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Cthulhu
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For other uses, see Cthulhu (disambiguation).
Cthulhu
Cthulhu Mythos character
"To R.H. Barlow, Esq., whose sculpture hath given immortality to this trivial design of his obliged obedient servant, H.P. Lovecraft
First appearance
"The Call of Cthulhu" (1928)
Created by
H. P. Lovecraft
Information
Species
Great Old One
Title
High Priest of the Great Old Ones
The Great Dreamer
The Sleeper of R'lyeh
Family
Azathoth (great-great-grandfather)
Yog-Sothoth (grandfather)
Shub-Niggurath (grandmother)
Nug (parent)[1]
Cthulhu (/kəˈθuːluː/ kə-THOO-loo) is a cosmic entity created by writer H. P. Lovecraft and first introduced in the short story "The Call of Cthulhu", published in the American pulp magazine Weird Tales in 1928. Considered a Great Old One within the pantheon of Lovecraftian cosmic entities, the creature has since been featured in numerous popular culture references. Lovecraft depicts Cthulhu as a gigantic entity worshipped by cultists. Cthulhu's appearance is described as looking like an octopus, a dragon, and a caricature of human form. Its name was given to the Lovecraft-inspired universe where it and its fellow entities existed, the Cthulhu Mythos.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology, spelling and pronunciation
2 Description
3 In the mythos
4 Publication history
5 Legacy
5.1 Games
5.2 Politics
5.3 Science
5.4 Film and TV
5.5 Music
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External
Etymology, spelling and pronunciation[edit]
Though invented by Lovecraft in 1928, the name Cthulhu is probably derived from the word chthonic, derived from Classical Greek, meaning "subterranean", as apparently suggested by Lovecraft himself at the end of his 1923 tale The Rats in the Walls.[2]
Lovecraft transcribed the pronunciation of Cthulhu as Khlûl′-hloo and said that "the first syllable pronounced gutturally and very thickly. The u is about like that in full; and the first syllable is not unlike klul in sound, hence the h represents the guttural thickness."[3] (An approximate IPA transcription, based on this description and the non-IPA signs, would be [kʟ̝̊ʊlʔ.ɬuː], with a voiceless velar lateral fricative.) S. T. Joshi points out, however, that Lovecraft gave several differing pronunciations on different occasions.[4] According to Lovecraft, this is merely the closest that the human vocal apparatus can come to reproducing the syllables of an alien language.[5] Cthulhu has also been spelled in many other ways, including Tulu, Katulu and Kutulu.[6] The name is often preceded by the epithet Great, Dead, or Dread.
Long after Lovecraft's death, the spelling pronunciation /kəˈθuːluː/ kə-THOO-loo (alternatively transcribed as kuh-THOO-loo)[7] became common. The role-playing game Call of Cthulhu has used the pronunciations klhul-hoo or tluhluh.[8] (An approximate IPA transcription, based on these descriptions and the non-IPA signs, would be [kʟ̝̊ʊl.ʔuː] for klhul-hoo and [ɬʊʔ.lʊʔ] for tluhluh.)
Description[edit]
In "The Call of Cthulhu", H. P. Lovecraft describes a statue of Cthulhu as "A monster of vaguely anthropoid outline, but with an octopus-like head whose face was a mass of feelers, a scaly, rubbery-looking body, prodigious claws on hind and fore feet, and long, narrow wings behind."[9] Cthulhu has been described in appearance as resembling an octopus, a dragon and a human caricature, hundreds of meters tall, with webbed human-looking arms and legs and a pair of rudimentary wings on its back.[9] Cthulhu's head is depicted as similar to the entirety of a gigantic octopus, with an unknown number of tentacles surrounding its supposed mouth.
Simply looking upon the creature drives the viewer insane, a trait shared by many of the Great Old Ones and Outer Gods.
