long period of stability under the Buddhist emperor. The power of the empire was vast—ambassadors were sent to other countries to propagate Buddhism. Greek envoy Megasthenes describes the wealth of the Mauryan capital. Stupas, pillars and edicts on stone remain at Sanchi, Sarnath and Mathura, indicating the extent of the empire.
Emperor Aśoka the Great (304 BCE–232 BCE) was the ruler of the Maurya Empire from 273 BCE to 232 BCE.
Buddhist proselytism at the time of king Asoka (260-218 BCE), according to his Edicts.
Aśoka reigned over most of India after a series of military campaigns. Emperor Aśoka's kingdom stretched from South Asia and beyond, from present-day parts of Afghanistan in the north and Balochistan in the west, to Bengal and Assam in the east, and as far south as Mysore.
According to legend, emperor Aśoka was overwhelmed by guilt after the conquest of Kaliṅga, following which he accepted Buddhism as personal faith with the help of his Brahmin mentors Rādhāsvāmī and Mañjūśrī. Aśoka established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Śakyamuni Buddha, and according to Buddhist tradition was closely involved in the preservation and transmission of Buddhism.[42]
Graeco-Bactrians, Sakas and Indo-Parthians[edit]
Menander was the most famous Bactrian king. He ruled from Taxila and later from Sagala (Sialkot). He rebuilt Taxila (Sirkap) and Puṣkalavatī. He became Buddhist and is remembered in Buddhists records due to his discussions with a great Buddhist philosopher in the book Milinda Pañha.
The Ardoxsho and Pharro, 3rd century AD, Takht-i Bahi, Gandhāra, British Museum. Found on Kushan and Gupta coins, they may be Buddhist, Hindu or Persian deities.[43]
By 90 BC, Parthians took control of eastern Iran and around 50 BC put an end to last remnants of Greek rule in Afghanistan. By around 7 AD, an Indo-Parthian dynasty succeeded in taking control of Gandhāra. Parthians continued to support Greek artistic traditions in Gandhara. The start of the Gandhāran Greco-Buddhist art is dated to the period between 50 BC and 75 AD.
Kuṣāna Empire[edit]
The Kushan Empire under emperor Kaniṣka ruled the strongly Buddhist region of Gandhāra as well as other parts of northern India, Afghanistan and Pakistan. Kushan rulers were supporters of Buddhist institutions, and built numerous stupas and monasteries. During this period, Gandharan Buddhism spread through the trade routes protected by the Kushans, out through the Khyber pass into Central Asia. Gandharan Buddhist art styles also spread outward from Gandhāra to other parts of Asia.
The Pāla and Sena era[edit]
Under the rule of the Pāla and Sena kings, large mahāvihāras flourished in what is now Bihar and Bengal. According to Tibetan sources, five great Mahāvihāras stood out: Vikramashila, the premier university of the era; Nālanda, past its prime but still illustrious, Somapura, Odantapurā, and Jaggadala.[44] The five monasteries formed a network; "all of them were under state supervision" and their existed "a system of co-ordination among them . . it seems from the evidence that the different seats of Buddhist learning that functioned in eastern India under the Pāla were regarded together as forming a network, an interlinked group of institutions," and it was common for great scholars to move easily from position to position among them.[45]
According to Damien Keown, the kings of the Pala dynasty (8th to 12th century, Gangetic plains region) were a major supporter of Buddhism, various Buddhist and Hindu arts, and the flow of ideas between India, Tibet and China:[46][47]
During this period [Pala dynasty] Mahayana Buddhism reached its zenith of sophistication, while tantric Buddhism flourished throughout India and surrounding lands. This was also a key period for the consolidation of the epistemological-logical (pramana) school of Buddhist philosophy. Apart from the many foreign pilgrims who came to India at this time, especially from China and Tibet, there was a smaller but important flow of Indian pandits who made their way to Tibet...
—  Damien Keown, [46]
Dharma masters[edit]
Bodhidharma, woodblock print by Yoshitoshi, 1887
Indian ascetics (Skt. śramaṇa) propagated Buddhism in various regions, including East Asia and Central Asia.
In the Edicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period as a recipient of his Buddhist proselytism.[48] The Mahavamsa describes emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, as leading Greek ("Yona") Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism.[49]).
Roman Historical accounts describe an embassy sent by the "Indian king Pandion (Pandya?), also named Porus," to Caesar Augustus around the 1st century. The embassy was travelling with a diplomatic letter in Greek, and one of its members was a sramana who burned himself alive in Athens, to demonstrate his faith. The event made a sensation and was described by Nicolaus of Damascus, who met the embassy at Antioch, and related by Strabo (XV,1,73)[50] and Dio Cassius (liv, 9). A tomb was made to the sramana, still visible in the time of Plutarch, which bore the mention:
("The sramana master from Barygaza in India")
Lokaksema is the earliest known Buddhist monk to have translated Mahayana Buddhist scriptures into the Chinese language. Gandharan monks Jnanagupta and Prajna contributed through several important translations of Sanskrit sutras into Chinese language.
