text:
Horn of Africa
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Horn of Africa
القرن الافريقي
Gaaffaa Afriikaa
Geeska Afrika
የአፍሪካ ቀንድ
ቀርኒ ኣፍሪቃ
Countries and territories
Djibouti
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Somalia
Major regional organizations
Arab League, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, Community of Sahel-Saharan States, Intergovernmental Authority on Development
Population
122,618,170 (2016 est.)
Area
1,882,757 km2
Languages
Afar
Arabic
Amharic
Oromo
Somali
Tigrinya
Religion
Islam, Christianity, Traditional faiths
Time Zones
UTC+03:00
Currency
Djiboutian franc
Eritrean nakfa
Ethiopian birr
Somali shilling
Capitals
Addis Ababa (Ethiopia)
Asmara (Eritrea)
Djibouti (Djibouti)
Mogadishu (Somalia)
Total GDP (PPP)
$ 247.751 Billion (2016)
Total GDP (nominal)
$ 102,057 Billion (2016)
The Horn of Africa is a peninsula in Northeast Africa. It juts hundreds of kilometers into the Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean, lying along the southern side of the Gulf of Aden. The area is the easternmost projection of the African continent. The Horn of Africa denotes the region containing the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.[1][2][3][4] Regional studies on the Horn of Africa are carried out, among others, in the fields of Ethiopian Studies as well as Somali Studies.
Contents
[hide]
1 Names
2 History
2.1 Prehistory
2.2 Ancient history
2.3 Middle Ages and Early Modern era
2.4 Modern history
3 Geography
3.1 Geology and climate
3.2 Ecology
4 Ethnicity and languages
5 Culture
6 Religion
7 Sports
8 Economy
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 External links
Names[edit]
This peninsula is known by various names. In ancient and medieval times, the Horn of Africa was referred to as the Bilad al Barbar ("Land of the Berbers").[5][6][7] It is also known as the Somali peninsula, or in the Somali language, Geeska Afrika, Jasiiradda Soomaali or Gacandhulka Soomaali.[8] In other languages that are local or adjacent to the Horn of Africa, it is known as የአፍሪካ ቀንድ yäafrika qänd in Amharic, القرن الأفريقي al-qarn al-'afrīqī in Arabic, Gaaffaa Afriikaa in Oromo and ቀርኒ ኣፍሪቃ in Tigrinya. The Horn of Africa is sometimes shortened to HOA.[9] The Horn of Africa is quite commonly designated simply the "Horn", while inhabitants are sometimes colloquially referred to as Horn Africans.[10] Sometimes the term Greater Horn of Africa is used, either to be inclusive of neighbouring northeast African countries, or to distinguish the broader geopolitical definition of HOA from narrower peninsular definitions.[11] Ancient Greeks and Romans referred to the Somali peninsula as Regio Aromatica or Regio Cinnamonifora due to the aromatic plants, or Regio Incognita owing to its unchartered territory, while ancient Egyptians referred to it as the Land of Punt.[12]
History[edit]
Prehistory[edit]
Main articles: Laas Geel and Dhambalin
The Horn of Africa is one of the proposed urheimats (original homelands) of the Proto-Afroasiatic language.
Shell middens 125,000 years old have been found in Eritrea,[13] indicating the diet of early humans included seafood obtained by beachcombing.
According to both genetic and fossil evidence, archaic Homo sapiens evolved into anatomically modern humans solely in Africa between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago and may have dispersed from the Horn of Africa.[14][15]
The Bab-el-Mandeb crossing in the Red Sea: now some 12 miles (20 km) wide, in prehistory narrower.
Today at the Bab-el-Mandeb straits, the Red Sea is about 12 miles (20 kilometres) wide, but 50,000 years ago it was much narrower and sea levels were 70 meters lower. Though the straits were never completely closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached using simple rafts.
It has been estimated that from a population of 2,000 to 5,000 individuals in Africa,[16] only a small group of possibly as few as 150 to 1,000 people crossed the Red Sea.[17]
According to linguists, the first Afro-Asiatic-speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuing Neolithic era from the family's proposed urheimat ("original homeland") in the Nile Valley,[18] or the Near East.[19] Other scholars propose that the Afro-Asiatic family developed in situ in the Horn, with its speakers subsequently dispersing from there.[20] Genetic analysis also indicates that, beginning in the pre-agricultural period, settlers from the Near East founded communities in Northeast Africa. These early settlements eventually gave rise to the Afro-Asiatic-speaking populations in the Horn and Maghreb as the groups spread.[21]
Ancient history[edit]
Main articles: Land of Punt, Dʿmt, and Aksumite Empire
Further information: History of Ethiopia, History of Eritrea, and Ethiopian historiography
Queen Ati, wife of King Perahu of Punt, as depicted on Pharaoh Hatshepsut's temple at Deir el-Bahri.
Together with northern Somalia, Djibouti, the Red Sea coast of Sudan and Eritrea is considered the most likely location of the land known to the ancient Egyptians as Punt (or "Ta Netjeru," meaning god's land), whose first mention dates to the 25th century BCE.[22]
King Ezana's Stela at Aksum, symbol of the Aksumite civilization.
Dʿmt was a kingdom located in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, which existed during the 8th and 7th centuries BCE. With its capital at Yeha, the kingdom developed irrigation schemes, used plows, grew millet, and made iron tools and weapons. After the fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BCE, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms, until the rise of one of these kingdoms during the 1st century, the Aksumite Kingdom, which was able to reunite the area.[23]
The Kingdom of Aksum (also known as the Aksumite Empire) was an ancient state located in the Eritrean highlands and Ethiopian highlands, which thrived between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. A major player in the commerce between the Roman Empire and Ancient India, Aksum's rulers facilitated trade by minting their own currency. The state also established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian peninsula, eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom. Under Ezana (fl. 320–360), the kingdom of Aksum became the first major empire to adopt Christianity, and was named by Mani as one of the four great powers of his time, along with Persia, Rome and China.
Ancient trading centers in the Horn of Africa and the Arabian peninsula according to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
Northern Somalia was an important link in the Horn, connecting the region's commerce with the rest of the ancient world. Somali sailors and merchants were the main suppliers of frankincense, myrrh and spices, all of which were valuable luxuries to the Ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians, Mycenaeans, Babylonians and Romans.[24][25] The Romans consequently began to refer to the region as Regio Aromatica. In the classical era, several flourishing Somali city-states such as Opone, Mosylon and Malao also competed with the Sabaeans, Parthians and Axumites for the rich Indo-Greco-Roman trade.[26]
The birth of Islam opposite the Horn's Red Sea coast meant that local merchants and sailors living on the Arabian Peninsula gradually came under the influence of the new religion through their converted Arab Muslim trading partners. With the migration of Muslim families from the Islamic world to the Horn in the early centuries of Islam, and the peaceful conversion of the local population by Muslim scholars in the following centuries, the ancient city-states eventually transformed into Islamic Mogadishu, Berbera, Zeila, Barawa and Merka, which were part of the Berber civilization.[27][28] The city of Mogadishu came to be known as the "City of Islam"[29] and controlled the East African gold trade for several centuries.[30]
Middle Ages and Early Modern era[edit]
Main articles: Adal Sultanate, Ajuran Sultanate, Warsangali Sultanate, Sultanate of Showa, Sultanate of Ifat, Sultanate of the Geledi, Zagwe dynasty, Sultanate of Mogadishu, Aussa Sultanate, Majeerteen Sultanate, and Sultanate of Hobyo
Ruins of the Sultanate of Adal in Zeila
During the Middle Ages, several powerful empires dominated the regional trade in the Horn, including the Adal Sultanate, the Ajuran Sultanate, the Warsangali Sultanate, the Zagwe dynasty, and the Sultanate of the Geledi.
The Sultanate of Showa, established in 896, was one of the oldest local Islamic states. It was centered in the former Shewa province in central Ethiopia. The polity was succeeded by the Sultanate of Ifat around 1285. Ifat was governed from its capital at Zeila in northern Somalia and was the easternmost district of the former Shewa Sultanate.[31]
The Adal Sultanate was a medieval multi-ethnic Muslim state centered in the Horn region. At its height, it controlled large parts of Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea. Many of the historic cities in the region, such as Amud, Maduna, Abasa, Berbera, Zeila and Harar, flourished during the kingdom's golden age. This period that left behind numerous courtyard houses, mosques, shrines and walled enclosures. Under the leadership of rulers such as Sabr ad-Din II, Mansur ad-Din, Jamal ad-Din II, Shams ad-Din, General Mahfuz and Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, Adalite armies continued the struggle against the Solomonic dynasty, a campaign historically known as the Conquest of Abyssinia or Futuh al Habash.
The Warsangali Sultanate was a kingdom centered in northeastern and in some parts of southeastern Somalia. It was one of the largest sultanates ever established in the territory, and, at the height of its power, included the Sanaag region and parts of the northeastern Bari region of the country, an area historically known as Maakhir or the Maakhir Coast. The Sultanate was founded in the late 13th century in northern Somalia by a group of Somalis from the Warsangali branch of the Darod clan, and was ruled by the descendants of the Gerad Dhidhin.
The citadel in Gondershe, an important city in the medieval Ajuran Sultanate
Through a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders, the Ajuran Sultanate successfully resisted an Oromo invasion from the west and a Portuguese incursion from the east during the Gaal Madow and the Ajuran-Portuguese wars. Trading routes dating from the ancient and early medieval periods of Somali maritime enterprise were also strengthened or re-established, and the state left behind an extensive architectural legacy. Many of the hundreds of ruined castles and fortresses that dot the landscape of Somalia today are attributed to Ajuran engineers,[32] including a lot of the pillar tomb fields, necropolises and ruined cities built during that era. The royal family, the House of Gareen, also expanded its territories and established its hegemonic rule through a skillful combination of warfare, trade linkages and alliances.[33]
The Zagwe dynasty ruled many parts of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea from approximately 1137 to 1270. The name of the dynasty comes from the Cushitic-speaking Agaw people of northern Ethiopia. From 1270 onwards for many centuries, the Solomonic dynasty ruled the Ethiopian Empire.
The Lalibela churches carved by the Zagwe dynasty in the 12th century.
In the early 15th century, Ethiopia sought to make diplomatic contact with European kingdoms for the first time since Aksumite times. A letter from King Henry IV of England to the Emperor of Abyssinia survives.[34] In 1428, the Emperor Yeshaq sent two emissaries to Alfonso V of Aragon, who sent return emissaries who failed to complete the return trip.[35]
The first continuous relations with a European country began in 1508 with Portugal under Emperor Lebna Dengel, who had just inherited the throne from his father.[36] This proved to be an important development, for when Abyssinia was subjected to the attacks of the Adal Sultanate General and Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (called "Gurey" or "Grañ", both meaning "the Left-handed"), Portugal assisted the Ethiopian emperor by sending weapons and four hundred men, who helped his son Gelawdewos defeat Ahmad and re-establish his rule.[37] This Abyssinian–Adal War was also one of the first proxy wars in the region as the Ottoman Empire, and Portugal took sides in the conflict.
King Fasilides's Castle in Gondar
When Emperor Susenyos converted to Roman Catholicism in 1624, years of revolt and civil unrest followed resulting in thousands of deaths.[38] The Jesuit missionaries had offended the Orthodox faith of the local Ethiopians. On June 25, 1632, Susenyos's son, Emperor Fasilides, declared the state religion to again be Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, and expelled the Jesuit missionaries and other Europeans.[39][40]
During the end of 18th and the beginning of 19th century the Yejju dynasty (more specifically, the Warasek) ruled north Ethiopia changing the official language of Amhara people to Afaan Oromo, including inside the court of Gondar which was capital of the empire. Founded by Ali I of Yejju several successive descendants of him and Abba Seru Gwangul ruled with their army coming from mainly their clan the Yejju Oromo tribe as well as Wollo and Raya Oromo.[41]
