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Nubia
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This article is about the region in Africa. For the airport in Mongolia, see New Ulaanbaatar International Airport. For other uses, see Nubia (disambiguation).
Egypt and Nubia today
Nubia is a region along the Nile river encompassing the area between Aswan in southern Egypt and Khartoum in central Sudan. It was the seat of one of the earliest civilizations of ancient Africa, with a history that can be traced from at least 2500 BC onward (Kerma culture), and was home to several empires, most prominently the kingdom of Kush, which for a while even ruled over Egypt. Its collapse in the 4th century AD after more than 1000 years of existence saw the rise of three Christian kingdoms, Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia, the last two again lasting 1000 years. Their eventual decline initiated not only the partition of Nubia into the northern half conquered by the Ottomans and the southern half by the Sennar sultanate in the 16th century, but also a rapid Islamization and partial Arabization of the Nubian people. Nubia was again united under the Khedivate of Egypt in the 19th century. Today, Nubia is split between Egypt and Sudan.
Contents
[hide]
1 Linguistics
2 Geography
3 History
3.1 Prehistory
3.2 Nubia and Ancient Egypt
3.3 Kerma
3.4 Kush
3.4.1 Napatan period
3.4.2 Meroitic period
3.5 Christian Nubia
3.6 Islamic Nubia
4 Contemporary issues
5 See also
6 Notes
7 Further reading
8 External links
Linguistics[edit]
The name Nubia is derived from that of the Noba people, nomads who settled the area in the 4th century CE following the collapse of the kingdom of Meroë. The Noba spoke a Nilo-Saharan language, ancestral to Old Nubian. Old Nubian was mostly used in religious texts dating from the 8th and 15th centuries. Before the 4th century, and throughout classical antiquity, Nubia was known as Kush, or, in Classical Greek usage, included under the name Ethiopia (Aithiopia).
Historically, the people of Nubia spoke at least two varieties of the Nubian language group, a subfamily that includes Nobiin (the descendant of Old Nubian), Kenuzi-Dongola, Midob and several related varieties in the northern part of the Nuba Mountains in South Kordofan. Until at least 1970, the Birgid language was spoken north of Nyala in Darfur, but is now extinct. However, linguistic evidence indicates that the languages spoken in the ancient Kerma Culture (present-day southern Egypt and northern Sudan) in Nubia, belonged to the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic languages.[1][2]
Geography[edit]
Nubia was divided into two major regions: Upper and Lower Nubia, so called because of their location in the Nile river valley, the 'lower' being further downstream than the 'upper'. Lower Nubia lay between the First and Second Cataracts of the Nile river, spreading into modern southern Egypt and northern Sudan, while Upper Nubia extended between the Second and Sixth Cataracts, in modern central Sudan.
History[edit]
Prehistory[edit]
Tools, Weapons and adornments from el-Barga (6000-5500 BC)
Early settlements sprouted in both Upper and Lower Nubia. Egyptians referred to Nubia as "Ta-Seti," or "The Land of the Bow," since the Nubians were known to be expert archers.[3] Modern scholars typically refer to the people from this area as the "A-Group" culture. Fertile farmland just south of the Third Cataract is known as the "pre-Kerma" culture in Upper Nubia, as they are the ancestors.
The Neolithic people in the Nile Valley likely came from Sudan, as well as the Sahara, and there was shared culture with the two areas and with that of Egypt during this period.[4] By the 5th millennium BC, the people who inhabited what is now called Nubia participated in the Neolithic revolution. Saharan rock reliefs depict scenes that have been thought to be suggestive of a cattle cult, typical of those seen throughout parts of Eastern Africa and the Nile Valley even to this day.[5] Megaliths discovered at Nabta Playa are early examples of what seems to be one of the world's first astronomical devices, predating Stonehenge by almost 2,000 years.[6] This complexity as observed at Nabta Playa, and as expressed by different levels of authority within the society there, likely formed the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and the Old Kingdom of Egypt.[7] Around 3500 BC, the second "Nubian" culture, termed the A-Group, arose.[8] It was a contemporary of, and ethnically and culturally very similar to, the polities in predynastic Naqada of Upper Egypt.[9][10] The A-Group people were engaged in trade with the Egyptians. This trade is testified archaeologically by large amounts of Egyptian commodities deposited in the graves of the A-Group people. The imports consisted of gold objects, copper tools, faience amulets and beads, seals, slate palettes, stone vessels, and a variety of pots.[11]
Nubian Terracotta Female Figurine, from the Neolithic period ca. 3500-3100 B.C.E. Brooklyn Museum
Around 3300 BC, there is evidence of a unified kingdom, as shown by the finds at Qustul, that maintained substantial interactions (both cultural and genetic) with the culture of Naqadan Upper Egypt. The Nubian culture may have even contributed to the unification of the Nile Valley.
Toby Wilkinson, based on work by Bruce Williams in the 1980s, wrote that "The white crown, associated in historic times with Upper Egypt, is first attested later than the red crown, but is directly associated with the ruler somewhat earlier. The earliest known depiction of the white crown is on a ceremonial incense burner from Cemetery at Qustul in Lower Nubia".[12] Based on a 1998 excavation report, Jane Roy has written that "At the time of Williams’ argument, the Qustul cemetery and the ‘royal’ iconography found there was dated to the Naqada IIIA period, thus antedating royal cemeteries in Egypt of the Naqada IIIB phase. New evidence from Abydos, however, particularly the excavation of Cemetery U and the tome U-j, dating to Naqada IIIA has shown that this iconography appears earlier in Egypt."[13]
Pottery of the Nubian A-Group, Musee du Louvre
Around the turn of the protodynastic period, Naqada, in its bid to conquer and unify the whole Nile Valley, seems to have conquered Ta-Seti (the kingdom where Qustul was located) and harmonized it with the Egyptian state. Thus, Nubia became the first nome of Upper Egypt. At the time of the first dynasty, the A-Group area seems to have been entirely depopulated,[3] most likely due to immigration to areas west and south.
This culture began to decline in the early 28th century BC. George Reisner suggested that it was succeeded by a culture that he called the "B-Group", but most archaeologists today believe that this culture never existed and that the area was depopulated from c. 3000 BC to c. 2500, when a-group descendants returned to the area.[14][15] The causes of this are uncertain, but it was perhaps caused by Egyptian invasions and pillaging that began at this time. Nubia is believed to have served as a trade corridor between Egypt and tropical Africa long before 3100 BC. Egyptian craftsmen of the period used ivory and ebony wood from tropical Africa which came through Nubia.
