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New Jersey Plan
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The New Jersey Plan (also known as the Small State Plan or the Paterson Plan) was a proposal for the structure of the United States Government presented by William Paterson at the Constitutional Convention on June 15, 1787.[1] The plan was created in response to the Virginia Plan, which called for two houses of Congress, both elected with apportionment according to population.[2] The less populous states were adamantly opposed to giving most of the control of the national government to the more populous states, and so proposed an alternative plan that would have kept the one-vote-per-state representation under one legislative body from the Articles of Confederation. The New Jersey Plan was opposed by James Madison and Edmund Randolph (the proponents of the Virginia state Plan).
Contents
[hide]
1 Proposals
2 Consideration
3 References
4 External links
Proposals[edit]
Under the New Jersey Plan, the unicameral legislature with one vote per state was inherited from the Articles of Confederation. This position reflected the belief that the states were independent entities and, as they entered the United States of America freely and individually, remained so.
The plan proposed the following:
The Articles of Confederation should be amended.
In addition to the existing powers under the Articles of Confederation, Congress gained authority to raise funds via tariffs and other measures, and to regulate interstate commerce and commerce with other nations. Cases involving these powers would still be heard by state courts unless appealed to the federal judiciary.
Congress has the authority to collect taxes from states based on the number of free inhabitants and 3/5ths of slaves in that state. However, this power requires the consent of some proportion of the states.
Congress elects a federal executive, consisting of multiple people, who cannot be re-elected and can be recalled by Congress when requested by the majority of executives of the states.
The federal judiciary is represented by a Supreme Tribunal, appointed by the federal executive, which has authority in federal impeachment cases and as the appeal of last resort in cases dealing with national matters (such as treaties).
The Articles of Confederation and treaties are the supreme law of the land. The federal executive is authorized to use force to compel non-compliant states to observe the law.
A policy of admission of new states should be established.
A singular policy for naturalization should be established.
A citizen of one state can be prosecuted under the laws of another state in which the crime was committed.
Variations also proposed that state governments must be bound by oath to support the Articles, that a policy should be established to handle territorial disputes,[3] and that the offenses deemed as treason should be defined.[4]
The New Jersey Plan
Consideration[edit]
Ultimately, the New Jersey Plan was rejected as a basis for a new constitution. The Virginia Plan was used, but some ideas from the New Jersey Plan were added. Perhaps the most important of these was introduced by the Connecticut Compromise, which established a bicameral legislature with the U.S. House of Representatives apportioned by population, as desired by the Virginia Plan, and the Senate granted equal votes per state, as desired by the New Jersey Plan.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787 reported by James Madison : on June 15". The Avalon Project at Yale Law School. Archived from the original on 2017-01-23. Retrieved 2017-08-20.
Jump up ^ William Paterson Biography in Soldier Statesmen of the Constitution, a publication of the United States Army Center of Military History. Accessed October 23, 2007. "He was the co-author of the New Jersey (or Paterson) Plan that asserted the rights of the small states by proposing a national legislature that, ignoring differences in size and population, gave equal voice to all the states. The proposal countered the Virginia Plan introduced by Edmund Randolph, which granted special recognition to differences in population and, therefore, favored the large states."
Jump up ^ "Variant Texts of the Plan Presented by William Patterson - Text B". The Avalon Project.
Jump up ^ "Variant Texts of the Plan Presented by William Patterson - Text C". The Avalon Project.
External links[edit]
Variant texts of the New Jersey Plan at the Avalon Project
[hide]
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Criminal Minds (season 8)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Criminal Minds (season 8)
DVD cover art
Starring
Joe Mantegna
Shemar Moore
Matthew Gray Gubler
A.J. Cook
Kirsten Vangsness
Jeanne Tripplehorn
Thomas Gibson
Country of origin
United States
No. of episodes
24
Release
Original network
CBS
Original release
September 26, 2012 (2012-09-26) – May 22, 2013 (2013-05-22)
Season chronology
← Previous
Season 7
Next →
Season 9
List of Criminal Minds episodes
The eighth season of Criminal Minds premiered on CBS on September 26, 2012. The series was officially renewed for an eighth season on March 14, 2012.[1]
In Canada, season eight airs one day earlier on CTV than on CBS in the United States.