The Indian dhyana master Buddhabhadra was the founding abbot and patriarch[51] of the Shaolin Temple. Buddhist monk and esoteric master from South India (6th century), Kanchipuram is regarded as the patriarch of the Ti-Lun school. Bodhidharma (c. 6th century) was the Buddhist Bhikkhu traditionally credited as the founder of Zen Buddhism in China.[52]
In 580, Indian monk Vinītaruci travelled to Vietnam. This, then, would be the first appearance of Vietnamese Zen, or Thien Buddhism.
Guru Rinpoche, the patron saint of Sikkim. The 118 foot statue in Namchi, South Sikkim, is the tallest statue of the saint in the world.
Padmasambhava, in Sanskrit meaning "lotus-born", is said to have brought Tantric Buddhism to Tibet in the 8th century. In Bhutan and Tibet he is better known as "Guru Rinpoche" ("Precious Master") where followers of the Nyingma school regard him as the second Buddha. Śāntarakṣita, abbot of Nālanda and founder of the Yogacara-Madhyamaka is said to have helped Padmasambhava establish Buddhism in Tibet.
Indian monk Atiśa, holder of the mind training (Tib. lojong) teachings, is considered an indirect founder of the Geluk school of Tibetan Buddhism. Indian monks, such as Vajrabodhi, also travelled to Indonesia to propagate Buddhism.
Decline of Buddhism in India[edit]
Further information: Decline of Buddhism in India
General Ikhtiar Uddin Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khilji sacked the great Buddhist shrines at Nālanda.[53]
The decline of Buddhism has been attributed to various factors. Regardless of the religious beliefs of their kings, states usually treated all the important sects relatively even-handedly.[54] This consisted of building monasteries and religious monuments, donating property such as the income of villages for the support of monks, and exempting donated property from taxation. Donations were most often made by private persons such as wealthy merchants and female relatives of the royal family, but there were periods when the state also gave its support and protection. In the case of Buddhism, this support was particularly important because of its high level of organization and the reliance of monks on donations from the laity. State patronage of Buddhism took the form of land grant foundations.[55]
Numerous copper plate inscriptions from India as well as Tibetan and Chinese texts suggest that the patronage of Buddhism and Buddhist monasteries in medieval India was interrupted in periods of war and political change, but broadly continued in Hindu kingdoms from the start of the common era through early 2nd millennium CE.[56][57][58] Modern scholarship and recent translations of Tibetan and Sanskrit Buddhist text archives, preserved in Tibetan monasteries, suggest that through much of 1st millennium CE in medieval India (and Tibet as well as other parts of China), Buddhist monks owned property and were actively involved in trade and other economic activity, after joining a Buddhist monastery.[59][60]
With the Gupta dynasty (~4th to 6th century), the growth in ritualistic Mahayana Buddhism, mutual influence between Hinduism and Buddhism,[61] the differences between Buddhism and Hinduism blurred, and Vaishnavism, Shaivism and other Hindu traditions became increasingly popular, and Brahmins developed a new relationship with the state.[62] As the system grew, Buddhist monasteries gradually lost control of land revenue. In parallel, the Gupta kings built Buddhist temples such as the one at Kushinagara,[63][64] and monastic universities such as those at Nalanda, as evidenced by records left by three Chinese visitors to India.[65][66][67]
According to Hazra, Buddhism declined in part because of the rise of the Brahmins and their influence in socio-political process.[68] According to Randall Collins, Richard Gombrich and other scholars, Buddhism's rise or decline is not linked to Brahmins or the caste system, since Buddhism was "not a reaction to the caste system", but aimed at the salvation of those who joined its monastic order.[69][70][71]
The 11th century Persian traveller Al-Biruni writes that there was 'cordial hatred' between the Brahmins and Sramana Buddhists.[72] Buddhism was also weakened by rival Hindu philosophies such as Advaita Vedanta, growth in temples and an innovation of the bhakti movement. Advaita Vedanta proponent Adi Shankara is believed to have "defeated Buddhism" and established Hindu supremacy. This rivalry undercut Buddhist patronage and popular support.[73] The period between 400 CE and 1000 CE thus saw gains by the Vedanta school of Hinduism over Buddhism[74] and Buddhism had vanished from Afghanistan and north India by early 11th century. India was now Brahmanic, not Buddhistic; Al-Biruni could never find a Buddhistic book or a Buddhist person in India from whom he could learn.[75]
According to some scholars such as Lars Fogelin, the decline of Buddhism may be related to economic reasons, wherein the Buddhist monasteries with large land grants focussed on non-material pursuits, self-isolation of the monasteries, loss in internal discipline in the sangha, and a failure to efficiently operate the land they owned.[58][76]
The Hun invasions[edit]
Chinese scholars travelling through the region between the 5th and 8th centuries, such as Faxian, Xuanzang, I-ching, Hui-sheng, and Sung-Yun, began to speak of a decline of the Buddhist Sangha, especially in the wake of the Hun invasion from central Asia.[77] Xuanzang, the most famous of Chinese travellers, found “millions of monasteries” in north-western India reduced to ruins by the Huns.[77][78]
