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List of best-selling Christmas singles in the United States
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This page shows the best-selling Christmas singles in the United States. It includes artists from around the world, but it only reflects sales in the United States of America. According to the Guinness Book of World Records, "White Christmas" by Bing Crosby is not only the best-selling Christmas/holiday single in the United States, but also the best-selling single of all time, with estimated sales in excess of 50 million copies worldwide.[1][2][3][4]
Prior to March 1, 1991, the only means of tracking sales figures for record albums and singles in the United States was via the certification system of the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), based specifically on shipments (less potential returns) on a long-term basis. From March 1, 1991 through the present day, the Nielsen SoundScan tracking system has been more widely used to accurately track sales of record albums and singles at the point of sale (POS) based on inventory bar code scans, as well as digital music download sales starting in 2003. As of November 25, 2016, the holiday single with the most digital downloads is Mariah Carey's 1994 track "All I Want for Christmas Is You," which SoundScan estimates as having sold 3,200,000 copies.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Best-selling Christmas/holiday singles since Nielsen SoundScan tracking began
1.1 Best-selling Christmas singles
2 Best-selling Christmas/holiday singles by RIAA certification
2.1 Digital singles
2.2 Cellular ringtones
2.3 Physical singles
3 See also
4 References
Best-selling Christmas/holiday singles since Nielsen SoundScan tracking began[edit]
This is a list of the top ten best-selling Christmas singles of the SoundScan era in the United States according to the Nielsen Company, as last updated on November 25, 2016.[5] Nielsen SoundScan began tracking digital download sales data at the end of June 2003.
Best-selling Christmas singles[edit]
Rank
Title
Artist
Released
Label(s)
Digital Downloads
1 "All I Want for Christmas Is You" Carey, MariahMariah Carey 1994 Columbia 3,200,000
2 "Do You Want to Build a Snowman?" Bell, KristenKristen Bell, Agatha Lee Monn & Katie Lopez 2013 Walt Disney 1,600,000
3 "Christmas Eve/Sarajevo 12/24" Trans-Siberian Orchestra 1996 Lava 1,300,000
4 "Mistletoe" Bieber, JustinJustin Bieber 2011 Island 1,100,000
5 "Rockin' Around the Christmas Tree" Lee, BrendaBrenda Lee 1958 Decca 1,000,000
6 "Christmas Canon" Trans-Siberian Orchestra 1998 Lava 918,000
7 "Where Are You Christmas?" Hill, FaithFaith Hill 2000 Interscope 897,000
8 "Feliz Navidad" Feliciano, JoséJosé Feliciano 1970 RCA 808,000
9 "Jingle Bell Rock" Helms, BobbyBobby Helms 1957 Decca 780,000
10 "Last Christmas" Wham! 1984 Columbia 751,000
Best-selling Christmas/holiday singles by RIAA certification[edit]
This is an incomplete list of the best-selling Christmas/holiday singles in the United States based on certification by the RIAA. This list provides a more complete representation of the best-selling Christmas/holiday albums in history, as it includes those released well before the Nielsen/SoundScan era of music sales.
Digital singles[edit]
Year of Release
Title
Artist
Label(s)
Certification Award[6]
Certification Date
2013 "Do You Want to Build a Snowman?" Bell, KristenKristen Bell, Agatha Lee Monn & Katie Lopez Walt Disney Platinum 2014-04-23
2011 "Mistletoe" Bieber, JustinJustin Bieber Island Platinum 2015-02-27
2007 "This Christmas" Brown, ChrisChris Brown RCA Gold 2017-11-22
2003 "All I Want for Christmas Is You" Carey, MariahMariah Carey Columbia Gold 2005-12-13
1996 "Chanukah Song" Sandler, AdamAdam Sandler Warner Bros. Gold 2009-10-05
2003 "Christmas Eve/Sarajevo 12/24" Trans-Siberian Orchestra Lava Gold 2009-12-14
Cellular ringtones[edit]
Year of Release
Title
Artist
Label(s)
Certification Award[7]
Certification Date
2006 "All I Want for Christmas Is You" Carey, MariahMariah Carey Columbia 2x Multi-Platinum 2009-12-15
2003 "Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer" Elmo & Patsy Legacy/Epic Gold 2008-12-10
2003 "Santa Baby" Kitt, EarthaEartha Kitt Legacy Gold 2008-12-09
Physical singles[edit]
According to the most recent record album certifications, the holiday single title with the highest RIAA certification is Elvis Presley's 1964 single "Blue Christmas", which is certified Platinum by the RIAA (though its date of certification came more than ten years after the RIAA reduced the threshold for Platinum level for singles from two million copies to one million copies).[8]
Year of Release
Title
(A-side/B-side)
Artist(s)
Label(s)
Certification Award
Certification Date[6]
1964 "Blue Christmas"/
"Santa Claus Is Back in Town" Presley, ElvisElvis Presley RCA Victor Platinum[8] 1999-12-15
1989 "This One's for the Children"/
"Funky, Funky Xmas" New Kids on the Block Columbia Gold[6] 1990-01-09
1984 "Do They Know It's Christmas?"/
"Feed the World" Band Aid Columbia Gold[6] 1984-12-19
1959 "Alvin's Harmonica"/
"Mediocre" (David Seville) The Chipmunks Liberty Gold[9]
1958 "The Chipmunk Song"/
"Almost Good" (David Seville) The Chipmunks with the Music of David Seville Liberty Gold[9]
1958 "Rockin' Around the Christmas Tree"/
"Papa Noël" Lee, BrendaBrenda Lee Decca Gold[10]
1957 "Jingle Bell Rock"/
"Captain Santa Claus (and His Reindeer Space Patrol)" Bobby Helms Decca Gold[11]
1955 "Nuttin' for Christmas"/
"Santa Claus Looks Just Like Daddy" Mooney, ArtArt Mooney and His Orchestra
Vocal by Barry Gordon MGM Gold[12]
1952 "I Saw Mommy Kissing Santa Claus"/
"Thumbelina" Boyd, JimmyJimmy Boyd Columbia Gold[13]
1950 "Frosty the Snow Man"/
"When Santa Claus Gets Your Letter" Autry, GeneGene Autry and The Cass County Boys Columbia Gold[14]
1949 "I Yust Go Nuts at Christmas"/
"Yingle Bells" Yorgesson, YogiYogi Yorgesson Capitol Gold[15]
1949 "Rudolph, the Red-Nosed Reindeer"/
"If It Doesn't Snow on Christmas" Autry, GeneGene Autry & The Pinafores Columbia Gold[14] 1969-11-10
1948 "All I Want for Christmas (Is My Two Front Teeth)"/
"Happy New Year" Jones, SpikeSpike Jones and his City Slickers RCA Victor Gold[16]
1948 "I've Got My Love to Keep Me Warm"/
"I'm A-Tellin' You, Sam" Brown, LesLes Brown and his Orchestra Columbia Gold[17]
1947 "Here Comes Santa Claus (Down Santa Claus Lane)"/
"An Old-Fashioned Christmas" Autry, GeneGene Autry Columbia Gold[14]
1946 "Christmas Island"/
"Winter Wonderland" Andrews Sisters and Guy Lombardo and His Royal Canadians Decca Gold[18]
1946 "The Christmas Song (Merry Christmas to You)"/
"In the Cool of Evening" The King Cole Trio Capitol Gold[19]
1944 "White Christmas"/
"If You Are But a Dream" Sinatra, FrankFrank Sinatra Columbia Gold[20]
1943 "I'll Be Home for Christmas (If Only in My Dreams)"/
"Danny Boy" Crosby, BingBing Crosby Decca Gold[21]
1943 "Jingle Bells"/
"Santa Claus Is Comin' to Town" Crosby, BingBing Crosby and the Andrews Sisters Decca Gold[21]
1942 "White Christmas"/
"Let's Start the New Year Right" Crosby, BingBing Crosby Decca Gold[22]
1942 "White Christmas"/
"Abraham" Martin, FreddyFreddy Martin and his Orchestra Victor Gold[23]
1935 "Silent Night"/
"Adeste Fideles (O Come, All Ye Faithful)" Crosby, BingBing Crosby Decca Gold[22]
See also[edit]
Christmas portal
Christmas music
List of Christmas hit singles in the United Kingdom
List of Christmas hit singles in the United States
Best-selling Christmas/holiday albums in the United States
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Guinness Book of Records, 2007 Edition, page 187 Archived 2015-03-19 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Guinness Book of Records, 2008 Edition, page 181
Jump up ^ Guinness Book of Records, 2009 Edition, pages 14, 15 & 169 Archived 2013-02-26 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Roy J. Harris, Jr. (December 5, 2009). "The Best-Selling Record of All. 'White Christmas' and the reasons it endures". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved December 6, 2009. It was a peaceful song that became a wartime classic. Its unorthodox, melancholy melody—and mere 54 words, expressing the simple yearning for a return to happier times—sounded instantly familiar when sung by America's favorite crooner. But 67 years after its introduction, some still are surprised to learn that Bing Crosby's recording of the Irving Berlin ballad "White Christmas" became not only the runaway smash-hit for the World War II holidays, but the best-selling record of all time.
