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Repatriation (cultural heritage)
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Triumphal procession into Paris of art looted by Napoleon from Italy in 1797. The Horses of Saint Mark in the centre, themselves taken from Constantinople in 1204, were returned to Italy in 1815.
Repatriation is the return of art or cultural heritage, usually referring to ancient or looted art, to their country of origin or former owners (or their heirs). The disputed cultural property items are physical artifacts of a group or society that were taken from another group usually in an act of looting, whether in the context of imperialism, colonialism or war. The contested objects range widely from sculptures and paintings to monuments and human remains.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
1.1 War and looting
1.1.1 Ancient world
1.1.2 Modern era
1.2 Modern imperialism and looting
1.3 Demands for restitution
2 Legal issues
2.1 National government laws
2.2 International conventions
2.3 UNESCO
3 Political issues
3.1 Colonialism and identity
3.2 Nationalism and identity
4 Controversy
4.1 Arguments against repatriation
4.2 Arguments for repatriation
5 International examples
5.1 Egypt
5.2 Greece
5.3 Italy
5.4 Canada
5.5 India
5.6 South Korea
5.7 United States
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Background[edit]
War and looting[edit]
Ancient world[edit]
Victory Stele of Naram Sin, Akkadian Dynasty, reign of Naram-Sin (2254-2218 BC). Musée du Louvre, Paris.
War and the subsequent looting of defeated peoples has been common practice since ancient times. The stele of King Naram-Sin of Akkad, which is now displayed in the Louvre Museum in Paris, is one of the earliest works of art known to have been looted in war. The stele commemorating Naram-Sin's victory in a battle against the Lullubi people in 2250 BCE was taken as war plunder about a thousand years later by the Elamites who relocated it to their capital in Susa, Iran. There, it was uncovered in 1898 by French archaeologists.[1]
The Palladion was the earliest and perhaps the most important stolen statue in western literature.[2] The small carved wooden statue of an armed Athena served as Troy's protective talisman, which is said to have been stolen by two Greeks who secretly smuggled the statue out of the Temple of Athena. It was widely believed in antiquity that the conquest of Troy was only possible because the city had lost its protective talisman. This myth illustrates the sacramental significance of statuary in Ancient Greece as divine manifestations of the gods that symbolized power and were often believed to possess supernatural abilities. The sacred nature of the statues is further illustrated in the supposed suffering of the victorious Greeks afterward, including Odysseus, who was the mastermind behind the robbery.[2]
According to Roman myth, Rome was founded by Romulus, the first victor to dedicate spoils taken from an enemy ruler to the Temple of Jupiter Feretrius. In Rome's many subsequent wars, blood-stained armor and weaponry were gathered and placed in temples as a symbol of respect toward the enemies' deities and as a way to win their patronage.[3] As Roman power spread throughout Italy where Greek cities once reigned, Greek art was looted and ostentatiously displayed in Rome as a triumphal symbol of foreign territories brought under Roman rule.[3] However, the triumphal procession of Marcus Claudius Marcellus after the fall of Syracuse in 211 is believed to have set a standard of reverence to conquered sanctuaries as it engendered disapproval by critics and a negative social reaction.[4]
According to Pliny the Elder, the Emperor Augustus was sufficiently embarrassed by the history of Roman plunder of Greek art to return some pieces to their original homes.[5]
Modern era[edit]
One of the most infamous cases of esurient art plundering in wartime was the Nazi appropriation of art from both public and private holdings throughout Europe and Russia. The looting began before World War II with illegal seizures as part of a systematic persecution of Jews, which was included as a part of Nazi crimes during the Nuremberg Trials.[6] During World War II, Germany plundered 427 museums in the Soviet Union and ravaged or destroyed 1,670 Russian Orthodox churches, 237 Catholic churches and 532 synagogues.[7]
A well-known recent case of wartime looting was the plundering of ancient artifacts from the National Museum of Iraq in Baghdad at the outbreak of the war in 2003. Although this was not a case in which the victors plundered art from their defeated enemy, it was result of the unstable and chaotic conditions of war that allowed looting to happen and which some would argue was the fault of the invading US forces.
Archaeologists and scholars criticized the US military for not taking the measures to secure the museum, a repository for a myriad of valuable ancient artifacts from the ancient Mesopotamian civilization.[8] In the several months leading up to the war, scholars, art directors, and collector met with the Pentagon to ensure that the US government would protect Iraq's important archaeological heritage, with the National Museum in Baghdad being at the top of the list of concerns.[9] Between April 8, when the museum was vacated and April 12, when some of the staff returned, an estimated 15,000 items and an additional 5,000 cylinder seals were stolen.[10] Moreover, the National Library was plundered of thousands of cuneiform tablets and the building was set on fire with half a million books inside; fortunately, many of the manuscripts and books were preserved.[9] A US task force was able to retrieve about half of the stolen artifacts by organizing and dispatching an inventory of missing objects and by declaring that there would be no punishment for anyone returning an item.[10] In addition to the vulnerability of art and historical institutions during the Iraq war, Iraq's rich archaeological sites and areas of excavated land (Iraq is presumed to possess vast undiscovered treasures) have fallen victim to widespread looting.[11] Hordes of looters disinterred enormous craters around Iraq's archaeological sites, sometimes using bulldozers.[12] It is estimated that between 10,000 and 15,000 archaeological sites in Iraq have been despoiled.[11]
Modern imperialism and looting[edit]
Paris Louvre ca. 1845
The scale of plundering that took place under Napoleon's French Empire was unprecedented in modern history with the only comparable looting expeditions taking place in ancient Roman history.[13] In fact, the French revolutionaries justified the large-scale and systematic looting of Italy in 1796 by viewing themselves as the political successors of Rome, in the same way that ancient Romans saw themselves as the heirs of Greek civilization.[14] They also supported their actions with the opinion that their sophisticated artistic taste would allow them to appreciate the plundered art.[15] Napoleon's soldiers crudely dismantled the art by tearing paintings out of their frames hung in churches and sometimes causing damage during the shipping process. Napoleon's soldiers appropriated private collections and even the papal collection.[16] Of the most famous artworks plundered included the Bronze Horses of Saint Mark in Venice and the Laocoön and His Sons in Rome (both since returned), with the later being considered the most impressive sculpture from antiquity at the time.