In the mythos[edit]
Cthulhu, in the ″mythos″, was probably born on the planet Vhoorl in the 23rd nebula from Nug and Yeb. At some later point he travelled to the green binary star system of Xoth, where he mated with Idh-yaa, and was later worshipped by the shape-shifting starspawn. Idh-yaa later spawned four children: Gthanothoa, Ythogtha, Zoth-ommog and Cthylla. Cthulhu and his family, as well as his starspawn, travelled to Earth where Cthulhu mated with his sister Kassogtha, who spawned Nctosa and Nctolhu. Cthulhu and his spawn then built the great green stone city of R'lyeh on the great sunken continent of Mu, before it was destroyed by Ythogtha. Around this time a great war started between the Shoggoths, Elder Things, Great Race of Yith, Flying polyps, Mi-go and Cthulhu and his children and starspawn. At the end of the war, they all decided to share the Earth.
Publication history[edit]
A 2006 artist depiction of Cthulhu.
H. P. Lovecraft's initial short story, "The Call of Cthulhu", was published in Weird Tales in 1928 and established the character as a malevolent entity, hibernating within R'lyeh, an underwater city in the South Pacific. The imprisoned Cthulhu is apparently the source of constant anxiety for mankind at a subconscious level, and also the subject of worship by a number of human religions (located several places worldwide, including New Zealand, Greenland, Louisiana, and the Chinese mountains) and other Lovecraftian monsters (called Deep Ones[10] and Mi-Go[11]). The short story asserts the premise that, while currently trapped, Cthulhu will eventually return. His worshippers chant "Ph'nglui mglw'nafh Cthulhu R'lyeh wgah'nagl fhtagn" ("In his house at R'lyeh, dead Cthulhu waits dreaming.")[9]
Lovecraft conceived a detailed genealogy for Cthulhu (published as "Letter 617" in Selected Letters)[1] and made the character a central figure in corresponding literature.[12] The short story "The Dunwich Horror" (1928)[13] refers to Cthulhu, while "The Whisperer in Darkness" (1930) hints that one of his characters knows the creature's origins ("I learned whence Cthulhu first came, and why half the great temporary stars of history had flared forth.").[11] The 1931 novella At the Mountains of Madness refers to the "star-spawn of Cthulhu", who warred with another race called the Elder Things before the dawn of man.[14]
August Derleth, a correspondent of Lovecraft, used the creature's name to identify the system of lore employed by Lovecraft and his literary successors: the Cthulhu Mythos. In 1937, Derleth wrote the short story "The Return of Hastur", and proposed two groups of opposed cosmic entities:
... the Old or Ancient Ones, the Elder Gods, of cosmic good, and those of cosmic evil, bearing many names, and themselves of different groups, as if associated with the elements and yet transcending them: for there are the Water Beings, hidden in the depths; those of Air that are the primal lurkers beyond time; those of Earth, horrible animate survivors of distant eons.[15]:256
According to Derleth's scheme, "Great Cthulhu is one of the Water Elementals" and was engaged in an age-old arch-rivalry with a designated air elemental, Hastur the Unspeakable, described as Cthulhu's "half-brother".[15]:256, 266 Based on this framework, Derleth wrote a series of short stories published in Weird Tales (1944–1952) and collected as The Trail of Cthulhu, depicting the struggle of a Dr. Laban Shrewsbury and his associates against Cthulhu and his minions.
Derleth's interpretations have been criticized, among others, by Lovecraft enthusiast Michel Houellebecq. Houellebecq's H. P. Lovecraft: Against the World, Against Life (2005) decries Derleth for attempting to reshape Lovecraft's strictly amoral continuity into a stereotypical conflict between forces of objective good and evil.[16]
In John Glasby's "A Shadow from the Aeons", Cthulhu is seen by the narrator roaming the riverbank near Dominic Waldron's castle, and roaring. The physical description of the god is totally different from that given as canon by all the other authors.
The character's influence also extended into recreational literature: games company TSR included an entire chapter on the Cthulhu mythos (including statistics for the character) in the first printing of Dungeons & Dragons sourcebook Deities & Demigods (1980). TSR, however, were unaware that Arkham House, who asserted copyright on almost all Lovecraft literature, had already licensed the Cthulhu property to the game company Chaosium. Although Chaosium stipulated that TSR could continue to use the material if each future edition featured a published credit to Chaosium, TSR refused and the material was removed from all subsequent editions.[17]
Cthulhu was once again mentioned in the 5th edition of the Dungeons & Dragons Player's Handbook (2014), after Dagon, another of Lovecraft's fictional creations, featured prominently in the 4th edition of the game rules.