Turkish Muslim conquerors[edit]
The Muslim conquest of the Indian subcontinent was the first great iconoclastic invasion into South Asia.[79] By the end of twelfth century, Buddhism had mostly disappeared,[77][80] with the destruction of monasteries and stupas in medieval northwest and western India (now Pakistan and north India).[81]
In the north-western parts of medieval India, the Himalayan regions, as well regions bordering central Asia, Buddhism once facilitated trade relations, states Lars Fogelin. With the Islamic invasion and expansion, and central Asians adopting Islam, the trade route-derived financial support sources and the economic foundations of Buddhist monasteries declined, on which the survival and growth of Buddhism was based.[76][82] The arrival of Islam removed the royal patronage to the monastic tradition of Buddhism, and the replacement of Buddhists in long-distance trade by the Muslims eroded the related sources of patronage.[81][82]
In the Gangetic plains, Orissa, northeast and the southern regions of India, Buddhism survived through the early centuries of the 2nd millennium CE.[76] The Islamic invasion plundered wealth and destroyed Buddhist images,[83] and consequent take over of land holdings of Buddhist monasteries removed one source of necessary support for the Buddhists, while the economic upheaval and new taxes on laity sapped the laity support of Buddhist monks.[76]
Monasteries and institutions such as Nalanda were abandoned by Buddhist monks around 1200 CE, who flee to escape the invading Muslim army, after which the site decayed over the Islamic rule in India that followed.[84][85]
The last empire to support Buddhism, the Pala dynasty, fell in the 12th century, and Muslim invaders destroyed monasteries and monuments.[77] According to Randall Collins, Buddhism was already declining in India before the 12th century, but with the pillage by Muslim invaders it nearly became extinct in India in the 1200s.[86] In the 13th century, states Craig Lockard, Buddhist monks in India escaped to Tibet to escape Islamic persecution;[87] while the monks in western India, states Peter Harvey, escaped persecution by moving to south Indian Hindu kingdoms that were able to resist the Muslim power.[88]
Last surviving Buddhists[edit]
See also: Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent § Survival_of_Buddhism_in_India
Many Indian Buddhists fled south. It is known that Buddhists continued to exist in India even after the 14th century from texts such as the Chaitanya Charitamrita. This text outlines an episode in the life of Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1533), a Vaisnava saint, who was said to have entered into a debate with Buddhists in Tamil Nadu.[89]
The Tibetan Taranatha (1575–1634) wrote a history of Indian Buddhism, which mentions Buddhism as having survived in some pockets of India during his time.[90] He mentions the Buddhist sangh as having survived in Konkana, Kalinga, Mewad, Chittor, Abu, Saurastra, Vindhya mountains, Ratnagiri, Karnataka etc. A Jain author Gunakirti (1450-1470) wrote a Marathi text, Dhamramrita,[91] where he gives the names of 16 Buddhist orders. Dr. Johrapurkar noted that among them, the names Sataghare, Dongare, Navaghare, Kavishvar, Vasanik and Ichchhabhojanik still survive in Maharashtra as family names.[92]
Buddhism also survived to the modern era in the Himalayan regions such as Ladakh, with close ties to Tibet.[93] A unique tradition survives in Nepal's Newar Buddhism.
Abul Fazl, the courtier of Mughal emperor Akbar, states, "For a long time past scarce any trace of them (the Buddhists) has existed in Hindustan." When he visited Kashmir in 1597 he met with a few old men professing Buddhism, however he 'saw none among the learned'. This is can also be seen from the fact that Buddhist priests were not present amidst learned divines that came to the Ibadat Khana of Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri.[94]
Causes within the Buddhist tradition of the time[edit]
Some scholars suggest that a part of the decline of Buddhist monasteries was because it was detached from everyday life in India and did not participate in the ritual social aspects such as the rites of passage (marriage, funeral, birth of child) like other religions.[81]
Revival of Buddhism in India[edit]
The Mahabodhi temple as it appeared in 1899, shortly after its restoration in the 1880s
MahaBodhi Mulagandhakuti Buddhist Temple at Sarnath
Deekshabhoomi monument, located in Nagpur, Maharashtra where B. R. Ambedkar converted to Buddhism in 1956 is the largest stupa in Asia.[95]
See also: Maha Bodhi Society and Anagarika Dharmapala
The modern revival of Buddhism in India began in the late nineteenth century, led by Buddhist modernist institutions such as the Maha Bodhi Society (1891), the Bengal Buddhist Association (1892) and the Young Men's Buddhist Association (1898). These institutions were influenced by modernist South Asian Buddhist currents such as Sri Lankan Buddhist modernism as well as Western Oriental scholarship and spiritual movements like Theosophy.[96] A central figure of this movement was Sri Lankan Buddhist leader Anagarika Dharmapala, who founded the Maha Bodhi Society in 1891.[97] An important focus of the Maha Bodhi Society's activities in India became the recovery, conservation and restoration of important Buddhist sites, such as Bodh Gaya and its Mahabodhi temple.[96] Dharmapāla and the society promoted the building of Buddhist vihāras and temples in India, including the one at Sarnath, the place of Buddha's first sermon. He died in 1933, the same year he was ordained a bhikkhu.[98]