The Sultanate of Hobyo's cavalry and fort
The Sultanate of the Geledi was a Somali kingdom administered by the Gobroon dynasty, which ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It was established by the Ajuran soldier Ibrahim Adeer, who had defeated various vassals of the Ajuran Empire and established the House of Gobroon. The dynasty reached its apex under the successive reigns of Sultan Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim, who successfully consolidated Gobroon power during the Bardera wars, and Sultan Ahmed Yusuf, who forced regional powers such as the Omani Empire to submit tribute.
The Majeerteen Sultanate (Migiurtinia) was another prominent Somali sultanate based in the Horn region. Ruled by King Osman Mahamuud during its golden age, it controlled much of northeastern and central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The polity had all of the organs of an integrated modern state and maintained a robust trading network. It also entered into treaties with foreign powers and exerted strong centralized authority on the domestic front.[42][43] Much of the Sultanate's former domain is today coextensive with the autonomous Puntland region in northeastern Somalia.[44]
The Sultanate of Hobyo was a 19th-century Somali kingdom founded by Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid. Initially, Kenadid's goal was to seize control of the neighboring Majeerteen Sultanate, which was then ruled by his cousin Boqor Osman Mahamuud. However, he was unsuccessful in this endeavor, and was eventually forced into exile in Yemen. A decade later, in the 1870s, Kenadid returned from the Arabian Peninsula with a band of Hadhrami musketeers and a group of devoted lieutenants. With their assistance, he managed to establish the kingdom of Hobyo, which would rule much of northeastern and central Somalia during the early modern period.[45]
Modern history[edit]
Main articles: First Italo-Abyssinian War, Second Italo-Abyssinian War, East African Campaign (World War II), Italian East Africa, and Somaliland Campaign
Building of regional administration in Asmara
In the period following the opening of the Suez canal in 1869, when European powers scrambled for territory in Africa and tried to establish coaling stations for their ships, Italy invaded and occupied Eritrea. On January 1, 1890, Eritrea officially became a colony of Italy. In 1896 further Italian incursion into the horn was decisively halted by Ethiopian forces. By 1936 however, Eritrea became a province of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana), along with Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland. By 1941, Eritrea had about 760,000 inhabitants, including 70,000 Italians.[46] The Commonwealth armed forces, along with the Ethiopian patriotic resistance, expelled those of Italy in 1941,[47] and took over the area's administration. The British continued to administer the territory under a UN Mandate until 1951, when Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia, as per UN resolution 390(A) and under the prompting of the United States adopted in December 1950.
Map of Africa in 1909, the Horn region is the easternmost projection of the African continent.
The strategic importance of Eritrea, due to its Red Sea coastline and mineral resources, was the main cause for the federation with Ethiopia, which in turn led to Eritrea's annexation as Ethiopia's 14th province in 1952. This was the culmination of a gradual process of takeover by the Ethiopian authorities, a process which included a 1959 edict establishing the compulsory teaching of Amharic, the main language of Ethiopia, in all Eritrean schools. The lack of regard for the Eritrean population led to the formation of an independence movement in the early 1960s (1961), which erupted into a 30-year war against successive Ethiopian governments that ended in 1991. Following a UN-supervised referendum in Eritrea (dubbed UNOVER) in which the Eritrean people overwhelmingly voted for independence, Eritrea declared its independence and gained international recognition in 1993.[48] In 1998, a border dispute with Ethiopia led to the Eritrean-Ethiopian War.[49]
Place Menelik in Djibouti City in 1905
From 1862 until 1894, the land to the north of the Gulf of Tadjoura situated in modern-day Djibouti was called Obock and was ruled by Somali and Afar Sultans, local authorities with whom France signed various treaties between 1883 and 1887 to first gain a foothold in the region.[50][51][52] In 1894, Léonce Lagarde established a permanent French administration in the city of Djibouti and named the region Côte française des Somalis (French Somaliland), a name which continued until 1967.
In 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalia's independence in 1960, a referendum was held in the territory to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, partly due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans.[53] There was also reports of widespread vote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls.[54] The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later.[53] Djibouti finally gained its independence from France in 1977, and Hassan Gouled Aptidon, a Somali politician who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as the nation's first president (1977–1999).[53] In early 2011, the Djiboutian citizenry took part in a series of protests against the long-serving government, which were associated with the larger Arab Spring demonstrations. The unrest eventually subsided by April of the year, and Djibouti's ruling People's Rally for Progress party was re-elected to office.
Statue of Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan (the "Mad Mullah"), leader of the Dervish State
Mohammed Abdullah Hassan's Dervish State successfully repulsed the British Empire four times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region.[55] Due to these successful expeditions, the Dervish State was recognized as an ally by the Ottoman and German Empires. The Turks also named Hassan Emir of the Somali nation,[56] and the Germans promised to officially recognize any territories the Dervishes were to acquire.[57] After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britain's new policy of aerial bombardment.[58] As a result of this bombardment, former Dervish territories were turned into a protectorate of Britain. Italy faced similar opposition from Somali Sultans and armies, and did not acquire full control of parts of modern Somalia until the Fascist era in late 1927. This occupation lasted until 1941, and was replaced by a British military administration. Northern Somalia would remain a protectorate, while southern Somalia became a trusteeship. The Union of the two regions in 1960 formed the Somali Republic. A civilian government was formed, and on July 20, 1961, through a popular referendum, a new constitution that had first been drafted the year before was ratified.[59]
Due to its longstanding ties with the Arab world, Somalia was accepted in 1974 as a member of the Arab League.[60] During the same year, the nation's former socialist administration also chaired the Organization of African Unity, the predecessor of the African Union.[61] In 1991, the Somali Civil War broke out, which saw the collapse of the federal government and the emergence of numerous autonomous polities, including the Puntland administration in the northeast and Somaliland, an unrecognised self-declared sovereign state that is internationally recognised as an autonomous region of Somalia,[62] in the northwest. Somalia's inhabitants subsequently reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either secular, Islamic or customary law, with a provision for appeal of all sentences. A Transitional Federal Government was subsequently created in 2004.[63] The Federal Government of Somalia was established on August 20, 2012, concurrent with the end of the TFG's interim mandate.[64] It represents the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war.[64] The Federal Parliament of Somalia serves as the government's legislative branch.[65]
Haile Selassie's reign as emperor of Ethiopia is the best known and perhaps most influential in the nation's history.
Modern Ethiopia and its current borders are a result of significant territorial reduction in the north and expansion in the east and south toward its present borders, owing to several migrations, commercial integration, treaties as well as conquests, particularly by Emperor Menelik II and Ras Gobena.[66] From the central province of Shoa, Menelik set off to subjugate and incorporate ‘the lands and people of the South, East and West into an empire.’[66][67] He did this with the help of Ras Gobena's Shewan Oromo militia, began expanding his kingdom to the south and east, expanding into areas that had not been held since the invasion of Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi, and other areas that had never been under his rule, resulting in the borders of Ethiopia of today.[68] Menelik had signed the Treaty of Wichale with Italy in May 1889, in which Italy would recognize Ethiopia’s sovereignty so long as Italy could control a small area of northern Tigray (part of modern Eritrea).[69] In return Italy, was to provide Menelik with arms and support him as emperor.[70] The Italians used the time between the signing of the treaty and its ratification by the Italian government to further expand their territorial claims. Italy began a state funded program of resettlement for landless Italians in Eritrea, which increased tensions between the Eritrean peasants and the Italians.[70] This conflict erupted in the Battle of Adwa on 1 March 1896, in which Italy’s colonial forces were defeated by the Ethiopians.[71]
The early 20th century in Ethiopia was marked by the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie I, who came to power after Iyasu V was deposed. In 1935, Haile Selassie's troops fought and lost the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, after which point Italy annexed Ethiopia to Italian East Africa.[72] Haile Selassie subsequently appealed to the League of Nations, delivering an address that made him a worldwide figure and 1935's Time magazine Man of the Year.[73] Following the entry of Italy into World War II, British Empire forces, together with patriot Ethiopian fighters, liberated Ethiopia in the course of the East African Campaign in 1941.[74]
Addis Ababa, capital of Ethiopia since 1886.
Haile Selassie's reign came to an end in 1974, when a Soviet-backed Marxist-Leninist military junta, the Derg led by Mengistu Haile Mariam, deposed him, and established a one-party communist state, which was called the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. In July 1977, the Ogaden War broke out after the government of President of Somalia Siad Barre sought to incorporate the predominantly Somali-inhabited Ogaden region into a Pan-Somali Greater Somalia. By September 1977, the Somali army controlled 90% of the Ogaden, but was later forced to withdraw after Ethiopia's Derg received assistance from the USSR, Cuba, South Yemen, East Germany[75] and North Korea, including around 15,000 Cuban combat troops.
In 1989, the Tigrayan Peoples' Liberation Front (TPLF) merged with other ethnically based opposition movements to form the Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), and eventually managed to overthrow Mengistu's dictatorial regime in 1991. A transitional government, composed of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution, was then set up. The first free and democratic election took place later in 1995, when Ethiopia's longest-serving Prime Minister Meles Zenawi was elected to office. As with other nations in the Horn region, Ethiopia maintained its historically close relations with countries in the Middle East during this period of change.[76] Zenawi died in 2012, but his Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) party remains the ruling political coalition in Ethiopia.
Geography[edit]
Geology and climate[edit]
The Horn of Africa as seen from the NASA Space Shuttle in May 1993. The orange and tan colors in this image indicate a largely arid to semiarid climate.
The Horn of Africa is almost equidistant from the equator and the Tropic of Cancer. It consists chiefly of mountains uplifted through the formation of the Great Rift Valley, a fissure in the Earth's crust extending from Turkey to Mozambique and marking the separation of the African and Arabian tectonic plates. Mostly mountainous, the region arose through faults resulting from the Rift Valley.
Geologically, the Horn and Yemen once formed a single landmass around 18 million years ago, before the Gulf of Aden rifted and separated the Horn region from the Arabian Peninsula.[77][78] The Somali Plate is bounded on the west by the East African Rift, which stretches south from the triple junction in the Afar Depression, and an undersea continuation of the rift extending southward offshore. The northern boundary is the Aden Ridge along the coast of Saudi Arabia. The eastern boundary is the Central Indian Ridge, the northern portion of which is also known as the Carlsberg Ridge. The southern boundary is the Southwest Indian Ridge.
