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Marketing management
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Marketing management is the process of developing strategies and planning for product or services, advertising, promotions, sales to reach desired customer segment.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Brand audit
1.2 Marketing strategy
1.3 Implementation planning
1.4 Project, process, and vendor management
1.5 Reporting, measurement, feedback and control systems
1.6 International marketing management
2 See also
3 References
4 Further reading
5 External links
Structure[edit]
Marketing management employs tools from economics and competitive strategy to analyze the industry context in which the firm operates. These include Porter's five forces, analysis of strategic groups of competitors, value chain analysis and others.[1]
In competitor analysis, marketers build detailed profiles of each competitor in the market, focusing on their relative competitive strengths and weaknesses using SWOT analysis. Marketing managers will examine each competitor's cost structure, sources of profits, resources and competencies, competitive positioning and product differentiation, degree of vertical integration, historical responses to industry developments, and other factors.
Marketing management often conduct market research and marketing research to perform marketing analysis. Marketers employ a variety of techniques to conduct market research, but some of the more common include:
Qualitative marketing research, such as focus groups and various types of interviews
Quantitative marketing research, such as statistical surveys
Experimental techniques such as test markets
Observational techniques such as ethnographic (on-site) observation
Marketing managers may also design and oversee various environmental scanning and competitive intelligence processes to help identify trends and inform the company's marketing analysis.
Brand audit[edit]
A brand audit is a thorough examination of a brand's current position in an industry compared to its competitors and the examination of its effectiveness. When it comes to brand auditing, six questions should be carefully examined and assessed:
how well the business’ current brand strategy is working,
what the company's established resource strengths and weaknesses are,
what its external opportunities and threats are,
how competitive the business’ prices and costs are,
how strong the business’ competitive position in comparison to its competitors is, and
what strategic issues are facing the business.
When a business is conducting a brand audit, the goal is to uncover business’ resource strengths, deficiencies, best market opportunities, outside threats, future profitability, and its competitive standing in comparison to existing competitors. A brand audit establishes the strategic elements needed to improve brand position and competitive capabilities within the industry. Once a brand is audited, any business that ends up with a strong financial performance and market position is more likely than not to have a properly conceived and effectively executed brand strategy.
A brand audit examines whether a business’ share of the market is increasing, decreasing, or stable. It determines if the company’s margin of profit is improving, decreasing, and how much it is in comparison to the profit margin of established competitors. Additionally, a brand audit investigates trends in a business’ net profits, the return on existing investments, and its established economic value. It determines whether or not the business’ entire financial strength and credit rating is improving or getting worse. This kind of audit also assesses a business’ image and reputation with its customers. Furthermore, a brand audit seeks to determine whether or not a business is perceived as an industry leader in technology, offering product or service innovations, along with exceptional customer service, among other relevant issues that customers use to decide on a brand of preference.
A brand audit usually focuses on a business’ strengths and resource capabilities because these are the elements that enhance its competitiveness. A business’ competitive strengths can exist in several forms. Some of these forms include skilled or pertinent expertise, valuable physical assets, valuable human assets, valuable organizational assets, valuable intangible assets, competitive capabilities, achievements and attributes that position the business into a competitive advantage, and alliances or cooperative ventures.
The basic concept of a brand audit is to determine whether a business’ resource strengths are competitive assets or competitive liabilities. This type of audit seeks to ensure that a business maintains a distinctive competence that allows it to build and reinforce its competitive advantage. What’s more, a successful brand audit seeks to establish what a business capitalizes on best, its level of expertise, resource strengths, and strongest competitive capabilities, while aiming to identify a business’ position and future performance.
Marketing strategy[edit]
Main article: Marketing strategy
Two customer segments are often selected as targets because they score highly on two dimensions:
The segment is attractive to serve because it is large, growing, makes frequent purchases, is not price sensitive (i.e. is willing to pay high prices), or other factors; and
The company has the resources and capabilities to compete for the segment's business, can meet their needs better than the competition, and can do so profitably.[2]
A commonly cited definition of marketing is simply "meeting needs profitably".[3]
The implication of selecting target segments is that the business will subsequently allocate more resources to acquire and retain customers in the target segment(s) than it will for other, non-targeted customers. In some cases, the firm may go so far as to turn away customers who are not in its target segment.The doorman at a swanky nightclub, for example, may deny entry to unfashionably dressed individuals because the business has made a strategic decision to target the "high fashion" segment of nightclub patrons.