Laocoön group, ca. 40-20 BCE. Museo Pio Clementino, Vatican
The Laocoön had a particular meaning for the French because it was associated with a myth in connection to the founding of Rome.[17] When the art was brought into Paris, the pieces arrived in the fashion of a triumphal procession modeled after the common practice of ancient Romans.[16]
Napoleon's extensive plunder of Italy was criticized by such French artists as Antoine-Chrysostôme Quatremère de Quincy (1755–1849), who circulated a petition that gathered the signatures of fifty other artists.[18] With the founding of the Louvre Museum in Paris in 1793, Napoleon's aim was to establish an encyclopedic exhibition of art history, which later both Joseph Stalin and Adolf Hitler would attempt to emulate in their respective countries.[14]
L Expedition D Egypte Sous Les Ordres De Bonaparte by Leon Cogniet, ca. 1835. Musée du Louvre, Paris. Depicts Napoleon and his savants studying Egypt.
Napoleon continued his art conquests in 1798 when he invaded Egypt in an attempt to safeguard French trade interests and to undermine Britain's access to India via Egypt. His expedition in Egypt is noted for the 167 "savants" he took with him including scientists and other specialists equipped with tools for recording, surveying and documenting ancient and modern Egypt and its natural history.[19] Among other things, the expedition discoveries included the Rosetta Stone and the Valley of the Kings near Thebes. The French military campaign was short-lived and unsuccessful and the majority of the collected artifacts (including the Rosetta Stone) were seized by British troops, ending up in the British Museum. Nonetheless, the information gathered by the French expedition was soon after published in the several volumes of Description de l'Égypte, which included 837 copperplate engravings and over 3,000 drawings. In contrast to the disapproving public reaction to the looting of Italian works of art, the appropriation of Egyptian art saw widespread interest and fascination throughout Europe, inciting a phenomenon which came to be called "Egyptomania".[20]
Demands for restitution[edit]
A precedent for art repatriation was set in Roman antiquity when Cicero prosecuted Verres, a senate member and illegal appropriator of art. Cicero's speech influenced Enlightenment European thought and had an indirect impact on the modern debate about art repatriation.[21] Cicero's argument uses military episodes of plunder as "case law" and expresses certain standards when it comes to appropriating cultural property of another people.[22] Cicero makes a distinction between public and private uses of art and what is appropriate for each and he also asserts that the primary purpose of art is religious expression and veneration. He also sets standards for the responsibilities of imperial administration abroad to the code of ethics surrounding the collection of art from defeated Greece and Rome in wartime. Later, both Napoleon and Lord Elgin would be likened to Verres in condemnations of their plundering of art.[23]
The Allied victory in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo marked the end of the Napoleonic Era.
Art was repatriated for the first time in modern history when Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington overturned art plundered by Napoleon to Italy after he and Marshal Bluchers armies defeated the French at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.[20] This decision contrasted sharply to a long-held tradition to the effect that "to the victors go the spoils."[20] This is remarkable considering that in the battle of Waterloo alone, the financial and human costs were colossal; the decision to not only refrain from plundering France but to repatriate France's prior seizures from the Netherlands, Italy, Prussia, and Spain, was extraordinary.[24] Moreover, the British paid for the restitution of the papal collection to Rome because the Pope could not finance the shipping himself.[25] When British troops began packing up looted art from the Louvre, there was a public outcry in France. Crowds reportedly tried to prevent the taking of the Horses of Saint Mark and there were throngs of weeping ladies outside the Louvre Museum.[26] Despite the unprecedented nature of this repatriation effort, there are recent estimations that only about 55 percent of what was taken was actually repatriated: the Louvre Director at the time, Vivant Denon, had sent out many important works to other parts of France before the British could take them.[27] Wellington viewed himself as representing all of Europe's nations and he believed that the moral decision would be to restore the art in its apparently proper context.[28] In a letter to Lord Castlereagh he wrote:
“ The Allies then, having the contents of the museum justly in their power, could not do otherwise than restore them to the countries form which, contrary to the practice of civilized warfare, they had been torn during the disastrous period of the French revolution and the tyranny of Bonaparte. ... Not only, then, would it, in my opinion, be unjust in the Sovereigns to gratify the people of France on this subject, at the expense of their own people, but the sacrifice they would make would be impolitic, as it would deprive them of the opportunity of giving the people of France a great moral lesson. ”
— Excerpt from letter of Wellington to Viscount Castlereagh, K.G., Paris, September 23, 1815[26]
Wellington also forbade pilfering among his troops as he believed that it led to the lack of discipline and distraction from military duty. He also held the view that winning support from local inhabitants was an important break from Napoleon's practices.[29]
The great public interest in art repatriation helped fuel the expansion of public museums in Europe and launched museum-funded archaeological explorations. The concept of art and cultural repatriation gained momentum through the latter decades of the twentieth century and began to show fruition by the end of the century when key works were ceded back to claimants.
Legal issues[edit]
National government laws[edit]
In 1863 US President Abraham Lincoln summoned Francis Lieber, a German-American jurist and political philosopher, to write a legal code to regulate Union soldiers' behavior toward Confederation prisoners, noncombatants, spies and property. The resulting General Orders No.100 or the Lieber Code, legally recognized cultural property as a protected category in war.[30] The Lieber Code had far-reaching results as it became the basis for the Hague Convention of 1907 and 1954 and has led to Standing Rules of Engagement (ROE) for US troops today.[31] A portion of the ROE clauses instruct US troops not to attack "schools, museums, national monuments, and any other historical or cultural sites unless they are being used for a military purpose and pose a threat".[31]
In 2004 the US passed the Bill HR1047 for the Emergency Protection for Iraq Cultural Antiquities Act, which allows the President authority to impose emergency import restrictions by Section 204 of the Convention on Cultural Property Implementation Act (CCIPA).[32] In 2003, Britain and Switzerland put into effect statutory prohibitions against illegally exported Iraqi artifacts. In the UK, the Dealing in Cultural Objects Bill was established in 2003 that prohibited the handling of illegal cultural objects.