^ Jump up to: a b Billboard Staff (November 25, 2016). "What Are the Top-Selling Holiday Songs?". Billboard Magazine. Retrieved November 29, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "RIAA Gold & Platinum". Recording Industry Association of America. Archived from the original on February 25, 2013. Retrieved November 2, 2011.
Jump up ^ "RIAA Gold & Platinum". Recording Industry Association of America. Retrieved November 29, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "RIAA Gold & Platinum". Recording Industry Association of America. Archived from the original on February 25, 2013. Retrieved November 2, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Whitburn, Joel (2004). Christmas in the Charts (1920–2004). Wisconsin: Record Research Inc. p. 27. ISBN 0-89820-161-6.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Christmas in the Charts (1920–2004). Wisconsin: Record Research Inc. p. 45. ISBN 0-89820-161-6.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Christmas in the Charts (1920–2004). Wisconsin: Record Research Inc. p. 40. ISBN 0-89820-161-6.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Christmas in the Charts (1920–2004). Wisconsin: Record Research Inc. p. 50. ISBN 0-89820-161-6.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Christmas in the Charts (1920–2004). Wisconsin: Record Research Inc. p. 22. ISBN 0-89820-161-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c Whitburn, Joel (2004). Christmas in the Charts (1920–2004). Wisconsin: Record Research Inc. p. 19. ISBN 0-89820-161-6.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Christmas in the Charts (1920–2004). Wisconsin: Record Research Inc. p. 66. ISBN 0-89820-161-6.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Christmas in the Charts (1920–2004). Wisconsin: Record Research Inc. p. 43. ISBN 0-89820-161-6.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Christmas in the Charts (1920–2004). Wisconsin: Record Research Inc. p. 25. ISBN 0-89820-161-6.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Christmas in the Charts (1920–2004). Wisconsin: Record Research Inc. p. 18. ISBN 0-89820-161-6.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Christmas in the Charts (1920–2004). Wisconsin: Record Research Inc. p. 28. ISBN 0-89820-161-6.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Christmas in the Charts (1920–2004). Wisconsin: Record Research Inc. p. 58. ISBN 0-89820-161-6.
^ Jump up to: a b Whitburn, Joel (2004). Christmas in the Charts (1920–2004). Wisconsin: Record Research Inc. p. 31. ISBN 0-89820-161-6.
^ Jump up to: a b Whitburn, Joel (2004). Christmas in the Charts (1920–2004). Wisconsin: Record Research Inc. p. 30. ISBN 0-89820-161-6.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Christmas in the Charts (1920–2004). Wisconsin: Record Research Inc. p. 47. ISBN 0-89820-161-6.
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Climate of Antarctica
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Surface temperature of Antarctica in winter and summer from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts
Antarctica has the coldest climate on the Earth. Antarctica's lowest air temperature record was set on 21 July 1983, with −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) at Vostok Station.[1] Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures, down to −93.2 °C (−135.8 °F) at the cloud free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010.[2] It is also extremely dry (technically a desert), averaging 166 mm (6.5 in) of precipitation per year. On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet. Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent, because of the katabatic winds. Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate (Köppen EF) with very cold, generally extremely dry weather.
Contents
[hide]
1 Temperature
2 Precipitation
2.1 Weather condition classification
3 Ice cover
3.1 Ice shelves
4 Global warming
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
8.1 Climate
8.2 Climate change in Antarctica
8.3 Antarctic ice
Temperature[edit]
The Antarctic temperature changes during the last several glacial and interglacial cycles of the present ice age
The lowest reliably measured temperature of a continuously occupied station on Earth of −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) was on 21 July 1983 at Vostok Station.[3][4] For comparison, this is 10.7 °C (19.3 °F) colder than subliming dry ice (at sea level pressure). The altitude of the location is 3,900 meters (12,800 feet).
The lowest recorded temperature of any location on Earth's surface was −93.2 °C (−135.8 °F) at 81°48′S 63°30′E / 81.8°S 63.5°E / -81.8; 63.5, which is on an unnamed Antarctic plateau between Dome A and Dome F, on 10 August 2010. The temperature was deduced from radiance measured by the Landsat 8 satellite, and discovered during a National Snow and Ice Data Center review of stored data in December, 2013.[5][6] This temperature is not directly comparable to the -89.2 quoted above, since it is a skin temperature deduced from satellite-measured upwelling radiance, rather than a thermometer-measured temperature of the air 1.5 m (4.9 ft) above the ground surface.
On the coast Antarctic average temperatures are around -10°C (in the warmest parts of Antarctica) and in the elevated inland they average about -55°C in Vostok.[7][8][9]
The highest temperature ever recorded in Antarctica was 17.5 °C (63.5 °F) at Esperanza Base, on the Antarctic Peninsula, on 24 March 2015.[10] The mean annual temperature of the interior is −57 °C (−70.6 °F). The coast is warmer. Monthly means at McMurdo Station range from −26 °C (−14.8 °F) in August to −3 °C (26.6 °F) in January.[11] At the South Pole, the highest temperature ever recorded was −12.3 °C (9.9 °F) on 25 December 2011.[12] Along the Antarctic Peninsula, temperatures as high as 15 °C (59 °F) have been recorded,[clarification needed] though the summer temperature is below 0 °C (32 °F) most of the time. Severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean. East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation.[citation needed] The Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate. Higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing.
Precipitation[edit]
Map of average annual precipitation on Antarctica (mm liquid equivalent)
The total precipitation on Antarctica, averaged over the entire continent, is about 166 millimetres (6.5 inches) per year (Vaughan et al., J Climate, 1999). The actual rates vary widely, from high values over the Peninsula (15 to 25 inches a year) to very low values (as little as 50 millimetres (2.0 inches) in the high interior (Bromwich, Reviews of Geophysics, 1988). Areas that receive less than 250 millimetres (9.8 inches) of precipitation per year are classified as deserts. Almost all Antarctic precipitation falls as snow.[13] Rainfall is rare and mainly occurs during the summer in coastal areas and surrounding islands.[13] Note that the quoted precipitation is a measure of its equivalence to water, rather than being the actual depth of snow. The air in Antarctica is also very dry. The low temperatures result in a very low absolute humidity, which means that dry skin and cracked lips are a continual problem for scientists and expeditioners working in the continent.