Following Indian independence, India's ancient Buddhist heritage became an important element for nation building, and prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru looked to the Mauryan empire for symbols of pan-Indian unity which were neither Hindu nor Muslim, such as the Dharmacakra.[99] Indian Buddhist sites also received Indian government support in preparation for the 2,500th Buddha Jayanti held in 1956, as well as providing rent free land in several pilgrimage centers for Asian Buddhist groups to build temples and rest houses.[100]
Important Indian Buddhist intellectuals of the modern period include Rahul Sankrityayan (1893-1963), Dharmanand Kosambi (1876-1941) and Bhadant Anand Kausalyayan.[101] The Bengal Buddhist Kripasaran Mahasthavir (1865-1926) founded the Bengal Buddhist Association in 1892. In Tamil Nadu, the Tamil Iyothee Thass (1845-1914) was a major figure who promoted Buddhism and called the Paraiyars to convert.[102]
The Indian government and the states have continued to promote the development of Buddhist pilgrimage sites ("the Buddhist Circuit"), both as a source of tourism and as a promotion of India's Buddhist heritage which is an important cultural resource for India's foreign diplomatic ties.[103] Another recent development is the establishment of the new Nalanda University in Bihar (2010).[104]
Dalit Buddhist movement[edit]
Main articles: Dalit Buddhist movement and Navayana
In the 1950s, the Dalit political leader B. R. Ambedkar (1891-1956) influenced by his reading of Pali sources and Indian Buddhists like Dharmanand Kosambi and Lakshmi Narasu, began promoting conversion to Buddhism for Indian low caste Dalits.[100] His Dalit Buddhist Movement was most successful in the Indian states of Maharashtra, which saw large scale conversions.[100] Ambedkar's "Neo Buddhism" included a strong element of social and political protest against Hinduism and the Indian caste system.[105] His magnum opus, The Buddha and His Dhamma, incorporated Marxist ideas of class struggle into Buddhist views of dukkha and argued that Buddhist morality could be used to "reconstruct society and to build up a modern, progressive society of justice, equality, and freedom".[105]
The conversion movement has generally been limited to certain social demographics, such as the Mahar caste of Maharashtra and the Jatavs.[105] Although they have renounced Hinduism in practice, a community survey showed adherence to many practices of the old faith including endogamy, worshipping the traditional family deity etc.[106]
A major organization of this movement is the Triratna Bauddha Mahasangha.[107]
Tibetan Buddhism[edit]
Tibetan Library, Dharamsala
Tibetan Buddhism has also grown in India during the modern era, mainly due to the growth of the Tibetan Diaspora. The arrival of the 14th Dalai Lama with over 85, 000 Tibetan refugees 1959 had a significant impact on the revival of Buddhism in India.[108] Large numbers of Tibetans settled in Dharamsala, Himachal Pradesh, which became the headquarters of the Tibetan Government in Exile. Another large Tibetan refugee settlement is in Bylakuppe, Karnataka. Tibetan refugees also contributed to the revitalization of the Buddhist traditions in Himalayan regions such as Lahaul and Spiti district, Ladakh, Tawang and Bomdila.[108] Tibetan Buddhists have also contributed to the building of temples and institutions in the Buddhist sites and ruins of India.[109]
The Dalai Lama's brother, Gyalo Thondup, himself lives in Kalimpong and his wife established the Tibetan Refugee Centre in Darjeeling [1]. The 17th Karmapa also arrived in India in 2000 and continues education and has taken traditional role to head Karma Kagyu sect of Tibetan Buddhism and every year leads the Kagyu Monlam in Bodh Gaya attended by thousands of monks and followers. Palpung Sherabling monastery seat of the 12th Tai Situpa located in Kangra, Himachal Pradesh is the largest Kagyu monastery in India and has become an important centre of Tibetan Buddhism. Penor Rinpoche, the head of Nyingma, the ancient school of Tibetan Buddhism re-established a Nyingma monastery in Bylakuppe, Mysore. This is the largest Nyingma monastery today. Monks from Himalayan regions of India, Nepal, Bhutan and from Tibet join this monastery for their higher education. Penor Rinpoche also founded Thubten Lekshey Ling, a dharma center for lay practitioners in Bangalore. Vajrayana Buddhism and Dzogchen (maha-sandhi) meditation again became accessible to aspirants in India after that.
Vipassana movement[edit]
Global Vipassana Pagoda
The Vipassana movement is a modern tradition of Buddhist meditation practice. In India, the most influential Vipassana organization is the Vipassana Research Institute founded by S.N. Goenka (1924-2013) who promoted Buddhist Vipassana meditation in a modern and non-sectarian manner.[110] Goenka's network of meditation centers who offered 10 day retreats. Many institutions—both government and private sector—now offer courses for their employees.[111] This form is mainly practiced by elite and middle class Indians. This movement has spread to many other countries in Europe, America and Asia. In November 2008, the construction of the Global Vipassana Pagoda was completed on the outskirts of Mumbai.