International conventions[edit]
The Hague Convention of 1907 aimed to forbid pillaging and sought to make wartime plunder the subject of legal proceedings, although in practice the defeated countries did not gain any leverage in their demands for repatriation.[7] The Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict took place in the wake of widespread destruction of cultural heritage in World War II is the first international treaty of a worldwide vocation focusing exclusively on the protection of cultural heritage in the event of armed conflict.
The UNIDROIT (International Institute for the Unification of Private Law) Convention on Stolen or Illicitly Exported Cultural Objects of 1995 called for the return of illegally exported cultural objects [33]
UNESCO[edit]
The 1970 UNESCO Convention against Illicit Export under the Act to implement the Convention (the Cultural Property Implementation Act) allowed for stolen objects to be seized if there were documentation of it in a museum or institution of a state party and the following agreement in 1972 promoted world cultural and natural heritage[34]
The 1978 UNESCO Convention strengthened existing provisions; the Intergovernmental Committee for Promoting the Return of Cultural Property to its Countries of Origin or its Restitution in case of illicit Appropriation was established. It consists of 22 members elected by the General Conference of UNESCO to facilitate bilateral negotiations for the restitution of "any cultural property which has a fundamental significance from the point of view of the spiritual values and cultural heritage of the people of a Member State or Associate Member of UNESCO and which has been lost as a result of colonial or foreign occupation or as a result of illicit appropriation".[35] It was also created to "encourage the necessary research and studies for the establishment of coherent programmes for the constitution of representative collections in countries whose cultural heritage has been dispersed".[35]
In response to the Iraqi National Museum looting, UNESCO Director-General, Kōichirō Matsuura convened a meeting in Paris on April 17, 2003 in order to assess the situation and coordinate international networks in order to recover the cultural heritage of Iraq. On July 8, 2003, Interpol and UNESCO signed an amendment to their 1999 Cooperation Agreement in the effort to recover looted Iraqi artifacts.[36]
Political issues[edit]
Colonialism and identity[edit]
From early on, the field of archaeology was deeply involved in political endeavors and in the construction of national identities. This early relationship can be seen during the Renaissance and the proto-Italian reactions against the High Gothic movement, but the relationship became stronger during 19th century Europe when archaeology became institutionalized as a field of study furnished by artifacts acquired during the rise of European colonialism led by the British and French.[37] Colonialism and the field of archaeology mutually supported one another as the need to acquire knowledge of ancient artifacts justified further colonial dominance.
As further justification for colonial rule, the archaeological discoveries also shaped the way European colonialists identified with the artifacts and the ancient people who made them. In the case of Egypt, colonial Europe's mission to bring the glory and magnificence of ancient Egypt closer to Europe and incorporate it into knowledge of world history, or better yet, European history placed ancient Egypt in a new spotlight.[38] With the archaeological discoveries, ancient Egypt was adopted into the Western historical narrative and came to take on a significance that had up until that time been reserved for ancient Greek and Roman civilization.[39] The French revolutionaries justified the large-scale and systematic looting of Italy in 1796 by viewing themselves as the political successors of Rome, in the same way that ancient Romans saw themselves as the heirs of Greek civilization;[40] by the same token, the appropriation of ancient Egyptian history as European history further legitimated Western colonial rule over Egypt. But while ancient Egypt became patrimony of the West, modern Egypt remained a part of the Muslim world.[39] The writings of European archaeologists and tourists illustrate the impression that modern Egyptians were uncivilized, savage, and the antithesis of the splendor of ancient Egypt.[39]
Museums furnished by colonial looting have largely shaped the way a nation imagines its dominion, the nature of the human beings under its power, the geography of the land, and the legitimacy of its ancestors, working to suggest a process of political inheriting.[41] It is necessary to understand the paradoxical way in which the objects on display at museums are tangible reminders of the power held by those who gaze at them.[42] Eliot Colla describes the structure of the Egyptian sculpture room in the British Museum as an assemblage that "form[s] an abstract image of the globe with London at the center".[43] The British Museum, as Colla describes, presents a lesson of human development and progress: "the forward march of human civilization from its classical origins in Greece and Rome, through Renaissance Italy, to modern-day London".[43]
The restoration of monuments was often made in colonial states to make natives feel as if in their current state, they were no longer capable of greatness.[44] Furthermore, sometimes colonial rulers argued that the ancestors of the colonized people did not make the artifacts.[44] Some scholars also argue that European colonialists used monumental archaeology and tourism to appear as the guardian of the colonized, reinforcing unconscious and undetectable ownership.[44] Colonial rulers used peoples, religions, languages, artifacts, and monuments as source for reinforcing European nationalism, which was adopted and easily inherited from the colonial states.[44]
Nationalism and identity[edit]
As a direct reaction and resistance to colonial oppression, archaeology was also used for the purpose of legitimating the existence of an independent nation-state.[45] For example, Egyptian Nationalists utilized its ancient history to invent the political and expressive culture of "Pharaonism" as a response to Europe’s "Egyptomania".[46]
Masada fortress, Israel
Some argue that in colonized states, nationalist archaeology was used to resist colonialism and racism under the guise of evolution.[47] While it is true that both colonialist and nationalist discourse use the artifact to form mechanisms to sustain their contending political agendas, there is a danger in viewing them interchangeably since the latter was a reaction and form of resistance to the former. On the other hand, it is important to realize that in the process of emulating the mechanisms of colonial discourse, the nationalist discourse produced new forms of power. In the case of the Egyptian nationalist movement, the new form of power and meaning that surrounded the artifact furthered the Egyptian independence cause but continued to oppress the rural Egyptian population.[46]
Some scholars[who?] argue that archaeology can be a positive source of pride in cultural traditions, but can also be abused to justify cultural or racial superiority as the Nazis argued that Germanic people of Northern Europe was a distinct race and cradle of Western civilization that was superior to Jewish race.[citation needed] In some conflicts that involve land ownership, archaeology is used to encourage confrontation by means of constructing of national myth as seen with the ancient fortress of Masada in Israel.[48] In other cases, archaeology allows rulers to justify the domination of neighboring peoples as Saddam Hussein used Mesopotamia's magnificent past to justify his invasion of Kuwait in 1990.[49]
Some scholars employ the idea that identity is fluid and constructed, especially national identity of modern nation-states, to argue that the post-colonial countries have no real claims to the artifacts plundered from their borders since their cultural connections to the artifacts are indirect and equivocal.[50] This argument asserts that artifacts should be viewed as universal cultural property and should not be divided among artificially created nation-states. Moreover, that encyclopedic museums are a testament to diversity, tolerance and the appreciation of many cultures.[51] Other scholars would argue that this reasoning is a continuation of colonialist discourse attempting to appropriate the ancient art of colonized states and incorporate it into the narrative of Western history.[citation needed]
Controversy[edit]
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The debate surrounding art repatriation differs case by case due to the specific nature of legal and historical issues surrounding each case, but below are listed general arguments commonly used:
Arguments against repatriation[edit]
Artifacts are a part of a universal human history and encyclopedic museums like the British Museum, Musée du Louvre and Metropolitan Museum of Art cultivate the dissemination of knowledge, tolerance, and broad cultural understanding.