Weather condition classification[edit]
See also: Antarctica Weather Danger Classification
The weather in Antarctica can be highly variable, and the weather conditions can often change dramatically in short periods of time. There are various classifications for describing weather conditions in Antarctica; restrictions given to workers during the different conditions vary by station and nation. In Antarctic, there are different stations scattered everywhere in Antarctica, 16 total in Antarctica (Amery, Burger Hills, Cape Poinsett, Casey, Davis, Dumont D'urville, Haupt Nunatak, Law Dome, Mawson, McMurdo, Mirnyj, Novolazarevskaja, Skiway South, Syowa, Whoop Whoop and Wilkins Runway) and one in sub-Antarctica (Macquarie Island). The three places that have the lowest temperature are Amery, Law Dome and Wilkins Runway (temperature in order: -24.1, -12.8,-10.2).[14][15][16][17]
Ice cover[edit]
Nearly all of Antarctica is covered by a sheet of ice that is, on average, a mile thick or more (1.6 km). Antarctica contains 90% of the world's ice and more than 70% of its fresh water. If all the land-ice covering Antarctica were to melt — around 30 million cubic kilometres (7.2 million cubic miles) of ice — the seas would rise by over 60 metres (200 feet).[18] This is, however, very unlikely within the next few centuries. The Antarctic is so cold that even with increases of a few degrees, temperatures would generally remain below the melting point of ice. Higher temperatures are expected to lead to more snow, which would increase the amount of ice in Antarctica, offsetting approximately one third of the expected sea level rise from thermal expansion of the oceans.[19] During a recent decade, East Antarctica thickened at an average rate of about 1.8 centimetres per year while West Antarctica showed an overall thinning of 0.9 centimetres per year.[20] For the contribution of Antarctica to present and future sea level change, see sea level rise. Because ice flows, albeit slowly, the ice within the ice sheet is younger than the age of the sheet itself.
Morphometric data for Antarctica (from Drewry, 1983)
Surface
Area
(km²)
Percent
Mean ice thickness
(m)
Volume
(km³)
Percent
Inland ice sheet 11,965,700 85.97 2,450 29,324,700 97.00
Ice shelves 1,541,710 11.08 475 731,900 2.43
Ice rises 78,970 .57 670 53,100 .18
Glacier ice (total)
13,586,380 2,160 30,109,800¹
Rock outcrop 331,690 2.38
Antarctica (total)
13,918,070 100.00 2,160 30,109,800¹ 100.00
¹The total ice volume is different from the sum of the component parts because individual figures have been rounded.
Regional ice data (from Drewry and others, 1982; Drewry, 1983)
Region
Area
(km²)
Mean ice
thickness
(m)
Volume
(km³)
East Antarctica
Inland ice 9,855,570 2,630 25,920,100
Ice shelves 293,510 400 117,400
Ice rises 4,090 400 1,600
West Antarctica (excluding Antarctic Peninsula)
Inland ice sheet 1,809,760 1,780 3,221,400
Ice shelves 104,860 375 39,300
Ice rises 3,550 375 1,300
Antarctic Peninsula
Inland ice sheet 300,380 610 183,200
Ice shelves 144,750 300 43,400
Ice rises 1,570 300 500
Ross Ice Shelf
Ice shelf 525,840 427 224,500
Ice rises 10,320 500 5,100
Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf
Ice shelf 472,760 650 307,300
Ice rises 59,440 750 44,600
Ice shelves[edit]
This section needs attention from an expert in glaciers. The specific problem is: unintelligible English and lack of clarity. WikiProject Glaciers may be able to help recruit an expert. (April 2017)
Antarctic ice shelves, 1998
About 75% of the coastline of Antarctica is ice shelves. The utmost parts consist of floating ice until the grounding line of land based glaciers is reached, which is determined through affords such as Operation IceBridge. Ice shelves lose mass through iceberg breakup (calving), or basal melting (at the foot of the glacier, when warm ocean water impacts), and this can affect ice sheet stability when the land based glaciers start to retreat; melting or breakup of floating shelf ice does not directly affect global sea levels, however, when sea ice freezes, it preferentially expels salt, in the process becoming purer than the sea water it is floating in. Pure water is less dense than salty water, so when the ice melts it will overflow the 'hole in the water' that the ice had occupied, and when it overflows, it raises the water level.[21][22]
Known changes in coastline ice:
Around the Antarctic Peninsula:
1936–1989: Wordie Ice Shelf significantly reduced in size.
1995: Ice in the Prince Gustav Channel disintegrated.
Parts of the Larsen Ice Shelf broke up in recent decades.
1995: The Larsen A ice shelf disintegrated in January 1995.
2001: 3,250 square kilometres (1,250 square miles) of the Larsen B ice shelf disintegrated in February 2001. It had been gradually retreating before the breakup event.
2015: A study concluded that the remaining Larsen B ice-shelf will disintegrate by the end of the decade, based on observations of faster flow and rapid thinning of glaciers in the area.[23]
The George VI Ice Shelf, which may be on the brink of instability,[24] has probably existed for approximately 8,000 years, after melting 1,500 years earlier.[25] Warm ocean currents may have been the cause of the melting.[26] Not only the ice sheets are losing mass, but they are losing mass at an accelerating rate.[27]
Global warming[edit]
Main article: Global warming in Antarctica
Antarctic Skin Temperature Trends between 1981 and 2007, based on thermal infrared observations made by a series of NOAA satellite sensors. Skin temperature trends do not necessarily reflect air temperature trends.
The continent-wide average surface temperature trend of Antarctica is positive and significant at >0.05 °C/decade since 1957.[28][29][30][31] The West Antarctic ice sheet has warmed by more than 0.1 °C/decade in the last 50 years, and is strongest in winter and spring. Although this is partly offset by fall cooling in East Antarctica, this effect is restricted to the 1980s and 1990s.[28][29][30]
Research published in 2009 found that overall the continent had become warmer since the 1950s, a finding consistent with the influence of man-made climate change:
"We can't pin it down, but it certainly is consistent with the influence of greenhouse gases from fossil fuels", said NASA scientist Drew Shindell, another study co-author. Some of the effects also could be natural variability, he said.[32]
The British Antarctic Survey, which has undertaken the majority of Britain's scientific research in the area, stated in 2009:[33]
West Antarctic ice loss could contribute to 1.4 metres (4 feet 7 inches) sea level rise
Antarctica predicted to warm by around 3 °C (5.4 °F) over this century
10% increase in sea ice around the Antarctic
Rapid ice loss in parts of the Antarctic
Warming of the Southern Ocean will cause changes in Antarctic ecosystem
Hole in ozone layer, which has shielded most of Antarctica from global warming
0 September 2007 NASA map showing previously un-melted snowmelt
The area of strongest cooling appears at the South Pole, and the region of strongest warming lies along the Antarctic Peninsula. A possible explanation is that loss of UV-absorbing ozone may have cooled the stratosphere and strengthened the polar vortex, a pattern of spinning winds around the South Pole. The vortex acts like an atmospheric barrier, preventing warmer, coastal air from moving into the continent's interior. A stronger polar vortex might explain the cooling trend in the interior of Antarctica.[34]
In their latest study (20 September 2007) NASA researchers have confirmed that Antarctic snow is melting farther inland from the coast over time, melting at higher altitudes than ever and increasingly melting on Antarctica's largest ice shelf.[35]
There is also evidence for widespread glacier retreat around the Antarctic Peninsula.[36]
Researchers reported on 21 December 2012 in Nature Geoscience that from 1958 to 2010, the average temperature at the mile-high Byrd Station rose by 2.4 °C (4.3 °F), with warming fastest in its winter and spring. The spot which is in the heart of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet is one of the fastest-warming places on Earth. In 2015, the temperature showed changes but in a stable manner and the only months that have drastic change in that year are August and September. It also did show that the temperature was very stable throughout the year.[37][38][39][40]
See also[edit]
Antarctica cooling controversy
Global warming in Antarctica
Climate of the Arctic
Effects of global warming
Retreat of glaciers since 1850
Polar amplification
References[edit]
Notes
Jump up ^ The Coldest Place on Earth: -90°C and below from Landsat 8 and other satellite thermal sensors, Ted Scambos, Allen Pope, Garrett Campbell, and Terry Haran, American Geophysical Union fall meeting, 9 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Coldest spot on Earth identified by satellite, Jonathan Amos, BBC News, 9 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Budretsky, A.B. (1984). "New absolute minimum of air temperature". Bulletin of the Soviet Antarctic Expedition (in Russian). Leningrad: Gidrometeoizdat (105).