Extensive glaciers once covered the Simien and Bale Mountains but melted at the beginning of the Holocene. The mountains descend in a huge escarpment to the Red Sea and more steadily to the Indian Ocean. Socotra is a small island in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Somalia. Its size is 3,600 km2 (1,390 sq mi) and it is a territory of Yemen.
The lowlands of the Horn are generally arid in spite of their proximity to the equator. This is because the winds of the tropical monsoons that give seasonal rains to the Sahel and the Sudan blow from the west. Consequently, they lose their moisture before reaching Djibouti and Somalia, with the result that most of the Horn receives little rainfall during the monsoon season.
The Horn of Africa. NASA image
In the mountains of Ethiopia, many areas receive over 2,000 mm (80 in) per year, and even Asmara receives an average of 570 mm (23 in). This rainfall is the sole source of water for many areas outside Ethiopia, including Egypt. In the winter, the northeasterly trade winds do not provide any moisture except in mountainous areas of northern Somalia, where rainfall in late autumn can produce annual totals as high as 500 mm (20 in). On the eastern coast, a strong upwelling and the fact that the winds blow parallel to the coast means annual rainfall can be as low as 50 mm (2 in).
The climate in Ethiopia varies considerably between regions. It is generally hotter in the lowlands and temperate on the plateau. At Addis Ababa, which ranges from 2,200 to 2,600 m (7,218 to 8,530 ft), maximum temperature is 26 °C (78.8 °F) and minimum 4 °C (39.2 °F). The weather is usually sunny and dry, but the short (belg) rains occur from February to April and the big (meher) rains from mid-June to mid-September. The Danakil Desert stretches across 100,000 km2 of arid terrain in northeast Ethiopia, southern Eritrea, and northwestern Djibouti. The area is known for its volcanoes and extreme heat, with daily temperatures over 45 °C and often surpassing 50 °C. It has a number lakes formed by lava flows that dammed up several valleys. Among are Lake Asale (116 m below sea level) and Lake Giuletti/Afrera (80 m below sea level), both of which possess cryptodepressions in the Danakil Depression. The Afrera contains many active volcanoes, including the Maraho, Dabbahu, Afdera and Erta Ale.[79][80]
In Somalia, there is not much seasonal variation in climate. Hot conditions prevail year-round along with periodic monsoon winds and irregular rainfall. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from 28 to 43 °C (82 to 109 °F), except at higher elevations along the eastern seaboard, where the effects of a cold offshore current can be felt. Somalia has only two permanent rivers, the Jubba and the Shabele, both of which begin in the Ethiopian Highlands.[81]
Ecology[edit]
The Horn region has the world's largest population of camels.[82]
About 220 mammals are found in the Horn of Africa. Among threatened species of the region, there are several antelopes such as the beira, the dibatag, the silver dikdik and the Speke's gazelle. Other remarkable species include the Somali wild ass, the desert warthog, the hamadryas baboon, the Somali pygmy gerbil, the ammodile, and the Speke's pectinator. The Grevy's zebra is the unique wild equid of the region. There are predators such as spotted hyena, striped hyena and African leopard. The endangered painted hunting dog had populations in the Horn of Africa, but pressures from human exploitation of habitat along with warfare have reduced or extirpated this canid in this region.[83]
Some important bird species of the Horn are the black boubou, the golden-winged grosbeak, the Warsangli linnet, and the Djibouti francolin.
The Horn of Africa holds more endemic reptiles than any other region in Africa, with over 285 species total (and about 90 species found exclusively in the region). Among endemic reptile genera, there are Haackgreerius, Haemodracon, Ditypophis, Pachycalamus and Aeluroglena. Half of these genera are uniquely found on Socotra. Unlike reptiles, amphibians are poorly represented in the region.
There are about 100 species of freshwater fish in the Horn of Africa, about 10 of which are endemic. Among the endemic, the cave-dwelling Somali blind barb and the Somali cavefish can be found.
Myrrh, a common resin in the Horn
It is estimated that about 5,000 species of vascular plants are found in the Horn, about half of which are endemic. Endemism is most developed in Socotra and northern Somalia. The region has two endemic plant families: the Barbeyaceae and the Dirachmaceae. Among the other remarkable species, there are the cucumber tree found only on Socotra (Dendrosicyos socotrana), the Bankoualé palm, the yeheb nut, and the Somali cyclamen.
Due to the Horn of Africa's semi-arid and arid climate, droughts are not uncommon. They are complicated by climate change and changes in agricultural practices. For centuries, the region's pastoral groups have observed careful rangeland management practices to mitigate the effects of drought, such as avoiding overgrazing or setting aside land only for young or ill animals. However, population growth has put pressure on limited land and led to these practices no longer being maintained. Droughts in 1983–85, 1991–92, 1998–99 and 2011 have disrupted periods of gradual growth in herd numbers, leading to a decrease of between 37% and 62% of the cattle population. Initiatives by ECHO and USAID have succeeded in reclaiming hundreds of hectares of pastureland through rangeland management, leading to the establishment of the Dikale Rangeland in 2004.[84]
Ethnicity and languages[edit]
Besides sharing similar geographic endowments, the countries of the Horn of Africa are, for the most part, linguistically and ethnically linked together,[4] evincing a complex pattern of interrelationships among the various groups.[85]
Saho women in traditional attire
According to Ethnologue, there are 10 individual languages spoken in Djibouti, 14 in Eritrea, 90 in Ethiopia, and 15 in Somalia.[86] Most people in the Horn speak Afroasiatic languages of the Cushitic or Semitic branches. The former includes Oromo, spoken by the Oromo people in Ethiopia, and Somali, spoken by the Somali people in Somalia, Djibouti and Ethiopia; the latter includes Amharic, spoken by the Amhara people of Ethiopia, and Tigrinya spoken by the Tigrinyas of Eritrea and Tigrayans of Ethiopia, respectively. Other Afroasiatic languages with a significant number of speakers include the Cushitic Afar, Saho, Hadiyya, Sidamo and Agaw languages, as well as the Semitic Tigre, Arabic, Gurage, Harari, Silt'e and Argobba tongues.[87]
The major Afroasiatic languages spoken in Ethiopia.
Additionally, Omotic languages are spoken by Omotic communities inhabiting Ethiopia's southern regions. Among these idioms are Aari, Dizi, Gamo, Kafa, Hamer and Wolaytta.[88]
Languages belonging to the Nilo-Saharan and Niger-Congo families are also spoken in some areas by Nilotic and Bantu ethnic minorities, respectively. These tongues include the Nilo-Saharan Me'en and Mursi languages used in southwestern Ethiopia, and Kunama and Nara idioms spoken in parts of southern Eritrea. In the riverine and littoral areas of southern Somalia, Bajuni, Barawani, and Bantu groups also speak variants of the Niger-Congo Swahili and Mushunguli languages.[89][90]
Culture[edit]
The Northern Stelae Park in Axum with King Ezana's Stele at the centre. The Great Stele lies broken.
The countries of the Horn of Africa have been the birthplace of many ancient, as well as modern, cultural achievements in several fields including agriculture, architecture, art, cuisine, education, literature, music, technology and theology to name but a few.
Ethiopian agriculture established the earliest known use of the seed grass Teff (Poa abyssinica) between 4000–1000 BCE.[91] Teff is used to make the flat bread injera/taita. Coffee also originated in Ethiopia and has since spread to become a worldwide beverage.[92] Ethiopian art is renowned for the ancient tradition of Ethiopian Orthodox Christian iconography stretching back to wall paintings of the 7th century CE.[93] Somali architecture includes the Fakr ad-Din Mosque, which was built in 1269 by the Fakr ad-Din, the first Sultan of the Sultanate of Mogadishu.[94] Ethiopia, too is renowned for its ancient churches, such as at the UNESCO World Heritage Site at Lalibela.[95]
The Horn has produced numerous indigenous writing systems. Among these is Ge'ez script (ግዕዝ Gəʿəz) (also known as Ethiopic), which has been written in for at least 2000 years.[96] It is an abugida script that was originally developed to write the Ge'ez language. In speech communities that use it, such as the Amharic and Tigrinya, the script is called fidäl (ፊደል), which means "script" or "alphabet".
The Osmanya writing script
In the early 20th century, in response to a national campaign to settle on a writing script for the Somali language (which had long since lost its ancient script[97]), Osman Yusuf Kenadid, a Somali poet and remote cousin of the Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid of the Sultanate of Hobyo, devised a phonetically sophisticated alphabet called Osmanya (also known as far soomaali; Osmanya: 𐒍𐒖𐒇 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘) for representing the sounds of Somali.[98] Though no longer the official writing script in Somalia, the Osmanya script is available in the Unicode range 10480-104AF [from U+10480 – U+104AF (66688–66735)].
The Somali writer Nuruddin Farah has also garnered acclaim as perhaps the most celebrated writer ever to come out of the Horn of Africa. Having published many short stories, novels and essays, Farah's prose has earned him, among other accolades, the Premio Cavour in Italy, the Kurt Tucholsky Prize in Sweden, and in 1998, the prestigious Neustadt International Prize for Literature. In the same year, the French edition of his novel Gifts also won the St. Malo Literature Festival's prize.[99]
The music of the Ethiopian highlands uses a unique modal system called qenet, of which there are four main modes: tezeta, bati, ambassel, and anchihoy.[100] Three additional modes are variations on the above: tezeta minor, bati major, and bati minor.[101] Some songs take the name of their qenet, such as tezeta, a song of reminiscence.[100]
In the field of technology, the Great Stele of Axum, at over 100 feet (30 m) long, was the largest single stone ever quarried in the ancient world.[102]
Additionally, the glossy lifestyle magazine Sheeko is published quarterly for and by the Horn community.
Religion[edit]
The Chapel of the Tablet at the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion allegedly houses the original Ark of the Covenant.
Most inhabitants in the Horn of Africa follow one of the three major Abrahamic faiths. These religions have had a longstanding adherence in the region.
The ancient Axumite Kingdom produced coins and stelae associated with the disc and crescent symbols of the deity Ashtar.[103] The kingdom later became one of the earliest states to adopt Christianity, following the conversion of King Ezana II in the 4th century.
Engraving of the 13th-century Fakr ad-Din Mosque built by Fakr ad-Din, the first Sultan of Mogadishu.
Islam was introduced to the northern Somali coast early on from the Arabian peninsula, shortly after the hijra. Zeila's two-mihrab Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to the 7th century, and is the oldest mosque in Africa.[104][105] In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Somali seaboard.[106] He also mentioned that the Adal kingdom had its capital in the city,[106][107] suggesting that the Adal Sultanate with Zeila as its headquarters dates back to at least the 9th or 10th century. According to I.M. Lewis, the polity was governed by local Somali dynasties, who also ruled over the similarly-established Sultanate of Mogadishu in the littoral Benadir region to the south. Adal's history from this founding period forth would be characterized by a succession of battles with neighbouring Abyssinia.[107]
Islam was introduced to the region early on from the Arabian peninsula, shortly after the hijra. At Muhammad's urging, a band of persecuted Muslims had fled across the Red Sea into the Horn. There, the Muslims were granted protection by the Aksumite King Aṣḥama ibn Abjar.[108]
Additionally, Judaism has a long presence in the region. The Kebra Negast ("Book of the Glory of Kings") relates that Israelite tribes arrived in Ethiopia with Menelik I, purported to be the son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba (Makeda). The legend relates that Menelik as an adult returned to his father in Jerusalem, and then resettled in Ethiopia, and that he took with him the Ark of the Covenant.[109] The Beta Israel today primarily follow the Orit (from Aramaic "Oraita" – "Torah"), which consists of the Five Books of Moses and the books Joshua, Judges and Ruth.