In conjunction with targeting decisions, marketing managers will identify the desired positioning they want the company, product, or brand to occupy in the target customer's mind. This positioning is often an encapsulation of a key benefit the company's product or service offers that is differentiated and superior to the benefits offered by competitive products.[4] For example, Volvo has traditionally positioned its products in the automobile market in North America in order to be perceived as the leader in "safety", whereas BMW has traditionally positioned its brand to be perceived as the leader in "performance".
Ideally, a firm's positioning can be maintained over a long period of time because the company possesses, or can develop, some form of sustainable competitive advantage.[5] The positioning should also be sufficiently relevant to the target segment such that it will drive the purchasing behavior of target customers.[4] To sum up,the marketing branch of a company is to deal with the selling and popularity of its products among people and its customers,as the central and eventual goal of a company is customer satisfaction and the return of revenue.
Implementation planning[edit]
Main article: Marketing plan
The Marketing Metrics Continuum provides a framework for how to categorize metrics from the tactical to strategic.
If the company has obtained an adequate understanding of the customer base and its own competitive position in the industry, marketing managers are able to make their own key strategic decisions and develop a marketing strategy designed to maximize the revenues and profits of the firm. The selected strategy may aim for any of a variety of specific objectives, including optimizing short-term unit margins, revenue growth, market share, long-term profitability, or other goals.
After the firm's strategic objectives have been identified, the target market selected, and the desired positioning for the company, product or brand has been determined, marketing managers focus on how to best implement the chosen strategy. Traditionally, this has involved implementation planning across the "4 Ps" of : product management, pricing (at what price slot does a producer position a product, e.g. low, medium or high price), place (the place or area where the products are going to be sold, which could be local, regional, countrywide or international) (i.e. sales and distribution channels), and Promotion.
Taken together, the company's implementation choices across the 4 Ps are often described as the marketing mix, meaning the mix of elements the business will employ to "go to market" and execute the marketing strategy. The overall goal for the marketing mix is to consistently deliver a compelling value proposition that reinforces the firm's chosen positioning, builds customer loyalty and brand equity among target customers, and achieves the firm's marketing and financial objectives.
In many cases, marketing management will develop a marketing plan to specify how the company will execute the chosen strategy and achieve the business' objectives. The content of marketing plans varies from firm to firm, but commonly includes:
An executive summary
Situation analysis to summarize facts and insights gained from market research and marketing analysis
The company's mission statement or long-term strategic vision
A statement of the company's key objectives, often subdivided into marketing objectives and financial objectives
The marketing strategy the business has chosen, specifying the target segments to be pursued and the competitive positioning to be achieved
Implementation choices for each element of the marketing mix (the 4 Ps)
Project, process, and vendor management[edit]
More broadly, marketing managers work to design and improve the effectiveness of core marketing processes, such as new product development, brand management, marketing communications, and pricing. Marketers may employ the tools of business process reengineering to ensure these processes are properly designed, and use a variety of process management techniques to keep them operating smoothly.
Effective execution may require management of both internal resources and a variety of external vendors and service providers, such as the firm's advertising agency. Marketers may therefore coordinate with the company's Purchasing department on the procurement of these services. Under the area of marketing agency management (i.e. working with external marketing agencies and suppliers) are techniques such as agency performance evaluation, scope of work, incentive compensation, RFx's and storage of agency information in a supplier database.
Reporting, measurement, feedback and control systems[edit]
Marketing management employs a variety of metrics to measure progress against objectives. It is the responsibility of marketing managers to ensure that the execution of marketing programs achieves the desired objectives and does so in a cost-efficient manner.
Marketing management therefore often makes use of various organizational control systems, such as sales forecasts, and sales force and reseller incentive programs, sales force management systems, and customer relationship management tools (CRM). Some software vendors have begun using the term marketing operations management or marketing resource management to describe systems that facilitate an integrated approach for controlling marketing resources. In some cases, these efforts may be linked to various supply chain management systems, such as enterprise resource planning (ERP), material requirements planning (MRP), efficient consumer response (ECR), and inventory management systems.
International marketing management[edit]
Globalization has led some firms to market beyond the borders of their home countries, making international marketing a part of those firms' marketing strategy.[6] Marketing managers are often responsible for influencing the level, timing, and composition of customer demand. In part, this is because the role of a marketing manager (or sometimes called managing marketer in small- and medium-sized enterprises) can vary significantly based on a business's size, corporate culture, and industry context. For example, in a small- and medium-sized enterprises, the managing marketer may contribute in both managerial and marketing operations roles for the company brands. In a large consumer products company, the marketing manager may act as the overall general manager of his or her assigned product.[7] To create an effective, cost-efficient marketing management strategy, firms must possess a detailed, objective understanding of their own business and the market in which they operate.[2] In analyzing these issues, the discipline of marketing management often overlaps with the related discipline of strategic planning.