Jump up ^ "World: Lowest Temperature - ASU World Meteorological Organization". asu.edu. Archived from the original on 2010-06-16.
Jump up ^ Natasha Vizcarra (2013-12-09). "Landsat 8 helps unveil the coldest place on Earth". National Snow and Ice Data Center. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Amos (2013-12-09). "Coldest spot on Earth identified by satellite". BBC News Science & Environment. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
Jump up ^ "Antarctic weather". www.antarctica.gov.au.
Jump up ^ "Climate statistics for Australian locations". www.bom.gov.au.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2008-05-07. Retrieved 2008-05-07.
Jump up ^ "WMO Region VII (Antarctica mainland & adjoining islands): Highest Temperature". World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 1 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "Antarctica Climate data and graphs, South Pole, McMurdo and Vostok". coolantarctica.com.
Jump up ^ Matthew A. Lazzara (2011-12-28). "Preliminary Report: Record Temperatures at South Pole (and nearby AWS sites…)". Retrieved 2011-12-28.
^ Jump up to: a b "La Antártida" (in Spanish). Dirección Nacional del Antártico. Archived from the original on 13 November 2016. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "Latest Weather Observations for Antarctica". www.bom.gov.au.
Jump up ^ "Weathering The Conditions" (PDF). The Antarctic Sun. 18 October 1997. p. 8. Retrieved June 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ Jim Scott. "Weather and Travel" (PDF). Welcome to McMurdo Station. McMurdo Station. p. 6. Retrieved June 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Field Manual" (PDF). Antarctica New Zealand. New Zealand Government. p. 37. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 15, 2015. Retrieved June 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis". Grida.no. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
Jump up ^ "Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis". Grida.no. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
Jump up ^ Davis; et al. (2005). "Snowfall-Driven Growth in East Antarctic Ice Sheet Mitigates Recent Sea-Level Rise,". Science. 308 (5730): 1898–1901. Bibcode:2005Sci...308.1898D. doi:10.1126/science.1110662. PMID 15905362.
Jump up ^ "Does Melting Sea Ice Raise Sea Levels? - Peace Legacy". peacelegacy.org.
Jump up ^ E. Rignot; S. Jacobs; J. Mouginot; B. Scheuchl. "Ice-Shelf Melting Around Antarctica". Science. 341: 266–270. Bibcode:2013Sci...341..266R. doi:10.1126/science.1235798. PMID 23765278.
Jump up ^ NASA (14 May 2015). "NASA Study Shows Antarctica's Larsen B Ice Shelf Nearing Its Final Act".
Jump up ^ Mike Bentley; Dominic Hodgson. "Millennial-scale variability of George VI Ice Shelf, Antarctic Peninsula". Natural Environment Research Council. Archived from the original on 12 September 2002. Retrieved 8 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Bentley, M.J. (1), Hjort, C. (2) Ingolfsson, O. (3) and Sugden, D.E. (4). "Holocene Instability of the George VI Ice Shelf, Antarctic Peninsula". Archived from the original on 20 October 2004. Retrieved June 8, 2015. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Press Release – New Year?s Honours for British Antarctic Survey Personnel". British Antarctic Survey. 2006-01-05. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
Jump up ^ "NASA - Is Antarctica Melting?". www.nasa.gov.
^ Jump up to: a b Tenney Naumer. "Climate Change: The Next Generation". climatechangepsychology.blogspot.com.
^ Jump up to: a b Retrieved=2009-01-22 Archived December 29, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v457/n7228/full/nature07669.html Retrieved=2009-01-22
Jump up ^ "Global warming hitting all of Antarctica: scientists". The Sydney Morning Herald.
Jump up ^ Antarctica study challenges warming skeptics, Jan 21, 2009
Jump up ^ http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/press/press_releases/press_release.php?id=1065
Jump up ^ http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=17257
Jump up ^ "NASA - NASA Researchers Find Snowmelt in Antarctica Creeping Inland". nasa.gov.
Jump up ^ IPCC 2007, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, 2007, page 376.
Jump up ^ Nicolas, Julien. "Reconstructed Byrd temperature record". polarmet.osu.edu.
Jump up ^ Witze, Alexandra (14 April 2014). "West Antarctica warming fast".
Jump up ^ "Map of Antarctica and annual spatial footprint of the Byrd temperature record. : Central West Antarctica among the most rapidly warming regions on Earth". Nature Geoscience. 6: 139–145. Bibcode:2013NatGe...6..139B. doi:10.1038/ngeo1671.
Jump up ^ Bromwich, D. H.; Nicolas, J. P.; Monaghan, A. J.; Lazzara, M. A.; Keller, L. M.; Weidner, G. A.; Wilson, A. B. (2012). "Central West Antarctica among the most rapidly warming regions on Earth". Nature Geoscience. 6 (2): 139–145. Bibcode:2013NatGe...6..139B. doi:10.1038/ngeo1671.
Sources
D. G. Vaughan; G. J. Marshall; W. M. Connolley; J. C. King; R. M. Mulvaney (2001). "Devil in the detail". Science. 293 (5536): 1777–9. doi:10.1126/science.1065116. PMID 11546858.
M.J. Bentley; D.A. Hodgson; D.E. Sugden; S.J. Roberts; J.A. Smith; M.J. Leng; C. Bryant (2005). "Early Holocene retreat of the George VI Ice Shelf, Antarctic Peninsula". Geology. 33 (3): 173–6. Bibcode:2005Geo....33..173B. doi:10.1130/G21203.1.
Further reading[edit]
Warm Snap Turned Antarctica Green Around the Edges; Thawed-out continent was lined with trees 15 million years ago, study says. June 20, 2012 National Geographic
Taking Antarctica's temperature; Frozen continent may not be immune to global warming July 27, 2013; Vol.184 #2 Science News
External links[edit]
Climate[edit]
Climate data from Antarctic surface stations with trends
Temperature data from the READER project
A pamphlet about the weather and climate of Antarctica
Antarctica's central ice cap grows while glaciers melt
"AWS and AMRC Real-Time Weather Observations and Data". University of Wisconsin-Madison's Antarctic Weather Stations Project and Antarctic Meteorological Research Center. Retrieved May 31, 2005.
Antarctica Climate and Weather
Climate change in Antarctica[edit]
Western Antarctica warming confirmed December 23, 2012 USA Today
NASA experts explain ice melt in Antarctica (2014)
Antarctic ice[edit]
"Sea Ice Index – Trends in extent – Southern Hemisphere (Antarctic)". National Snow and Ice Data Center. Retrieved Jan 9, 2009.