Artifacts were frequently excavated or uncovered by looters, who brought to light a piece of artwork that would otherwise never have been seen; foreign-led excavation teams have uncovered items that contribute to cultural knowledge and understanding.
Nationalist retentionist cultural property laws claiming ownership are founded on constructed boundaries of modern nations with weak connections to the culture, spirit, and race to the ancient peoples who produced those antiquities.[52][53] Cultural identities are dynamic, inter-related and overlapping so no modern nation-state can claim cultural property as their own or else they are promoting a sectarian view of culture.
Having artwork disseminated around the world encourages international scholarly and professional exchange.
Encyclopedic museums are located in cosmopolitan cities such as London, Paris and New York, and if the artworks were to be moved, they would be seen by far fewer people. If the Rosetta Stone were to be moved from The British Museum to The Cairo Museum, the number of people who view it would drop from about 5.5 million visitors to 2.5 million visitors a year.[54]
Arguments for repatriation[edit]
Encyclopedic museums such as the British Museum, Musée du Louvre and Metropolitan Museum of Art were established as repositories for looted art during imperial and colonial rule, and thus are located in metropolitan cities out of view and reach of the cultures from which they were appropriated.
Precedence of repatriated art has already been set in many cases but the artworks that museums currently refuse to repatriate are the most valuable and famous artworks.
Foreign-led excavations have justified colonial rule; in the pursuit of obtaining knowledge about the artifacts, there was a need to establish control over the artifacts and the countries where they were located.
The argument that art is a part of a universal human history is a derivative of colonial discourse that appropriated ancient art of other cultures into the Western historical narrative.
The encyclopedic museums that house much of the world's artworks and artifacts are located in Western cities and privilege European scholars, professionals and people.
The argument that artwork will not be protected outside of the Western world is hypocritical as much of the artwork transported out of colonized countries was crudely removed and damaged and sometimes lost in transportation. The Elgin marbles for example, were also damaged during the cleaning and "preservation" process.
Art is best appreciated and understood in its original historical and cultural context. Moreover the Napried, one of the ships commissioned by di Cesnola to transport approximately 35,000 pieces of antiquities that he had collected from Cyprus, was lost at sea carrying about 5,000 pieces in its cargo.[55]
Art taken out of the country as a spoil of war, looting, imperialism, and colonialism is unethical, even if it isn't reflected in legislation. The possession of artwork taken under these conditions is a form of continued colonialism.
The lack of existing legal recourse for claiming the return of illicitly appropriated cultural property is a result of colonization.
Cultural property is a symbol of cultural heritage and identity and the appropriation of historical artworks is an affront to a nation's pride.
International examples[edit]
The iconic bust of Nefertiti
Egypt[edit]
Egypt is seeking the repatriation of the Rosetta Stone from the British Museum and the Nefertiti bust from the Neues Museum in Berlin.
Greece[edit]
Greece is seeking repatriation of the Elgin Marbles from the British Museum, taken from the Parthenon by Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin. Since 1816, the British Museum has held the Parthenon Marbles ("In Britain, the acquisition of the collection was supported by some, while other critics compared The British Consul at Greece Elgin's actions to vandalism or looting", text from the Marbles article), and, despite the tortuous and ill explained path from Greece to England, the museum strongly defends its right to own and display the marbles.
Euphronios Krater
Italy[edit]
In February 2006, Metropolitan Museum of Art negotiated the repatriation of the Euphronios krater to Italy, from where it was thought to have been looted in the early 1970s.
Canada[edit]
The Haisla totem Pole of Kitimat, British Columbia was originally prepared for chief G'psgoalux in 1872. This aboriginal artifact was donated to a Swedish museum in 1929. According to the donor, he had purchased the pole from the Haisla people while he lived on the Canadian west coast and served as Swedish consul. After being approached by the Haisla people, the Swedish government decided in 1994 to return the pole, as the exact circumstances around the acquisition were unclear. The pole was returned to Kitimat in 2006 after a building had been constructed in order to preserve the pole.
India[edit]
The U.K. has rejected India's fresh demand to return its priceless artifacts like "Kohinoor Diamond" and "Sultanganj Buddha" that were stolen/looted/smuggled during British colonial rule citing a law (The British Museum Act, 1963) that prevents it from giving back the items. ASI (Archaeological Survey of India) is planning to join a campaign with the support of UNESCO and other countries to regain the artifacts.