Statue of the King Taharqa, 25th dynasty
In 2300 BC, Nubia was first mentioned in Old Kingdom Egyptian accounts of trade missions. From Aswan, right above the First Cataract, the southern limit of Egyptian control at the time, Egyptians imported gold, incense, ebony, copper, ivory, and exotic animals from tropical Africa through Nubia. As trade between Egypt and Nubia increased, so did wealth and stability. By the Egyptian 6th dynasty, Nubia was divided into a series of small kingdoms. There is debate over whether these C-Group peoples,[16] who flourished from c. 2500 BC to c. 1500 BC, were another internal evolution or invaders. There are definite similarities between the pottery of the A-Group and C-Group, so it may be a return of the ousted Group-As, or an internal revival of lost arts. At this time, the Sahara Desert was becoming too arid to support human beings, and it is possible that there was a sudden influx of Saharan nomads. C-Group pottery is characterized by all-over incised geometric lines with white infill and impressed imitations of basketry.
During the Egyptian Middle Kingdom (c. 2040–1640 BC), Egypt began expanding into Nubia to gain more control over the trade routes in Northern Nubia and direct access to trade with Southern Nubia. They erected a chain of forts down the Nile below the Second Cataract. These garrisons seemed to have peaceful relations with the local Nubian people, but little interaction during the period.[17] A contemporaneous but distinct culture from the C-Group was the Pan Grave culture, so called because of their shallow graves. The Pan Graves are associated with the East bank of the Nile, but the Pan Graves and C-Group definitely interacted. Their pottery is characterized by incised lines of a more limited character than those of the C-Group, generally having interspersed undecorated spaces within the geometric schemes.
Nubia and Ancient Egypt[edit]
Nubia in hieroglyphs
[18]
Ta-seti
T3-stj
Curved land[18]
[19]
Setiu
Stjw
Curved land of the Nubians[19]
Nehset / Nehsyu / Nehsi
Nḥst / Nḥsyw / Nḥsj
Nubia / Nubians
Nubia
One interpretation is that Nubian A-Group rulers and early Egyptian pharaohs used related royal symbols. Similarities in rock art of A-Group Nubia and Upper Egypt support this position. Ancient Egypt conquered Nubian territory in various eras, and incorporated parts of the area into its provinces. The Nubians in turn were to conquer Egypt under its 25th Dynasty.[20]
However, relations between the two peoples also show peaceful cultural interchange and cooperation, including mixed marriages. The Medjay (mj3,[21]) represents the name ancient Egypt gave to a region in northern Sudan where an ancient people of Nubia inhabited. They became part of the Egyptian military as scouts and minor workers.
During the Middle Kingdom of Egypt, "Medjay" no longer referred to the district of Medja but to a tribe or clan of people. It is not known what happened to the district, but, after the First Intermediate Period of Egypt, it and other districts in Nubia were no longer mentioned in the written record.[22] Written accounts detail the Medjay as nomadic desert people. Over time, they were incorporated into the Egyptian army. In the army, the Medjay served as garrison troops in Egyptian fortifications in Nubia and patrolled the deserts as a kind of gendarmerie.[23] This was done in the hope of preventing their fellow Medjay tribespeople from further attacking Egyptian assets in the region.[24] Later, they were even used during Kamose’s campaign against the Hyksos[25] and became instrumental in making the Egyptian state into a military power.[26]
By the Eighteenth Dynasty of the New Kingdom period, the Medjay were an elite paramilitary police force.[24] No longer did the term refer to an ethnic group and, over time, the new meaning became synonymous with the policing occupation in general. Being an elite police force, the Medjay were often used to protect valuable areas, especially royal and religious complexes. Though they are most notable for their protection of the royal palaces and tombs in Thebes and the surrounding areas, the Medjay were known to have been used throughout Upper and Lower Egypt.
Various pharaohs of Nubian origin are held by some Egyptologists to have played an important part towards the area in different eras of Egyptian history, particularly the 12th Dynasty. These rulers handled matters in typical Egyptian fashion, reflecting the close cultural influences between the two regions.
[T]he XIIth Dynasty (1991–1786 B.C.E.) originated from the Aswan region. As expected, strong Nubian features and dark coloring are seen in their sculpture and relief work. This dynasty ranks as among the greatest, whose fame far outlived its actual tenure on the throne. Especially interesting, it was a member of this dynasty that decreed that no Nehsy (riverine Nubian of the principality of Kush), except such as came for trade or diplomatic reasons, should pass by the Egyptian fortress and cops at the southern end of the Second Nile Cataract. Why would this royal family of Nubian ancestry ban other Nubians from coming into Egyptian territory? Because the Egyptian rulers of Nubian ancestry had become Egyptians culturally; as pharaohs, they exhibited typical Egyptian attitudes and adopted typical Egyptian policies. (Yurco 1989) [27]
In the New Kingdom, Nubians became indistinguishable in the archaeological record from Egyptians.
It is an extremely difficult task to attempt to describe the Nubians during the course of Egypt's New Kingdom, because their presence appears to have virtually evaporated from the archaeological record. The result has been described as a wholesale Nubian assimilation into Egyptian society. This assimilation was so complete that it masked all Nubian ethnic identities insofar as archaeological remains are concerned beneath the impenetrable veneer of Egypt's material culture. In the Kushite Period, when Nubians ruled as Pharaohs in their own right, the material culture of Dynasty XXV (about 750–655 B.C.E.) was decidedly Egyptian in character. Nubia's entire landscape up to the region of the Third Cataract was dotted with temples indistinguishable in style and decoration from contemporary temples erected in Egypt. The same observation obtains for the smaller number of typically Egyptian tombs in which these elite Nubian princes were interred.[28]
Kerma[edit]
Main article: Kerma Culture
Kerma city
From the pre-Kerma culture, the first kingdom to unify much of the region arose. The Kerma Culture, named for its presumed capital at Kerma, was one of the earliest urban centers in the Nile region and spoke languages of the Cushitic branch.[1][2][29] By 1750 BC, the kings of Kerma were powerful enough to organize the labor for monumental walls and structures of mud brick. They also had rich tombs, with possessions for the afterlife and large human sacrifices. George Andrew Reisner excavated sites at Kerma and found distinctive Nubian architecture such as large tombs and palace-like structures. At one point, Kerma came very close to conquering Egypt. Egypt suffered a serious defeat at the hands of the Kingdom of Kush.[30][31]
The Turin Papyrus Map
According to Davies, head of the joint British Museum and Egyptian archaeological team, the attack was so devastating that, if the Kerma forces had chosen to stay and occupy Egypt, they might have eliminated it for good and brought the nation to extinction. When Egyptian power revived under the New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1532–1070 BC), Egyptians began to expand further southwards. The Egyptians destroyed Kerma's kingdom and capitol and expanded the Egyptian empire to the Fourth Cataract.