"Coastal-Change and Glaciological Maps of Antarctica". USGS Fact Sheet 2005–3055. Retrieved May 31, 2005.
"Coastal-Change and Glaciological Maps of Antarctica". USGS Fact Sheet 050–98. Retrieved February 28, 2005.
"Coastal-change and glaciological map of the Eights Coast area, Antarctica; 1972–2001". U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Series Map, I-2600-E. Retrieved February 28, 2005.
"Coastal-change and glaciological map of the Bakutis Coast area, Antarctica; 1972–2002". U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Series Map, I-2600-F. Retrieved February 28, 2005.
"Coastal-change and glaciological map of the Saunders Coast area, Antarctica; 1972–1997". U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Series Map, I-2600-G. Retrieved February 28, 2005.
"Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World – Antarctica". U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1386-B. Retrieved February 28, 2005.
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Results of the War of 1812
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Results of the War of 1812 between Great Britain and the United States, 1812-1815, involved with no geographical changes. The main result of the war was two centuries of peace between the United States and Britain. All the causes of the war had disappeared with the end of the war between Britain and France and with the destruction of the power of Indians to block American expansion into the Northwest. American fears of the Native Americans ended, as did British plans to create a buffer Native American state. The American quest for honor after its humiliations by the British were satisfied. The final collapse of the opposition Federalist Party opened an "Era of good feelings" with lessened partisanship and an exuberant spirit. The British paid little attention to the war, concentrating instead on their final defeat of Napoleon in 1815. The U.S. failed to gain any territory from British North America, contrary to many American politicians' hopes and expectations, but it did gain land from Spain.[1]
After Napoleon's defeat in 1814, Britain was no longer at war with France and there were no restrictions on trade; the British suspended their policy of impressment of American sailors, and never resumed it, but they insisted they still had the right to resume it. Americans regained their honour[2] and proclaimed victory in what they called a "second war of independence" for the decisive defeat of the British invaders at New Orleans seemed to prove that Britain could never regain control of America,[3] and the threat of secession by New England ended with the failure of the Hartford Convention.
In Britain, the importance of the conflict was totally overshadowed by European triumphs: Napoleon had returned from exile in March 1815, and was finally defeated at Waterloo 100 days later.
Upper Canada emerged from the war with a sense of unity and pride as part of the British Empire. Anglophone Canadians claimed the war as a victory for their freedom from American control and credited their militia for the repulse of American invasions. Francophone Canadians largely ignore the war.
Contents
[hide]
1 Efforts to end the war
2 Negotiations
3 Native American affairs
4 Canada
5 Britain
6 United States
6.1 Impact on U.S. military
7 Honour
8 Economic impact
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
11.1 Memory of the war
12 External links
Efforts to end the war[edit]
Efforts to end the war began in 1812 when the chief U.S. diplomat in London proposed an armistice in return for a renunciation of impressments; the British refused. Later, in 1812, when the British captured Detroit and news of the repeal of the Orders reached Washington, Sir George Prevost arranged an armistice with his counterpart Henry Dearborn. However, President James Madison decided to continue the war. In 1813, Russia offered to mediate a peace, but London rejected the offer, because it might compromise British interests in Europe.[4] Finally, Great Britain and the United States agreed to commence peace negotiations in January 1814: the talks were delayed.
Negotiations[edit]
At last in August 1814, peace discussions began in the neutral city of Ghent. Both sides began negotiations with unrealistic demands. The U.S. wanted an end to all British maritime practices it deemed objectionable and also demanded cessions of Canadian territory and guaranteed fishing rights off Newfoundland. The British announced as an essential element of the peace treaty their long-standing goal of creating an Indian barrier state, a large "neutral" Indian state that would cover most of the Old Northwest. It would be independent of the United States and under the tutelage of the British, who would use it to block American expansion and to build up their control of the fur trade.[5] London dropped the demand when the Americans adamantly refused and indicated it would end the negotiations. The British had been weakened by the collapse of Tecumseh's Confederacy after the Battle of the Thames in 1813 and no longer controlled adequate supply lines to support an Indian barrier state.[6] Britain also wanted to keep the far-northeastern parts of Maine that had been captured to provide a land corridor to Quebec from the maritime colonies.
After months of negotiations, against the background of changing military victories, defeats and losses, the parties finally realized that their nations wanted peace and there was no real reason to continue the war. Now each side was tired of the war. Export trade was all but paralyzed and after Napoleon fell in 1814 France was no longer an enemy of Britain, so the Royal Navy no longer needed to stop American shipments to France, and it no longer needed more seamen. The British were preoccupied in rebuilding Europe after the apparent final defeat of Napoleon. The negotiators agreed to return to the status quo ante bellum with no changes in boundaries. Both sides signed the Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814. The next and final step would be formal ratification by each government.[7]
The British—but not the Americans—knew, when they signed, that a battle was imminent at New Orleans (it was fought on January 8, 1815).[8] This treaty finally went into effect when it was formally ratified by both sides in February 1815.
The Treaty of Ghent failed to secure official British acknowledgment of American maritime rights, but in the century of peace between the worlds naval powers from 1815 until World War I these rights were not seriously violated. The British navy ended the practices that angered Americans, for they were no longer needed after Napoleon. American pride and honor was built as a result of the Indian threat being ended, and through rejoicing surrounding American victory at New Orleans.[9] In doing so, the United States had successfully created sense of becoming fully independent from Britain.[10]
Native American affairs[edit]
A key reason that American frontiersmen were so much in favor of the war in the first place was the threat by various Native American tribes, which they blamed on intervention by British agents in Canada. In addition, they wanted access to lands that the British acknowledged belonged to the U.S. but that the British were blocking by inciting and arming the Native Americans. With the death of Tecumseh in battle in 1813, the First Nation military power ended. The natives were the main losers in the war, losing British protection, and never regained their influence.[11]
In the Southeast, Andrew Jackson's destruction of Britain's allies, the Creek Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814, ended the threat of Native American hostilities in that region. It opened vast areas in Georgia and Alabama for settlement as plantations and farmlands. The U.S. occupied all of West Florida during the war and in 1819 purchased the rest of Florida from Spain, thus closing the base of weapons for hostile tribes. Creek Indians who escaped to Spanish Florida joined the Seminoles there, and put up a long resistance known as the Seminole Wars.[12]
In the treaty, the British promised not to arm the Native Americans in the U.S. from Canada (nor even trade with them), and the U.S.-Canada border was largely pacified. However, some Americans assumed that the British continued to conspire with their former Native American allies in an attempt to forestall U.S. hegemony in the Great Lakes region. Such perceptions were faulty, argues Calloway (1987). After the Treaty of Ghent, the Native Americans in the Great Lakes region became an undesirable burden to British policymakers.[13]
Canada[edit]
Some in Washington had expected the largely American population of Upper Canada to throw off the "British yoke", but that did not happen. After 1815, British officials, Anglican clergy and Canadians loyal to the Empire tried to spot and root out American ideals, such as democracy and republicanism. Thus, the British and Loyalist elite were able to set the different colonies, of what would later become Canada, on a different course from that of their former enemy. Canada discouraged further American immigration.[14]
When the United States attacked British North America, most of the British forces were engaged in the Napoleonic Wars. Thus, British North America had minimal troops to defend against the United States, who had a much larger (though poorly trained) military force. For most of the war, British North America stood alone against a much stronger American force. Reinforcements from the United Kingdom did not arrive until 1814, the final year of the war. The repelling of the American force helped to foster British loyalties in the colonies that later became Canada.