Legacy[edit]
See also: Cthulhu Mythos in popular culture
Games[edit]
In 2006, Bethesda Softworks together with Ubisoft and 2K Games published a game made by Headfirst Productions called Call of Cthulhu: Dark Corners of the Earth based on the works of Lovecraft. Cthulhu himself does not appear, as the main antagonists of the game are the Deep Ones from The Shadow Over Innsmouth, and the sea god Dagon, but his presence is alluded to several times, and a statue depicting him appears in one of the temples that will negatively affect the player's sanity. One of Cthulhu's "chosen", a Star Spawn of Cthulhu, a hideous creature similar in appearance to the abomination himself, also appears as a late-game enemy.
Cthulhu appears as a monster in many video games. Terraria features bosses named after the character, and he appears as main inspiration for the story of the Call of Duty: Black Ops 3 Zombies saga. The massively multiplayer online role-playing game World of Warcraft have numerous references to Cthulhu and the Mythos, with one of the game's "Old Gods" named C'Thun resting in a sunken city.
In 2016, Z-Man games released an alternate version of their board game Pandemic. This new adaptation Pandemic: Reign of Cthulhu is set in the Cthulhu Mythos and explorers race to save the world before Cthulhu returns.[18]
Politics[edit]
Poster from the 2010 Polish presidential election. The caption translates as "Choose the greater evil. Vote Cthulhu."
Cthulhu has appeared as a parody candidate in several elections, including the 2010 Polish presidential election and the 2012/2016 US presidential elections.[19][20] The faux campaigns usually satirize voters who claim to vote for the "lesser evil".
Science[edit]
The Californian spider species Pimoa cthulhu, described by Gustavo Hormiga in 1994,[21] and the New Guinea moth species Speiredonia cthulhui, described by Zilli & Holloway in 2005,[22] are named with reference to Cthulhu.
Two microorganisms that assist in the digestion of wood by termites have been named after Cthulhu and Cthulhu's "daughter" Cthylla: Cthulhu macrofasciculumque and Cthylla microfasciculumque, respectively.[23]
In 2014, science and technology scholar Donna Haraway gave a talk entitled "Anthropocene, Capitalocene, Chthulucene: Staying with the Trouble", in which she proposed the term "Chthulucene" as an alternative for the concept of the Anthropocene era, due to the entangling interconnectedness of all supposedly individual beings.[24] Haraway has denied any indebtedness to Lovecraft's Cthulhu, claiming that her "chthulu" is derived from the Greek khthonios, meaning "of the earth".[25] However, the Lovecraft character is much closer to her coined term than the Greek root, and her description of its meaning coincides with Lovecraft's idea of the apocalyptic scale of the threat of Cthulhu, with his horrifying tentacles, to collapse civilization into an endless dark horror: “Chthulucene does not close in on itself; it does not round off; its contact zones are ubiquitous and continuously spin out loopy tendrils.” [26]
In 2015, an elongated, dark region along the equator of Pluto, initially referred to as "the Whale", was proposed to be named "Cthulhu Regio", by the NASA team responsible for the New Horizons mission.[27] It is now known as "Cthulhu Macula".[28][29]
Film and TV[edit]
Several films and television programs feature the threat of Cthulhu returning to dominate the Universe. A vivid example of the latter is three episodes of the adult cartoon series South Park in which the principal villain, a character named Eric Cartman, turns out to be so irredeemably evil that he is able to tame Cthulhu and direct him to annihilate personal enemies. In those episodes ("Coon 2: Hindsight", "Mysterion Rises", and "Coon vs. Coon & Friends") Cthulhu is faithfully represented as the monstrous tentacle-mouthed god-like being Lovecraft describes. Also, Supernatural devoted "Let It Bleed" (episode 21 of season 6) to a Lovecraft-inspired plot, with teen character Ben even shown reading a graphic novel entitled Cthulhu Tales right before he is kidnapped by demons who are crafting an evil empire and working to put Purgatory under their control. In the popular adult animated science-fiction sitcom Rick and Morty, a depiction of Cthulhu can be seen in the opening sequence, immediately prior to the title card.