By the end of the reign of Thutmose I (1520 BC), all of northern Nubia had been annexed. The Egyptians built a new administrative center at Napata, and used the area to produce gold and incense.[32][33] The Nubian gold production made Egypt a prime source of the precious metal in the Middle East. The primitive working conditions for the slaves are recorded by Diodorus Siculus, who saw some of the mines at a later time.[34] One of the oldest maps known is of a gold mine in Nubia, the Turin Papyrus Map dating to about 1160 BC; this map is also one of the earliest characterized road maps in existence.[35]
Kush[edit]
Main article: Kingdom of Kush
Napatan period[edit]
Figurine of the King Senkamanisken, Napata period ca. 643-623 BC
When the Egyptians pulled out of the Napata region, they left a lasting legacy that was merged with indigenous customs, forming the kingdom of Kush. Archaeologists have found several burials in the area that seem to belong to local leaders. The Kushites were buried there soon after the Egyptians decolonized the Nubian frontier. Kush adopted many Egyptian practices, such as their religion. The Kingdom of Kush survived longer than that of Egypt, invaded Egypt (under the leadership of king Piye), and controlled Egypt during the 8th century BC as the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt.[36]
Pharaohs of Nubia
The Kushites held sway over their northern neighbors for nearly 100 years, until they were eventually repelled by the invading Assyrians. The Assyrians forced them to move farther south, where they eventually established their capital at Meroë. Of the Nubian kings of this era, Taharqa is perhaps the best known. A son and the third successor of the founding pharaoh, Piye, he was crowned in Memphis, Egypt c. 690.[37] Taharqa ruled over both Nubia and Egypt, restored Egyptian temples at Karnak, and built new temples and pyramids in Nubia before being driven from Egypt by the Assyrians.[38][39][40][41]
Meroitic period[edit]
Main article: Meroë
Aerial view at Nubian pyramids, Meroe
Meroë (800 BC – c. AD 350) in southern Nubia lay on the east bank of the Nile, about 6 km north-east of the Kabushiya station near Shendi, Sudan, ca. 200 km north-east of Khartoum. The people there preserved many ancient Egyptian customs, but were unique in many respects. They developed their own form of writing, first utilizing Egyptian hieroglyphs, and later using an alphabetic script with 23 signs.[42] Since king Arakamani the kings were buried in Meroe. Strabo describes a clash with the Romans in which the Romans defeated Nubians. According to Strabo, following the Kushite advance, Gaius Petronius (a Prefect of Egypt at the time) prepared a large army and marched south. The Roman forces clashed with the Kushite armies near Thebes and forced them to retreat to Pselchis (Maharraqa) in Kushite lands. Petronius then sent deputies to the Kushites in an attempt to reach a peace agreement and make certain demands.
Quoting Strabo, the Kushites "desired three days for consideration" in order to make a final decision. However, after the three days, Kush did not respond and Petronius advanced with his armies and took the Kushite city of Premnis (modern Karanog) south of Maharraqa. From there, he advanced all the way south to Napata, the second Capital in Kush after Meroe. Petronius attacked and sacked Napata, causing the son of the Kushite Queen to flee. Strabo describes the defeat of the Kushites at Napata, stating that "He (Petronius) made prisoners of the inhabitants".[43]
During this time, the different parts of the region divided into smaller groups with individual leaders, or generals, each commanding small armies of mercenaries. They fought for control of what is now Nubia and its surrounding territories, leaving the entire region weak and vulnerable to attack. Meroë would eventually meet defeat by the new rising Kingdom of Aksum to their south under King Ezana.
The classification of the Meroitic language is uncertain; it was long assumed to have been one of the Afroasiatic languages like the Egyptian language, but is now considered to have likely been one of the Eastern Sudanic languages.
At some point during the 4th century, the region was conquered by the Noba, from which the name Nubia may derive; another possibility is that it comes from the Egyptian word for gold.[44] From then on, the Romans referred to the area as Nobatia.
Christian Nubia[edit]
Main articles: Makuria, Nobadia, and Alodia
A church mural depicting an elaborate cross, Faras (12th century).
Around AD 350, the area was invaded by the Kingdom of Aksum and the Meroitic kingdom collapsed. Eventually, three smaller Christian kingdoms replaced it: northernmost was Nobatia between the first and second cataract of the Nile River, with its capital at Pachoras (modern-day Faras); in the middle was Makuria, with its capital at Old Dongola; and southernmost was Alodia, with its capital at Soba (near Khartoum). King Silky of Nobatia crushed the Blemmyes, and recorded his victory in a Greek inscription carved in the wall of the temple of Talmis (modern Kalabsha) around AD 500.
Marble portrait of a Nubia denizen ca. 120-100 BC
While bishop Athanasius of Alexandria consecrated one Marcus as bishop of Philae before his death in 373, showing that Christianity had penetrated the region by the 4th century, John of Ephesus records that a Monophysite priest named Julian converted the king and his nobles of Nobatia around 545. John of Ephesus also writes that the kingdom of Alodia was converted around 569. However, John of Biclarum records that the kingdom of Makuria was converted to Catholicism the same year, suggesting that John of Ephesus might be mistaken. Further doubt is cast on John's testimony by an entry in the chronicle of the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria Eutychius, which states that in 719 the church of Nubia transferred its allegiance from the Greek to the Coptic Orthodox Church.
Nubians from the early 19th century.