A number of ethnic minority groups in southern Ethiopia also adhere to various traditional faiths. Among these belief systems are the Nilo-Saharan Surma people's acknowledgment of the sky god Tumu.[110]
Sports[edit]
Cyclists competing in the Tour of Eritrea in Asmara, Eritrea
In the modern era, the Horn of Africa has produced several world-famous sports personalities, including long distance runners such as the world-record holder Kenenisa Bekele and Derartu Tulu, the first Ethiopian woman to win an Olympic gold medal and the only woman to have twice won the 10,000 meter Olympic gold in the short history of the event. One of the most successful runners from the region has been Haile Gebrselassie[111] who was acclaimed as "Athlete of the Year 1998" by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF). As well as numerous gold medals in various events, Gebrselassie achieved 15 world records and world bests in long and middle distance running, including world record marathon times in 2007 and 2008. Somali athlete Abdi Bile became a world champion when he won the 1500m for men at the 1987 World Championships in Athletics, running the final 800m of the race in 1:46.0, the fastest final 800m of any 1,500 meter track race in history.
Eritrea has established the cycling event the Tour of Eritrea.
In recent years, the Somali diaspora produced a football star in Ayub Daud, a midfielder who plays for Juventus in Italy's Serie A. Zahra Bani, a Somali-Italian javelin thrower, has garnered attention with her performances that so far have earned her adopted Italy a silver medal at the 2005 Mediterranean Games, as has Mo Farah, a Somali-British athlete that took gold for his adopted Great Britain in the 3000m at the 2009 European Indoor Championships in Turin and later golds in both the 10,000m and 5,000m at the 2012 London Olympics.
Economy[edit]
Vegetable shop in Asmara, Eritrea
According to the IMF, in 2010 the Horn of Africa region had a total GDP (PPP) of $106.224 billion and nominal of $35.819 billion. Per capita, the GDP in 2010 was $1061 (PPP) and $358 (nominal).[112][113][114][115]
States of the region depend largely on a few key exports:
Economy of Ethiopia: Coffee 80% of total exports.
Economy of Somalia: Bananas and livestock over 50% of total exports.
Over 95% of cross-border trade within the region is unofficial and undocumented, carried out by pastoralists trading livestock.[116] The unofficial trade of live cattle, camels, sheep and goats from Ethiopia sold to other countries in the Horn and the wider Eastern Africa region, including Somalia and Djibouti, generates an estimated total value of between US$250 and US$300 million annually (100 times more than the official figure).[116] This trade helps lower food prices, increase food security, relieve border tensions and promote regional integration.[116] However, there are also risks as the unregulated and undocumented nature of this trade runs risks, such as allow disease to spread more easily across national borders. Furthermore, governments are unhappy with lost tax revenue and foreign exchange revenues.[116]
Much of the Horn nations' trade links are with Middle Eastern countries. In 2011, an event hosted by the Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies in Doha, Qatar devoted several days of discussion to ways in which countries in the Horn region and the adjacent Arabian peninsula could further strengthen these historically close economic, social, cultural and religious ties.[117]
See also[edit]
Incense Route
Operation Enduring Freedom - Horn of Africa
Silk Road
National history:
History of Djibouti
History of Eritrea
History of Ethiopia
History of Somalia
Sultanates and kingdoms:
Ajuran Empire
Adal Sultanate
Aksumite Empire
Ethiopian Empire
Aussa Sultanate
Dervish State
Harar Sultanate
Ifat Sultanate
Kingdom of Gomma
Kingdom of Gumma
Kingdom of Jimma
Kingdom of Kaffa
The land of Punt
Macrobians
Majeerteen Sultanate
Mudaito Dynasty
Sultanate of Hobyo
Sultanate of Mogadishu
Sultanate of Shewa
Sultanate of the Geledi
Walashma dynasty
Warsangali Sultanate
Zagwe dynasty
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Robert Stock, Africa South of the Sahara, Second Edition: A Geographical Interpretation, (The Guilford Press: 2004), p. 26
Jump up ^ Michael Hodd, East Africa Handbook, 7th Edition, (Passport Books: 2002), p. 21: "To the north are the countries of the Horn of Africa comprising Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti Somaliland and Somalia."
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, inc, Jacob E. Safra, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, (Encyclopædia Britannica: 2002), p.61: "The northern mountainous area, known as the Horn of Africa, comprises Djibouti, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Somalia."
^ Jump up to: a b Sandra Fullerton Joireman, Institutional Change in the Horn of Africa, (Universal-Publishers: 1997), p.1: "The Horn of Africa encompasses the countries of Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia. These countries share similar peoples, languages, and geographical endowments."
Jump up ^ J. D. Fage, Roland Oliver, Roland Anthony Oliver, The Cambridge History of Africa, (Cambridge University Press: 1977), p.190
Jump up ^ George Wynn Brereton Huntingford, Agatharchides, The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: With Some Extracts from Agatharkhidēs "On the Erythraean Sea", (Hakluyt Society: 1980), p.83
Jump up ^ John I. Saeed, Somali – Volume 10 of London Oriental and African language library, (J. Benjamins: 1999), p. 250.
Jump up ^ Ciise, Jaamac Cumar. Taariikhdii daraawiishta iyo Sayid Maxamad Cabdille Xasan, 1895-1920. JC Ciise, 2005.
Jump up ^ Lyons, Terrence. Avoiding conflict in the Horn of Africa: US policy toward Ethiopia and Eritrea. No. 21. Council on Foreign Relations Press, 2006.
Jump up ^ Teklehaimanot, Hailay Kidu. "A Mobile Based Tigrigna Language Learning Tool." International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies (iJIM) 9.2 (2015): 50-53.
Jump up ^ Schreck, Carl J., and Fredrick HM Semazzi. "Variability of the recent climate of eastern Africa." International Journal of Climatology 24.6 (2004): 681-701.
Jump up ^ Middle East Annual Review, page 213, 1974
Jump up ^ Walter RC, Buffler RT, Bruggemann JH, et al. (May 2000). "Early human occupation of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea during the last interglacial". Nature. 405 (6782): 65–9. Bibcode:2000Natur.405...65W. doi:10.1038/35011048. PMID 10811218.
Jump up ^ Ghirotto S; Penso-Dolfin L; Barbujani G. (Aug 2011). "Genomic evidence for an African expansion of anatomically modern humans by a Southern route". Human Biology. 83 (4): 477–89. doi:10.3378/027.083.0403. PMID 21846205. Data on cranial morphology have been interpreted as suggesting that, before the main expansion from Africa through the Near East, anatomically modern humans may also have taken a Southern route from the Horn of Africa through the Arabian peninsula to India, Melanesia and Australia, about 100,000 yrs ago. CS1 maint: Date and year (link)
Jump up ^ Mellars, P; KC, Gori; M, Carr; PA, Soares; Richards, MB (Jun 2013). "Genetic and archaeological perspectives on the initial modern human colonization of southern Asia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 110: 26. These data support a coastally oriented dispersal of modern humans from eastern Africa to southern Asia ∼60-50 thousand years ago (ka). This was associated with distinctively African microlithic and "backed-segment" technologies analogous to the African "Howiesons Poort" and related technologies, together with a range of distinctively "modern" cultural and symbolic features (highly shaped bone tools, personal ornaments, abstract artistic motifs, microblade technology, etc.), similar to those that accompanied the replacement of "archaic" Neanderthal by anatomically modern human populations in other regions of western Eurasia at a broadly similar date.
Jump up ^ Lev A. Zhivotovsky, Noah A. Rosenberg & Marcus W. Feldman (2003). "Features of evolution and expansion of modern humans, inferred from genomewide microsatellite markers" (PDF). American Journal of Human Genetics. 72 (5): 1171–1186. doi:10.1086/375120. PMC 1180270  . PMID 12690579. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-06.
Jump up ^ Stix, Gary (2008). "The Migration History of Humans: DNA Study Traces Human Origins Across the Continents".
Jump up ^ Zarins, Juris (1990), "Early Pastoral Nomadism and the Settlement of Lower Mesopotamia", (Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research)
Jump up ^ Diamond, J; Bellwood, P (2003). "Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions". Science. 300 (5619): 597–603. Bibcode:2003Sci...300..597D. doi:10.1126/science.1078208. PMID 12714734.
Jump up ^ Blench, R. (2006). Archaeology, Language, and the African Past. Rowman Altamira. pp. 143–144. ISBN 0759104662. Retrieved 8 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Jason A. Hodgson; Connie J. Mulligan; Ali Al-Meeri; Ryan L. Raaum (June 12, 2014). "Early Back-to-Africa Migration into the Horn of Africa". PLOS Genetics. 10 (6): e1004393. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004393. PMC 4055572  . PMID 24921250. ; "Supplementary Text S1: Affinities of the Ethio-Somali ancestry component". doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004393.s017. Retrieved 9 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Simson Najovits, Egypt, trunk of the tree, Volume 2, (Algora Publishing: 2004), p.258.
Jump up ^ Pankhurst, Richard K.P. Addis Tribune, "Let's Look Across the Red Sea I", January 17, 2003 (archive.org mirror copy)
Jump up ^ Phoenicia, pg. 199.
Jump up ^ Rose, Jeanne, and John Hulburd, The Aromatherapy Book, p. 94.
Jump up ^ Vine, Peter, Oman in History, p. 324.
Jump up ^ David D. Laitin, Said S. Samatar, Somalia: Nation in Search of a State, (Westview Press: 1987), p. 15.
Jump up ^ I.M. Lewis, A modern history of Somalia: nation and state in the Horn of Africa, 2nd edition, revised, illustrated, (Westview Press: 1988), p.20
Jump up ^ Brons, Maria (2003), Society, Security, Sovereignty and the State in Somalia: From Statelessness to Statelessness?, p. 116.
Jump up ^ Morgan, W. T. W. (1969), East Africa: Its Peoples and Resources, p. 18.
Jump up ^ Nehemia Levtzion; Randall Pouwels (2000). The History of Islam in Africa. Ohio University Press. p. 228. ISBN 978-0-8214-4461-0.
Jump up ^ Shaping of Somali Society pg 101
Jump up ^ Horn and Crescent: Cultural Change and Traditional Islam on the East African Coast, 800–1900 (African Studies) by Pouwels, Randall L.. pg 15
Jump up ^ Ian Mortimer, The Fears of Henry IV (2007), p. 111
Jump up ^ Beshah & Aregay (1964), pp. 13–14.
Jump up ^ Beshah & Aregay (1964), p. 25.
Jump up ^ Beshah & Aregay (1964), pp. 45–52.
Jump up ^ Beshah & Aregay (1964), pp. 91, 97–104.
Jump up ^ Beshah & Aregay (1964), p. 105.
Jump up ^ van Donzel, Emeri, "Fasilädäs" in Siegbert Uhlig, ed., Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: D-Ha (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005), p. 500.
Jump up ^ Pankhurst, Richard, The Ethiopian Royal Chronicles, (London:Oxford University Press, 1967), pp. 139–43.
Jump up ^ Horn of Africa, Volume 15, Issues 1–4, (Horn of Africa Journal: 1997), p.130.
Jump up ^ Michigan State University. African Studies Center, Northeast African studies, Volumes 11–12, (Michigan State University Press: 1989), p.32.
Jump up ^ Istituto italo-africano, Africa: rivista trimestrale di studi e documentazione, Volume 56, (Edizioni africane: 2001), p.591.
Jump up ^ Helen Chapin Metz, Somalia: a country study, (The Division: 1993), p.10.
Jump up ^ Tesfagiorgis, Gebre Hiwet (1993). Emergent Eritrea: challenges of economic development. The Red Sea Press. p. 111. ISBN 0-932415-91-1.
Jump up ^ Regions of Eritrea (accessed Nov 17, 2009)
Jump up ^ "Eritrea – The spreading revolution". Encyclopædia Britannica Article. Retrieved 2007-10-16.
Jump up ^ Eritrea orders Westerners in UN mission out in 10 days. International Herald Tribune. 7 December 2005
Jump up ^ Raph Uwechue, Africa year book and who's who, (Africa Journal Ltd.: 1977), p.209.
Jump up ^ Hugh Chisholm (ed.), The encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information, Volume 25, (At the University press: 1911), p.383.
Jump up ^ A Political Chronology of Africa, (Taylor & Francis), p.132.
^ Jump up to: a b c Barrington, Lowell, After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States, (University of Michigan Press: 2006), p.115
Jump up ^ Shillington (2005), p. 360.
Jump up ^ Shillington (2005), p. 1406.
Jump up ^ I.M. Lewis, The modern history of Somaliland: from nation to state, (Weidenfeld & Nicolson: 1965), p. 78
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Ofcansky, Historical dictionary of Ethiopia, (The Scarecrow Press, Inc.: 2004), p.405
Jump up ^ Samatar, Said Sheikh (1982). Oral Poetry and Somali Nationalism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 131 & 135. ISBN 0-521-23833-1.
Jump up ^ Greystone Press Staff, The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East, (Greystone Press: 1967), p.338.