On October 27, 1987, Cthulhu appeared in season 7 episode 28 of The Real Ghostbusters animated cartoon entitled "The Collect Call Of Cthulhu", in which the Ghostbuster went up against the Spawn, and Cult, of Cthulhu.[30]
Music[edit]
Heavy metal band Metallica reference Cthulhu in the song "Dream No More" from their 2016 album Hardwired... To Self-Destruct,[31] as well as on the 1984 album Ride The Lightning with the instrumental song "The Call of Ktulu", inspired by H. P. Lovecraft's book The Shadow over Innsmouth, which was introduced to the rest of the band by Cliff Burton,[32] and on the 1986 album Master of Puppets with the song "The Thing That Should Not Be" (whose lyrics are based on The Shadow over Innsmouth and contain partial quotes from "The Call of Cthulhu").[33] The second album of british steampunk band The Men That Will Not Be Blamed for Nothing features the song "Margate Fhtagn" (Fhtagn being a term used in the Cthulhu mythology for dreaming), the song describes the band taking a holiday in the seaside town of Margate only to be met by Cthulhu who proceeds to ruin their trip and eat their grandmother, which they later thank the beast for.[34]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Lovecraft, H. P. (1967). Selected Letters of H. P. Lovecraft IV (1932–1934). Sauk City, Wisconsin: Arkham House. "Letter 617". ISBN 0-87054-035-1.
Jump up ^ Callaghan, Gavin (2013). H. P. Lovecraft's Dark Arcadia: The Satire, Symbology and Contradiction. McFarland. p. 192. ISBN 1476602395.
Jump up ^ Lovecraft, H. P. Selected Letters V. pp. 10 – 11.
Jump up ^ Joshi, S. T. "The Call of Cthulhu". The Call of Cthulhu and Other Weird Stories. note 9.
Jump up ^ "Cthul-Who?: How Do You Pronounce 'Cthulhu'?", Crypt of Cthulhu #9
Jump up ^ Harms, Thomas. "Cthulhu" and "PanCthulhu". The Encyclopedia Cthulhiana. p. 64.
Jump up ^ Petersen, Sandy; Willis, Lynn; Herber, Keith (2005). Call of Cthulhu (6th ed.). Oakland, California: Chaosium. ISBN 1568821816.
Jump up ^ Chodak; et al. (1983). Call of Cthulhu (2nd ed.). Chaosium.
^ Jump up to: a b c Wikisource:The Call of Cthulhu
Jump up ^ Wikisource:The Shadow Over Innsmouth
^ Jump up to: a b Wikisource:The Whisperer in Darkness
Jump up ^ Angell, George Gammell (1982). Price, Robert M., ed. "Cthulhu Elsewhere in Lovecraft". Crypt of Cthulhu #9. 2 (1). ISSN 1077-8179.
Jump up ^ Wikisource:The Dunwich Horror
Jump up ^ Lovecraft, H. P. At the Mountains of Madness. p. 66.
^ Jump up to: a b Derleth, August. "The Return of Hastur". In Price, Robert M. The Hastur Cycle.
Jump up ^ Bloch, Robert. "Heritage of Horror". The Best of H. P. Lovecraft: Bloodcurdling Tales of Horror and the Macabre.
Jump up ^ "Deities & Demigods, Legends & Lore". The Acaeum. Retrieved 2010-05-10.
Jump up ^ "Pandemic: ROC - The Old Ones Series - Hastur". zmangames.com. Z-Man Games. April 14, 2016. Archived from the original on October 28, 2016. Retrieved October 25, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Cthulhu for America". Archived from the original on 3 August 2016. Retrieved 3 Aug 2016.
Jump up ^ "Cthulhu Dagon 2012". Retrieved 2016-10-29.
Jump up ^ Hormiga, G. (1994). A revision and cladistic analysis of the spider family Pimoidae (Araneoidea: Araneae) (PDF). Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology. 549. pp. 1–104.
Jump up ^ Zilli, Alberto; Holloway, Jeremy D.; Hogenes, Willem (2005). "An Overview Of The Genus Speiredonia With Description Of Seven New Species (Insecta, Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)". ALDROVANDIA Journal. Museo Civico di Zoologia Roma. 1: 17–36. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-22.