By the 7th century, Makuria expanded becoming the dominant power in the region. It was strong enough to halt the southern expansion of Islam after the Arabs had taken Egypt. After several failed invasions the new rulers agreed to a treaty with Dongola, called Baqt, allowing for peaceful coexistence and trade. This treaty held for six hundred years. Over time the influx of Arab traders introduced Islam to Nubia and it gradually supplanted Christianity. While there are records of a bishop at Qasr Ibrim in 1372, his see had come to include that located at Faras. It is also clear that the cathedral of Dongola had been converted to a mosque in 1317.[45]
The influx of Arabs and Nubians to Egypt and Sudan had contributed to the suppression of the Nubian identity following the collapse of the last Nubian kingdom around 1504. A vast majority of the Nubian population is currently Muslim, and the Arabic language is their main medium of communication in addition to their indigenous old Nubian language. The unique characteristic of Nubian is shown in their culture (dress, dances, traditions, and music).
Islamic Nubia[edit]
Main article: Islamization of Sudan
In the 14th century, the Dongolan government collapsed and the region became divided and dominated by Arabs. The next centuries would see several Arab invasions of the region, as well as the establishment of a number of smaller kingdoms. Northern Nubia was brought under Egyptian control, while the south came under the control of the Kingdom of Sennar in the 16th century. The entire region would come under Egyptian control during the rule of Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century, and later became a joint Anglo-Egyptian condominium.
Further information: Egyptian invasion of Sudan 1820-24 § Invasion of Nubia
Contemporary issues[edit]
Further information: Nubian people
With the end of colonialism and the establishment of the Republic of Egypt (1953), and the secession of the Republic of Sudan from unity with Egypt (1956), Nubia was divided between Egypt and Sudan.
During the early-1970s, many Egyptian and Sudanese Nubians were forcibly resettled to make room for Lake Nasser after the construction of the dams at Aswan. Nubian villages can now be found north of Aswan on the west bank of the Nile and on Elephantine Island; and many Nubians now live in large cities, such as Cairo.
See also[edit]
Aida
Northeast Africa
Nubia (Mesolithic) / Nile boat
Nubian Archaeological Expeditions
Nubian architecture
Nubian Desert
Nubian languages
Nubiology
Pyramids of Nubia
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Bechaus-Gerst, Marianne; Blench, Roger (2014). Kevin MacDonald, ed. The Origins and Development of African Livestock: Archaeology, Genetics, Linguistics and Ethnography - "Linguistic evidence for the prehistory of livestock in Sudan" (2000). Routledge. p. 453. ISBN 1135434166. Retrieved 15 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Behrens, Peter (1986). Libya Antiqua: Report and Papers of the Symposium Organized by Unesco in Paris, 16 to 18 January 1984 - "Language and migrations of the early Saharan cattle herders: the formation of the Berber branch". Unesco. p. 30. ISBN 9231023764. Retrieved 14 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Emberling, Geoff (2011). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. New York: Institute for the study of the ancient world. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-615-48102-9.
Jump up ^ "Studies of Ancient Crania From Northern Africa". – S.O.Y. Keita, American Journal of Physical Anthropology (1990)
Jump up ^ "Dr. Stuart Tyson Smith". ucsb.edu.
Jump up ^ PlanetQuest: The History of Astronomy – Retrieved on 2007-08-29
Jump up ^ Late Neolithic megalithic structures at Nabta Playa – by Fred Wendorf (1998)
Jump up ^ Shaw, Ian; Jameson, Robert, eds. (2002). A Dictionary of Archaeology. Wiley. p. 433. ISBN 978-0-631-23583-5.
Jump up ^ Hunting for the Elusive Nubian A-Group People – by Maria Gatto, archaeology.org
Jump up ^ "Further Studies of Crania From Ancient Northern Africa: An Analysis of Crania From First Dynasty Egyptian Tombs, using Multiple Discriminant Functions". – American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 87: 245–254 (1992)
Jump up ^ "Hierarchy and heterarchy - the earliest cross-cultural trade along the Nile". www.academia.edu. Retrieved 2016-06-08.
Jump up ^ Emberling, Geoff (1999). Early Dynastic Egypt. London: Routledge. p. 165. ISBN 0-415-18633-1.
Jump up ^ Roy, Jane (February 2011). The Politics of Trade:Egypt and Lower Nubia in the 4th Millennium BC. Brill. p. 215. ISBN 9789004196117. Retrieved 16 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Shaw, Ian; Jameson, Robert, eds. (2002). A Dictionary of Archaeology. Wiley. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-631-23583-5.
Jump up ^ Török, László (2008). Between Two Worlds:The Frontier Region between Ancient Nubia and Egypt 3700 BC - 500AD. Brill. pp. 53–54. ISBN 9789004171978.
Jump up ^ "The C-Group people in Lower Nubia, 2500 - 1500 BC. Cattle pastoralists in a multicultural setting". www.academia.edu. Retrieved 2016-06-08.
Jump up ^ "Between Kush and Egypt: The C-Group people of Lower Nubia during the Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period". www.academia.edu. Retrieved 2016-06-08.
^ Jump up to: a b Elmar Edel: Zu den Inschriften auf den Jahreszeitenreliefs der "Weltkammer" aus dem Sonnenheiligtum des Niuserre, Teil 2. In: Nachrichten der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, Nr. 5. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1964, p. 118–119.
^ Jump up to: a b Christian Leitz et al.: Lexikon der ägyptischen Götter und Götterbezeichnungen, Bd. 6: H̱-s. Peeters, Leuven 2002, ISBN 90-429-1151-4, p. 697.
Jump up ^ Barbara Watterson, The Egyptians. Blackwell, Oxford. pp. 50–117
Jump up ^ Erman & Grapow, Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache, 2, 186.1-2
Jump up ^ Gardiner, op.cit., p. 76*
Jump up ^ Bard, op.cit., p.486
^ Jump up to: a b Wilkinson, op.cit., p. 147
Jump up ^ Shaw, op.cit., p.201
Jump up ^ Steindorff & Seele, op.cit., p. 28
Jump up ^ F. J. Yurco, "The ancient Egyptians..", Biblical Archaeology Review (Vol 15, no. 5, 1989)
Jump up ^ Bianchi, 2004, Daily Life of the Nubians. p. 99–100
Jump up ^ "The Kingdom of Kush: An African Centre on the Periphery of the Bronze Age World System". www.academia.edu. Retrieved 2016-06-08.
Jump up ^ Tomb Reveals Ancient Egypt's Humiliating Secret The Times (London, 2003)
Jump up ^ "Elkab's hidden treasure". Al-Ahram. Archived from the original on 2009-02-15.
Jump up ^ James G. Cusick (5 March 2015). Studies in Culture Contact: Interaction, Culture Change, and Archaeology. SIU Press. pp. 269–. ISBN 978-0-8093-3409-4.