Jump up ^ Benjamin Frankel, The Cold War, 1945–1991: Leaders and other important figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and the Third World, (Gale Research: 1992), p.306.
Jump up ^ Oihe Yang, Africa South of the Sahara 2001, 30th Ed., (Taylor and Francis: 2000), p.1025.
Jump up ^ Lacey, Marc (2006-06-05). "The Signs Say Somaliland, but the World Says Somalia". New York Times. Retrieved 2010-02-02.
Jump up ^ "Somalia". World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 2009-05-14. Retrieved 2009-05-31.
^ Jump up to: a b "Somalia: UN Envoy Says Inauguration of New Parliament in Somalia 'Historic Moment'". Forum on China-Africa Cooperation. 21 August 2012. Retrieved 24 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "Guidebook to the Somali Draft Provisional Constitution". Archived from the original on 14 August 2013. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b John Young. "Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia" Third World Quarterly, Vol. 19, No. 2 (June 1998) pp. 192
Jump up ^ the people subjugated and incorporated were the Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta and other groups. International Crisis Group. "Ethiopia: Ethnic Federalism and its Discontents" Africa Report No. 153, (4 September 2009) pp. 2
Jump up ^ Great Britain and Ethiopia 1897–1910: Competition for Empire Edward C. Keefer, International Journal of African Studies Vol. 6 No. 3 (1973) page 470
Jump up ^ Negash (2005), pp. 13–14.
^ Jump up to: a b Negash (2005), p. 14.
Jump up ^ Negash (2005), p. 14, and ICG "Ethnic Federalism and its Discontents" pp 2; Italy lost over 4.600 nationals in this battle.
Jump up ^ Clapham, Christopher, "Ḫaylä Śəllase" in Siegbert von Uhlig, ed., Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: D-Ha (Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005), pp. 1062–3.
Jump up ^ Monday, Jan. 06, 1936 (1936-01-06). "Man of the Year". TIME. Retrieved 2009-03-16. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Clapham, "Ḫaylä Śəllase", Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, p. 1063.
Jump up ^ Dagne, Haile Gabriel (2006). The commitment of the German Democratic Republic in Ethiopia: a study based on Ethiopian sources. Münster, London: Lit; Global. ISBN 978-3-8258-9535-8.
Jump up ^ "Core Principles of Ethiopia's Foreign Policy: Ethiopia-Yemen relations". Ethioembassy.org.uk. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
Jump up ^ "2007 Annual Report" (PDF). Range Resources. Retrieved 14 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "Oil and Gas Exploration and Production - Playing a Better Hand" (PDF). Range Resources. Retrieved 14 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Marco Stoppato, Alfredo Bini (2003). Deserts. Firefly Books. pp. 160–163. ISBN 1552976696. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Facts On File, Incorporated (2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East. Infobase Publishing. p. 7. ISBN 143812676X. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Hadden, Robert Lee. 2007. "The Geology of Somalia: A Selected Bibliography of Somalian Geology, Geography and Earth Science." Engineer Research and Development Laboratories, Topographic Engineering Center
Jump up ^ William J. Bernstein, A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World, (Grove Press: 2009), p.56.
Jump up ^ info@globaltwitcher.com (2009-01-31). "Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg". Globaltwitcher.auderis.se. Archived from the original on 2010-12-09. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
Jump up ^ Sara Pantuliano and Sara Pavanello (2009) Taking drought into account Addressing chronic vulnerability among pastoralists in the Horn of Africa Archived 2012-03-07 at the Wayback Machine. Overseas Development Institute
Jump up ^ Katsuyoshi Fukui; John Markakis (1994). Ethnicity & Conflict in the Horn of Africa. James Currey Publishers. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-85255-225-4.
Jump up ^ "Languages – Summary by country". Ethnologue.com. 1999-02-19. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
Jump up ^ "Languages of Ethiopia". Ethnologue. SIL International. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
Jump up ^ "Country Level". 2007 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia. CSA. 13 July 2010. Archived from the original on 14 November 2010. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Ethnologue – Mushungulu". Ethnologue.com. 1999-02-19. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
Jump up ^ Abdullahi, Mohamed Diriye (2001). Culture and customs of Somalia. Greenwood. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-313-31333-2.
Jump up ^ David B. Grigg (1974). The Agricultural Systems of the World. C.U.P. p. 66. ISBN 9780521098434. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
Jump up ^ Engels, J. M. M.; Hawkes, J. G.; Worede, M. (21 March 1991). "Plant Genetic Resources of Ethiopia". Cambridge University Press – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Gary Vikan. Ethiopian Icons by Stansilaw Chojnacki p.20 (2000, Skira)(accessed 22 April 2009). Skira. ISBN 978-8881186464.
Jump up ^ "at archnet.org (accessed 22 April 2009)". Archnet.org. 2006-02-01. Archived from the original on 4 November 2012. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
Jump up ^ David Buxton, The Abyssinians (New York: Praeger, 1970), p. 110
Jump up ^ Rodolfo Fattovich, "Akkälä Guzay" in Uhlig, Siegbert, ed. Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz KG, 2003, p. 169.
Jump up ^ Ministry of Information and National Guidance, Somalia, The writing of the Somali language, (Ministry of Information and National Guidance: 1974), p.5
Jump up ^ Dictionary of African Biography: Abach - Brand, Volume 1. Oxford University Press. 2012. p. 357. ISBN 0195382072. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
Jump up ^ "Lettre Ulysses Award for the Art of Reportage – Nuruddin Farah". Lettre-ulysses-award.org. 2011-12-09. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
^ Jump up to: a b Shelemay, Kay Kaufman (2001). Sadie, Stanley; Tyrrell, John, eds. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. viii (2 ed.). London: Macmillan. p. 356.
Jump up ^ Abatte Barihun, liner notes for the album Ras Deshen, 2005
Jump up ^ University of Alabama www.hp.uab.edu Archived 2009-03-31 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Roland Anthony Oliver; Brian M. Fagan (1975). Africa in the Iron Age: C.500 BC-1400 AD. Cambridge University Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-521-09900-4.
Jump up ^ Briggs, Phillip (2012). Somaliland. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 7. ISBN 1841623717.
Jump up ^ Fauvelle-Aymar, François-Xavier. "Le port de Zeyla et son arrière-pays au Moyen Âge: Investigations archéologiques et retour aux sources écrites". Livre Islam. Retrieved 23 January 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 25. Americana Corporation. 1965. p. 255.
^ Jump up to: a b Lewis, I.M. (1955). Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho. International African Institute. p. 140.
Jump up ^ "A Country Study: Somalia from The Library of Congress". Lcweb2.loc.gov. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
Jump up ^ Budge, Queen of Sheba, Kebra Negast, chap. 61.
Jump up ^ Aparna Rao; Michael Bollig; Monika Böck (2007). The Practice of War: Production, Reproduction and Communication of Armed Violence. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-84545-280-3.
Jump up ^ Athlete Profile Haile Gebrselassie. "Gebrselassie Haile page on www.iaaf.org". Iaaf.org. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
Jump up ^ "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". Imf.org. 2006-09-14. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
Jump up ^ "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". Imf.org. 2006-09-14. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
Jump up ^ "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". Imf.org. 2006-09-14. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
Jump up ^ "The World Factbook". Cia.gov. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Pavanello, Sara 2010. Working across borders – Harnessing the potential of cross-border activities to improve livelihood security in the Horn of Africa drylands Archived 2010-11-12 at the Wayback Machine.. London: Overseas Development Institute
Jump up ^ ""Arabs and the Horn of Africa" Kicking off November 27, 2011". daho: English.dohainstitute.org. 2011-11-21. Retrieved 2013-07-31.
References[edit]
Beshah, Girma; Aregay, Merid Wolde (1964). The Question of the Union of the Churches in Luso-Ethiopian Relations (1500–1632). Lisbon: Junta de Investigações do Ultramar and Centro de Estudos Históricos Ultramarinos.
Negash, Tekeste (2005). Eritrea and Ethiopia: the Federal Experience. Uppsala, Sweden: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.
Shillington, Kevin (2005). Encyclopedia of African History. CRC Press.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Horn of Africa.
History of the Horn of Africa
Horn of Africa News Agency
"Somali Acacia-Commiphora bushlands and thickets". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund.
Horn of Africa Biodiversity Hotspot
African Wild Dog Conservancy's Biodiversity Hotspots Page
CIA World Factbook: Djibouti
CIA World Factbook: Eritrea
CIA World Factbook: Ethiopia
CIA World Factbook: Somalia
A 'Child Alert' issued by UNICEF for the Horn of Africa
Yemen Horn of Africa Link
Horn of Africa Concerns from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
Combined Joint Task Force – Horn of Africa official website
CFR.org Interactive Map: Horn of Africa
Global Governance Institute Analysis on the Horn of Africa and the EU
[1]
[show]
v
t
e
Regions of the world
[show]
v
t
e
Regions of Africa
Central Africa
Guinea region
Gulf of Guinea
Cape Lopez
Mayombe
Igboland
Mbaise
Maputaland
Pool Malebo
Congo Basin
Chad Basin
Congolese rainforests
Ouaddaï highlands
Ennedi Plateau
East Africa
African Great Lakes
Albertine Rift
East African Rift
Great Rift Valley
Gregory Rift
Rift Valley lakes
Swahili coast
Virunga Mountains
Zanj
Horn of Africa
Afar Triangle
Al-Habash
Barbara
Danakil Alps
Danakil Desert
Ethiopian Highlands
Gulf of Aden
Gulf of Tadjoura
Indian Ocean islands
Comoros Islands
North Africa
Maghreb
Barbary Coast
Bashmur
Ancient Libya
Atlas Mountains
Nile Valley
Cataracts of the Nile
Darfur
Gulf of Aqaba
Lower Egypt
Lower Nubia
Middle Egypt
Nile Delta
Nuba Mountains
Nubia
The Sudans
Upper Egypt
Western Sahara
West Africa
Pepper Coast
Gold Coast
Slave Coast
Ivory Coast
Cape Palmas
Cape Mesurado
Guinea region
Gulf of Guinea
Niger Basin
Guinean Forests of West Africa
Niger Delta
Inner Niger Delta
Southern Africa
Madagascar
Central Highlands (Madagascar)
Northern Highlands
Rhodesia
North
South
Thembuland
Succulent Karoo
Nama Karoo
Bushveld
Highveld
Fynbos
Cape Floristic Region
Kalahari Desert
Okavango Delta
False Bay
Hydra Bay
Macro-regions
Aethiopia
Arab world
Commonwealth realm
East African montane forests
Eastern Desert
Equatorial Africa
Françafrique
Gibraltar Arc
Greater Middle East
Islands of Africa
List of countries where Arabic is an official language
Mediterranean Basin
MENA
MENASA
Middle East
Mittelafrika
Negroland
Northeast Africa
Portuguese-speaking African countries
Sahara
Sahel
Sub-Saharan Africa
Sudan (region)
Sudanian Savanna
Tibesti Mountains
Tropical Africa
[show]
v
t
e
Regions of Asia
Central
Greater Middle East
Aral Sea
Aralkum Desert
Caspian Sea
Dead Sea
Sea of Galilee
Transoxiana
Turan
Greater Khorasan
Ariana
Khwarezm
Sistan
Kazakhstania
Eurasian Steppe
Asian Steppe
Kazakh Steppe
Pontic–Caspian steppe
Mongolian-Manchurian grassland
Wild Fields
Yedisan
Muravsky Trail
Ural
Ural Mountains
Volga region
Idel-Ural
Kolyma
Transbaikal
Pryazovia
Bjarmaland
Kuban
Zalesye
Ingria
Novorossiya
Gornaya Shoriya
Tulgas
Iranian Plateau
Altai Mountains
Pamir Mountains
Tian Shan
Badakhshan
Wakhan Corridor
Wakhjir Pass
Mount Imeon
Mongolian Plateau
Western Regions
Taklamakan Desert
Karakoram
Trans-Karakoram Tract
Siachen Glacier
North
Inner Asia
Northeast
Far East
Russian Far East
Okhotsk-Manchurian taiga
Extreme North
Siberia
Baikalia (Lake Baikal)
Transbaikal
Khatanga Gulf
Baraba steppe
Kamchatka Peninsula
Amur Basin
Yenisei Gulf
Yenisei Basin
Beringia
Sikhote-Alin
East
Japanese archipelago
Northeastern Japan Arc
Sakhalin Island Arc
Korean Peninsula
Gobi Desert
Taklamakan Desert
Greater Khingan
Mongolian Plateau
Inner Asia
Inner Mongolia
Outer Mongolia
China proper
Manchuria
Outer Manchuria
Inner Manchuria
Northeast China Plain
Mongolian-Manchurian grassland
North China Plain
Yan Mountains
Kunlun Mountains
Liaodong Peninsula
Himalayas
Tibetan Plateau
Tibet
Tarim Basin
Northern Silk Road
Hexi Corridor
Nanzhong
Lingnan
Liangguang
Jiangnan
Jianghuai
Guanzhong
Huizhou
Wu
Jiaozhou
Zhongyuan
Shaannan
Ordos Loop
Loess Plateau
Shaanbei
Hamgyong Mountains
Central Mountain Range
Japanese Alps
Suzuka Mountains
Leizhou Peninsula
Gulf of Tonkin
Yangtze River Delta
Pearl River Delta
Yenisei Basin
Altai Mountains
Wakhan Corridor
Wakhjir Pass
West
Greater Middle East
MENA
MENASA
Middle East
Red Sea