Jump up ^ James, Erick R.; Okamoto, Noriko; Burki, Fabien; Scheffrahn, Rudolf H.; Keeling, Patrick J. (2013-03-18). Badger, Jonathan H., ed. "Cthulhu Macrofasciculumque n. g., n. sp. and Cthylla Microfasciculumque n. g., n. sp., a Newly Identified Lineage of Parabasalian Termite Symbionts". PLoS ONE. 8 (3): e58509. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0058509. PMC 3601090  . PMID 23526991.
Jump up ^ Donna Haraway (9 May 2014). Donna Haraway, “Anthropocene, Capitalocene, Chthulucene: Staying with the Trouble”, 5/9/14. Vimeo, Inc.
Jump up ^ Haraway, Donna (2016). Staying with the Trouble. Durham and London: Duke University Press. pp. 174n4. ISBN 978-0-8223-6224-1.
Jump up ^ http://www.publicseminar.org/2016/09/chthulu/
Jump up ^ Feltman, Rachel (14 July 2015). "New data reveals that Pluto's heart is broken". The Washington Post. Retrieved 14 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Amanda M. Zangari; et al. (November 2015). "New Horizons disk-integrated approach photometry of Pluto and Charon". American Astronomical Society, DPS meeting #47, id.210.01. Retrieved 10 January 2018. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ S. Alan Stern. William Grundy, William B. McKinnon, Harold A. Weaver, Leslie A. Young. "The Pluto System After New Horizons" (PDF). Annual Reviews of Astronomy and Astrophysics 2018. Retrieved 10 January 2018. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ IMDB http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0809029/. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ "Dream No More - Metallica". Metallica. Retrieved 2017-11-19.
Jump up ^ Joel., McIver, (2009). To live is to die : the life and death of Metallica's Cliff Burton. Hammett, Kirk. (1st ed.). London: Jawbone Press. ISBN 9781906002244. OCLC 290435379.
Jump up ^ "The Thing That Should Not Be - Metallica". Metallica. Retrieved 2017-11-29.
Jump up ^ Radio, Wicked Spins (2012-03-19). "The Men That Will Not Be Blamed For Nothing". Wicked Spins Radio. Retrieved 2017-12-03.
Further reading[edit]
Bloch, Robert (1982). "Heritage of Horror". The Best of H. P. Lovecraft: Bloodcurdling Tales of Horror and the Macabre (1st ed.). Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-35080-4.
Burleson, Donald R. (1983). H. P. Lovecraft, A Critical Study. Westport, CT / London, England: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-23255-5.
Burnett, Cathy (1996). Spectrum No. 3:The Best in Contemporary Fantastic Art. Nevada City, CA, 95959 USA: Underwood Books. ISBN 1-887424-10-5.
Harms, Daniel (1998). "Cthulhu". The Encyclopedia Cthulhiana (2nd ed.). Oakland, CA: Chaosium. pp. 64 – 7. ISBN 1568821190.
"Idh-yaa", p. 148. Ibid.
"Star-spawn of Cthulhu", pp. 283 – 4. Ibid.
Joshi, S. T.; Schultz, David E. (2001). An H. P. Lovecraft Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313315787.
Lovecraft, Howard P. (1999) [1928]. "The Call of Cthulhu". In S. T. Joshi. The Call of Cthulhu and Other Weird Stories. London, UK; New York, NY: Penguin Books. Archived from the original on November 26, 2009.
Lovecraft, Howard P. (1968). Selected Letters II. Sauk City, WI: Arkham House. ISBN 0870540297.
Lovecraft, Howard P. (1976). Selected Letters V. Sauk City, WI: Arkham House. ISBN 087054036X.
Marsh, Philip. R'lyehian as a Toy Language – on psycholinguistics. Lehigh Acres, FL 33970-0085 USA: Philip Marsh.
Mosig, Yozan Dirk W. (1997). Mosig at Last: A Psychologist Looks at H. P. Lovecraft (1st ed.). West Warwick, RI: Necronomicon Press. ISBN 0940884909.
Pearsall, Anthony B. (2005). The Lovecraft Lexicon (1st ed.). Tempe, AZ: New Falcon Pub. ISBN 1561841293.
"Other Lovecraftian Products", The H.P. Lovecraft Archive
External[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cthulhu Mythos.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The Call of Cthulhu
Cthulhu Lives, the Lovecraft Historical Society
The Dunwich Horror public domain audiobook at LibriVox
"CthulhuWiki". www.yog-sothoth.com. Retrieved 24 October 2016.