South Korea[edit]
In November 2010, Japan agreed to return some 1,000 cultural objects to South Korea that were plundered during its colonial occupation from 1910-45. The collection includes a collection of royal books called Uigwe from the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910).[56]
United States[edit]
During an August 2005 diplomatic session in North Korea, former U.S. Ambassador to South Korea Donald Gregg received verbal indications from high-ranking North Korean officials that the state would be willing to repatriate the USS Pueblo to United States authorities, on the condition that a prominent U.S. government official, such as the Secretary of State, come to Pyongyang for high level talks. While the U.S. government has publicly stated on several occasions that the return of the still commissioned Navy vessel is a priority, the current overall situation of U.S. and North Korean relations makes such an official state visit unlikely. Former Pueblo crew members William Thomas Massie, Dunnie Richard Tuck, Donald Raymond McClarren, and Lloyd Bucher sued the North Korean government for the abuse they suffered at its hands during their captivity. North Korea did not respond to the suit. In December 2008, U.S. District Judge Henry H. Kennedy, Jr. in Washington, D.C. awarded the plaintiffs $65 million in damages, describing their ill treatment by North Korea as "extensive and shocking." The plaintiffs, as of October 2009, were attempting to collect the judgment from North Korean assets frozen by the U.S. government.
See also[edit]
Byzantine Fresco Chapel, Houston
Repatriation and reburial of human remains
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ According to the Sumerian poem titled Curse of Akkad, Naram-Sin was responsible for the collapse of the Akkadian Empire as he looted and destroyed the Temple of Enlil and incited the wrath of the gods as a result, see Miles, p. 16
^ Jump up to: a b Miles, p. 20
^ Jump up to: a b Miles, p. 13
Jump up ^ Miles, p. 65
Jump up ^ Isager, Jacob, Pliny on Art and Society: The Elder Pliny's Chapters On The History Of Art, p. 173, 2013, Routledge, ISBN 1-135-08580-3, 978-1-135-08580-3, Google Books
Jump up ^ See film, Rape of Europa: The Fate of Europe's Treasures in the Third Reich and the Second World War by L.H. Nicholas, New York, 1994
^ Jump up to: a b "Unplundering Art". Economist. 1997. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Barry Meier and James Glanz (26 July 2006). "Looted treasure returning to Iraq national museum". New York Times. Retrieved 5 November 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Greenfield, p. 263
^ Jump up to: a b Poole, Robert M. (February 2008). "Looting Iraq". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 4 November 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Greenfield, p. 268
Jump up ^ Greenfield, p. 267
Jump up ^ Well known examples include Lucius Mummius' sack of Corinth or Marcus Claudius Marcellus' plunder of Syracuse, See Miles, p. 320
^ Jump up to: a b Miles, p. 320
Jump up ^ See Miles, p. 320
^ Jump up to: a b Miles, p. 321
Jump up ^ The Laocoön was the fabled Trojan priest who warned the Trojans not to accept the Wooden Horse that the Greeks offered to Athena. A god hostile to Troy sent sea serpents to kill him and his sons, which led to the fall of Troy and heralded the eventual founding of Rome, see Miles, p. 321
Jump up ^ Ironically one of the names included Vivant Denon, the future Director of the Louvre and future facilitator of Napoleon's despoliation of artifacts from Egypt (see Miles, p. 326)
Jump up ^ Miles, p. 328
^ Jump up to: a b c Miles, p. 329
Jump up ^ Miles, p.4
Jump up ^ Miles, p.5
Jump up ^ Miles, p. 5
Jump up ^ Miles, p. 330
Jump up ^ Miles, p. 331
^ Jump up to: a b Miles, p. 334
Jump up ^ Miles, p. 341
Jump up ^ Miles, p. 332
Jump up ^ Miles, p. 144
Jump up ^ Miles, p. 350
^ Jump up to: a b Miles, p. 352
Jump up ^ Miles, p. 271
Jump up ^ http://www.unidroit.org/english/conventions/1995culturalproperty/1995culturalproperty-e.htm Archived March 26, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Greenfield, p. 270
^ Jump up to: a b Riviere, Francoise (2009). "Editorial". Museum International, UNESCO Publishing and Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 1-2. 61.
Jump up ^ Bouchenaki, Mounir (2009). "Return and restitution of cultural property in the wake of the 1970 Convention". Museum International, UNESCO Publishing and Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 1-2. 61.
Jump up ^ Silberman, pp. 249-50
Jump up ^ Said 86
^ Jump up to: a b c Colla 103
Jump up ^ Miles 320
Jump up ^ Anderson 164
Jump up ^ Colla 4
^ Jump up to: a b Colla 5
^ Jump up to: a b c d Anderson 181
Jump up ^ Diaz-Andreu, p. 54
^ Jump up to: a b Colla 12
Jump up ^ Kohl, Fawcett, pp. 3-11
Jump up ^ Moss, Paul (16 January 2009). "Masada legend galvanizes Israel". BBC. Retrieved 6 November 2010.
Jump up ^ Kohl, Fawcett, p. 5
Jump up ^ Cuno, pp. xx-xxxvi
Jump up ^ Cuno, pp. xxxv
Jump up ^ Cuno, James (2008). Who Owns Antiquity? The Battle Over Our Ancient Heritage. Princeton University Press.
Jump up ^ Cuno, James (2 November 2010). "Who's Right? Repatriation of Cultural Property". Retrieved 19 November 2011.
Jump up ^ Egypt demands return of the Rosetta Stone The Telegraph. By Charlotte Edwardes and Catherine Milner, 20 Jul 2003.
Jump up ^ "Napried Exploration". napried.com. Retrieved 2017-03-03.
Jump up ^ Tong, Xiong (8 November 2010). "S Korea to retrieve stolen cultural property from Japan: media". Xinhua News Agency. Retrieved 15 November 2010.
References[edit]
Anderson, Benedict (2006). Imagined Communities. Verso. pp. 163–186.
Bouchenaki, Mounir (2009). "Return and restitution of cultural property in the wake of the 1970 Convention". Museum International, UNESCO Publishing and Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 1-2. 61.
Colla, Elliot (2007). Conflicted Antiquities: Egyptology, Egyptomania, Egyptian Modernity. Duke University Press.
Cuno, James (2008). Who Owns Antiquity? The Battle Over Our Ancient Heritage. Princeton University Press.
Charlotte Edwardes and Catherine Milner (20 July 2003). "Egypt demands return of the Rosetta Stone". Telegraph. Retrieved 2 November 2010.
Diaz-Andreu, M. (1993). "Theory and Theology: Spanish Archaeology under the Franco Regime". Antiquity. 67: 74–82.