Caspian Sea
Mediterranean Sea
Zagros Mountains
Persian Gulf
Pirate Coast
Strait of Hormuz
Greater and Lesser Tunbs
Al-Faw Peninsula
Gulf of Oman
Gulf of Aqaba
Gulf of Aden
Balochistan
Arabian Peninsula
Najd
Hejaz
Tihamah
Eastern Arabia
South Arabia
Hadhramaut
Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert
Tigris–Euphrates
Mesopotamia
Upper Mesopotamia
Lower Mesopotamia
Sawad
Nineveh plains
Akkad (region)
Babylonia
Canaan
Aram
Eber-Nari
Suhum
Eastern Mediterranean
Mashriq
Kurdistan
Levant
Southern Levant
Transjordan
Jordan Rift Valley
Israel
Levantine Sea
Golan Heights
Hula Valley
Galilee
Gilead
Judea
Samaria
Arabah
Anti-Lebanon Mountains
Sinai Peninsula
Arabian Desert
Syrian Desert
Fertile Crescent
Azerbaijan
Syria
Palestine
Iranian Plateau
Armenian Highlands
Caucasus
Caucasus Mountains
Greater Caucasus
Lesser Caucasus
North Caucasus
South Caucasus
Kur-Araz Lowland
Lankaran Lowland
Alborz
Absheron Peninsula
Anatolia
Cilicia
Cappadocia
Alpide belt
South
Greater India
Indian subcontinent
Himalayas
Hindu Kush
Western Ghats
Eastern Ghats
Ganges Basin
Ganges Delta
Pashtunistan
Punjab
Balochistan
Kashmir
Kashmir Valley
Pir Panjal Range
Thar Desert
Indus Valley
Indus River Delta
Indus Valley Desert
Indo-Gangetic Plain
Eastern coastal plains
Western Coastal Plains
Meghalaya subtropical forests
MENASA
Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests
Northwestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows
Doab
Bagar tract
Great Rann of Kutch
Little Rann of Kutch
Deccan Plateau
Coromandel Coast
Konkan
False Divi Point
Hindi Belt
Ladakh
Aksai Chin
Gilgit-Baltistan
Baltistan
Shigar Valley
Karakoram
Saltoro Mountains
Siachen Glacier
Bay of Bengal
Gulf of Khambhat
Gulf of Kutch
Gulf of Mannar
Trans-Karakoram Tract
Wakhan Corridor
Wakhjir Pass
Lakshadweep
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Andaman Islands
Nicobar Islands
Maldive Islands
Alpide belt
Southeast
Mainland
Indochina
Malay Peninsula
Maritime
Peninsular Malaysia
Sunda Islands
Greater Sunda Islands
Lesser Sunda Islands
Indonesian Archipelago
Timor
New Guinea
Bonis Peninsula
Papuan Peninsula
Huon Peninsula
Huon Gulf
Bird's Head Peninsula
Gazelle Peninsula
Philippine Archipelago
Luzon
Visayas
Mindanao
Leyte Gulf
Gulf of Thailand
East Indies
Nanyang
Alpide belt
Asia-Pacific
Tropical Asia
Ring of Fire
[show]
v
t
e
Regions of Europe
North
Nordic
Northwestern
Scandinavia
Scandinavian Peninsula
Fennoscandia
Baltoscandia
Sápmi
West Nordic
Baltic
Baltic Sea
Gulf of Bothnia
Gulf of Finland
Iceland
Faroe Islands
East
Danubian countries
Prussia
Galicia
Volhynia
Donbass
Sloboda Ukraine
Sambia Peninsula
Amber Coast
Curonian Spit
Izyum Trail
Lithuania Minor
Nemunas Delta
Baltic
Baltic Sea
Vyborg Bay
Karelia
East Karelia
Karelian Isthmus
Lokhaniemi
Southeastern
Balkans
Aegean Islands
Gulf of Chania
North Caucasus
Greater Caucasus
Kabardia
European Russia
Southern Russia
Central
Baltic
Baltic Sea
Alpine states
Alpide belt
Mitteleuropa
Visegrád Group
West
Benelux
Low Countries
Northwest
British Isles
English Channel
Channel Islands
Cotentin Peninsula
Normandy
Brittany
Gulf of Lion
Iberia
Al-Andalus
Baetic System
Pyrenees
Alpide belt
South
Italian Peninsula
Insular Italy
Tuscan Archipelago
Aegadian Islands
Iberia
Al-Andalus
Baetic System
Gibraltar Arc
Southeastern
Mediterranean
Crimea
Alpide belt
Germanic
Celtic
Slavic countries
Uralic
European Plain
Eurasian Steppe
Pontic–Caspian steppe
Wild Fields
Pannonian Basin
Great Hungarian Plain
Little Hungarian Plain
Eastern Slovak Lowland
[show]
v
t
e
Regions of North America
Northern
Eastern Canada
Western Canada
Canadian Prairies
Central Canada
Northern Canada
Atlantic Canada
The Maritimes
French Canada
English Canada
Acadia
Acadian Peninsula
Quebec City–Windsor Corridor
Peace River Country
Cypress Hills
Palliser's Triangle
Canadian Shield
Interior Alaska-Yukon lowland taiga
Newfoundland (island)
Vancouver Island
Gulf Islands
Strait of Georgia
Canadian Arctic Archipelago
Labrador Peninsula
Gaspé Peninsula
Avalon Peninsula
Bay de Verde Peninsula
Brodeur Peninsula
Melville Peninsula
Bruce Peninsula
Banks Peninsula (Nunavut)
Cook Peninsula
Gulf of Boothia
Georgian Bay
Hudson Bay
James Bay
Greenland
Pacific Northwest
Inland Northwest
Northeast
New England
Mid-Atlantic
Commonwealth
West
Midwest
Upper Midwest
Mountain States
Intermountain West
Basin and Range Province
Oregon Trail
Mormon Corridor
Calumet Region
Southwest
Old Southwest
Llano Estacado
Central United States
Tallgrass prairie
South
South Central
Deep South
Upland South
Four Corners
East Coast
West Coast
Gulf Coast
Third Coast
Coastal states
Eastern United States
Appalachia
Trans-Mississippi
Great North Woods
Great Plains
Interior Plains
Great Lakes
Great Basin
Great Basin Desert
Acadia
Ozarks
Ark-La-Tex
Waxhaws
Siouxland
Twin Tiers
Driftless Area
Palouse
Piedmont
Atlantic coastal plain
Outer Lands
Black Dirt Region
Blackstone Valley
Piney Woods
Rocky Mountains
Mojave Desert
The Dakotas
The Carolinas
Shawnee Hills
San Fernando Valley
Tornado Alley
North Coast
Lost Coast
Emerald Triangle
San Francisco Bay Area
San Francisco Bay
North Bay (San Francisco Bay Area)
East Bay (San Francisco Bay Area)
Silicon Valley
Interior Alaska-Yukon lowland taiga
Gulf of Mexico
Lower Colorado River Valley
Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta
Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta
Colville Delta
Arkansas Delta
Mobile–Tensaw River Delta
Mississippi Delta
Mississippi River Delta
Columbia River Estuary
Great Basin
High Desert
Monterey Peninsula
Upper Peninsula of Michigan
Lower Peninsula of Michigan
Virginia Peninsula
Keweenaw Peninsula
Middle Peninsula
Delmarva Peninsula
Alaska Peninsula
Kenai Peninsula
Niagara Peninsula
Beringia
Belt regions
Bible Belt
Black Belt
Corn Belt
Cotton Belt
Frost Belt
Rice Belt
Rust Belt
Sun Belt
Snow Belt
Latin
Northern Mexico
Baja California Peninsula
Gulf of California
Colorado River Delta
Gulf of Mexico
Soconusco
Tierra Caliente
La Mixteca
La Huasteca
Bajío
Valley of Mexico
Mezquital Valley
Sierra Madre de Oaxaca
Yucatán Peninsula
Basin and Range Province
Western Caribbean Zone
Isthmus of Panama
Gulf of Panama
Pearl Islands
Azuero Peninsula
Mosquito Coast
West Indies
Antilles
Greater Antilles
Lesser Antilles
Leeward
Leeward Antilles
Windward
Lucayan Archipelago
Southern Caribbean
Aridoamerica
Mesoamerica
Oasisamerica
Northern
Middle
Anglo
Latin
French
Hispanic
American Cordillera
Ring of Fire
LAC
[show]
v
t
e
Regions of Oceania
Australasia
Gulf of Carpentaria
New Guinea
Bonis Peninsula
Papuan Peninsula
Huon Peninsula
Huon Gulf
Bird's Head Peninsula
Gazelle Peninsula
New Zealand
South Island
North Island
Coromandel Peninsula
Zealandia
New Caledonia
Solomon Islands (archipelago)
Vanuatu
Kula Gulf
Australia
Capital Country
Eastern Australia
Lake Eyre basin
Murray–Darling basin
Northern Australia
Nullarbor Plain
Outback
Southern Australia
Maralinga
Sunraysia
Great Victoria Desert
Gulf of Carpentaria
Gulf St Vincent
Lefevre Peninsula
Fleurieu Peninsula
Yorke Peninsula
Eyre Peninsula
Mornington Peninsula
Bellarine Peninsula
Mount Henry Peninsula
Melanesia
Islands Region
Bismarck Archipelago
Solomon Islands Archipelago
Fiji
New Caledonia
Papua New Guinea
Vanuatu
Micronesia
Caroline Islands
Federated States of Micronesia
Palau
Guam
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Nauru
Northern Mariana Islands
Wake Island
Polynesia
Easter Island
Hawaiian Islands
Cook Islands
French Polynesia
Austral Islands
Gambier Islands
Marquesas Islands
Society Islands
Tuamotu
Kermadec Islands
Mangareva Islands
Samoa
Tokelau
Tonga
Tuvalu
Ring of Fire
[show]
v
t
e
Regions of South America
East
Amazon basin
Atlantic Forest
Caatinga
Cerrado
North
Caribbean South America
West Indies
Los Llanos
The Guianas
Amazon basin
Amazon rainforest
Gulf of Paria
Paria Peninsula
Paraguaná Peninsula
Orinoco Delta
South
Tierra del Fuego
Patagonia
Pampas
Pantanal
Gran Chaco
Chiquitano dry forests
Valdes Peninsula
West
Andes
Tropical Andes
Wet Andes
Dry Andes
Pariacaca mountain range
Altiplano
Atacama Desert
Latin
Hispanic
American Cordillera
Ring of Fire
LAC
[show]
v
t
e
Polar regions
Antarctic
Antarctic Peninsula
East Antarctica
West Antarctica
Eklund Islands
Ecozone
Extreme points
Islands
Arctic
Arctic Alaska
British Arctic Territories
Canadian Arctic Archipelago
Finnmark
Greenland
Northern Canada
Northwest Territories
Nunavik
Nunavut
Russian Arctic
Sakha
Sápmi
Yukon
North American Arctic
[show]
v
t
e
Earth's oceans and seas
Arctic Ocean
Amundsen Gulf
Barents Sea
Beaufort Sea
Chukchi Sea
East Siberian Sea
Greenland Sea
Gulf of Boothia
Kara Sea
Laptev Sea
Lincoln Sea
Prince Gustav Adolf Sea
Pechora Sea
Queen Victoria Sea
Wandel Sea
White Sea
Atlantic Ocean
Adriatic Sea
Aegean Sea
Alboran Sea
Archipelago Sea
Argentine Sea
Baffin Bay
Balearic Sea
Baltic Sea
Bay of Biscay
Bay of Bothnia
Bay of Campeche
Bay of Fundy
Black Sea
Bothnian Sea
Caribbean Sea
Celtic Sea
English Channel
Foxe Basin
Greenland Sea
Gulf of Bothnia
Gulf of Finland
Gulf of Lion
Gulf of Guinea
Gulf of Maine
Gulf of Mexico
Gulf of Saint Lawrence
Gulf of Sidra
Gulf of Venezuela
Hudson Bay
Ionian Sea
Irish Sea
Irminger Sea
James Bay
Labrador Sea
Levantine Sea
Libyan Sea
Ligurian Sea
Marmara Sea
Mediterranean Sea
Myrtoan Sea
North Sea
Norwegian Sea
Sargasso Sea
Sea of Åland
Sea of Azov
Sea of Crete
Sea of the Hebrides
Thracian Sea
Tyrrhenian Sea
Wadden Sea
Indian Ocean
Andaman Sea
Arabian Sea
Bali Sea
Bay of Bengal
Flores Sea
Great Australian Bight
Gulf of Aden
Gulf of Aqaba
Gulf of Khambhat
Gulf of Kutch
Gulf of Oman
Gulf of Suez
Java Sea
Laccadive Sea
Mozambique Channel
Persian Gulf
Red Sea
Timor Sea
Pacific Ocean
Arafura Sea
Banda Sea
Bering Sea
Bismarck Sea
Bohai Sea
Bohol Sea
Camotes Sea
Celebes Sea
Ceram Sea
Chilean Sea
Coral Sea
East China Sea
Gulf of Alaska
Gulf of Anadyr
Gulf of California
Gulf of Carpentaria
Gulf of Fonseca
Gulf of Panama
Gulf of Thailand
Gulf of Tonkin
Halmahera Sea
Koro Sea
Mar de Grau
Molucca Sea
Moro Gulf
Philippine Sea
Salish Sea
Savu Sea
Sea of Japan
Sea of Okhotsk
Seto Inland Sea
Shantar Sea
Sibuyan Sea
Solomon Sea
South China Sea
Sulu Sea
Tasman Sea
Visayan Sea
Yellow Sea
Southern Ocean
Amundsen Sea
Bellingshausen Sea
Cooperation Sea
Cosmonauts Sea
Davis Sea
D'Urville Sea
King Haakon VII Sea
Lazarev Sea
Mawson Sea
Riiser-Larsen Sea
Ross Sea
Scotia Sea
Somov Sea
Weddell Sea
Landlocked seas
Aral Sea
Caspian Sea
Dead Sea
Salton Sea
Book
Category
[show]
v
t
e
Kingdoms and dynasties of the medieval Horn of Africa
States
Islamic sultanates & Empires
Somali Sultanates
Adal
Ajuran
Aussa Imamate
Sultanate of Harar
Ifat
Mogadishu
Warsangali
Aussa Sultanate
Arababni
Argobba
Aymallal
Bale
Baqulin
Dahlak
Dobe'a
Bazin
Belgin
Dara
Dawaro
Dewe
Gabaal
Ganz
Gidaya
Gurage
Hadiya
Harar
Jarin
Maya
Mora
Nagash
Qita'a
Sharkha
Showa (Menz, Gedem)
Tankish
Werjih
Christian kingdoms and Empires
Ambassel
Agame
Akkele Guzay
Amhara
Angot
Bahr
Begemder
Bugna
Delanta
Dembela
Enderta
Entitcho
Gheralta
Hamasien
Haramat
Lasta
Mai-Tsade
Tembien
Tigray
Tselemt
Salowa
Semada
Serae
Shewa (Efrata, Geshe)
Shire
Wag
Kingdom of Beta Israel
Dembiya
Gafat
Gojjam
Waldebba
Semien
Wegera
Qwara
Tsegede
Wolqayt
Kingdom of Damot
Dawro
Enarya
Janjero
Kaffa
Sheka
Wolayta
Sidama kingdoms
Bahargamo
Buzamo
Garo
Kambaata
Sidamo
Sigamo
Events
Ethiopian–Adal war
Adal conquest of Ethiopia
Oromo migrations
First Ajuran-Portuguese war
Second Ajuran-Portuguese war
Dynasties
Solomonic dynasty
Walashma dynasty
Gareen dynasty
Goobroon dynasty
Zagwe dynasty
Coordinates: 09°N 48°E / 9°N 48°E / 9; 48
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 315124798
GND: 4077510-0
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horn_of_Africa&oldid=838386940"
Categories:
Horn of Africa
Geography of East Africa
Peninsulas of Africa
Regions of Africa
Biodiversity hotspots
Red Sea
Gulf of Aden
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: Date and year
CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list
Webarchive template wayback links
Articles containing Oromo-language text
Articles containing Somali-language text
Articles containing Amharic-language text
Articles containing Tigrinya-language text
Articles containing Ge'ez-language text
Pages using div col with deprecated parameters
Coordinates on Wikidata
Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Acèh
Afrikaans
العربية
Arpetan
Asturianu
Avañe'ẽ
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bân-lâm-gú
Беларуская
Български
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Буряад
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Ilokano
Bahasa Indonesia
Ирон
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ಕನ್ನಡ
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kurdî
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
مصرى
Bahasa Melayu
Монгол
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
日本語
Nordfriisk
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Polski
Português
Română
Русиньскый
Русский
Sardu
Scots
Simple English
سنڌي
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Soomaaliga
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Winaray
Wolof
Yorùbá
粵語
中文
89 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 26 April 2018, at 17:36.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