"Cthulhu - CthulhuWiki". www.yog-sothoth.com. Retrieved 24 October 2016.
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Order (biology)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the taxonomic rank. For the sequence of species in a taxonomic list, see taxonomic order. For other uses, see Order.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The hierarchy of biological classification's eight major taxonomic ranks. A class contains one or more orders. Intermediate minor rankings are not shown.
In biological classification, the order (Latin: ordo) is
a taxonomic rank used in the classification of organisms and recognized by the nomenclature codes. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, family, genus, and species, with order fitting in between class and family. An immediately higher rank, superorder, may be added directly above order, while suborder would be a lower rank.
a taxonomic unit, a taxon, in that rank. In that case the plural is orders (Latin ordines).
Example: All owls belong to the order Strigiformes.
What does and does not belong to each order is determined by a taxonomist, as is whether a particular order should be recognized at all. Often there is no exact agreement, with different taxonomists each taking a different position. There are no hard rules that a taxonomist needs to follow in describing or recognizing an order. Some taxa are accepted almost universally, while others are recognised only rarely.[1]
For some groups of organisms, consistent suffixes are used to denote that the rank is an order. The Latin suffix -(i)formes meaning "having the form of" is used for the scientific name of orders of birds and fishes, but not for those of mammals and invertebrates. The suffix -ales is for the name of orders of plants, fungi, and algae.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Hierarchy of ranks
1.1 Zoology
1.2 Botany
2 History of the concept
2.1 Botany
2.2 Zoology
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
Hierarchy of ranks[edit]
Zoology[edit]
For some clades covered by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, a number of additional classifications are sometimes used, although not all of these are officially recognised.
Name
Meaning of prefix
Example 1
Example 2
Magnorder magnus: large, great, important Boreoeutheria
Superorder super: above Euarchontoglires Parareptilia
Grandorder grand: large Euarchonta
Mirorder mirus: wonderful, strange Primatomorpha
Order Primates Procolophonomorpha
Suborder sub: under Haplorrhini Procolophonia
Infraorder infra: below Simiiformes Hallucicrania
Parvorder parvus: small, unimportant Catarrhini
In their 1997 classification of mammals, McKenna and Bell used two extra levels between superorder and order: "grandorder" and "mirorder".[3] Michael Novacek (1986) inserted them at the same position. Michael Benton (2005) inserted them between superorder and magnorder instead.[4] This position was adopted by Systema Naturae 2000 and others.
Botany[edit]
In botany, the ranks of subclass and suborder are secondary ranks pre-defined as respectively above and below the rank of order.[5] Any number of further ranks can be used as long as they are clearly defined.[5]
The superorder rank is commonly used, with the ending -anae that was initiated by Armen Takhtajan's publications from 1966 onwards.[6]
History of the concept[edit]
The order as a distinct rank of biological classification having its own distinctive name (and not just called a higher genus (genus summum)) was first introduced by the German botanist Augustus Quirinus Rivinus in his classification of plants that appeared in a series of treatises in the 1690s. Carl Linnaeus was the first to apply it consistently to the division of all three kingdoms of nature (minerals, plants, and animals) in his Systema Naturae (1735, 1st. Ed.).
Botany[edit]
Title page of the 1758 edition of Linnaeus's Systema Naturæ.[7]
For plants, Linnaeus' orders in the Systema Naturae and the Species Plantarum were strictly artificial, introduced to subdivide the artificial classes into more comprehensible smaller groups. When the word ordo was first consistently used for natural units of plants, in 19th century works such as the Prodromus of de Candolle and the Genera Plantarum of Bentham & Hooker, it indicated taxa that are now given the rank of family (see ordo naturalis, natural order).
In French botanical publications, from Michel Adanson's Familles naturelles des plantes (1763) and until the end of the 19th century, the word famille (plural: familles) was used as a French equivalent for this Latin ordo. This equivalence was explicitly stated in the Alphonse De Candolle's Lois de la nomenclature botanique (1868), the precursor of the currently used International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants.