See also[edit]
Enterprise marketing management
Marketing effectiveness
Marketing performance measurement and management
Marketing resource management
Predictive analytics
Strategic management
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Porter, Michael (1998). Competitive Strategy (revised ed.). The Free Press. ISBN 0-684-84148-7.
^ Jump up to: a b Clancy, Kevin J.; Peter C. Kriegafsd (2000). Counter intuitive Marketing. The Free Press. ISBN 0-684-85555-0.
Jump up ^ Kotler, Philip.; Kevin Lane Keller (2006). Marketing Management, 12th ed. Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-145757-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Ries, Al; Jack Trout (2000). Positioning: The Battle for Your Mind (20th anniversary ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-135916-8.
Jump up ^ Porter, Michael (1998). Competitive Advantage (revised ed.). The Free Press. ISBN 0-684-84146-0.
Jump up ^ Joshi, Rakesh Mohan, (2005) International Marketing, Oxford University Press, New Delhi and New York ISBN 0-19-567123-6
Jump up ^ Kotler, P. and Keller, K.L. Marketing Management, 12th ed., Pearson, 2006, ISBN 0-13-145757-8
Further reading[edit]
Lenskold, James D. (2003). The Path to Campaign, Customer, and Corporate Profitability by James D. Lenskold. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0-07-141363-4. Retrieved 2008-11-03.
Patterson, Laura (2008). Marketing Metrics in Action: Creating a Performance-Driven Marketing Organization. Racom Communications. ISBN 978-1-933199-15-3.
Masi, R. J.; Weidner, C. K, AS (1995). Organizational culture, distribution and amount of control, and perceptions of quality. Group & Organization Management. doi:10.1177/1059601195202004. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) 2
External links[edit]
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Marketing management
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Quotations related to Marketing management at Wikiquote
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Pangaea
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Pangaea (disambiguation).
Map of Pangaea with modern continental outlines
Pangaea or Pangea ( /pænˈdʒiːə/[1]) was a supercontinent that existed during the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic eras.[2][3] It assembled from earlier continental units approximately 335 million years ago, and it began to break apart about 175 million years ago.[4] In contrast to the present Earth and its distribution of continental mass, much of Pangaea was in the southern hemisphere and surrounded by a superocean, Panthalassa. Pangaea was the most recent supercontinent to have existed and the first to be reconstructed by geologists.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin of the concept
2 Formation
3 Evidence of existence
4 Rifting and break-up
5 Tectonic plate shift
6 Life
7 Climate change after Pangaea
8 Implications of extinction
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Origin of the concept
Life timeline
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Earliest life
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LHB meteorites
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Earliest oxygen
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Atmospheric oxygen
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Oxygen crisis
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Karoo
Quaternary
Axis scale: millions of years ago.
Orange labels: ice ages.
Also see: Human timeline and Nature timeline
The name "Pangaea/Pangea" is derived from Ancient Greek pan (πᾶν, "all, entire, whole") and Gaia (Γαῖα, "Mother Earth, land").[5][10] The concept that the continents once formed a continuous land mass was first proposed by Alfred Wegener, the originator of the scientific theory of continental drift, in his 1912 publication The Origin of Continents (Die Entstehung der Kontinente).[11] He expanded upon his hypothesis in his 1915 book The Origin of Continents and Oceans (Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane), in which he postulated that, before breaking up and drifting to their present locations, all the continents had formed a single supercontinent that he called the "Urkontinent".
The name "Pangea" occurs in the 1920 edition of Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane, but only once, when Wegener refers to the ancient supercontinent as "the Pangaea of the Carboniferous".[12] Wegener used the Germanized form "Pangäa", but the name entered German and English scientific literature (in 1922[13] and 1926, respectively) in the Latinized form "Pangaea" (of the Greek "Pangaia"), especially due to a symposium of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists in November 1926.[14]
Formation
Appalachian orogeny
The forming of supercontinents and their breaking up appears to have been cyclical through Earth's history. There may have been many others before Pangaea. The fourth-last supercontinent, called Columbia or Nuna, appears to have assembled in the period 2.0–1.8 Ga.[15][16] Columbia/Nuna broke up and the next supercontinent, Rodinia, formed from the accretion and assembly of its fragments. Rodinia lasted from about 1.1 billion years ago (Ga) until about 750 million years ago, but its exact configuration and geodynamic history are not nearly as well understood as those of the later supercontinents, Pannotia and Pangaea.