Status in India[edit]
District wise Buddhist population percentage, India census 2011
According to the 2011 Census of India there are 8.4 million Buddhists in India but Buddhist leaders claim there are about 50 to 60 million Buddhists in India.[112] Maharashtra has the highest number of Buddhists in India, with 5.81 % of the total population.[113][114] Almost 90 per cent of Navayana or Neo-Buddhists live in the state.
[show]Buddhist population growth
Census
Pop.
%±
1951 180,823
—
1961 3,250,227 1697.5%
1971 3,812,325 17.3%
1981 4,720,000 23.8%
1991 6,388,000 35.3%
2001 7,955,207 24.5%
2011 8,442,972 6.1%
Source:Census of India
In the 1951 census of India, 1.81 lakh (0.05%) respondents said they were Buddhist. The 1961 census, taken after B. R. Ambedkar adopted Navayana Buddhism with his millions of followers in 1956, showed an increased to 3.2 million (0.74%).
Census of India, 2011[edit]
States having more than 100,000 Buddhists in 2011 India Census[115]
State
Buddhist Population (approximate)
Buddhist Population (%)
% of total Buddhists
Maharashtra 6,531,200 5.81% 77.36%
West Bengal 282,898 0.31% 3.35%
Madhya Pradesh 216,052 0.30% 2.56%
Uttar Pradesh 206,285 0.10% 2.44%
Sikkim 167,216 27.39% 1.98%
Arunachal Pradesh 162,815 11.77% 1.93%
Tripura 125,385 3.41% 1.49%
Jammu and Kashmir 112,584 0.90% 1.33%
See also[edit]
Buddhism portal
Indian religions portal
India portal
Religion in India
Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ born as a prince of the ancient Kapilavastu kingdom now in Lumbini of Nepal),[3]
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Akira Hirakawa, Paul Groner, A history of Indian Buddhism: from Śākyamuni to early Mahāyāna. Reprint published by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1993, page 2.
^ Jump up to: a b https://www.thequint.com/india/2017/06/17/dalits-converting-to-buddhism
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Jump up ^ India by Stanley Wolpert (Page 32)
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Jump up ^ Kevin Trainor (2004). Buddhism: The Illustrated Guide. Oxford University Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-19-517398-7.
Jump up ^ P. 178 The Vision of Dhamma: Buddhist Writings of Nyanaponika Thera By Nyanaponika (Thera), Erich Fromm
Jump up ^ Beyond Enlightenment: Buddhism, Religion, Modernity by Richard Cohen. Routledge 1999. ISBN 0-415-54444-0. pg 33. "Donors adopted Sakyamuni Buddha’s family name to assert their legitimacy as his heirs, both institutionally and ideologically. To take the name of Sakya was to define oneself by one’s affiliation with the Buddha, somewhat like calling oneself a Buddhist today.
Jump up ^ Sakya or Buddhist Origins by Caroline Rhys Davids (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1931) pg 1. "Put away the word “Buddhism” and think of your subject as “Sakya.” This will at once place you for your perspective at a true point . . You are now concered to learn less about 'Buddha' and 'Buddhism,' and more about him whom India has ever known as Sakya-muni, and about his men who, as their records admit, were spoken of as the Sakya-sons, or men of the Sakyas."
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Jump up ^ Beyond Enlightenment: Buddhism, Religion, Modernity by Richard Cohen. Routledge 1999. ISBN 0-415-54444-0. pg 33. Quote: [Bauddha is] "a secondary derivative of Buddha, in which the vowel’s lengthening indicates connection or relation. Things that are bauddha pertain to the Buddha, just as things-saiva relate to Shiva and things-Vaisnava belong to Vishnu. (...) bauddha can be both adjectival and nominal; it can be used for doctrines spoken by the Buddha, objects enjoyed by him, texts attributed to him, as well as individuals, communities, and societies that offer him reverence or accept ideologies certified through his name. Strictly speaking, Sakya is preferable to bauddha since the latter is not attested at Ajanta. In fact, as a collective noun, bauddha is an outsider’s term. The bauddha did not call themselves this in India, though they did sometimes use the word adjectivally (e.g., as a possessive, the Buddha’s)."
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Jump up ^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993). A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: pp. 253, 263, 268
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Jump up ^ Guang Xing. The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory. 2004. pp. 65–66
Jump up ^ Warder, A.K. Indian Buddhism. 2000. p. 313
Jump up ^ Padma, Sree. Barber, Anthony W. Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra. SUNY Press 2008, pg. 1.
Jump up ^ Padma, Sree. Barber, Anthony W. Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra. SUNY Press 2008, pg. 2.
Jump up ^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993. A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: p. 252, 253
Jump up ^ Sanderson, Alexis. "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period." In: Genesis and Development of Tantrism,edited by Shingo Einoo. Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 2009. Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series, 23, pp. 124.
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Jump up ^ "The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas (5,400-9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pāṇḍyas, and as far as Tāmraparṇi." (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika)
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Jump up ^ Hajime Nakamura (1980). Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 145–148 with footnotes. ISBN 978-81-208-0272-8.