In the first international Rules of botanical nomenclature from the International Botanical Congress of 1905, the word family (familia) was assigned to the rank indicated by the French "famille", while order (ordo) was reserved for a higher rank, for what in the 19th century had often been named a cohors[8] (plural cohortes).
Some of the plant families still retain the names of Linnaean "natural orders" or even the names of pre-Linnaean natural groups recognised by Linnaeus as orders in his natural classification (e.g. Palmae or Labiatae). Such names are known as descriptive family names.
Zoology[edit]
In zoology, the Linnaean orders were used more consistently. That is, the orders in the zoology part of the Systema Naturae refer to natural groups. Some of his ordinal names are still in use (e.g. Lepidoptera for the order of moths and butterflies, or Diptera for the order of flies, mosquitoes, midges, and gnats).[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Biology portal
Biological classification
Cladistics
Phylogenetics
Rank (botany)
Rank (zoology)
Systematics
Taxonomy
Virus classification
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Tobin, Allan J.; Dusheck, Jennie (2005). Asking About Life. Boston: Cengage Learning. pp. 403–408. ISBN 978-0-030-27044-4.
Jump up ^ (McNeill et al. 2012 & Article 17.1)
Jump up ^ McKenna, M.C. & Bell, S.G. (1997), Classification of Mammals, New York: Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-11013-6
Jump up ^ Benton, Michael J. (2005). Vertebrate Palaeontology (3rd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-63205-637-8.
^ Jump up to: a b (McNeill et al. 2012 & Article 4)
Jump up ^ Naik, V.N. (1984), Taxonomy of Angiosperms, Tata McGraw-Hill, p. 111, ISBN 9780074517888 CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Linnaeus, Carolus (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin) (10th ed.). Stockholm: Laurentius Salvius.
Jump up ^ Briquet, J. (1912). Règles internationales de la nomenclature botanique adoptées par le congrès international de botanique de Vienne 1905, deuxième edition mise au point d'après les décisions du congrès international de botanique de Bruxelles 1910; International rules of botanical nomenclature adopted by the International Botanical Congresses of Vienna 1905 and Brussels 1910; Internationale Regeln der botanischen Nomenclatur angenommen von den Internationalen Botanischen Kongressen zu Wien 1905 und Brüssel 1910. Jena: Gustav Fischer. Page 1.
References[edit]
McNeill, J.; Barrie, F.R.; Buck, W.R.; Demoulin, V.; Greuter, W.; Hawksworth, D.L.; Herendeen, P.S.; Knapp, S.; Marhold, K.; Prado, J.; Prud'homme Van Reine, W.F.; Smith, G.F.; Wiersema, J.H.; Turland, N.J. (2012). International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Melbourne Code) adopted by the Eighteenth International Botanical Congress Melbourne, Australia, July 2011. Regnum Vegetabile 154. A.R.G. Gantner Verlag KG. ISBN 978-3-87429-425-6.
[hide]
v
t
e
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Magnorder
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Order
Suborder
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Interphase
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with Interface (chemistry).
This article is about the phase in the cell cycle. For the video game, see Interphase (video game).
An illustration of interphase. The chromatin has not yet condensed, and the cell is undergoing its normal functions.
An image of the nucleus of a cell (HT1080) currently in interphase (likely G1). Note: Cytoplasm of this cell or the neighboring cell is not visible (top-left), which is currently in the telophase of mitosis. Image taken using an optical microscope and DAPI staining of DNA.
Interphase is the phase of the cell cycle in which a typical cell spends most of its life. During this phase, the cell copies its DNA in preparation for mitosis.[1] Interphase is the 'daily living' or metabolic phase of the cell, in which the cell obtains nutrients and metabolizes them, grows, reads its DNA, and conducts other "normal" cell functions.[1] The majority of eukaryotic cells spend most of their time in interphase. This phase was formerly called the resting phase. However, interphase does not describe a cell that is merely resting; rather, the cell is living, and preparing for later cell division, so the name was changed. A common misconception is that interphase is the first stage of mitosis. However, since mitosis is the division of the nucleus, prophase is actually the first stage.[2]
In interphase, the cell gets itself ready for mitosis or meiosis. Somatic cells, or normal diploid cells of the body, go through mitosis in order to reproduce themselves through cell division, whereas diploid germ cells (i.e., primary spermatocytes and primary oocytes) go through meiosis in order to create haploid gametes (i.e., sperm and ova) for the purpose of sexual reproduction. Chromosomes are copied.