When Rodinia broke up, it split into three pieces: the supercontinent of Proto-Laurasia, the supercontinent of Proto-Gondwana, and the smaller Congo craton. Proto-Laurasia and Proto-Gondwana were separated by the Proto-Tethys Ocean. Next Proto-Laurasia itself split apart to form the continents of Laurentia, Siberia and Baltica. Baltica moved to the east of Laurentia, and Siberia moved northeast of Laurentia. The splitting also created two new oceans, the Iapetus Ocean and Paleoasian Ocean. Most of the above masses coalesced again to form the relatively short-lived supercontinent of Pannotia. This supercontinent included large amounts of land near the poles and, near the equator, only a relatively small strip connecting the polar masses. Pannotia lasted until 540 Ma, near the beginning of the Cambrian period and then broke up, giving rise to the continents of Laurentia, Baltica, and the southern supercontinent of Gondwana.
In the Cambrian period, the continent of Laurentia, which would later become North America, sat on the equator, with three bordering oceans: the Panthalassic Ocean to the north and west, the Iapetus Ocean to the south and the Khanty Ocean to the east. In the Earliest Ordovician, around 480 Ma, the microcontinent of Avalonia – a landmass incorporating fragments of what would become eastern Newfoundland, the southern British Isles, and parts of Belgium, northern France, Nova Scotia, New England, South Iberia and northwest Africa – broke free from Gondwana and began its journey to Laurentia.[17] Baltica, Laurentia, and Avalonia all came together by the end of the Ordovician to form a minor supercontinent called Euramerica or Laurussia, closing the Iapetus Ocean. The collision also resulted in the formation of the northern Appalachians. Siberia sat near Euramerica, with the Khanty Ocean between the two continents. While all this was happening, Gondwana drifted slowly towards the South Pole. This was the first step of the formation of Pangaea.[18]
The second step in the formation of Pangaea was the collision of Gondwana with Euramerica. By Silurian time, 440 Ma, Baltica had already collided with Laurentia, forming Euramerica. Avalonia had not yet collided with Laurentia, but as Avalonia inched towards Laurentia, the seaway between them, a remnant of the Iapetus Ocean, was slowly shrinking. Meanwhile, southern Europe broke off from Gondwana and began to move towards Euramerica across the newly formed Rheic Ocean. It collided with southern Baltica in the Devonian, though this microcontinent was an underwater plate. The Iapetus Ocean's sister ocean, the Khanty Ocean, shrank as an island arc from Siberia collided with eastern Baltica (now part of Euramerica). Behind this island arc was a new ocean, the Ural Ocean.
By late Silurian time, North and South China split from Gondwana and started to head northward, shrinking the Proto-Tethys Ocean in their path and opening the new Paleo-Tethys Ocean to their south. In the Devonian Period, Gondwana itself headed towards Euramerica, causing the Rheic Ocean to shrink. In the Early Carboniferous, northwest Africa had touched the southeastern coast of Euramerica, creating the southern portion of the Appalachian Mountains, the Meseta Mountains and the Mauritanide Mountains. South America moved northward to southern Euramerica, while the eastern portion of Gondwana (India, Antarctica and Australia) headed toward the South Pole from the equator. North and South China were on independent continents. The Kazakhstania microcontinent had collided with Siberia. (Siberia had been a separate continent for millions of years since the deformation of the supercontinent Pannotia in the Middle Carboniferous.)
Western Kazakhstania collided with Baltica in the Late Carboniferous, closing the Ural Ocean between them and the western Proto-Tethys in them (Uralian orogeny), causing the formation of not only the Ural Mountains but also the supercontinent of Laurasia. This was the last step of the formation of Pangaea. Meanwhile, South America had collided with southern Laurentia, closing the Rheic Ocean and forming the southernmost part of the Appalachians and Ouachita Mountains. By this time, Gondwana was positioned near the South Pole and glaciers were forming in Antarctica, India, Australia, southern Africa and South America. The North China block collided with Siberia by Late Carboniferous time, completely closing the Proto-Tethys Ocean.
By early Permian time, the Cimmerian plate split from Gondwana and headed towards Laurasia, thus closing the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, but forming a new ocean, the Tethys Ocean, in its southern end. Most of the landmasses were all in one. By the Triassic Period, Pangaea rotated a little and the Cimmerian plate was still travelling across the shrinking Paleo-Tethys, until the Middle Jurassic time. The Paleo-Tethys had closed from west to east, creating the Cimmerian Orogeny. Pangaea, which looked like a C, with the new Tethys Ocean inside the C, had rifted by the Middle Jurassic, and its deformation is explained below.
Evidence of existence
The distribution of fossils across the continents is one line of evidence pointing to the existence of Pangaea.
Fossil evidence for Pangaea includes the presence of similar and identical species on continents that are now great distances apart. For example, fossils of the therapsid Lystrosaurus have been found in South Africa, India and Antarctica, alongside members of the Glossopteris flora, whose distribution would have ranged from the polar circle to the equator if the continents had been in their present position; similarly, the freshwater reptile Mesosaurus has been found in only localized regions of the coasts of Brazil and West Africa.[19]
Additional evidence for Pangaea is found in the geology of adjacent continents, including matching geological trends between the eastern coast of South America and the western coast of Africa. The polar ice cap of the Carboniferous Period covered the southern end of Pangaea. Glacial deposits, specifically till, of the same age and structure are found on many separate continents which would have been together in the continent of Pangaea.[20]