Contents
[hide]
1 Cast
1.1 Main
1.2 Recurring
2 Episodes
3 Ratings
4 Home media
5 References
6 External links
Cast[edit]
On February 15, 2012, Deadline.com reported that Paget Brewster (Emily Prentiss) would leave the show once season seven was over. All other main cast members have secured deals for this season.[2] On June 13, 2012, CBS announced that Jeanne Tripplehorn would join the cast of the show.[3]
Main[edit]
Joe Mantegna as David Rossi
Shemar Moore as Derek Morgan
Matthew Gray Gubler as Dr. Spencer Reid
A. J. Cook as Jennifer "JJ" Jareau
Kirsten Vangsness as Penelope Garcia
Jeanne Tripplehorn as Dr. Alex Blake
Thomas Gibson as Aaron "Hotch" Hotchner
Recurring[edit]
Jayne Atkinson as Erin Strauss
Beth Riesgraf as Maeve Donovan
Mekhai Andersen as Henry LaMontagne
Nicholas Brendon as Kevin Lynch
Cade Owens as Jack Hotchner
Bellamy Young as Beth Clemmons
Josh Stewart as William "Will" LaMontagne Jr.
Skipp Sudduth as Stan Gordinski
Mark Hamill as John Curtis / The Replicator
Episodes[edit]
See also: List of Criminal Minds episodes
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
U.S. viewers
(millions)
163
1 "The Silencer" Glenn Kershaw Erica Messer September 26, 2012 (2012-09-26) 801 11.73[4]
When a prison inmate escapes during a transfer in Abilene, Texas and several bodies are subsequently found with their mouths sewn shut, the BAU determines a serial killer known as "The Silencer" has resurfaced. Meanwhile, the team welcomes its newest member, linguistics expert Alex Blake (Jeanne Tripplehorn), into the fold.
164
2 "The Pact" Karen Gaviola Janine Sherman Barrois October 10, 2012 (2012-10-10) 802 11.49[5]
When two seemingly unrelated murders are committed just hours apart in San Diego and Los Angeles, the BAU suspects that two killers are working in concert to exact revenge against criminals released by the justice system.
165
3 "Through the Looking Glass" Dermott Downs Sharon Lee Watson October 17, 2012 (2012-10-17) 803 11.81[6]
When a family in Kansas City is found dead and another goes missing, the BAU searches for a link between the cases in order to find the perpetrator. Meanwhile, Hotch receives surprising news from Beth that threatens to test their relationship.
166
4 "God Complex" Larry Teng Breen Frazier October 24, 2012 (2012-10-24) 804 11.61[7]
When a legless corpse is found in Juarez and an unwilling amputee turns up at a Albuquerque, New Mexico motel, the BAU determines the killer is an amateur surgeon whose narcissism has gotten to his head. Meanwhile, Reid's secret phone calls to a mysterious woman (Beth Riesgraf) leave the team intrigued.
167
5 "The Good Earth" John Terlesky Bruce Zimmerman October 31, 2012 (2012-10-31) 805 11.99[8]
When four men in La Grande, Oregon go missing, the BAU searches for a common link among them in order to apprehend the unsub. Meanwhile, JJ grows upset after learning her son is adamant about not celebrating Halloween.
168
6 "The Apprenticeship" Rob Bailey Virgil Williams November 7, 2012 (2012-11-07) 806 12.09[9]
When a Miami prostitute is murdered in a manner similar to a series of recent animal killings in the area, the BAU works fast to catch a serial killer whose confidence is quickly escalating. Meanwhile, Morgan attempts to convince Reid to join the bureau softball team and Hotch receives a phone call involving an unsub whose intentions are made chillingly clear.