Contents
[hide]
1 Stages of interphase
2 Interphase within sequences of cellular processes
2.1 Interphase and the cell cycle
2.2 Interphase and other cellular processes
3 See also
4 References
Stages of interphase[edit]
There are three stages of cellular interphase, with each phase ending when a cellular checkpoint checks the accuracy of the stage's completion before proceeding to the next. The stages of interphase are:
G1 (Gap 1), in which the cell grows and functions normally. During this time, a high amount of protein synthesis occurs and the cell grows (to about double its original size) – more organelles are produced and the volume of the cytoplasm increases. If the cell is not to divide again, it will enter G0.[3]
Synthesis (S), in which the cell duplicates its DNA (via semiconservative replication).
G2 (Gap 2), in which the cell resumes its growth in preparation for division. The mitochondria divide and the cell continues to grow until mitosis begins. In plants, chloroplasts also divide during G2.
In addition, some cells that do not divide often or ever, enter a stage called G0 (Gap zero), which is either a stage separate from interphase or an extended G1.
The duration of time spent in interphase and in each stage of interphase is variable and depends on both the type of cell and the species of organism it belongs to. Most cells of adult mammals spend about 20 hours in interphase; this accounts for about 90% of the total time involved in cell division.[4] Interphase includes G1, S, and G2 phases. Mitosis and cytokinesis, however, are separate from interphase.
Interphase within sequences of cellular processes[edit]
Interphase and the cell cycle[edit]
When G2 is completed, the cell enters a relatively brief period of nuclear and cellular division, composed of mitosis and cytokinesis, respectively. After the successful completion of mitosis and cytokinesis, both resulting daughter cells re-enter G1 of interphase.
In the cell cycle, interphase is preceded by telophase and cytokinesis of the M phase. In alternative fashion, interphase is sometimes interrupted by G0 phase, which, in some circumstances, may then end and be followed by the remaining stages of interphase. After the successful completion of the G2 checkpoint, the final checkpoint in interphase, the cell proceeds to prophase, or in plants to preprophase, which is the first stage of mitosis.
G0 phase is viewed as either an extended G1 phase where the cell is neither dividing nor preparing to divide and or as a distinct quiescent stage which occurs outside of the cell cycle.[5]
Interphase and other cellular processes[edit]
In gamete production interphase is succeeded by meiosis. In programmed cell death, interphase is followed or preempted by apoptosis.
See also[edit]
Prophase
Prometaphase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Marieb, Elaine (2000), Essentials of human anatomy and physiology, San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings, ISBN 0805349405
Jump up ^ The Cell Cycle & Mitosis Tutorial The Biology Project – Cell Biology. University of Arizona.
Jump up ^ Cummings, M. R. (2014). Human Heredity: Principles and Issues (10th ed., pp. 28-29). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Jump up ^ Mader, S. S. 2007. Biology 9th Ed. McGraw Hill Higher Education, Boston, MA, USA. ISBN 978-0-07-325839-3
Jump up ^ Re: Are the cells in the G0 (g zero) phase of mitosis really suspended? Erin Cram, Grad student, Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Berkeley. 1999. MadScience Network. Question ID 942142089.Cb.
[hide]
v
t
e
Cell cycle proteins
Cyclin
A (A1, A2)
B (B1, B2, B3)
D (D1, D2, D3)
E (E1, E2)
CDK
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
CDK-activating kinase
CDK inhibitor
INK4a/ARF (p14arf/p16, p15, p18, p19)
cip/kip (p21, p27, p57)
P53 p63 p73 family
p53
p63
p73
Other
Cdc2
Cdc25
Cdc42
Cellular apoptosis susceptibility protein
E2F
Maturation promoting factor
Wee
Cullin (CUL7)
Phases and
checkpoints
Interphase
G1 phase
S phase
G2 phase
M phase
Mitosis (Preprophase
Prophase
Prometaphase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase)
Cytokinesis
Cell cycle checkpoints
Restriction point
Spindle checkpoint
Postreplication checkpoint
Other cellular phases
Apoptosis
G0 phase
Meiosis
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Interphase&oldid=836776689"
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