Jump up ^ Richard Bulliet; Pamela Crossley; Daniel Headrick (1 January 2010). The Earth and Its Peoples. Cengage Learning. pp. 66–. ISBN 0-538-74438-3.
Jump up ^ Anne Burton (1973). Diodorus Siculus, Book 1: A Commentary. BRILL. pp. 129–. ISBN 90-04-03514-1.
Jump up ^ James R. Akerman; Robert W. Karrow (2007). Maps: Finding Our Place in the World. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-01075-5.
Jump up ^ "Ancient Sudan~ Nubia: History: The Kushite Conquest of Egypt". ancientsudan.org.
Jump up ^ Diop, Cheikh Anta (1974). The African Origin of Civilization. Chicago, Illinois: Lawrence Hill Books. pp. 219–221. ISBN 1-55652-072-7.
Jump up ^ Bonnet, Charles (2006). The Nubian Pharaohs. New York: The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 142–154. ISBN 978-977-416-010-3.
Jump up ^ Mokhtar, G. (1990). General History of Africa. California, USA: University of California Press. pp. 161–163. ISBN 0-520-06697-9.
Jump up ^ Emberling, Geoff (2011). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. pp. 9–11. ISBN 978-0-615-48102-9.
Jump up ^ Silverman, David (1997). Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 36–37. ISBN 0-19-521270-3.
Jump up ^ Meroë: writing – digitalegypt
Jump up ^ Nubian Queens in the Nile Valley and Afro-Asiatic Cultural History – Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban, Professor of Anthropology, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston U.S.A, August 20–26, 1998
Jump up ^ "Nubia". Catholic Encyclopedia.
Jump up ^ Hassan, Arabs, 125.
Further reading[edit]
Adam, William Y. (1977): Nubia: Corridor to Africa, London.
"Black Pharaohs", National Geographic, Feb 2008
Bulliet et al. (2001): Nubia, The Earth and Its Peoples, pp. 70–71, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston.
Drower M. (1970): Nubia A Drowning Land, London: Longmans.
Emberling, Geoff (2011): Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World.
Fisher, Marjorie, et al. (2012): Ancient Nubia: African Kingdoms on the Nile. The American University in Cairo Press.
Hassan, Yusuf Fadl (1973): The Arabs and the Sudan, Khartoum.
Jennings, Anne (1995) The Nubians of West Aswan: Village Women in the Midst of Change, Lynne Reinner Publishers.
Thelwall, Robin (1978): "Lexicostatistical relations between Nubian, Daju and Dinka", Études nubiennes: colloque de Chantilly, 2–6 juillet 1975, 265–286.
Thelwall, Robin (1982) 'Linguistic Aspects of Greater Nubian History', in Ehret, C. & Posnansky, M. (eds.) The Archeological and Linguistic Reconstruction of African History. Berkeley/Los Angeles, 39–56.
Török, László (1997): The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization. Brill Academic Publishers.
Valbelle, Dominique, and Bonnet, Charles (2006): The Nubian Pharaohs. New York: The American University in Cairo Press.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nubia.
African Kingdoms
Ancient Sudan Website
Racism and the Rediscovery of Ancient Nubia
Medieval Sai Project
"Journey to Ethiopia, Eastern Sudan, and Nigritia" was written by Pierre Trémaux in 1862-63. It features extensive descriptions and drawings of Nubia.
1960s Nubia Scrapbook
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 248963570
GND: 4042734-1
SELIBR: 155387
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Kangaroo care
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A new mother holds her premature baby at Kapiolani Medical Center NICU in Honolulu, Hawaii
Kangaroo care or kangaroo mother care (KMC), sometimes called skin-to-skin care, is a technique of newborn care where babies are kept skin-to-skin with a parent, typically their mother. It is most commonly used for low birth-weight preterm babies, who are more likely to suffer from hypothermia, while admitted to a neonatal unit to keep the baby warm and support early breastfeeding.
Kangaroo care, named for the similarity to how certain marsupials carry their young, was initially developed in the 1970s to care for preterm infants in countries where incubators were either unavailable or unreliable. There is evidence that it is effective in reducing both infant mortality and the risk of hospital-acquired infection, and increasing rates of breastfeeding and weight gain.
Skin-to-skin care is also used to describe the technique of placing full-term newborns very soon after birth on the bare chest of their mother or father. This also improves rates of breastfeeding and can lead to improved stability of the heart and breathing rate of the baby.
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 Terminology
3 History
4 Scientific rationale
5 Clinical evidence
6 Eligibility criteria
7 Techniques
8 Benefits
8.1 For pain control
8.2 For parents
8.3 For fathers
8.4 For pre-term and low-birth-weight infants
8.5 Promotes more successful breastfeeding
8.6 For institutions
8.7 For the community
9 Controversy
10 Society and culture
11 See also
12 References
13 External links
Description[edit]
A woman holds her premature twin grandsons skin-to-skin. This position helps babies maintain the proper body temperature.
Kangaroo care seeks to provide restored closeness of the newborn with family members by placing the infant in direct skin-to-skin contact with one of them. This ensures physiological and psychological warmth and bonding. The parent's stable body temperature helps to regulate the neonate's temperature more smoothly than an incubator, and allows for readily accessible breastfeeding when the mother holds the baby this way.[1]
While this model of infant care is substantially different from the typical Western neonatal intensive-care unit (NICU) procedures, the two are not mutually exclusive, and it is estimated that more than 200 neonatal intensive care units practice kangaroo care today. One recent survey found that 82 percent of neonatal intensive care units use kangaroo care in the United States today.