value: mw-page-base noprint

value: mw-head-base noprint

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

tag: big

attr: lang title xml:lang

value:
om
Oromo language text
om

value:
so
Somali language text
so

value:
am
Amharic language text
am

tag: p

value: Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa

value: Intergovernmental Authority on Development

value:
/wiki/Arabic_language
mw-redirect
Arabic language

value:
/wiki/Amharic_language
mw-redirect
Amharic language

value:
/wiki/Somali_Studies
mw-redirect
Somali Studies

value:
/wiki/Anatomically_modern_human
mw-redirect
Anatomically modern human

value:
/wiki/Afro-Asiatic_languages
mw-redirect
Afro-Asiatic languages

value:
/wiki/Nile_Valley
mw-redirect
Nile Valley

value:
/wiki/Aksumite_Empire
mw-redirect
Aksumite Empire

attr: alt src width height class data-file-width data-file-height

value:
/wiki/Deir_el-Bahri
mw-redirect
Deir el-Bahri

value:
/wiki/Eritrean_highlands
mw-redirect
Eritrean highlands

value:
/wiki/Ethiopian_highlands
mw-redirect
Ethiopian highlands

value:
/wiki/Ancient_India
mw-redirect
Ancient India

value:
/wiki/Arabian_peninsula
mw-redirect
Arabian peninsula

value:
/wiki/Sassanid_Empire
mw-redirect
Sassanid Empire

value:
/wiki/Han_Dynasty
mw-redirect
Han Dynasty

value:
/wiki/Ancient_Egyptians
mw-redirect
Ancient Egyptians

value:
/wiki/Axumite_Empire
mw-redirect
Axumite Empire

value:
/wiki/Islamic_world
mw-redirect
Islamic world

value: Edit section: Middle Ages and Early Modern era

value:
/wiki/Aussa_Sultanate
mw-redirect
Aussa Sultanate

value:
/wiki/Sultanate_of_Adal
mw-redirect
Sultanate of Adal

value:
/wiki/Abasa,_Somalia
mw-redirect
Abasa, Somalia

value:
/wiki/Abyssinian%E2%80%93Adal_War
mw-redirect
Abyssinian–Adal War

value:
/wiki/Maakhir_Coast
mw-redirect
Maakhir Coast

value:
/wiki/Yeshaq_I_of_Ethiopia
mw-redirect
Yeshaq I of Ethiopia

value:
/wiki/Dawit_II_of_Ethiopia
mw-redirect
Dawit II of Ethiopia

value:
/wiki/Gelawdewos_of_Ethiopia
mw-redirect
Gelawdewos of Ethiopia

value:
/wiki/Fasilides_of_Ethiopia
mw-redirect
Fasilides of Ethiopia

value:
/wiki/Susenyos_of_Ethiopia
mw-redirect
Susenyos of Ethiopia

value:
/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church
mw-redirect
Roman Catholic Church