Paleomagnetic study of apparent polar wandering paths also support the theory of a supercontinent. Geologists can determine the movement of continental plates by examining the orientation of magnetic minerals in rocks; when rocks are formed, they take on the magnetic properties of the Earth and indicate in which direction the poles lie relative to the rock. Since the magnetic poles drift about the rotational pole with a period of only a few thousand years, measurements from numerous lavas spanning several thousand years are averaged to give an apparent mean polar position. Samples of sedimentary rock and intrusive igneous rock have magnetic orientations that are typically an average of the "secular variation" in the orientation of magnetic north because their remanent magnetizations are not acquired instantaneously. Magnetic differences between sample groups whose age varies by millions of years is due to a combination of true polar wander and the drifting of continents. The true polar wander component is identical for all samples, and can be removed, leaving geologists with the portion of this motion that shows continental drift and can be used to help reconstruct earlier continental positions.[21]
The continuity of mountain chains provides further evidence for Pangaea. One example of this is the Appalachian Mountains chain which extends from the southeastern United States to the Caledonides of Ireland, Britain, Greenland, and Scandinavia.[22]
Rifting and break-up
Animation of the rifting of Pangaea
There were three major phases in the break-up of Pangaea. The first phase began in the Early-Middle Jurassic (about 175 Ma), when Pangaea began to rift from the Tethys Ocean in the east to the Pacific in the west. The rifting that took place between North America and Africa produced multiple failed rifts. One rift resulted in a new ocean, the North Atlantic Ocean.[22]
The Atlantic Ocean did not open uniformly; rifting began in the north-central Atlantic. The South Atlantic did not open until the Cretaceous when Laurasia started to rotate clockwise and moved northward with North America to the north, and Eurasia to the south. The clockwise motion of Laurasia led much later to the closing of the Tethys Ocean and the widening of the "Sinus Borealis", which later became the Arctic Ocean. Meanwhile, on the other side of Africa and along the adjacent margins of east Africa, Antarctica and Madagascar, new rifts were forming that would lead to the formation of the southwestern Indian Ocean that would open up in the Cretaceous.
The second major phase in the break-up of Pangaea began in the Early Cretaceous (150–140 Ma), when the minor supercontinent of Gondwana separated into multiple continents (Africa, South America, India, Antarctica, and Australia). The subduction at Tethyan Trench probably caused Africa, India and Australia to move northward, causing the opening of a "South Indian Ocean". In the Early Cretaceous, Atlantica, today's South America and Africa, finally separated from eastern Gondwana (Antarctica, India and Australia). Then in the Middle Cretaceous, Gondwana fragmented to open up the South Atlantic Ocean as South America started to move westward away from Africa. The South Atlantic did not develop uniformly; rather, it rifted from south to north.
Also, at the same time, Madagascar and India began to separate from Antarctica and moved northward, opening up the Indian Ocean. Madagascar and India separated from each other 100–90 Ma in the Late Cretaceous. India continued to move northward toward Eurasia at 15 centimeters (6 in) a year (a plate tectonic record), closing the eastern Tethys Ocean, while Madagascar stopped and became locked to the African Plate. New Zealand, New Caledonia and the rest of Zealandia began to separate from Australia, moving eastward toward the Pacific and opening the Coral Sea and Tasman Sea.
The third major and final phase of the break-up of Pangaea occurred in the early Cenozoic (Paleocene to Oligocene). Laurasia split when North America/Greenland (also called Laurentia) broke free from Eurasia, opening the Norwegian Sea about 60–55 Ma. The Atlantic and Indian Oceans continued to expand, closing the Tethys Ocean.
Meanwhile, Australia split from Antarctica and moved quickly northward, just as India had done more than 40 million years before. Australia is currently on a collision course with eastern Asia. Both Australia and India are currently moving northeast at 5–6 centimeters (2–3 in) a year. Antarctica has been near or at the South Pole since the formation of Pangaea about 280 Ma. India started to collide with Asia beginning about 35 Ma, forming the Himalayan orogeny, and also finally closing the Tethys Seaway; this collision continues today. The African Plate started to change directions, from west to northwest toward Europe, and South America began to move in a northward direction, separating it from Antarctica and allowing complete oceanic circulation around Antarctica for the first time. This motion, together with decreasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, caused a rapid cooling of Antarctica and allowed glaciers to form. This glaciation eventually coalesced into the kilometers-thick ice sheets seen today.[23] Other major events took place during the Cenozoic, including the opening of the Gulf of California, the uplift of the Alps, and the opening of the Sea of Japan. The break-up of Pangaea continues today in the Red Sea Rift and East African Rift.
Tectonic plate shift
The breakup of Pangaea over time
Pangaea's formation is now commonly explained in terms of plate tectonics. The involvement of plate tectonics in Pangaea's[24] separation helps to show how it did not separate all at once, but at different times, in sequences. Additionally, after these separations, it has also been discovered that the separated land masses may have also continued to break apart multiple times. The formation of each environment and climate on Pangaea is due to plate tectonics, and thus, it is as a result of these shifts and changes different climatic pressures were placed on the life on Pangaea. Although plate tectonics was paramount in the formation of later land masses, it was also essential in the placement, climate, environments, habitats, and overall structure of Pangaea.[25]
What can also be observed in relation to tectonic plates and Pangaea, is the formations to such plates. Mountains and valleys form due to tectonic collisions as well as earthquakes and chasms. Consequentially, this shaped Pangaea and animal adaptations. Furthermore, plate tectonics can contribute to volcanic activity,[26] which is responsible for extinctions and adaptations which have evidently affected life over time, and without doubt on Pangaea.
Life
Example of an ammonite