The nationalistic sentiment caused a suspicion of such American ideas as republicanism, which would frustrate political reform in Upper and Lower Canada until the Rebellions of 1837. However, the War of 1812 started the process that ultimately led to Canadian Confederation in 1867. Canadian writer Pierre Berton has written that, although later events such as the rebellions and the Fenian raids of the 1860s were more important, Canada would have become part of the United States if the War of 1812 had not taken place, because more and more American settlers would have arrived and Canadian nationalism would not have developed.
The War of 1812 was highly significant in Britain's North American colonies. After the war, British sympathizers portrayed the war as a successful fight for national survival against an American democratic force that threatened the peace and stability the Canadians desired. Throughout the war, most of Canada's inhabitants assigned the war to an American desire to annex the British colonies, a perception reinforced by American Generals like William Hull, who issued proclamations stating that Canada would be annexed.[15]
An alleged Canadian myth from the war was that Canadian militiamen had performed admirably, while the British officers were largely ineffective. Jack Granatstein has termed this the "militia myth", and he feels it has had a deep effect on Canadian military thinking, which placed more stress on a citizens' militia than on a professional standing army. The United States suffered from a similar "frontiersman myth" at the start of the war, believing falsely that individual initiative and marksmanship could be effective against a well-disciplined British battle line. Granatstein argues that the militia was not particularly effective in the war and that any British military success was the work of British regular forces and the result of British domination over the sea. Isaac Brock, for example, was reluctant to trust the militia with muskets.[16]
Others argue that, in fact, the Canadian militia played important roles in several key engagements, including at the Battle of Chateauguay where they were central to defeating the American advance on Montreal in the fall of 1813.[17][18] Historian Robert Henderson has referred to this as "The myth of the Militia myth".[19] See: Canadian Units of the War of 1812
During the war, British officers constantly worried that the Americans would block the St. Lawrence River, which forms part of the Canada–U.S. border. If the U.S. military had done so, there would have been no British supply route for Upper Canada, where most of the land battles took place, and British forces would likely have had to withdraw or surrender all western British territory within a few months. British officers' dispatches after the war exhibited astonishment that the Americans never took such a simple step, but the British were not willing to count on the enemy repeating the mistake: as a result, Britain commissioned the Rideau Canal, an expensive project connecting Kingston, on Lake Ontario, to the Ottawa River, providing an alternative supply route that bypassed the part of the St. Lawrence River along the U.S. border. The settlement at the northeastern end of the canal, where it joins the Ottawa River, later became the city of Ottawa, Canada's fourth-largest city and its capital (placed inland to protect it from U.S. invasion—known then as the 'defensible back-country'). Because population away from the St. Lawrence shores was negligible, the British, in the years following the war, took great lengths to ensure that back-country settlement was increased. They settled soldiers and initiated assisted-immigration schemes, offering free land to farmers, mostly tenants of estates in the south of Ireland. The canal project was not completed until 1832 and was never used for its intended purpose.[20]
Britain[edit]
In contrast to Canada, the War of 1812 is seldom remembered in Britain today, as the conflict was quickly forgotten by the British public. Chiefly, this is because it was overshadowed by the dramatic events of the contemporary Napoleonic wars, and because Britain herself neither gained nor lost anything by the peace settlement, except for the fact that it kept control of Canada.[21]
The Royal Navy was acutely conscious that the United States Navy had won single-ship duels during the war, even though they had no strategic effect. Particular attention was given these battles because American propaganda had projected them as battles of equal force, when actually the only single ship duel where the forces were equal (although the British had fewer men) was the Battle of Boston Harbor which the British won. Furthermore, Britain had effectively won the war on the ocean as almost the entire US Navy was blockaded and unable to fight. British honor was restored when the USS President was captured and taken to Britain for all to see that the American ships that participated in battles of so-called equal force where actually much larger than the British ships they were engaged with.[22]
American privateers and commerce raiders had captured approximately 1200 British merchant ships, sending insurance rates up and embarrassing the Admiralty. Nevertheless, 50% of all American privateers were captured by the British while the privateers only captured 5% to 7% of British commerce. Meanwhile for every 14 American merchant ships that traded before the start of the war only 1 ship dared leave port during the war despite the American effort to double maritime trade. Furthermore of the few ships that left port, a total 1400 were captured. In addition, Britain did win many sea battles. The Royal Navy had been able to deploy overwhelming strength to American waters, annihilating rather than merely denting American maritime trade, and driving the American economy close to bankruptcy. The Royal Navy would emerge unchecked from the conflict.[23]
The British Army regarded the 1812-15 conflict in Canada and America as a sideshow. Only one regiment, the 41st, was awarded a battle honor (Detroit) from the war. The army was more interested in the lessons of the Peninsular War in Spain. The battle New Orleans could be conveniently attributed to poor leadership or insuperable physical obstacles and British attention was given to the Royal Navy's successful capture of the American flagship which the Americans conveniently overlooked.[24] If generalship had been better, it was believed, then British would have been successfully at New Orleans. Due to the huge, overwhelming success and pre-eminence of the Duke of Wellington in Europe, the British army was to make no change to its systems of recruitment, discipline and awards of commissions for more than half a century.
The British suffered 5,000 killed or wounded soldiers and sailors in the war.
United States[edit]
The gloom in New England, which staunchly opposed the war, culminated in December 1814, as delegates from five states met secretly in the Hartford Convention. It demanded constitutional amendments to protect New England's interests against the West and the South. Secession talk was rife and the region might have threatened to secede from the Union, if their demands had been ignored, but the news of peace ended the movement.
The United States had faced near-disaster in 1814, but the victories at the Battle of New Orleans and the Battle of Baltimore and what seemed to be a successful fight against the United Kingdom increased national patriotism and helped to unite the United States into one nation. Meanwhile, the loss of the American flagship USS President was conveniently overlooked by the public. The best-known patriotic legacy of the war was The Star Spangled Banner. The words are by Francis Scott Key, who after the bombardment of Fort McHenry set them to the music of a British drinking song, "To Anacreon in Heaven." In 1889 the U.S. Navy began using The Star Spangled Banner at flag-raising ceremonies, a practice copied by the Army. In 1931, Congress made it the U.S. National Anthem.[25]
Although all of the original objectives of the war had failed, the American people saw the War of 1812 as evidence of the success of the democratic experiment. The war ushered in a period of American history that has frequently been called "the Era of Good Feelings," a time when, at least on the surface, most Americans felt unified behind a common purpose. The War of 1812 convinced the country that it could fend off any foreign threats and that its focus should be on expansion at home.
With the collapse of the Hartford Convention and news of the triumph at the Battle of New Orleans, Americans had cause for celebration. In February, President James Madison sent Congress the treaty of peace. He congratulated the nation on the close of a war "waged with the success which is the natural result of the wisdom of the legislative councils, of the patriotism of the people, of the public spirit of the militia, and of the velour of the military and naval forces of the country." The spirit of nationalism and pride led to the collapse of the nay-sayer Federalist Party and the new Era of Good Feelings.[26]
One indirect result of the War of 1812 was the later election to the presidency of war heroes Andrew Jackson and of William Henry Harrison. Both of these men won military fame which had much to do with their elections. Another indirect result was the decline of Federalist power.