Jump up ^ Akira Shimada (2012). Early Buddhist Architecture in Context: The Great Stūpa at Amarāvatī (ca. 300 BCE-300 CE). BRILL Academic. pp. 200–204. ISBN 978-90-04-23326-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Gregory Schopen (1997). Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks: Collected Papers on the Archaeology, Epigraphy, and Texts of Monastic Buddhism in India. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 259–278. ISBN 978-0-8248-1870-8.
Jump up ^ Gregory Schopen (2004). Buddhist Monks and Business Matters: Still More Papers on Monastic Buddhism in India. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 1–16. ISBN 978-0-8248-2774-8.
Jump up ^ Huaiyu Chen (2007). The Revival of Buddhist Monasticism in Medieval China. Peter Lang. pp. 132–149. ISBN 978-0-8204-8624-6.
Jump up ^ History and life: the world and its people, Patricia Gutierrez, T. Walter Wallbank, p. 67-69, In time, Indian Buddhism became so much like Hinduism that it was looked upon as a sect of Hinduism. This ans. i caused a steady decline.
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Jump up ^ Gina Barns (1995). "An Introduction to Buddhist Archaeology". World Archaeology. 27 (2): 166–168. doi:10.1080/00438243.1995.9980301.
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Jump up ^ Christopher S. Queen; Sallie B. King (1996). Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia. State University of New York Press. pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-0-7914-2844-3.
Jump up ^ Richard Gombrich (2012). Buddhist Precept & Practice. Routledge. pp. 344–345. ISBN 978-1-136-15623-6.
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Jump up ^ Randall Collins, The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change. Harvard University Press, 2000, pages=189, 190.
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^ Jump up to: a b c d Lars Fogelin (2015). An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism. Oxford University Press. pp. 229–230. ISBN 978-0-19-994823-9.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Wendy Doniger (1999). Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions. Merriam-Webster. pp. 155–157. ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0.
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^ Jump up to: a b c McLeod, John, "The History of India", Greenwood Press (2002), ISBN 0-313-31459-4, pg. 41-42.
^ Jump up to: a b André Wink (1997). Al-Hind the Making of the Indo-Islamic World. BRILL Academic. pp. 348–349. ISBN 90-04-10236-1.
Jump up ^ Peter Harvey (2013). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices. Cambridge University Press. p. 194. ISBN 978-0-521-85942-4. , Quote: "From 986 CE, the Muslim Turks started raiding northwest India from Afghanistan, plundering western India early in the eleventh century. Force conversions to Islam were made, and Buddhist images smashed, due to the Islamic dislike of idolarty. Indeed in India, the Islamic term for an 'idol' became 'budd'."
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Further reading[edit]
Doniger, Wendy (2000). Merriam-Webster Encyclopedia of World Religions. Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 1378. ISBN 0-87779-044-2.
Living Religions, seventh edition, by Mary Pat Fisher
Dutt, N. (1998). Buddhist Sects in India. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Elst, K. (2002). Who is a Hindu?: Hindu revivalist views of Animism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and other offshoots of Hinduism. New Delhi: Voice of India.
Klaus Klostermaier, Buddhism: A Short Introduction (1999), ISBN 978-1-85168-186-0.
Lamotte, E. (1976). History of Indian Buddhism. Paris: Peeters Press.
Swarup, Ram (1984). Buddhism vis-a-vis Hinduism.
External links[edit]
World Civilizations: The Decline of Buddhism in India. Publisher: Washington State University. Last accessed on April 10, 2007
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In the C programming language, operations can be performed on a bit level using bitwise operators.
Bitwise operations are contrasted by byte-level operations which characterize the bitwise operators' logical counterparts, the AND, OR and NOT operators. Instead of performing on individual bits, byte-level operators perform on strings of eight bits (known as bytes) at a time. The reason for this is that a byte is normally the smallest unit of addressable memory (i.e. data with a unique memory address.)
This applies to bitwise operators as well, which means that even though they operate on only one bit at a time they cannot accept anything smaller than a byte as their input.
Contents
[hide]
1 Bitwise operators
1.1 Bitwise AND &
1.2 Bitwise OR |
1.3 Bitwise XOR ^
1.4 Bitwise NOT ~ / ones' complement (unary)
2 Shift operators
2.1 Right shift >>
2.1.1 Right shift operator usage
2.2 Left shift <<
3 A simple addition program Example
4 Bitwise assignment operators
5 Logical equivalents
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Bitwise operators[edit]
C provides six operators for bit manipulation.[1]
Symbol
Operator
& bitwise AND
| bitwise inclusive OR
^ bitwise XOR (eXclusive OR)
<< left shift
>> right shift
~ bitwise NOT (one's complement) (unary)
Bitwise AND &[edit]
bit a
bit b
a & b (a AND b)
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
The bitwise AND operator is a single ampersand: &. It is just a representation of AND which does its work on the bits of the operands rather than the truth value of the operands. Bitwise binary AND does the logical AND (as shown in the table above) of the bits in each position of a number in its binary form.