For the approximately 160 million years Pangaea existed, many species had fruitful times whereas others struggled. The Traversodontidae[27] is an example of such prospering animals, eating a diet of only plants. Plants dependent on spore reproduction had been taken out of the ecosystems, and replaced by the gymnosperm plant, which reproduces through the use of seeds instead. Later on, insects (beetles, dragonflies, mosquitos) also thrived during the Permian period 299 to 252 million years ago.[28] However, the Permian extinction at 252 Mya greatly impacted these insects in mass extinction, being the only mass extinction to affect insects. When the Triassic Period came, many reptiles were able to also thrive, including Archosaurs, which were an ancestor to modern-day crocodiles and birds.
Little is known about marine life during the existence of Pangaea. Scientists are unable to find substantial evidence or fossilized remains in order to assist them in answering such questions. However, a couple of marine animals have been determined to have existed at the time- the Ammonites and Brachiopods. Additionally, evidence pointing towards massive reefs with varied ecosystems, especially in the species of sponges and coral, have also been discovered.[citation needed]
Climate change after Pangaea
Pangaea has tremendously affected the setup of the world now. In the post Pangaea time period, the reconfiguration of continents and oceans has changed the climate of many areas. There is scientific evidence that proves that climate was drastically altered. When the continents separated and reformed themselves, it changed the flow of the oceanic currents and winds. The scientific reasoning behind all of the changes is Continental Drift. The theory of Continental Drift, created by Alfred Wegener, explained how the continents shifted Earth’s surface and how that affected many aspects such as climate, rock formations found on different continents and plant and animal fossils.[29] Wegener studied plant fossils from the frigid Arctic of Svalbard, Norway. He determined that such plants were not meant to adapt to a glacial climate. The fossils he found were from tropical plants that were meant to adapt and thrive in warmer and tropical climate.[30] Because we would not assume that the plant fossils were capable of traveling to a different place we suspect that Svalbard possibly had a warmer, less frigid climate in the past.[31]
When Pangaea separated, the reorganization of the continents changed the function of the oceans and seaways. The restructuring of the continents, changed and altered the distribution of warmth and coolness of the oceans. When North America and South America connected, it stopped equatorial currents from passing from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean.[32] Researchers have found evidence by using computer hydrological models to show that this strengthened the Gulf Stream by diverting more warm currents towards Europe. Warm waters at high latitudes led to an increased evaporation and eventually atmospheric moisture. Increased evaporation and atmospheric moisture resulted in increased precipitation. Evidence of increased precipitation is the development of snow and ice that covers Greenland, which led to an accumulation of the icecap. Greenland’s growing ice cap led to further global cooling.[32] Scientists also found evidence of global cooling through the separation of Australia and Antarctica and the formation of the Antarctic Ocean. Ocean currents in the newly formed Antarctic or Southern Ocean created a circumpolar current.[32] The creation of the new ocean that caused a circumpolar current eventually led to atmospheric currents that rotated from west to east. Atmospheric and oceanic currents stopped the transfer of warm, tropical air and water to the higher latitudes. As a result of the warm air and currents moving northward, Antarctica cooled down so much that it became frigid.
Although many of Alfred Wegener’s theories and conclusions were valid, scientists are constantly coming up with new innovative ideas or reasoning behind why certain things happen. Wegener’s theory of Continental Drift was later replaced by the theory of tectonic plates.[33]
Implications of extinction
There is evidence to suggest that the deterioration of northern Pangaea contributed to the Permian Extinction, one of Earth’s five major mass extinction events, which resulted in the loss of over 90% of marine and 70% of terrestrial species. There were three main sources of environmental deterioration which are believed to have had a hand in the extinction event.
The first of these sources is a loss of oxygen concentration in the ocean which caused deep water regions called the lysocline to grow shallower. With the lysocline shrinking, there were fewer places for calcite to dissolve in the ocean, considering calcite only dissolves at deep ocean depths. This led to the extinction of carbonate producers such as brachiopods and corals that relied on dissolved calcite to survive. The second source is the eruption of the Siberian Traps, a large volcanic event which is argued to be the result of Pangaean tectonic movement.[34] This had several negative repercussions on the environment, including metal loading and excess atmospheric carbon. Metal loading, the release of toxic metals from volcanic eruptions into the environment, led to acid rain and general stress on the environment. These toxic metals are known to infringe on vascular plants’ ability to photosynthesize, which may have resulted in the loss of Permian-era flora. Excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is believed to be the main cause of the shrinking of lysocline areas.
The third cause of this extinction event that can be attributed to northern Pangaea is the beginnings of anoxic ocean environments, or oceans with very low oxygen concentrations. The mix of anoxic oceans and ocean acidification due to metal loading led to increasingly acidic oceans,[35] which ultimately led to the extinction of Benthos.[36]
See also
Africa portal
Antarctica portal
Asia portal
Australia portal
Europe portal
North America portal
South America portal
History of the Earth
List of supercontinents
Potential future supercontinents: Pangaea Ultima, Novopangaea & Amasia