Impact on U.S. military[edit]
During the war a total of 2,260 American soldiers and sailors were killed. The war cost the United States about $200 million. Neither the United States nor Great Britain gained any military advantage. Indirectly the United States made some gains.[27]
A significant military development was the increased emphasis by General Winfield Scott on professionalism in the U.S. Army officer corps and in particular, the training of officers at the United States Military Academy ("West Point"). This new professionalism would become apparent during the Mexican-American War (1846–1848). After the Texas Annexation by the U.S., the term Manifest Destiny became a widely used political term for those who propagated American expansionism and military pride.[28]
In a related development, the United States officially abandoned its reliance on the militia for its defense. Moreover, Army Corps of Engineers (which at that time controlled West Point), began building fortifications around New Orleans as a response to the British attack on the city during the war. This effort then grew into numerous civil river works, especially in the 1840s and 1850s under General Pierre Beauregard. The Corps remains the authority over Mississippi (and other) river works.
The embarrassing defeat of Fort Madison in what is now Iowa and Fort McKay in Prairie du Chien led to the fortification of the Mississippi, with the expansion of Fort Belle Fontaine near St. Louis, and the construction of Fort Armstrong (1816) and Fort Edwards (1816) in Illinois, Fort Crawford (1816) in Prairie du Chien, and Fort Snelling (1819) in Minnesota. Removal of all Indians from the Mississippi Valley became a top priority for the U.S. government.[29]
Honour[edit]
Historian Norman Risjord has emphasized the central importance of honour as a cause the war.[30] Americans of every political stripe saw the need to uphold national honour, and to reject the treatment of the United States by Britain as a third class nonentity. Americans talked incessantly about the need for force in response.[31] This quest for honour was a major cause of the war in the sense that most Americans who were not involved in mercantile interests or threatened by Indian attack strongly endorsed the preservation of national honour.[32] Chesapeake–Leopard Affair in which the HMS Leopard attacked the USS Chesapeake in June 1807 was a decisive event.[33] Historians have documented the importance of honour in shaping public opinion in a number of states, including Massachusetts,[34] Ohio,[35] Pennsylvania,[36][37] and Tennessee,[38] as well as the territory of Michigan.[39] Americans widely celebrated the conclusion of the war as successful, especially the spectacular defeat of the main British invasion army at New Orleans, while conveniently overlooking the loss of their flagship the very next week. For the next century it was often called "the Second American War for Independence" and it propelled Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison to the White House.[40] Americans felt they had restored their sense of honour.
National honour, the reputation of republican government, and the continuing supremacy of the Republican party had seemed to be at stake.... National honour had [now] been satisfied," says historian Lance Banning, "Americans celebrated the end of the struggle with a brilliant burst of national pride. They felt that they had fought a second war for independence, and had won.[41]
According to Historians such as Andrew Lambert and William James, British honor was challenged because deserters from the Royal Navy were granted citizenship in the United States. This led to the impressment of American citizens into the Royal Navy. In 1811, the Little Belt Affair would anger the Admiraly and embarrass the United States. This would lead to the British having a particular interest in capturing the United States flagship USS President. Although the British would effectively disable the vast majority of the United States Navy during the war by having the ships blockaded, the single ship actions that the American's won embarrassed the Admiralty. Specific attention was given to these battles as the American's claimed there were between ships of equal force.[42]
The British effectively restored their honor by capturing the sloop of war USS Frolic and more importantly the flagship USS President . Both ships were taken to Britain for all to see that the American ships of the so-called engagements of equal force were much larger than the British ships they had fought in single ship duels. Furthermore, the United States failed at abolishing impressment when the treaty was signed, but the British did not continue the practice as the Napoleonic Wars had ended so they no longer needed as many sailors. In doing so British honor was restored, only for the entire conflict to be overshadowed by the defeat of Napoleon.[43]
Economic impact[edit]
Although during the War of 1812 the United States' economy was severely damaged by the British blockade, the aftermath gave a dramatic boost to the manufacturing capabilities of the United States. The British blockade of the American coast created a shortage of cotton cloth in the United States, leading to the creation of a cotton-manufacturing industry, beginning at Waltham, Massachusetts by Francis Cabot Lowell. The war also spurred on construction of the Erie Canal project, which was built to promote commercial links yet was also perceived as having military uses should the need ever arise.[44] As the charter of the First Bank of the United States had been allowed to expire in 1811, the federal government was ill-prepared to finance the war and resorted to such expediencies as the suspension of specie payment and the issuance of Treasury Notes. These actions set a precedent for future Federal responses to financial crises. Also, this exposure of the nation's financial weaknesses explained in part the Congressional decision to charter the Second Bank of the United States in 1816. The readiness of Southern leaders especially John C. Calhoun to support such a measure also indicates a high degree of national feeling.[45] Perhaps the clearest sign of a new sense of national unity was the victorious Democratic-Republican Party, its long-time foes, the Federalists, vanishing from national politics. The result was an Era of Good Feelings with the lowest level of partisanship ever seen.[46]
Canadians, however, contrasted their post-war economic stagnation to the booming American economy, which Desmond Morton believes led to the Rebellions of 1837.[47] During the war, Bermudian privateers, with their fast Bermuda sloops, were to capture 298 ships (the total captures by all British naval or privateering vessels between the Great Lakes and the West Indies was 1,593 vessels).[48]
See also[edit]
Chronology of the War of 1812
Origins of the War of 1812
War of 1812
Treaty of Ghent
Anglo-American Convention of 1818
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Taylor, Alan (2010). The Civil War of 1812. Random House. pp. 137–139. ISBN 978-0-679-77673-4.
Jump up ^ Bradford Perkins, ed. The Causes of the War of 1812: National Honor or National Interest? (1962)
Jump up ^ Hickey p. 300; Barry Schwartz, "The Social Context of Commemoration: A Study in Collective Memory." Social Forces 61#2 (1982), p. 312 in JSTOR.
Jump up ^ Benn (2002), p. 81.
Jump up ^ Dwight L. Smith"A North American Neutral Indian Zone: Persistence of a British Idea." Northwest Ohio Quarterly 61#2-4 (1989): 46-63.
Jump up ^ Francis M. Carroll (2001). A Good and Wise Measure: The Search for the Canadian-American Boundary, 1783-1842. U. of Toronto Press. p. 24.
Jump up ^ Robert V. Remini, Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union (1992), pp. 94-122.
Jump up ^ Pratt (1955), pp. 135-7.
Jump up ^ Bertram Wyatt-Brown, "Andrew Jackson's Honor," Journal of the Early Republic, Vol. 17, No. 1 (Spring, 1997), pp. 1-36 in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Watts (1989)
Jump up ^ Walter R. Borneman, 1812: The War That Forged a Nation (2005), p. 269.
Jump up ^ Robert Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars (2002), pp. 277-82.
Jump up ^ Colin G. Calloway, Crown and Calumet: British-Indian Relations, 1783-1815 (1987)
Jump up ^ Alan Taylor, The Civil War of 1812 (2010), p. 443.
Jump up ^ Taylor, Alan (2010). The Civil War of 1812. Random House. pp. 137–139. ISBN 978-0-679-77673-4.
Jump up ^ J. L. Granatstein, Canada's army: waging war and keeping the peace (2004), p. 4.
Jump up ^ http://www.warof1812.ca/lacolle1812.htm
Jump up ^ http://www.warof1812.ca/chatgy.htm
Jump up ^ Robert Henderson "The myth of the 'Militia Myth' Dorchester Review (Volume 3 No. 1 Spring/Summer 2013)
Jump up ^ J. L. Granatstein, Canada's army: waging war and keeping the peace (2004), p. 15.
Jump up ^ Jeremy Black, The War of 1812 in the Age of Napoleon (2009), pp. 221-32.