For instance, working with a byte (the char type):
     11001000
   & 10111000
     --------
   = 10001000

The most significant bit of the first number is 1 and that of the second number is also 1 so the most significant bit of the result is 1; in the second most significant bit, the bit of second number is zero, so we have the result as 0. [2]
Bitwise OR |[edit]
bit a
bit b
a | b (a OR b)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Similar to bitwise AND, bitwise OR only operates at the bit level. Its result is a 1 if one of the either bits is 1 and zero only when both bits are 0. Its symbol is | which can be called a pipe.
      11001000
    | 10111000
      --------
    = 11111000
[2]
Bitwise XOR ^[edit]
bit a
bit b
a ^ b (a XOR b)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
The bitwise XOR (exclusive or) performs a logical XOR function, which is equivalent to adding two bits and discarding the carry. The result is zero only when we have two zeroes or two ones.[3] XOR can be used to toggle the bits between 1 and 0. Thus i = i ^ 1 when used in a loop toggles its values between 1 and 0.[4]
      11001000
    ^ 10111000
      --------
    = 01110000
Bitwise NOT ~ / ones' complement (unary)[edit]
bit a
~a (complement of a)
0 1
1 0
The ones' complement (~) or the bitwise complement gets us the complement of a given number. Thus we get the bits inverted, for every bit 1 the result is bit 0 and conversely for every bit 0 we have a bit 1. This operation should not be confused with logical negation !.
    ~ 11001000
      --------
    = 00110111
Shift operators[edit]
There are two bitwise shift operators. They are
Right shift (>>)
Left shift (<<)
Right shift >>[edit]
The symbol of right shift operator is >>. For its operation, it requires two operands. It shifts each bit in its left operand to the right. The number following the operator decides the number of places the bits are shifted (i.e. the right operand). Thus by doing ch >> 3 all the bits will be shifted to the right by three places and so on.
Example:
If the variable ch contains the bit pattern 11100101, then ch >> 1 will produce the result 01110010, and ch >> 2 will produce 00111001.
Here blank spaces are generated simultaneously on the left when the bits are shifted to the right. When performed on an unsigned type, the operation performed is a logical shift, causing the blanks to be filled by 0s (zeros). When performed on a signed type, the result is technically undefined and compiler dependant,[5] however most compilers will perform an arithmetic shift, causing the blank to be filled with the sign bit of the left operand.
Right shift can be used to divide a bit pattern by 2 as shown:
i = 14; // Bit pattern 00001110 j = i >> 1; // here we have the bit pattern shifted by 1 thus we get 00000111 = 7 which is 14/2
Right shift operator usage[edit]
Typical usage of a right shift operator in C can be seen from the following code.
Example:
#include <stdio.h> void showbits(unsigned int x) { int i; for(i=(sizeof(int)*8)-1; i>=0; i--) (x&(1u<<i))?putchar('1'):putchar('0'); printf("\n"); } int main() { int j = 5225, m, n; printf("%d in binary \t\t ", j); /* assume we have a function that prints a binary string when given a decimal integer */ showbits(j); /* the loop for right shift operation */ for ( m = 0; m <= 5; m++ ) { n = j >> m; printf("%d right shift %d gives ", j, m); showbits(n); } return 0; }
The output of the above program will be
5225 in binary           00000000000000000001010001101001
5225 right shift 0 gives 00000000000000000001010001101001
5225 right shift 1 gives 00000000000000000000101000110100
5225 right shift 2 gives 00000000000000000000010100011010
5225 right shift 3 gives 00000000000000000000001010001101
5225 right shift 4 gives 00000000000000000000000101000110
5225 right shift 5 gives 00000000000000000000000010100011
Left shift <<[edit]
The symbol of left shift operator is <<. It shifts each bit in its left-hand operand to the left by the number of positions indicated by the right-hand operand. It works opposite to that of right shift operator. Thus by doing ch << 1 in the above example we have 11001010. Blank spaces generated are filled up by zeroes as above.
Left shift can be used to multiply an integer by powers of 2 as in
int i = 4; /* bit pattern equivalent is binary 100 */ int j = i << 2; /* makes it binary 10000, which multiplies the original number by 4 i.e. 16 */
A simple addition program Example[edit]
The following program adds two operands using AND, XOR and left shift (<<).
#include <stdio.h> int main() { unsigned int x = 3, y = 1, sum, carry; sum = x ^ y; // x XOR y carry = x & y; // x AND y while (carry != 0) { carry = carry << 1; // left shift the carry x = sum; // initialize x as sum y = carry; // initialize y as carry sum = x ^ y; // sum is calculated carry = x & y; /* carry is calculated, the loop condition is evaluated and the process is repeated until carry is equal to 0. */ } printf("%u\n", sum); // the program will print 4 return 0; }
Bitwise assignment operators[edit]
C provides a compound assignment operator for each binary arithmetic and bitwise operation (i.e. each operation which accepts two operands). Each of the compound bitwise assignment operators perform the appropriate binary operation and store the result in the left operand.[6]
The bitwise assignment operators are as follows:
Symbol
Operator
&= bitwise AND assignment
|= bitwise inclusive OR assignment
^= bitwise exclusive OR assignment
<<= left shift assignment
>>= right shift assignment
Logical equivalents[edit]
Four of the bitwise operators have equivalent logical operators. They are equivalent in that they have the same truth tables. However, logical operators treat each operand as having only one value, either true or false, rather than treating each bit of an operand as an independent value. Logical operators consider zero false and any nonzero value true. Another difference is that logical operators perform short-circuit evaluation.