169
7 "The Fallen" Doug Aarniokoski Teleplay by: Rick Dunkle
Story by: Rick Dunkle & Danny Ramm November 14, 2012 (2012-11-14) 807 12.20[10]
The BAU travels to Santa Monica, California to search for a mission-oriented killer who dumps the burned bodies of homeless people near the famous pier. Meanwhile, Rossi finds himself forced to confront his days as a Marine in the Vietnam War when he runs into his former sergeant Harrison Scott (Meshach Taylor).
170
8 "The Wheels on the Bus…" Rob Hardy Kimberly Ann Harrison November 21, 2012 (2012-11-21) 808 11.53[11]
When a school bus disappears outside Washington, D.C., the BAU launches a massive search for the missing high school students only to uncover a twisted motive for the crime.
171
9 "Magnificent Light" John T. Kretchmer Sharon Lee Watson November 28, 2012 (2012-11-28) 809 12.37[12]
While investigating a series of ritualistic murders in Seattle, the BAU links the crimes to a motivational speaker only to refocus their investigation when the prime suspect disappears. Meanwhile, Garcia speculates on the reasons why Morgan is against attending a dinner honoring an old friend.
172
10 "The Lesson" Matthew Gray Gubler Janine Sherman Barrois December 5, 2012 (2012-12-05) 810 11.33[13]
When several male bodies with marked changes in appearance are discovered in Winslow, Arizona, the BAU suspects they are searching for a serial killer (Brad Dourif) with an unusual personal obsession. Meanwhile, Reid gets anxious when his mystery woman proposes that they meet face-to-face.
173
11 "Perennials" Michael Lange Bruce Zimmerman December 12, 2012 (2012-12-12) 811 12.01[14]
The BAU investigates a series of bizarre murders throughout the South only to learn that the unsub's signature matches that of a killer from thirty years ago. Meanwhile, Hotch learns that someone is replicating crimes that the team has recently solved.
174
12 "Zugzwang" Jesse Warn Breen Frazier January 16, 2013 (2013-01-16) 812 12.64[15]
When Reid learns that his mystery woman has disappeared and suspects that the person stalking her has made his next move, the BAU searches Washington, D.C. in a desperate attempt to find her abductor before time runs out.
175
13 "Magnum Opus" Glenn Kershaw Jason J. Bernero January 23, 2013 (2013-01-23) 813 11.84[16]
When two young women are found dead in San Francisco with their eyelids removed, the BAU searches for a killer with an alarming obsession. Meanwhile, Reid is still reeling over his mystery woman's death.
176
14 "All That Remains" Thomas Gibson Erica Messer February 6, 2013 (2013-02-06) 815 11.98[17]
When two sisters in Salisbury, Maryland are reported missing exactly one year after their mother's disappearance, the BAU is tasked with profiling their father (Ken Olin) as a possible suspect in both crimes.
177
15 "Broken" Larry Teng Rick Dunkle February 20, 2013 (2013-02-20) 814 10.69[18]
When three people are brutally murdered in Austin, Texas and later found with their watches set inaccurately, the BAU struggles to profile a killer who is suffering from a severe identity crisis. Meanwhile, the unsub stalking the team's every move prepares to make his next move.
178
16 "Carbon Copy" Rob Hardy Virgil Williams February 27, 2013 (2013-02-27) 816 10.33[19]
When a recent murder in Philadelphia is believed to be committed by "The Replicator," the BAU sets out to find him before he strikes again. Meanwhile, Blake struggles with her personal demons after learning that Strauss wants to make amends.
179
17 "The Gathering" Michael Lange Kimberly Ann Harrison March 20, 2013 (2013-03-20) 817 11.58[20]
With the Replicator case temporarily declared inactive, the BAU investigates a series of murders in Saint Paul, Minnesota involving young women who documented their fantasies on social media sites. Meanwhile, Garcia suspects Kevin has grown jealous after introducing him to her new love interest.