Jump up ^ Lambert, Andrew: The Challege: Britain against America in The War of 1812, Kindle edition
Jump up ^ Lambert, Andrew: The Challege: Britain against America in The War of 1812, Kindle edition
Jump up ^ Lambert, Andrew: The Challege: Britain against America in The War of 1812, Kindle edition
Jump up ^ Benn, p. 84.
Jump up ^ George Dangerfield, The Era of Good Feelings (1952), ch 1.
Jump up ^ War of 1812. (2006). Compton's by Britannica. Retrieved April 1, 2006, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. (The Curious End of the War)
Jump up ^ Weigley (1973)
Jump up ^ Prucha, Francis P. (1969) The Sword of the Republic: The United States Army on the Frontier 1783–1846. Macmillan, New York
Jump up ^ Norman K. Risjord, "1812: Conservatives, War Hawks and the Nation's Honor." William and Mary Quarterly: A Magazine of Early American History (1961): 196-210. in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Robert L. Ivie, "The metaphor of force in prowar discourse: The case of 1812." Quarterly Journal of Speech 68#3 (1982), pp. 240-253.
Jump up ^ Bradford Perkins, The causes of the War of 1812: National honor or national interest? (1962).
Jump up ^ Spencer Tucker, Injured Honor: The Chesapeake-Leopard Affair, June 22, 1807 (Naval Institute Press, 1996)
Jump up ^ William Barlow and David O. Powell. "Congressman Ezekiel Bacon of Massachusetts and the Coming of the War of 1812." Historical Journal of Massachusetts 6#2 (1978): 28.
Jump up ^ William R. Barlow, "Ohio’s Congressmen and the War of 1812." Ohio History 72 (1963): 175-94.
Jump up ^ Victor Sapio, Pennsylvania and the War of 1812 (University Press of Kentucky, 2015)
Jump up ^ Martin Kaufman, "War Sentiment in Western Pennsylvania: 1812." Pennsylvania History (1964): 436-448.
Jump up ^ William A. Walker, "Martial Sons: Tennessee Enthusiasm for the War of 1812." Tennessee Historical Quarterly 20.1 (1961): 20+
Jump up ^ William Barlow, "The Coming of the War of 1812 in Michigan Territory." Michigan History 53 (1969): 91-107.
Jump up ^ Andrew Robertson; et al. (2010). Encyclopedia of U.S. Political History. SAGE Publications. p. 372.
Jump up ^ Lance Banning (1980). The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology. Cornell UP. p. 295.
Jump up ^ Lambert, Andrew: The Challege: Britain against America in The War of 1812, Kindle edition
Jump up ^ Lambert, Andrew: The Challege: Britain against America in The War of 1812, Kindle edition
Jump up ^ Stanley Engerman and Robert E. Gallman, eds. The Cambridge economic history of the United States: the colonial era: Volume 1 (2000), p. 372.
Jump up ^ Wiltse (1944)
Jump up ^ George Dangerfield, The Awakening of American Nationalism, 1815-1828 (1966), ch. 1.
Jump up ^ Desmond Morton, A Military History of Canada (2007), p. 71.
Jump up ^ Walter Brownell Hayward, Bermuda past and present (1910), pp. 58-66.
Further reading[edit]
Further information: List of books about the War of 1812
Berton, Pierre; The Invasion of Canada: 1812-1813 (1980). ISBN 0-7710-1244-6; Flames Across the Border: 1813-1814 (1981); reissued as Pierre Berton's War of 1812 (Toronto: Anchor Canada, 2011); popular Canadian narrative; 928pp
Bickham, Troy, The Weight of Vengeance: The United States, The British Empire, and the War of 1812 (Oxford University Press, 2012) ISBN 978-0195391787
Black, Jeremy. The War of 1812 in the Age of Napoleon (2009) by English military historian
Borneman, Walter R. 1812: The War That Forged a Nation (2004), popular American version
Burt, A. L. The United States, Great Britain and British North America from the Revolution to the Establishment of Peace after the War of 1812. (1940) online edition
Heidler, Donald & Jeanne T. Heidler (eds) Encyclopedia of the War of 1812 (2nd ed 2004) 636pp; most comprehensive guide; 500 entries by 70 scholars from several countries
Hickey, Donald R. Don't Give Up the Ship! Myths of the War of 1812. (2006) ISBN 0-252-03179-2
Hickey, Donald R. The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict. ISBN 0-252-06059-8 (1990), standard scholarly history.
Hickey, Donald R. 187 Things You Should Know about the War of 1812 (Baltimore: Maryland Historical Society, 2012), 170 pp.
Hitsman, J. M. The Incredible War of 1812 (1965), survey by Canadian scholar
Jensen, Richard. "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812," The Journal of Military History 76#4 (October 2012): 523-556; online version; the debate here on Wikipedia
Langguth, A. J. Union 1812: The Americans Who Fought the Second War of Independence (2006) 495pp, popular history
Latimer, Jon, 1812: War with America (Harvard, 2007). A British naval perspective.
Perkins, Bradford. Castelereagh and Adams: England and the United States, 1812-1823. (1964), the standard scholarly diplomatic history
Remini, Robert Vincent, Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union (1991), pp. 94–122.
Stagg, J.C.A. The War of 1812: Conflict for a Continent (Cambridge Essential Histories, 2012) brief overview by New Zealand scholar
Taylor, Alan. The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, & Indian Allies (2010) by Pulitzer Prize winner
Tucker, Spencer C., ed. The Encyclopedia of the War of 1812 (3 vol: ABC-CLIO, 2012), 1034pp.
Zuehlke, Mark. For Honour's Sake: The War of 1812 and the Brokering of an Uneasy Peace. (2007) by Canadian military historian.
Memory of the war[edit]
Austen, Ian. “Canada Puts Spotlight on War of 1812, With USA as Villain.” New York Times 7 October 2012. online
Coates, Colin M., and Cecilia Morgan. Heroines and History: Representations of Madeleine de Verchères and Laura Secord (U of Toronto Press, 2002).
Eamon, Michael. "The War Against Public Forgetfulness: Commemorating 1812 in Canada" London Journal of Canadian Studies (2014) 29#1 pp. 134–185 online
Forest, Timothy S. "Epic Triumph, Epic Embarrassment or Both? Commemorations of the War of 1812 Today in Niagara Region," Ontario History 104#1 (2012), pp. 96+.
Hammack Jr., James W. (1976). Kentucky and the Second American Revolution: The War of 1812. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 107–112.
Knowles, Norman. Inventing the Loyalists: the Ontario Loyalist Tradition and the Creation of Usable Pasts (U of Toronto Press, 1997)
MacDonald, Heather. "Heroes and Identity: Two-Hundred Years in the Making," The Great Lakes Journal of Undergraduate History (2013) 1#1 Article 6 online
Morgan, Cecilia. ""Remembering 1812 in the 1840s: John Richardson and the Writing of the War", London Journal of Canadian Studies (2014) 29#1 pp. 39–69 online
Robertson, James Tyler. "For God, King, and Country: Nineteenth-Century Methodist Interpretations of the War of 1812" London Journal of Canadian Studies (2014) 29#1 pp. 1–38; Canadian Methodists online
Sheppard, George. Plunder, Profit, and Paroles: A Social History of the War of 1812 in Upper Canada (McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1994)
Tiro, Karim M. "Now You See It, Now You Don’t: The War of 1812 in Canada and the United States in 2012." Public Historian 35#1 (2013): 87-97. in JSTOR
Wasson, Jeffrey. "Inventing a Foundation Myth: Upper Canada in the War of 1812" (Clark University, 2014) online
External links[edit]
A Question of Identity: War of 1812, a 1966 National Film Board of Canada documentary on the war's role in fostering a sense of Canadian identity
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