Terminology[edit]
Kangaroo Care is likely the most widely used term in the United States for skin-to-skin contact. Gene Cranston Anderson may have been the first to coin the term Kangaroo Care in the USA.[2] The defining feature of this is however for skin-to-skin contact, commonly abbreviated as SSC, also STS. This is used synonymously with "skin-to-skin care".[3][4] Dr Nils Bergman, one of the founders of the Kangaroo Mother Care Movement, argues that since skin-to-skin contact is a place of care, not a kind of care in itself, skin-to-skin contact should be the preferred term.[5]
Kangaroo Mother Care is a broader package of care defined by the World Health Organisation. Kangaroo Mother Care originally referred only to care of low birth weight and preterm infants, and is defined as a care strategy including three main components: kangaroo position, kangaroo nutrition and kangaroo discharge. Kangaroo position means direct skin-to-skin contact between mother and baby, but can include father, other family member or surrogate. The infant should be upright on the chest, and the airway secured with safe technique. (The term Kangaroo Mother Care is commonly used to mean skin-to-skin contact, despite its definition from the WHO as including a broader strategy).[6] Kangaroo nutrition implies exclusive breastfeeding, with additional support as required but with the aim of achieving ultimately exclusive breastfeeding. Kangaroo discharge requires that the infant is sent home early, meaning as soon as the mother is breastfeeding and able to provide all basic care herself. In Colombia in 1985 this took place at weights around 1000g, with oxygen cylinders for home use; the reason was that overcrowding in their hospital meant that three babies in an incubator would result in potentially lethal cross-infections. An essential part of this is close follow-up, and access to daily visits.[7]
History[edit]
Peter de Chateau in Sweden first described studies of "early contact" with mother and baby at birth in 1976, articles do not describe specifically that this was skin-to-skin contact.[8] Klaus and Kennell did very similar work in the USA, more well known in the context of early maternal-infant bonding. The first reported use of the term "skin-to-skin contact" is by Thomson in 1979[9] and quotes the work of de Chateau in its rationale. This is contemporary or even precedes the origins of Kangaroo Mother Care[10] in Bogota, Colombia.[4] This latter did however make the concept more widely known.
In 1978, due to increasing morbidity and mortality rates in the Instituto Materno Infantil NICU in Bogotá, Colombia, Dr. Edgar Rey Sanabria, Professor of Neonatology at Department of Paediatry - Universidad Nacional de Colombia, introduced a method to alleviate the shortage of caregivers and lack of resources. He suggested that mothers have continuous skin-to-skin contact with their low birth weight babies to keep them warm and to give exclusive breastfeeding as needed. This freed up overcrowded incubator space and care givers.
Another feature of kangaroo care was early discharge in the kangaroo position despite prematurity. It has proven successful in improving survival rates of premature and low birth weight newborns and in lowering the risks of nosocomial infection, severe illness, and lower respiratory tract disease. It also increased exclusive breastfeeding and for a longer duration and improved maternal satisfaction and confidence.[11]
Dr Rey and Dr Martinez published their results in 1979 in Spanish,[4] and used the term Kangaroo Mother Method. This was brought to the attention of English speaking health professionals in an article by Whitelaw and Sleath in 1985.[7] Gene Cranston Anderson and Susan Ludington were instrumental in introducing this to North America.
"Kangaroo Mother Care" as a term was first defined at a meeting of some 30 interested researchers, attending a meeting convened by Dr Adriano Cattaneo and colleagues in November 1996 in Trieste, Italy, together with the WHO represented by Dr Jelka Zupan.[12][13]
An International Network of Kangaroo Mother Care (INK) was convened at the Trieste meeting and has overseen workshops and conferences every two years. After Trieste, meetings were held in Bogota Colombia 1998, Yogyakarta Indonesia 2000, Cape Town South Africa 2002, Rio de Janeiro Brazil 2004, Cleveland USA 2006, Uppsala Sweden 2008, Quebec Canada 2010, Ahmedabad India 2012, and Kigali Rwanda 2014; the meeting in 2016 planned for Trieste Italy.
An informal steering committee coordinates these meetings: (alphabetically, current) Nils Bergman, Adriano Cattaneo, Nathalie Charpak, Kerstin Hedberg-Nyqvist, Ochi Ibe, Susan Ludington, Socorro Mendoza, Mantoa Mokrachane, Juan Gabriel Ruiz, Réjean Tessier, Rekha Udani.
Susan Ludington maintains a "KC BIB" (bibliography) on behalf of INK, endeavouring to be a complete inventory of any and all publications relevant to Kangaroo Mother Care. This is also broken down in an analysis of 120 charts, in which specific outcomes are collated.[14]
The International Kangaroo Care Awareness Day has been celebrated worldwide on May 15 since 2011. It is a day to increase awareness to enhance the practice of Kangaroo Care in NICUS, Post Partum, Labor and Delivery, and any hospital unit that has babies up to 3 months of age.
Scientific rationale[edit]
In primates, early skin-to-skin contact is part of a universal reproductive behaviour,[15] and early separation is used as a research modality to test the harmful effects on early development. Research suggests that for all mammals, the maternal environment (or place of care) is the primary requirement for regulation of all physiological needs (homeostasis),[16] maternal absence leads to dysregulation and adaptation to adversity.[17][18]
In mainstream clinical medicine, Kangaroo Mother Care is used as an adjunct to advanced technology that requires maternal infant separation.[19] However, skin-to-skin contact may have a better scientific rationale than the incubator. All other supportive technology can be provided as part of care to extremely low birth weight babies during skin-to-skin contact,[20] and appears to produce a better effect.[21]
Based on the scientific rationale, it has been suggested that skin-to-skin contact should be initiated immediately, to avoid the harmful effects of separation (Bergman Curationis). In terms of classification and proper defining for research purposes, the following aspects that categorise and define skin-to-skin contact have been proposed:
Initiation time, (minutes, hours from birth), ideal is zero separation.
Dose of skin-to-skin contact, (hours per day, or as percentage of day), ideal >90%.
Duration, (measured in days or weeks from birth), ideally until infant refuses.
Safe technique should ensure that obstructive apnoea cannot occur. Since the mother must be able to sleep to provide adequate dose, this requires keeping the airway safely open, and close containment to mother’s bare chest using a garment, various of these are described in the WHO guidelines.[6]
Mother should be the primary provider of skin-to-skin contact, as only she can breastfeed. However, it is almost always necessary that father should also provide skin-to-skin contact to achieve adequate dose; other family members can also be used. Since skin-to-skin contact is basic to early bonding and attachment, it should probably not be done by hospital staff and other surrogates.