180
18 "Restoration" Félix Alcalá Jim Clemente & Janine Sherman Barrois April 3, 2013 (2013-04-03) 818 10.79[21]
When two middle-aged men are beaten to death in Chicago, the BAU investigates only to unearth a connection between the unsub and Morgan's childhood abuser Carl Buford.
181
19 "Pay It Forward" John Terlesky Bruce Zimmerman April 10, 2013 (2013-04-10) 819 11.47[22]
When a decapitated corpse is found in Colorado hours after a severed head is discovered in a recently unearthed time capsule, the BAU determines that the unsub is a vigilante who perceives his victims as hypocrites.
182
20 "Alchemy" Matthew Gray Gubler Sharon Lee Watson May 1, 2013 (2013-05-01) 820 10.13[23]
When two men are poisoned and dismembered in Rapid City, South Dakota, the BAU struggles to build a profile and determine the trigger before the unsub manages to kill again. Meanwhile, Reid suffers from insomnia as he continues to grieve Maeve's death.
183
21 "Nanny Dearest" Doug Aarniokoski Virgil Williams May 8, 2013 (2013-05-08) 821 10.08[24]
The BAU sets out to apprehend a Los Angeles serial killer who has abducted nannies and the children they watched on the same day for the last six years. With few leads and a short deadline, the team turns to the only known survivor in an attempt to find the unsub's latest victims before time runs out.
184
22 "#6" Karen Gaviola Breen Frazier May 15, 2013 (2013-05-15) 822 10.56[25]
When two couples are found dead in Detroit, the BAU surmises that the unsub is forcing his victims to fatally stab each other. Meanwhile, Blake contemplates her future with the team after her husband James (D.W. Moffett) returns home with a life-changing proposition.
185
23 "Brothers Hotchner" Rob Bailey Rick Dunkle May 22, 2013 (2013-05-22) 823 11.01[26]
As the BAU investigates a series of apparent ecstasy overdoses in Manhattan, Hotch struggles with his personal demons when his estranged brother Sean is caught in the middle. Meanwhile, the Replicator prepares to make his next move.
186
24 "The Replicator" Glenn Kershaw Erica Messer May 22, 2013 (2013-05-22) 824 11.01[26]
When the Replicator hacks Garcia's computer system and targets a team member, the BAU juggles mourning the loss of one of their own and finding the unsub as the stakes grow higher.
Ratings[edit]
Episode
U.S. ratings
Canada ratings
Original air date
Viewers
(millions)
Rank
Original air date
Viewers
(millions)
Rank
Night
Week
Night
Week
"The Silencer" September 26, 2012 11.73[4] 2 15[4] September 25, 2012 1.34[27] 5 25
"The Pact" October 10, 2012 11.49[5] 3 15[5] October 9, 2012 1.56[28] 4 17
"Through the Looking Glass" October 17, 2012 11.81[6] 2 12[6] October 16, 2012 N/A N/A N/A
"God Complex" October 24, 2012 11.61[7] 3 15[7] October 23, 2012 2.31[29] N/A 7
"The Good Earth" October 31, 2012 11.99[8] 1 13[8] October 30, 2012 N/A N/A N/A
"The Apprenticeship" November 7, 2012 12.09[9] 2 7[9] November 6, 2012 N/A N/A N/A
"The Fallen" November 14, 2012 12.20[10] 1 9[10] November 13, 2012 N/A N/A N/A
"The Wheels on the Bus..." November 21, 2012 11.53[11] 1 10[11] November 20, 2012 N/A N/A N/A
"Magnificent Light" November 28, 2012 12.37[12] 1 10[12] November 27, 2012 N/A N/A N/A
"The Lesson" December 5, 2012 11.33[13] 1 10[13] December 4, 2012 N/A N/A N/A
"Perennials" December 12, 2012 12.01[14] 1 10[14] December 11, 2012 N/A N/A N/A
"Zugzwang" January 16, 2013 12.64[15] 2 8[15] January 15, 2013 N/A N/A N/A
"Magnum Opus" January 23, 2013 11.84[16] 1 6[16] January 22, 2013 N/A N/A N/A
"All That Remains" February 6, 2013 11.98[17] 2 9[17] February 5, 2013 N/A N/A N/A
"Broken" February 20, 2013 10.69[18] 2 14[18] February 19, 2013 N/A N/A N/A
"Carbon Copy" February 27, 2013 10.33[19] 3 11[19] February 26, 2013 N/A N/A N/A
"The Gathering" March 20, 2013 11.58[20] 2 6[20] March 19, 2013 N/A N/A N/A
"Restoration" April 3, 2013 10.79[21] 3 17[21] April 2, 2013 N/A N/A N/A
"Pay It Forward" April 10, 2013 11.47[22] 2 12[22] April 9, 2013 N/A N/A N/A
"Alchemy" May 1, 2013 10.13[23] 2 14[23] April 30, 2013 N/A N/A N/A
"Nanny Dearest" May 8, 2013 10.08[24] 2 16[24] May 7, 2013 N/A N/A N/A
"#6" May 15, 2013 10.56[25] 2 11[25] May 15, 2013 N/A N/A N/A
"Brothers Hotchner (Part I)" May 22, 2013 11.01[26] 1 3[26] May 22, 2013 N/A N/A N/A
"The Replicator (Part II)" May 22, 2013 11.01[26] 1 3[26] May 22, 2013 N/A N/A N/A