Kohl, Philip; Fawcett, Clare (1995). Nationalism, Politics, and the Practice of Archaeology. Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–18.
Barry Meier and James Glanz (26 July 2006). "Looted treasure returning to Iraq national museum". New York Times. Retrieved 5 November 2010.
Miles, Margaret M. (2008). Art as Plunder: The Ancient Origins of Debate About Cultural Property. Cambridge University Press.
Moss, Paul (16 January 2009). "Masada legend galvanises Israel". BBC. Retrieved 6 November 2010.
Poole, Robert M. (February 2008). "Looting Iraq". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 4 November 2010.
Riviere, Francoise (2009). "Editorial". Museum International, UNESCO Publishing and Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 1-2. 61.
Said, Edward (1994). Orientalism. Vintage Books.
Silberman, N.A. (1982). Digging for God and Country. Knoph, New York.
Tong, Xiong (8 November 2010). "S Korea to retrieve stolen cultural property from Japan: media". Xinhua News Agency. Retrieved 15 November 2010.
Williams, Daniel (26 January 2010). "Egypt Relics Chief Pulls in Revenue as He Fights for Nefertiti". Business Week. Retrieved 3 November 2010.
"Unplundering Art". Economist. 1997. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Further reading[edit]
Jenkins, Tiffany (2016). Keeping Their Marbles: how the treasures of the past ended up in museums – and why they should stay there. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199657599.
Merryman, John Henry (2006). Imperialism, Arts and Restitution. Cambridge University Press.
Reid, Donald Malcolm (2002). Whose Pharaohs?: archaeology, museums, and Egyptian national identity from Napoleon to World War I. University of California Press.
Waxman, Sharon (2008). Loot: The Battle Over the Stolen Treasures of the Ancient World. Times Books.
External links[edit]
Art repatriation
Sources of Information on Antiquities Theft
Discussion of ethics
2006 article from the University of Wisconsin
Looted art
San Francisco Chronicle, 2003 article on repatriation of looted art
Attempts to locate looted art in British regional museums
WWII and the Looted Art Problem
Quedlinberg Art Affair
Dispute: "Cuneiform Tablets in the News"
Cultural repatriation
US National Park Service on International Repatriation
Haisla Totem Pole Repatriation Project
Return of Aboriginal Australian remains from England
Smithsonian cultural repatriation program
[hide]
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Elizabeth Lail
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Elizabeth Lail
Lail on the set of Once Upon A Time in 2014
Born
Elizabeth Dean Lail
(1992-03-25) March 25, 1992 (age 25)
Williamson County, Texas, U.S.
Occupation
Actress
Years active
2011–present
Elizabeth Dean Lail[1] (born March 25, 1992[2][better source needed]) is an American actress. She is known for her role as Anna in the ABC adventure fantasy television series Once Upon a Time.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Career
3 Filmography
4 References
5 External links
Early life[edit]
Lail was born in Williamson County, Texas,[2] to her parents, Dean Franklin Lail and wife Kay Lurene Surratt. She has one older sister.[3]
Lail grew up in Asheboro, North Carolina. After graduating from Asheboro High School in 2009, she attended the University of North Carolina School of the Arts, graduating in May 2014.[4]
Career[edit]
Lail mostly worked in student film productions, such as Model Airplane and Without, immediately after graduating from university.[citation needed] She had moved to New York City to pursue stage work when she landed an audition for ABC's Once Upon a Time, after which she was cast as Anna in the fourth season of the series.[5] Lail was cast in a starring role in the Freeform horror series Dead of Summer playing the role of camp counselor Amy.[6]
Filmography[edit]
Television and film roles
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2011 Model Airplane Anna Short film; as Elizabeth Dean Lail
2014 Without Emily Short film; as Elizabeth Dean Lail
2014 Once Upon a Time Anna Recurring role (season 4), 10 episodes
2016 Dead of Summer Amy Hughes Main role
2017 The Blacklist Natalie Luca Episode: "Natalie Luca"
2018 You Beck Upcoming television series; main role[7]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Instagram". Retrieved October 8, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Person details for Elizabeth Dean Lail".
Jump up ^ "Sisters".
Jump up ^ "Asheboro native cast as Anna in ABC’s ‘Once Upon a Time’". WGHP Fox 8. July 1, 2014. Retrieved September 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ Michael Logan (September 18, 2014). "Once Upon a Time Gets Frozen When Anna and Elsa Visit Storybrooke". TV Guide. Retrieved February 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ Elizabeth Wagmeister (February 10, 2016). "‘Once Upon a Time’ Alums Elizabeth Mitchell & Elizabeth Lail Cast in Freeform’s ‘Dead of Summer’". Variety. Retrieved February 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ Nellie Andreeva; Denise Petski (July 27, 2017). "‘You’: Elizabeth Lail To Star In Greg Berlanti Lifetime Drama Series, Two Others Cast". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved September 29, 2017.
External links[edit]
Elizabeth Lail on IMDb
Elizabeth Lail on Twitter
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elizabeth_Lail&oldid=803026787"
Categories:
1992 births
21st-century American actresses
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text:
List of Java keywords
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A snippet of Java code with keywords highlighted in blue and bold font
In the Java programming language, a keyword is one of 50 reserved words[1] that have a predefined meaning in the language; because of this, programmers cannot use keywords as names for variables, methods, classes, or as any other identifier.[2] Of these 50 keywords, 48 are in use and 2 are not in use. Due to their special functions in the language, most integrated development environments for Java use syntax highlighting to display keywords in a different colour for easy identification.