value:
/wiki/First_Italo-Abyssinian_War
mw-redirect
First Italo-Abyssinian War

value:
/wiki/Second_Italo-Abyssinian_War
mw-redirect
Second Italo-Abyssinian War

value:
/wiki/Coaling_station
mw-redirect
Coaling station

value:
/wiki/Eritrean-Ethiopian_War
mw-redirect
Eritrean-Ethiopian War

value:
/wiki/Djibouti_City
mw-redirect
Djibouti City

value:
/wiki/Somali_people
mw-redirect
Somali people

value:
/wiki/Vote_rigging
mw-redirect
Vote rigging

value:
/wiki/Dervish_State
mw-redirect
Dervish State

value:
/wiki/German_people
mw-redirect
German people

value:
/wiki/United_Nations_Trusteeship
mw-redirect
United Nations Trusteeship

value:
/wiki/Organization_of_African_Unity
mw-redirect
Organization of African Unity

value:
/wiki/Customary_law
mw-redirect
Customary law

value:
/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Government
mw-redirect
Transitional Federal Government

value:
/wiki/Menelik_II_of_Ethiopia
mw-redirect
Menelik II of Ethiopia

value:
/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Ibrihim_al-Ghazi
mw-redirect
Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi

value:
/wiki/Haile_Selassie_I_of_Ethiopia
mw-redirect
Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia

value:
/wiki/Iyasu_V_of_Ethiopia
mw-redirect
Iyasu V of Ethiopia

value:
/wiki/Military_junta
mw-redirect
Military junta

value: People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

value:
/wiki/Military_of_Somalia
mw-redirect
Military of Somalia

value: Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front

value: Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front

value: Great Rift Valley (geographical concept)

value:
/wiki/Afar_Depression
mw-redirect
Afar Depression

value:
/wiki/Simien_Mountains
mw-redirect
Simien Mountains

value:
/wiki/Silver_dikdik
mw-redirect
Silver dikdik

value:
/wiki/Grevy%27s_zebra
mw-redirect
Grevy's zebra

value:
/wiki/Painted_hunting_dog
mw-redirect
Painted hunting dog

value:
/wiki/Endemic_(ecology)
mw-redirect
Endemic (ecology)

value:
/wiki/Cordeauxia_edulis
mw-redirect
Cordeauxia edulis

value:
/wiki/Amhara_people
mw-redirect
Amhara people

value:
/wiki/Gurage_language
mw-redirect
Gurage language

value:
/wiki/Dizi_language
mw-redirect
Dizi language

value:
/wiki/Gamo_language
mw-redirect
Gamo language

value:
/wiki/Niger-Congo_languages
mw-redirect
Niger-Congo languages

value:
/wiki/Somali_Bantu
mw-redirect
Somali Bantu

value:
/wiki/King_Ezana%27s_Stele
mw-redirect
King Ezana's Stele

value:
/wiki/Ge%27ez_language
mw-redirect
Ge'ez language

value:
/wiki/Yusuf_Ali_Keenadid
mw-redirect
Yusuf Ali Keenadid

value:
/wiki/Osmanya_script
mw-redirect
Osmanya script

value:
/wiki/Kurt_Tucholsky_Prize
mw-redirect
Kurt Tucholsky Prize

value: Neustadt International Prize for Literature

value:
/wiki/Musical_mode
mw-redirect
Musical mode

value:
/wiki/Ancient_world
mw-redirect
Ancient world

value:
/wiki/Astar_(god)
mw-redirect
Astar (god)

value:
/wiki/Sultan_of_Mogadishu
mw-redirect
Sultan of Mogadishu

value:
/wiki/Hijra_(Islam)
mw-redirect
Hijra (Islam)

value:
/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B8%A5ama_ibn_Abjar
mw-redirect
Aṣḥama ibn Abjar

value:
/wiki/Kebra_Negast
mw-redirect
Kebra Negast

value:
/wiki/African_traditional_religion
mw-redirect
African traditional religion

value: International Association of Athletics Federations

value:
/wiki/World_records
mw-redirect
World records

value: European Indoor Championships in Athletics

value: Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies

value: Operation Enduring Freedom - Horn of Africa

value:
/wiki/Ajuran_Empire
mw-redirect
Ajuran Empire

value:
/wiki/Ifat_Sultanate
mw-redirect
Ifat Sultanate

value:
/wiki/Mudaito_Dynasty
mw-redirect
Mudaito Dynasty

value:
/wiki/Sultanate_of_Shewa
mw-redirect
Sultanate of Shewa

value: -moz-column-width: 12em; -webkit-column-width: 12em; column-width: 12em;

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2F35011048

value:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10811218

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.3378%2F027.083.0403

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21846205

value:
/wiki/Noah_A._Rosenberg
mw-redirect
Noah A. Rosenberg

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1086%2F375120

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12690579

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1078208

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12714734

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24921250

value:
nofollow
external text
http://www.statoids.com/uer.html

value:
/wiki/World_Factbook
mw-redirect
World Factbook

value: Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list

value:
nofollow
external text
http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA464006

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.amazon.com/dp/8881186462

value: The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians

value: Ras Deshen (album) (page does not exist)

value:
nofollow
http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/kn/
external text

value: -moz-column-width: 32em; -webkit-column-width: 32em; column-width: 32em; list-style-type: decimal;

value:
nofollow
http://www.hananews.org/
external text

value:
nofollow
http://www.awdconservancy.org/
external text

value:
nofollow
http://www.cfr.org/publication/13389/
external text

value:
/wiki/Indian_Ocean_islands
mw-redirect
Indian Ocean islands

value:
/wiki/Comoros_Islands
mw-redirect
Comoros Islands

value: List of countries where Arabic is an official language

value: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value:
/wiki/Asian_Steppe
mw-redirect
Asian Steppe

value:
/wiki/Inner_Manchuria
mw-redirect
Inner Manchuria

value:
/wiki/Pirate_Coast
mw-redirect
Pirate Coast

value:
/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia
mw-redirect
Lower Mesopotamia

value:
/wiki/Eastern_coastal_plains
mw-redirect
Eastern coastal plains

value: Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests

value: Northwestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows

value:
/wiki/Indonesian_Archipelago
mw-redirect
Indonesian Archipelago

value:
/wiki/Philippine_Archipelago
mw-redirect
Philippine Archipelago

value: Template talk:Regions of Europe (page does not exist)

value: Template talk:Regions of North America (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Mountain_States
mw-redirect
Mountain States

value:
/wiki/Coastal_states
mw-redirect
Coastal states

value: List of belt regions of the United States

value: Latin America and the Caribbean (region)

value:
/wiki/Mangareva_Islands
mw-redirect
Mangareva Islands

value: Template talk:Regions of South America (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Antarctic_ecozone
mw-redirect
Antarctic ecozone

value:
/wiki/Extreme_points_of_the_Antarctic
mw-redirect
Extreme points of the Antarctic

value: List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands

value:
/wiki/Extreme_North
mw-redirect
Extreme North

value: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

value:
/wiki/Sultanate_of_Baqulin
mw-redirect
Sultanate of Baqulin

value:
/wiki/Sultanate_of_Dara
mw-redirect
Sultanate of Dara

value:
/wiki/Sultanate_of_Dewe
mw-redirect
Sultanate of Dewe

value: Sultanate of Hadiya (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Akkele_Guzay
mw-redirect
Akkele Guzay

value:
/wiki/Amhara_province
mw-redirect
Amhara province

value:
/wiki/Enderta_province
mw-redirect
Enderta province

value:
/wiki/Tigray_province
mw-redirect
Tigray province

value:
/wiki/Wolayta_people
mw-redirect
Wolayta people

value:
/wiki/Ethiopian%E2%80%93Adal_war
mw-redirect
Ethiopian–Adal war

value: Adal conquest of Ethiopia (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Gareen_dynasty
mw-redirect
Gareen dynasty

value: Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location

value:
nofollow
external text
https://viaf.org/viaf/315124798

value:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4077510-0

value: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

value: Category:Articles containing Oromo-language text

value: Category:Articles containing Somali-language text

value: Category:Articles containing Amharic-language text

value: Category:Articles containing Tigrinya-language text

value: Category:Articles containing Ge'ez-language text

value: Category:Pages using div col with deprecated parameters

value: Category:Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers

value: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value:
/wiki/Horn_of_Africa
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

value:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

value: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

value: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

value:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

value:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

value:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Find background information on current events

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ace
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

value: القرن الأفريقي – Arabic

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-frp
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gn
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

value: আফ্রিকার অন্তরীপ – Bangla

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bn
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan
display: none;

value: Самалі (паўвостраў) – Belarusian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

value: Сомалийски полуостров – Bulgarian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-br
display: none;

value: Африкын эбэр – Russia Buriat

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

value: Κέρας της Αφρικής – Greek

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

value: شاخ آفریقا – Persian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fy
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

value: 아프리카의 뿔 – Korean

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

value: Սոմալի (թերակղզի) – Armenian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

value: अफ्रीका का सींग – Hindi

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo
display: none;

value: Африкæйы Сыкъа – Ossetic

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-os
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

value: קרן אפריקה – Hebrew

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jv
display: none;

value: ಆಫ್ರಿಕಾದ ಕೊಂಬು – Kannada

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kn
display: none;

value: სომალის ნახევარკუნძული – Georgian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

value: Сомали түбегі – Kazakh

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sw
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ku
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lb
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

value: Африкански Рог – Macedonian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

value: ഹോൺ ഒഫ് ആഫ്രിക്ക – Malayalam

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

value: आफ्रिकेचे शिंग – Marathi

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mr
display: none;

value: სომალიშ ჩქონი – Mingrelian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf
display: none;

value: القرن الافريقى – Egyptian Arabic

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-arz
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ms
display: none;

value: Сомалийн хойг – Mongolian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mn
display: none;

value: အာဖရိက ဦးချိုဒေသ – Burmese

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-my
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-frr
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

value: ਅਫ਼ਰੀਕਾ ਦਾ ਸਿੰਗ – Punjabi

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pt
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

value: Африканьскый ріг – Rusyn

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-rue
display: none;

value: Сомали (полуостров) – Russian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sc
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

value: آفريقي سڱ – Sindhi

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sd
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb
display: none;

value: Рог Африке – Serbian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

value: ஆப்பிரிக்காவின் கொம்பு – Tamil

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

value: Сомали ярымутравы – Tatar

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tt
display: none;

value: จะงอยแอฟริกา – Thai

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

value: Сомалійський півострів – Ukrainian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

value: قرن افریقا – Urdu

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vec
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-war
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wo
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yo
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

value: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

value:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Horn_of_Africa rootpage-Horn_of_Africa skin-vector action-view