Home media[edit]
The Complete Eighth Season
Set details Special features
24 episodes
6-disc set (Region 1)
5-disc set (Region 2 & 4)
Aspect Ratio: 1.78:1
Subtitles: English
English: Dolby Digital 5.1
Beautiful Minds
Gag Reel
Deleted Scenes
DVD release date
Region 1 Region 2 Region 4
September 3, 2013 (2013-09-03)[30] December 9, 2013 (2013-12-09)[31] December 4, 2013 (2013-12-04)[32]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Gorman, Bill (March 14, 2012). "CBS Renews 18 Shows: 'The Good Wife,' 'Blue Bloods,' '2 Broke Girls,' 'The Mentalist,' 'Mike & Molly' & Many More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved May 17, 2012.
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (February 15, 2012). "Paget Brewster To Leave 'Criminal Minds'". Deadline.com. Retrieved May 17, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Criminal Minds Scoop: Big Love's Jeanne Tripplehorn Joins Cast as a Series Regular". TV Line.com. June 13, 2012. Retrieved June 14, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bibel, Sara (October 2, 2012). "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: Sunday Night Football Tops Week 1 Viewing Among Adults 18-49 and With Total Viewers". TV by the Numbers. Archived from the original on October 4, 2012. Retrieved October 2, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bibel, Sara (October 16, 2012). "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: 'Sunday Night Football' Tops Week 3 Viewing Among Adults 18-49, & With Total Viewers, 'Modern Family' Number 1 Scripted Show". TV by the Numbers. Archived from the original on October 18, 2012. Retrieved October 16, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kondolojy, Amanda (October 23, 2012). "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: Sunday Night Football Tops Week 4 Viewing Among Adults 18-49 & With Total Viewers". TV by the Numbers. Archived from the original on October 27, 2012. Retrieved October 24, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kondolojy, Amanda. "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: Sunday Night Football Tops Week 5 Viewing Among Adults 18-49, 'NCIS' Number 1 With Total Viewers". TV by the Numbers. Archived from the original on November 1, 2012. Retrieved October 31, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kondolojy, Amanda (November 6, 2012). "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: Sunday Night Football Again Tops Week 6 Viewing Among Adults 18-49 and is Number 1 With Total Viewers". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 6, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bibel, Sara (November 13, 2012). "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: Sunday Night Football Again Tops Week 7 Viewing Among Adults 18-49 and is Number 1 With Total Viewers". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 13, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kondolojy, Amanda (November 20, 2012). "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: Sunday Night Football Again Tops Week 8 Viewing Among Adults 18-49 and is Number 1 With Total Viewers". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 20, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bibel, Sara (November 28, 2012). "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: Sunday Night Football Tops Week 9 Viewing Among Adults 18-49 and is Number 1 With Total Viewers". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 28, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kondolojy, Amanda (December 4, 2012). "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: Sunday Night Football Tops Week 10 Viewing Among Adults 18-49 and is Number 1 With Total Viewers". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved December 4, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bibel, Sara (December 11, 2012). "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: Sunday Night Football Tops Week 11 Viewing Among Adults 18-49 and is Number 1 With Total Viewers". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved December 11, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bibel, Sara (December 13, 2012). "Wednesday Final Ratings: 'The X Factor' Adjusted Up; 'The Middle' Adjusted Down". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved December 13, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bibel, Sara (January 23, 2013). "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: 'AFC Championship' Tops Week 17 Viewing Among Adults 18-49 & With Total Viewers". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved January 23, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kondolojy, Amanda (January 29, 2013). "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: 'American Idol' Tops Week 18 Viewing Among Adults 18-49 & With Total Viewers". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved February 7, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: 'Grammy Awards' Tops Week 20 Viewing Among Adults 18-49 & With Total Viewers". Tv by the Numbers. February 12, 2013. Retrieved February 14, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: The Oscars Tops Week 22 Viewing Among Adults 18–49 & With Total Viewers – Ratings". Tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com. Retrieved March 3, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: 'Modern Family' & 'American Idol' Top Week 23 Viewing Among Adults 18-49, 'NCIS' Number 1 With Total Viewers". Tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com. March 5, 2013. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kondolojy, Amanda (March 26, 2013). "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: 'American Idol' Tops Week 26 Viewing Among Adults 18-49; 'NCIS' Wins With Total Viewers". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved June 2, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kondolojy, Amanda (April 9, 2013). "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: NCAA Basketball Tops Week 28 Viewing Among Adults 18-49; 'The Big Bang Theory' Wins With Total Viewers". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved June 2, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bibel, Sara (April 16, 2013). "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: NCAA Basketball Championship Tops Week 29 Viewing Among Adults 18-49 & With Total Viewers". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved June 2, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kondolojy, Amanda (May 7, 2013). "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: 'Big Bang Theory' Tops Week 32 Viewing Among Adults 18-49, 'NCIS' on Top With Total Viewers". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved June 2, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kondolojy, Amanda (May 14, 2013). "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: 'The Big Bang Theory' Tops Week 33 Viewing Among Adults 18-49, 'NCIS' on Top With Total Viewers". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved June 2, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bibel, Sara (May 21, 2013). "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: 'The Big Bang Theory' Tops Week 34 Viewing Among Adults 18-49, 'NCIS' on Top With Total Viewers". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved June 2, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Bibel, Sara (May 29, 2013). "TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25: 'Modern Family' Tops Week 35 Viewing Among Adults 18-49, 'Dancing With the Stars' on Top With Total Viewers". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved June 2, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on January 23, 2013. Retrieved October 6, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on January 24, 2013. Retrieved October 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ Canadian Ratings - Top 30 most watched shows of Oct 22 -> 28
Jump up ^ Lambert, David (June 12, 2013). "Criminal Minds - Packaging Picture, Bonus Material for DVDs of 'The 8th Season'". TVShowsOnDVD. Retrieved June 12, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Criminal Minds - Season 8". Sainsbury's Entertainment. Archived from the original on August 23, 2013. Retrieved August 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Criminal Minds – Season 8". Retrieved February 11, 2014.
General references
"Shows A-Z – Criminal Minds on CBS". The Futon Critic. Retrieved May 17, 2012.