Contents
[hide]
1 List
2 Reserved words for literal values
3 Special Identifiers
4 Unused
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
List[edit]
abstract
Abstract is used to implement an abstraction in Java. A method with no definition must be declared as abstract and the class containing it must be declared as abstract. You cannot instantiate abstract classes. Abstract methods must be implemented in the sub classes. You cannot use the abstract keyword with variables or constructors.
assert (added in J2SE 1.4)[3]
Assert describes a predicate (a true–false statement) placed in a Java program to indicate that the developer thinks that the predicate is always true at that place. If an assertion evaluates to false at run-time, an assertion failure results, which typically causes execution to abort. Optionally enable by ClassLoader method.
boolean
Defines a boolean variable for the values "true" or "false" only. By default, the value of boolean primitive type is false.
break
Used to end the execution in the current loop body.
byte
The byte keyword is used to declare a field that can hold an 8-bit signed two's complement integer.[4][5] This keyword is also used to declare that a method returns a value of the primitive type byte.[6][7]
case
A statement in the switch block can be labeled with one or more case or default labels. The switch statement evaluates its expression, then executes all statements that follow the matching case label; see switch.[8]
catch
Used in conjunction with a try block and an optional finally block. The statements in the catch block specify what to do if a specific type of exception is thrown by the try block.
char
Defines a character variable capable of holding any character of the java source file's character set.
class
A type that defines the implementation of a particular kind of object. A class definition defines instance and class fields, methods, and inner classes as well as specifying the interfaces the class implements and the immediate superclass of the class. If the superclass is not explicitly specified, the superclass is implicitly Object. The class keyword can also be used in the form Class.class to get a Class object without needing an instance of that class. For example, String.class can be used instead of doing new String().getClass().
continue
Used to resume program execution at the end of the current loop body. If followed by a label, continue resumes execution at the end of the enclosing labeled loop body.
default
The default keyword can optionally be used in a switch statement to label a block of statements to be executed if no case matches the specified value; see switch.[8][9] Alternatively, the default keyword can also be used to declare default values in a Java annotation. From Java 8 onwards, the default keyword is also used to specify that a method in an interface provides the default implementation of a method.
do
The do keyword is used in conjunction with while to create a do-while loop, which executes a block of statements associated with the loop and then tests a boolean expression associated with the while. If the expression evaluates to true, the block is executed again; this continues until the expression evaluates to false.[10][11]
double
The double keyword is used to declare a variable that can hold a 64-bit double precision IEEE 754 floating-point number.[4][5] This keyword is also used to declare that a method returns a value of the primitive type double.[6][7]
else
The else keyword is used in conjunction with if to create an if-else statement, which tests a boolean expression; if the expression evaluates to true, the block of statements associated with the if are evaluated; if it evaluates to false, the block of statements associated with the else are evaluated.[12][13]
enum (added in J2SE 5.0)[3]
A Java keyword used to declare an enumerated type. Enumerations extend the base class Enum.
extends
Used in a class declaration to specify the superclass; used in an interface declaration to specify one or more superinterfaces. Class X extends class Y to add functionality, either by adding fields or methods to class Y, or by overriding methods of class Y. An interface Z extends one or more interfaces by adding methods. Class X is said to be a subclass of class Y; Interface Z is said to be a subinterface of the interfaces it extends.
Also used to specify an upper bound on a type parameter in Generics.
final
Define an entity once that cannot be changed nor derived from later. More specifically: a final class cannot be subclassed, a final method cannot be overridden, and a final variable can occur at most once as a left-hand expression on an executed command. All methods in a final class are implicitly final.
finally
Used to define a block of statements for a block defined previously by the try keyword. The finally block is executed after execution exits the try block and any associated catch clauses regardless of whether an exception was thrown or caught, or execution left method in the middle of the try or catch blocks using the return keyword.
float
The float keyword is used to declare a variable that can hold a 32-bit single precision IEEE 754 floating-point number.[4][5] This keyword is also used to declare that a method returns a value of the primitive type float.[6][7]
for
The for keyword is used to create a for loop, which specifies a variable initialization, a boolean expression, and an incrementation. The variable initialization is performed first, and then the boolean expression is evaluated. If the expression evaluates to true, the block of statements associated with the loop are executed, and then the incrementation is performed. The boolean expression is then evaluated again; this continues until the expression evaluates to false.[14]
As of J2SE 5.0, the for keyword can also be used to create a so-called "enhanced for loop",[15] which specifies an array or Iterable object; each iteration of the loop executes the associated block of statements using a different element in the array or Iterable.[14]
if
The if keyword is used to create an if statement, which tests a boolean expression; if the expression evaluates to true, the block of statements associated with the if statement is executed. This keyword can also be used to create an if-else statement; see else.[12][13]
implements
Included in a class declaration to specify one or more interfaces that are implemented by the current class. A class inherits the types and abstract methods declared by the interfaces.
import
Used at the beginning of a source file to specify classes or entire Java packages to be referred to later without including their package names in the reference. Since J2SE 5.0, import statements can import static members of a class.
instanceof
A binary operator that takes an object reference as its first operand and a class or interface as its second operand and produces a boolean result. The instanceof operator evaluates to true if and only if the runtime type of the object is assignment compatible with the class or interface.
int
The int keyword is used to declare a variable that can hold a 32-bit signed two's complement integer.[4][5] This keyword is also used to declare that a method returns a value of the primitive type int.[6][7]
interface
Used to declare a special type of class that only contains abstract or default methods, constant (static final) fields and static interfaces. It can later be implemented by classes that declare the interface with the implements keyword. By the help of interface we can easily achieve multiple inheritance in java. We can define one interface within another interface.
long
The long keyword is used to declare a variable that can hold a 64-bit signed two's complement integer.[4][5] This keyword is also used to declare that a method returns a value of the primitive type long.[6][7]
native
Used in method declarations to specify that the method is not implemented in the same Java source file, but rather in another language.[7]
new
Used to create an instance of a class or array object. Using keyword for this end is not completely necessary (as exemplified by Scala), though it serves two purposes: it enables the existence of different namespace for methods and class names, it defines statically and locally that a fresh object is indeed created, and of what runtime type it is (arguably introducing dependency into the code).
package
Java package is a group of similar classes and interfaces. Packages are declared with the package keyword.
private
The private keyword is used in the declaration of a method, field, or inner class; private members can only be accessed by other members of their own class.[16]
protected
The protected keyword is used in the declaration of a method, field, or inner class; protected members can only be accessed by members of their own class, that class's subclasses or classes from the same package.[16]
public
The public keyword is used in the declaration of a class, method, or field; public classes, methods, and fields can be accessed by the members of any class.[16]
return
Used to finish the execution of a method. It can be followed by a value required by the method definition that is returned to the caller.