PANGAEA, a data library for earth system science, operated by the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research (AWI)
Supercontinent cycle
References
Jump up ^ Oxford Dictionaries
Jump up ^ Lovett, Richard A. (September 5, 2008). "Supercontinent Pangaea Pushed, Not Sucked, Into Place". National Geographic News.
Jump up ^ "Pangea". Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2015.
Jump up ^ Rogers, J.J.W.; Santosh, M. (2004), Continents and Supercontinents, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 146, ISBN 0-19-516589-6
Jump up ^ "Pangaea". Online Etymology Dictionary.
Jump up ^ Vergilius Mario, Publius. Georgicon, IV.462
Jump up ^ Lucan. Pharsalia, I.679
Jump up ^ Lewis, C.T. & al. "Pangaeus" in A Latin Dictionary. (New York), 1879.
Jump up ^ Usener, H. Scholia in Lucani Bellum Civile, Vol. I. (Leipzig), 1869.
Jump up ^ As "Pangaea", it appears in Greek mythology as a mountain battle site during the Titanomachia. As "Pangaeus", it was the name of a specific mountain range in southern Thrace. "Pangaea" also appears in Vergil's Georgics[6] and Lucan's Pharsalia[7][8] The scholiast on Lucan glossed Pangaea id est totum terra—"Pangaea: that is, all land"—as having received its name on account of its smooth terrain and unexpected fertility.[9]
Jump up ^ Alfred Wegener: Die Entstehung der Kontinente. Dr. A. Petermann's Mitteilungen aus Justus Perthes' Geographischer Anstalt, 58(1): Gotha 1912
Jump up ^ See:
Wegener, Alfred, Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane, 2nd ed. (Braunschweig, Germany: F. Vieweg, 1920), p. 120: "Schon die Pangäa der Karbonzeit hatte so einen Vorderrand … " [Already the Pangea of the Carboniferous era had such a leading edge … ] (In the 1922 edition, see p. 130.)
Wegener, A.; Krause, R.; Thiede, J. (2005). "Kontinental-Verschiebungen: Originalnotizen und Literaturauszüge"(Continental drift: the original notes and quotations). Berichte zur Polar- und Meeresforschung (Reports on Polar and Marine Research) 516. Alfred-Wegener-Institut: Bremerhaven, p. 4, n. 2
Jump up ^ Jaworski, Erich (1922). "Die A. Wegenersche Hypothese der Kontinentalverschiebung". Geologische Rundschau. 13: 273–296. doi:10.1007/bf01799790.
Jump up ^ Willem A. J. M. van Waterschoot van der Gracht (and 13 other authors): Theory of Continental Drift: a Symposium of the Origin and Movements of Land-masses of both Inter-Continental and Intra-Continental, as proposed by Alfred Wegener. X + 240 S., Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA, The American Association of Petroleum Geologists & London, Thomas Murby & Co.
Jump up ^ Zhao, Guochun; Cawood, Peter A.; Wilde, Simon A.; Sun, M. (2002). "Review of global 2.1–1.8 Ga orogens: implications for a pre-Rodinia supercontinent". Earth-Science Reviews. 59: 125–162. Bibcode:2002ESRv...59..125Z. doi:10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00073-9.
Jump up ^ Zhao, Guochun; Sun, M.; Wilde, Simon A.; Li, S.Z. (2004). "A Paleo-Mesoproterozoic supercontinent: assembly, growth and breakup". Earth-Science Reviews. 67: 91–123. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.02.003.
Jump up ^ Stanley, Steven (1998). Earth System History. USA. pp. 355–359.
Jump up ^ Stanley, Steven (1998). Earth System History. USA. pp. 386–392.
Jump up ^ Benton, M.J. (2005) Vertebrate Palaeontology. Third edition, Oxford, p. 25.
Jump up ^ Murck, Barbara W. and Skinner, Brian J. (1999) Geology Today: Understanding Our Planet, Study Guide, Wiley, ISBN 978-0-471-32323-5
Jump up ^ Kearey, Philip; Klepeis, Keith A. and Vine, Frederick J. (2009). Global Tectonics (3rd. ed), pp. 66–67. Chichester:Wiley. ISBN 978-1-4051-0777-8
^ Jump up to: a b Merali, Zeeya and Skinner, Brian J. (2009) Visualizing Earth Science, Wiley, ISBN 047174705X
Jump up ^ Deconto, Robert M.; Pollard, David (2003). "Rapid Cenozoic glaciation of Antarctica induced by declining atmospheric CO2". Nature. 421 (6920): 245–9. doi:10.1038/nature01290. PMID 12529638.
Jump up ^ "Pangea | supercontinent". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2015-10-29.
Jump up ^ "Facts About Pangaea, Ancient Supercontinent". LiveScience.com. Retrieved 2015-10-29.
Jump up ^ "Pangaea to the Present Lesson #2 | Volcano World | Oregon State University". volcano.oregonstate.edu. Retrieved 2015-10-29.
Jump up ^ Ranivoharimanana, Lovasoa; Kammerer, Christian F.; Flynn, John J.; Wyss, André R. (2011). "New material of Dadadon isaloi (Cynodontia, Traversodontidae) from the Triassic of Madagascar". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 31 (6): 1292–1302. doi:10.1080/02724634.2011.618154.
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Jump up ^ "Alfred Wegener". www.ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2015-10-29.
Jump up ^ Tabor, Neil J.; Poulsen, Christopher J. (2008). "Palaeoclimate across the Late Pennsylvanian–Early Permian tropical palaeolatitudes: A review of climate indicators, their distribution, and relation to palaeophysiographic climate factors". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 268 (3–4): 293–310. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.03.052.
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^ Jump up to: a b c "Sea Level Change". cgge.aag.org. Retrieved 2015-10-29.
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Jump up ^ Ivanov, A. V. (2007). "Evaluation of different models for the origin of the Siberian traps". GSA Special Papers. 430: 669–691. doi:10.1130/2007.2430(31). ISBN 978-0-8137-2430-0.
Jump up ^ Beauchamp, Benoit; Grasby, Stephen E. (2012). "Permian lysocline shoaling and ocean acidification along NW Pangea led to carbonate eradication and chert expansion". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 350–352: 73–90. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.06.014.
Jump up ^ Grasby, Stephen E.; Beauchamp, Benoit; Bond, David P.G.; Wignall, Paul; Talavera, Cristina; Galloway, Jennifer M.; Piepjohn, Karsten; Reinhardt, Lutz; Blomeier, Dierk (2015). "Progressive environmental deterioration in northwestern Pangea leading to the latest Permian extinction". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 127 (9–10): 1331–1347. doi:10.1130/B31197.1.
External links
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Gaia (mythology)