Clinical evidence[edit]
In 2016 a Cochrane review, "Kangaroo mother care to reduce morbidity and mortality in low birthweight infants", was published bringing together data from 21 studies including 3042 low birth-weight babies (less than 1,500 grams (53 oz) at birth).[22] This review shows that babies provided kangaroo mother care have a reduced risk of death, hospital-acquired infection, and low body temperature (hypothermia); it is also associated with increased weight gain, growth in length, and rates of breastfeeding.[22]
A further Cochrane review on "Early skin-to-skin contact for mothers and their healthy babies", updated in 2015, provides clinical support for the scientific rationale but looks at evidence for early skin-to-skin contact for healthy babies.[23] The available evidence shows that early skin-to-skin contact is associated with increased rates of breastfeeding, and some evidence of improved physiological outcomes (early stability of the heart rate and breathing) for the babies.[23]
A randomized controlled trial published in 2004 reports that babies born between 1200 and 2200g became physiologically stable in skin-to-skin contact starting from birth, compared to similar babies in incubators.[24] In another randomized controlled trial conducted in Ethiopia, survival improved when skin-to-skin contact was started before 6 hours of age.[25]
While Kangaroo Mother Care generally implies care of low birth weight and preterm infants, skin-to-skin contact should be regarded as normal and basic for all newly born humans.[23] The original research by Thomson showed increased breastfeeding rates when skin-to-skin contact started at birth, and when early breastfeeding was encouraged every two hours.[9] Currently, the impact of skin-to-skin contact on breastfeeding is the scientific rationale for Step 4 of the Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI), which requires help to "initiate breastfeeding within one hour of birth".
Eligibility criteria[edit]
Originally babies who are eligible for kangaroo care include pre-term infants weighing less than 1,500 grams (3.3 lb), and breathing independently. Cardiopulmonary monitoring, oximetry, supplemental oxygen or nasal (continuous positive airway pressure) ventilation, intravenous infusions, and monitor leads do not prevent kangaroo care. In fact, babies who are in kangaroo care tend to be less prone to apnea and bradycardia and have stabilization of oxygen needs.[26][27]
During the early 1990s, the concept was advocated in North America for premature babies in NICU and later for full term babies. Research has been done in developed countries but there is a lag in implementation of kangaroo care due to ready access of incubators and technology.
Restrictions for eligibility to receive skin-to-skin contact are becoming fewer, the main constraint has probably been caregiver confidence and experience.
Techniques[edit]
In kangaroo care, the baby wears only a small diaper and a hat and is placed in a flexed (fetal position) with maximum skin-to-skin contact on parent's chest. The baby is secured with a wrap that goes around the naked torso of the adult, providing the baby with proper support and positioning (maintain flexion), constant containment without pressure points or creases, and protecting from air drafts (thermoregulation). If it is cold, the parent may wear a shirt or hospital gown with an opening to the front and a blanket over the wrap for the baby.[28]
The tight bundling is enough to stimulate the baby: vestibular stimulation from the parent's breathing and chest movement, auditory stimulation from the parent's voice and natural sounds of breathing and the heartbeat, touch by the skin of the parent, the wrap, and the natural tendency to hold the baby. All this stimulation is important for the baby’s development.
"Birth Kangaroo Care" places the baby in kangaroo care with the mother within one minute after birth and up to the first feeding. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends this practice, with minimal disruption for babies that don't require life support. The baby's head must be dried immediately after birth and then the baby is placed with a hat on the mother's chest. Measurements, etc. are performed after the first feeding. According to the US Institute of Kangaroo Care, healthy babies should maintain skin-to-skin contact method for about 3 months so that both baby and mother are established in breastfeeding and have achieved physiological recovery from the birth process.
For premature babies, this method can be used continuously around the clock or for sessions of no less than one hour in duration (the length of one full sleep cycle.) It can be started as soon as the baby is stabilized, so it may be at birth or within hours, days, or weeks after birth.
Kangaroo care is different from the practice of babywearing. In kangaroo care, the adult and the baby are skin-to-skin and chest-to-chest, securing the position of the baby with a stretchy wrap, and it is practiced to provide developmental care to premature babies for 6 months and full-term newborns for 3 months. In babywearing the adult and the child are fully clothed, the child may be in the front or back of the adult, can be done with many different types of carriers and slings, and is commonly practiced with infants and toddlers.
Benefits[edit]
For pain control[edit]
Skin-to-skin contact is effective in reducing pain in infants during painful procedures. There appears to be no difference between mothers and others who provide skin-to-skin contact during medical treatments.[29][30]
For parents[edit]
Kangaroo care is beneficial for parents because it promotes attachment and bonding, improves parental confidence, and helps to promote increased milk production and breastfeeding success.[1][22][31][32]
A recent study found that the psychological benefits of kangaroo care for parents of preterm infants are fairly extensive. Research shows that the use of kangaroo care is linked to lower parental anxiety levels. Amount of parental anxiety is related to parental age, family income, and socioeconomic status. Older parents may have additional life experience or resilience, leading to decreased anxiety. Higher socioeconomic status may contribute to less anxiety as well. These factors may lead to lower levels of baseline anxiety, and therefore a further decrease of anxiety following kangaroo care. Factors such as gestational age, parental gender, and marital status did not appear to affect parental anxiety. Kangaroo care was shown to decrease anxiety scores in both mothers and fathers, also unrelated to parents’ marital status.