The table below matches equivalent operators and shows a and b as operands of the operators.
Bitwise
Logical
a & b a && b
a | b a || b
a ^ b a != b
~a !a
!= has the same truth table as ^ but unlike the true logical operators, by itself != is not strictly speaking a logical operator. This is because a logical operator must treat any nonzero value the same. To be used as a logical operator != requires that operands be normalized first. A logical not applied to both operands won’t change the truth table that results but will ensure all nonzero values are converted to the same value before comparison. This works because ! on a zero always results in a one and ! on any nonzero value always results in a zero.
Example:
/* Equivalent bitwise and logical operator tests */ #include <stdio.h> void testOperator(char* name, unsigned char was, unsigned char expected); int main() { // -- Bitwise operators -- // //Truth tables packed in bits const unsigned char operand1 = 0x0A; //0000 1010 const unsigned char operand2 = 0x0C; //0000 1100 const unsigned char expectedAnd = 0x08; //0000 1000 const unsigned char expectedOr = 0x0E; //0000 1110 const unsigned char expectedXor = 0x06; //0000 0110 const unsigned char operand3 = 0x01; //0000 0001 const unsigned char expectedNot = 0xFE; //1111 1110 testOperator("Bitwise AND", operand1 & operand2, expectedAnd); testOperator("Bitwise OR", operand1 | operand2, expectedOr); testOperator("Bitwise XOR", operand1 ^ operand2, expectedXor); testOperator("Bitwise NOT", ~operand3, expectedNot);	printf("\n"); // -- Logical operators -- // const unsigned char F = 0x00; //Zero const unsigned char T = 0x01; //Any nonzero value //Truth tables packed in arrays const unsigned char operandArray1[4] = {T, F, T, F}; const unsigned char operandArray2[4] = {T, T, F, F}; const unsigned char expectedArrayAnd[4] = {T, F, F, F}; const unsigned char expectedArrayOr[4] = {T, T, T, F}; const unsigned char expectedArrayXor[4] = {F, T, T, F}; const unsigned char operandArray3[2] = {F, T}; const unsigned char expectedArrayNot[2] = {T, F}; int i; for (i = 0; i < 4; i++) { testOperator("Logical AND", operandArray1[i] && operandArray2[i], expectedArrayAnd[i]); } printf("\n"); for (i = 0; i < 4; i++) { testOperator("Logical OR", operandArray1[i] || operandArray2[i], expectedArrayOr[i]); } printf("\n"); for (i = 0; i < 4; i++) { //Needs ! on operand's in case nonzero values are different testOperator("Logical XOR", !operandArray1[i] != !operandArray2[i], expectedArrayXor[i]); } printf("\n"); for (i = 0; i < 2; i++) { testOperator("Logical NOT", !operandArray3[i], expectedArrayNot[i]); } printf("\n"); return 0; } void testOperator(char* name, unsigned char was, unsigned char expected) { char* result = (was == expected) ? "passed" : "failed"; printf("%s %s test, was: %X expected: %X \n", name, result, was, expected); }
The output of the above program will be
 Bitwise AND passed, was: 8 expected: 8
 Bitwise  OR passed, was: E expected: E
 Bitwise XOR passed, was: 6 expected: 6
 Bitwise NOT passed, was: FE expected: FE

 Logical AND passed, was: 1 expected: 1
 Logical AND passed, was: 0 expected: 0
 Logical AND passed, was: 0 expected: 0
 Logical AND passed, was: 0 expected: 0

 Logical  OR passed, was: 1 expected: 1
 Logical  OR passed, was: 1 expected: 1
 Logical  OR passed, was: 1 expected: 1
 Logical  OR passed, was: 0 expected: 0

 Logical XOR passed, was: 0 expected: 0
 Logical XOR passed, was: 1 expected: 1
 Logical XOR passed, was: 1 expected: 1
 Logical XOR passed, was: 0 expected: 0

 Logical NOT passed, was: 1 expected: 1
 Logical NOT passed, was: 0 expected: 0
See also[edit]
Bit manipulation
Bitwise operation
Find first set
Operators in C and C++
Bitboard
Boolean algebra (logic)
XOR swap algorithm
XOR linked list
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Kernighan; Dennis M. Ritchie (March 1988). The C Programming Language (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-110362-8. Regarded by many to be the authoritative reference on C.
^ Jump up to: a b "Tutorials - Bitwise Operators and Bit Manipulations in C and C++". cprogramming.com.
Jump up ^ "Exclusive-OR Gate Tutorial". Basic Electronics Tutorials.
Jump up ^ "C++ Notes: Bitwise Operators". fredosaurus.com.
Jump up ^ "3.8 — Bitwise operators". Learn C++.
Jump up ^ "C/C++ Compound assignment operators". XL C/C++ V8.0 for AIX. IBM. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
External links[edit]
Bitwise Operators
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bitwise_operations_in_C&oldid=827065417"
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