short
The short keyword is used to declare a field that can hold a 16-bit signed two's complement integer.[4][5] This keyword is also used to declare that a method returns a value of the primitive type short.[6][7]
static
Used to declare a field, method, or inner class as a class field. Classes maintain one copy of class fields regardless of how many instances exist of that class. static also is used to define a method as a class method. Class methods are bound to the class instead of to a specific instance, and can only operate on class fields. (Classes and interfaces declared as static members of another class or interface are actually top-level classes and are not inner classes.)
strictfp (added in J2SE 1.2)[3]
A Java keyword used to restrict the precision and rounding of floating point calculations to ensure portability.[7]
super
Inheritance basically used to achieve dynamic binding or run-time polymorphism in java.Used to access members of a class inherited by the class in which it appears. Allows a subclass to access overridden methods and hidden members of its superclass. The super keyword is also used to forward a call from a constructor to a constructor in the superclass.
Also used to specify a lower bound on a type parameter in Generics.
switch
The switch keyword is used in conjunction with case and default to create a switch statement, which evaluates a variable, matches its value to a specific case, and executes the block of statements associated with that case. If no case matches the value, the optional block labelled by default is executed, if included.[8][9]
synchronized
Used in the declaration of a method or code block to acquire the mutex lock for an object while the current thread executes the code.[7] For static methods, the object locked is the class's Class. Guarantees that at most one thread at a time operating on the same object executes that code. The mutex lock is automatically released when execution exits the synchronized code. Fields, classes and interfaces cannot be declared as synchronized.
this
Used to represent an instance of the class in which it appears. this can be used to access class members and as a reference to the current instance. The this keyword is also used to forward a call from one constructor in a class to another constructor in the same class.
throw
Causes the declared exception instance to be thrown. This causes execution to continue with the first enclosing exception handler declared by the catch keyword to handle an assignment compatible exception type. If no such exception handler is found in the current method, then the method returns and the process is repeated in the calling method. If no exception handler is found in any method call on the stack, then the exception is passed to the thread's uncaught exception handler.
throws
Used in method declarations to specify which exceptions are not handled within the method but rather passed to the next higher level of the program. All uncaught exceptions in a method that are not instances of RuntimeException must be declared using the throws keyword.
transient
Declares that an instance field is not part of the default serialized form of an object. When an object is serialized, only the values of its non-transient instance fields are included in the default serial representation. When an object is deserialized, transient fields are initialized only to their default value. If the default form is not used, e.g. when a serialPersistentFields table is declared in the class hierarchy, all transient keywords are ignored.[17][18]
try
Defines a block of statements that have exception handling. If an exception is thrown inside the try block, an optional catch block can handle declared exception types. Also, an optional finally block can be declared that will be executed when execution exits the try block and catch clauses, regardless of whether an exception is thrown or not. A try block must have at least one catch clause or a finally block.
void
The void keyword is used to declare that a method does not return any value.[6]
volatile
Used in field declarations to specify that the variable is modified asynchronously by concurrently running threads. Methods, classes and interfaces thus cannot be declared volatile, nor can local variables or parameters.
while
The while keyword is used to create a while loop, which tests a boolean expression and executes the block of statements associated with the loop if the expression evaluates to true; this continues until the expression evaluates to false. This keyword can also be used to create a do-while loop; see do.[10][11]
Reserved words for literal values[edit]
true
A boolean literal value.
null
A reference literal value.
false
A boolean literal value.
Special Identifiers[edit]
var
An identifier that infers the type of a local variable.[19]
Unused[edit]
const
Although reserved as a keyword in Java, const is not used and has no function.[2][1] For defining constants in Java, see the final keyword.
goto
Although reserved as a keyword in Java, goto is not used and has no function.[2][1]
See also[edit]
Java annotation
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Flanagan 2005, p. 20.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Java Language Specification - Section 3.9: Keywords". The Java Language Specification. Oracle. February 13, 2012. Retrieved 2015-05-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Java Language Keywords". The Java Tutorials. Sun Microsystems, Inc. Retrieved 2017-07-24.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Primitive Data Types". The Java Tutorials. Sun Microsystems, Inc. February 14, 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Flanagan 2005, p. 22.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "Returning a Value from a Method". The Java Tutorials. Sun Microsystems, Inc. February 14, 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Flanagan 2005, pp. 66-67.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The switch Statement". The Java Tutorials. Sun Microsystems, Inc. February 14, 2008. Retrieved 2014-12-18.
^ Jump up to: a b Flanagan 2005, pp. 46-48.
^ Jump up to: a b "The while and do-while Statements". The Java Tutorials. Sun Microsystems, Inc. February 14, 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-03.
^ Jump up to: a b Flanagan 2005, pp. 48-49.
^ Jump up to: a b "The if-then and if-then-else Statements". The Java Tutorials. Sun Microsystems, Inc. February 14, 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-03.
^ Jump up to: a b Flanagan 2005, pp. 44-46.
^ Jump up to: a b "The for Statement". The Java Tutorials. Sun Microsystems, Inc. February 14, 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-03.
Jump up ^ Flanagan 2005, pp. 50-54.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Controlling Access to Members of a Class". The Java Tutorials. Sun Microsystems, Inc. February 14, 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-03.
Jump up ^ "Java Object Serialization Specification version 1.5.0". Sun/Oracle. 2004. 1.5 Defining Serializable Fields for a Class. Retrieved 2010-09-16.
Jump up ^ Grosso, William (November 21, 2001). "Java RMI: Serialization". ONJava. O'Reilly Media. Declaring serialPersistentFields. Retrieved 2010-09-16.
Jump up ^ "Chapter 3. Lexical Structure". docs.oracle.com. Retrieved 2018-04-25.
External links[edit]
Gosling, James; Joy, Bill; Steele, Guy; Bracha, Gilad (June 2005). Java Language Specification (Third ed.). Addison-Wesley Professional. ISBN 978-0-321-24678-3. Retrieved 2008-12-03.
Flanagan, David (March 2005). Java in a Nutshell (Fifth ed.). O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-00773-7. Retrieved 2010-03-03.
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