Kangaroo care has also lead to greater confidence in parenting skills. Parents who used kangaroo care displayed higher confidence in their ability to care for their child. Kangaroo care has been shown to positively impact breastfeeding as well, with mothers producing larger amounts of milk for longer periods of time. Overall, kangaroo care has many important benefits for parents as well as infants.[33]
For fathers[edit]
Both preterm and full term infants benefit from skin to skin contact for the first few weeks of life with the baby's father as well. The new baby is familiar with the father's voice and it is believed that contact with the father helps the infant to stabilize and promotes father to infant bonding. If the infant's mother had a caesarean birth, the father can hold their baby in skin-to-skin contact while the mother recovers from the anesthetic.[34]
For pre-term and low-birth-weight infants[edit]
Kangaroo care arguably offers the most benefits for pre-term and low-birth-weight infants, who experience more normalized temperature, heart rate, and respiratory rate,[23][35] increased weight gain,[22][11] and fewer hospital-acquired infections.[22] Additionally, studies suggest that preterm infants who experience kangaroo care have improved cognitive development, decreased stress levels, reduced pain responses, normalized growth, and positive effects on motor development.[1][11][36][37][38][39] Kangaroo care also helps to improve sleep patterns of infants, and may be a good intervention for colic.[40] Earlier discharge from hospital is also a possible outcome[26] Finally, kangaroo care helps to promote frequent breastfeeding, and can enhance mother-infant bonding.[41] Evidence from a recent systematic review supports the use of kangaroo mother care as a substitute for conventional neonatal care in settings where resources are limited."[22]
Promotes more successful breastfeeding[edit]
Infant nursing shortly after birth
According to some authorities there is a growing body of evidence that suggests that early skin-to-skin contact of mother and baby stimulates breast feeding behavior in the baby. Newborn infants who are immediately placed on their mother’s skin have a natural instinct to latch on to the breast and start nursing, typically within one hour of being born. It is thought that immediate skin-to-skin contact provides a form of imprinting that makes subsequent feeding significantly easier. The World Health Organization reports that in addition to more successful breastfeeding, skin-to-skin contact between a mother and her newborn baby immediately after delivery also reduces crying, improves mother to infant interaction, and keeps baby warm. According to studies quoted by UNICEF, babies have been observed to naturally follow a unique process which leads to a first breastfeed. After birth, babies who are placed skin to skin on their mothers chest will:
Initially babies cry briefly – a very distinctive birth cry
Then they will enter a stage of relaxation, recovering from the birth
Then the baby will start to wake up
Then begin to move, initially little movements, perhaps of the arms, shoulders and head
As these movements increase the baby will actually start to crawl towards the breast
Once the baby has found the breast and therefore the food source, there is a period of rest. Often this can be mistaken as the baby is not hungry or wanting to feed
After resting, the baby will explore and get familiar with the breast, perhaps by nuzzling, smelling and licking before attaching
Providing that there are no interruptions, all babies are said to follow this process and it is suggested that trying to rush the process or interruptions such as removing the baby to weigh or measure is counter-productive and may lead to problems at subsequent breastfeeds.[42]
For mothers with low milk supply, increasing skin-to-skin contact is recommended, as it promotes more frequent feeding and stimulates the milk ejection reflex, prompting the body to produce more milk.[43]
For institutions[edit]
Kangaroo care often results in reduced hospital stays, reduced need for expensive healthcare technology, increased parental involvement and teaching opportunities, and better use of healthcare dollars.
For the community[edit]
Overall, kangaroo care helps to reduce morbidity and mortality, improves parent satisfaction, provides opportunities for teaching during postnatal follow-up visits, and decreases hospital-associated costs.
Controversy[edit]
Kangaroo care "is an effective and safe alternative to conventional neonatal care for LBW infants, mainly in resource-limited countries."[22] Kangaroo Mother Care reduces mortality, and also morbidity in resource limited settings, though further studies are needed.
The main controversy among proponents of Kangaroo Mother Care relates to eligibility to initiate kangaroo position: in the original Rey & Martinez model and as described in the WHO guidelines,[6] the infant should be stable to "tolerate skin-to-skin contact".[44][45] From a biological and neuroscience perspective, others argue that it is separation from mother that causes the instability,[46][47][48]
Regarding ‘kangaroo nutrition’ there is little controversy, with accumulating evidence for the benefits of breastfeeding as such,[49][50] and evidence that even preterm infants can exclusively breastfeed.[51][52]
Further controversy concerns the ‘early discharge’, which is defended by the Fundación Canguro, in Bogota, Colombia, and reported in evidence from a Cochrane review.[53] I
Society and culture[edit]
The International Kangaroo Care Awareness Day is celebrated on May 15 since 2011. It is a day to increase awareness, education, and celebration to enhance the practice of kangaroo care globally. Healthcare professionals, parents, volunteers around the world show their support, in their own way, for improving Kangaroo Care practice to benefit babies, parents, and society at large.
See also[edit]
Babywearing
Infant massage
Swaddling
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Ludington-Hoe, S., Lewis, T., Morgan, K., Cong, X., Anderson, L., & Reese, S. (2006). Breast and infant temperatures with twins during shared kangaroo care. Journal of Ostetrics, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing, 35 (2), 223-231.
Jump up ^ Anderson GC, Marks EA, Wahlberg V. Kangaroo care for premature infants. Am J Nurs 1986 July;86(7):807-9.
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Conde-Agudelo, A; Díaz-Rossello, JL (23 August 2016). "Kangaroo mother care to reduce morbidity and mortality in low birthweight infants". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (8): CD002771. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002771.pub4. PMID 27552521. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Moore, ER; Bergman, N; Anderson, GC; Medley, N (25 November 2016). "Early skin-to-skin contact for mothers and their healthy newborn infants". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 11: CD003519. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003519.pub4. PMID 27885658.
Jump up ^ Bergman NJ, Jurisoo LA. The ‘kangaroo-method’ for treating low birth weight babies in a developing country. Trop Doct 1994; 24(2): 57-60.
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^ Jump up to: a b London, M., Ladewig, P., Ball, J., & Bindler, R. (2006). Maternal and child nursing care (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. (p. 573, 791 - 793)
Jump up ^ Robles, M. (1995). Kangaroo care: The human incubator for the premature infant. University of Manitoba, Women’s Hospital in the Health Sciences Centre: Winnipeg, MN.
Jump up ^ "Skin-to-skin contact requires SAFE TECHNIQUE". Kangaroo Mother Care. Retrieved 30 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Johnston, Celeste; Campbell-Yeo, Marsha; Disher, Timothy; Benoit, Britney; Fernandes, Ananda; Streiner, David; Inglis, Darlene; Zee, Rebekah (2017). "Skin-to-skin care for procedural pain in neonates". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2: CD008435. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008435.pub3. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 28205208.
Jump up ^ Cong, Xiaomei (2017-10-01). "Skin-to-skin care is an effective and safe intervention to reduce procedural pain in neonates". Evidence-Based Nursing. 20 (4): 113–113. doi:10.1136/eb-2017-102684. ISSN 1367-6539. PMID 28739607.
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Jump up ^ Sweeney, Susan; Rothstein, Rachel; Visintainer, Paul; Rothstein, Robert; Singh, Rachana. "Impact of kangaroo care on parental anxiety level and parenting skills for preterm infants in the neonatal intensive care unit". Journal of Neonatal Nursing. 23 (3): 151–158. doi:10.1016/j.jnn.2016.09.003.
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Jump up ^ Conde-Agudelo A, az-Rossello JL. Kangaroo mother care to reduce morbidity and mortality in low birthweight infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014;4:CD002771.
External links[edit]
"Kangaroo Care Benefits" from Prematurity.org
http://www.motherfriendly.org
http://who.int./reproductive-health/publications/kmc/text.pdf
http://home.mweb.co.za/to/torngren/eng-berg.html
http://www.ninobirth.org
http://www.kangaroocareusa.org
http://kangaroo.care
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kangaroo_care&oldid=837251407"
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