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Congo craton

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Panthalassic Ocean

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North China (continent)

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Meseta Mountains

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mw-redirect
Cimmerian plate

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Intrusive igneous rock

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Magnetic north

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South Atlantic

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Zealandia (continent)

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Eastern Asia

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Himalayan orogeny

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Permian Extinction

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Portal:South America

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http://www.britannica.com/place/Pangea

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external text
//doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf01799790

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PubMed Identifier

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Kalahari craton

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North China craton

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East Antarctic craton

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https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangea
Pangea – Afrikaans
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Panxea – Asturian
ast
ast
interlanguage-link-target

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https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangeya
Pangeya – Azerbaijani
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az
interlanguage-link-target

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https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangea
Pangea – Bosnian
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bs
interlanguage-link-target

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Pangea – Breton
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br
interlanguage-link-target

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Pangea – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

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https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangaea
Pangaea – Cebuano
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ceb
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Pangea – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

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Pangaea – Welsh
cy
cy
interlanguage-link-target

value:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangaea
Pangaea – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

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https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangaea
Pangaea – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

value: Παγγαία – Greek

value:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangea
Pangea – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

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Pangeo – Esperanto
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eo
interlanguage-link-target

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Pangea – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

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Pangaea – Irish
ga
ga
interlanguage-link-target

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Pangaea – Scottish Gaelic
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gd
interlanguage-link-target

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Panxea – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

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https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangea
Pangea – Croatian
hr
hr
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Pangea – Indonesian
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Pangea – Icelandic
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is
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Pangea – Italian
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it
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Pangea – Javanese
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jv
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Pangaia – Swahili
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sw
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Panje – Haitian Creole
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Pangaea – Latin
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la
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Pangeja – Latvian
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lv
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Pangea – Hungarian
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Pangea – Maltese
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Pangea – Malay
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Pangea – Dutch
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Pangeea – Northern Frisian
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Pangea – Norwegian
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Pangea – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
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Pangea – Piedmontese
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Pangea – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

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Pangeia – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

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Pangeea – Romanian
ro
ro
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Pangaea – Scots
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sco
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Pangea – Sicilian
scn
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Pangea – Slovak
sk
sk
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Pangea – Slovenian
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sl
interlanguage-link-target

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Pangea – Somali
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so
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Pangea – Serbo-Croatian
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sh
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Pangea – Finnish
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fi
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Pangaea – Swedish
sv
sv
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Pangaea – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

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Pangea – Turkish
tr
tr
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Pangaea – Vietnamese
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Pangaea – Waray
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