External links[edit]
Criminal Minds on IMDb
Criminal Minds at TV.com
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Chlorofluorocarbon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are fully halogenated paraffin hydrocarbons that contain only carbon, chlorine, and fluorine, produced as volatile derivative of methane, ethane, and propane. They are also commonly known by the DuPont brand name Freon. The most common representative is dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12 or Freon-12). Many CFCs have been widely used as refrigerants, propellants (in aerosol applications), and solvents. Because CFCs contribute to ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere, the manufacture of such compounds has been phased out under the Montreal Protocol, and they are being replaced with other products such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)[1] (e.g., R-410A) and R-134a.[2][3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure, properties and production
2 Reactions
3 Applications
4 Classes of compounds, nomenclature
4.1 Numbering system
5 History
5.1 Commercial development and use
5.2 Regulation
5.2.1 Regulatory gap
5.2.2 Regulation and DuPont
5.3 Phasing-out of CFCs
5.4 Development of alternatives for CFCs
6 Environmental impacts
7 Tracer of ocean circulation
7.1 CFC and SF6 tracer-derived age of ocean water
7.1.1 Partial pressure and ratio dating techniques
8 Safety
9 References
10 External links
Structure, properties and production[edit]
Main article: Organofluorine chemistry
As in simpler alkanes, carbon in the CFCs bonds with tetrahedral symmetry. Because the fluorine and chlorine atoms differ greatly in size and effective charge from hydrogen and from each other, the methane-derived CFCs deviate from perfect tetrahedral symmetry.[4]
The physical properties of CFCs and HCFCs are tunable by changes in the number and identity of the halogen atoms. In general, they are volatile but less so than their parent alkanes. The decreased volatility is attributed to the molecular polarity induced by the halides, which induces intermolecular interactions. Thus, methane boils at −161 °C whereas the fluoromethanes boil between −51.7 (CF2H2) and −128 °C (CF4). The CFCs have still higher boiling points because the chloride is even more polarizable than fluoride. Because of their polarity, the CFCs are useful solvents, and their boiling points make them suitable as refrigerants. The CFCs are far less flammable than methane, in part because they contain fewer C-H bonds and in part because, in the case of the chlorides and bromides, the released halides quench the free radicals that sustain flames.
The densities of CFCs are higher than their corresponding alkanes. In general, the density of these compounds correlates with the number of chlorides.
CFCs and HCFCs are usually produced by halogen exchange starting from chlorinated methanes and ethanes. Illustrative is the synthesis of chlorodifluoromethane from chloroform:
HCCl3 + 2 HF → HCF2Cl + 2 HCl
The brominated derivatives are generated by free-radical reactions of the chlorofluorocarbons, replacing C-H bonds with C-Br bonds. The production of the anesthetic 2-bromo-2-chloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane ("halothane") is illustrative:
CF3CH2Cl + Br2 → CF3CHBrCl + HBr
Reactions[edit]
The most important reaction[citation needed] of the CFCs is the photo-induced scission of a C-Cl bond:
CCl3F → CCl2F. + Cl.
The chlorine atom, written often as Cl., behaves very differently from the chlorine molecule (Cl2). The radical Cl. is long-lived in the upper atmosphere, where it catalyzes the conversion of ozone into O2. Ozone absorbs UV-B radiation, so its depletion allows more of this high energy radiation to reach the Earth's surface. Bromine atoms are even more efficient catalysts; hence brominated CFCs are also regulated.
Applications[edit]
CFCs and HCFCs are used in a variety of applications because of their low toxicity, reactivity and flammability. Every permutation of fluorine, chlorine and hydrogen based on methane and ethane has been examined and most have been commercialized. Furthermore, many examples are known for higher numbers of carbon as well as related compounds containing bromine. Uses include refrigerants, blowing agents, propellants in medicinal applications and degreasing solvents.
Billions of kilograms of chlorodifluoromethane are produced annually as precursor to tetrafluoroethylene, the monomer that is converted into Teflon.[5]
Classes of compounds, nomenclature[edit]
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): when derived from methane and ethane these compounds have the formulae CClmF4−m and C2ClmF6−m, where m is nonzero.
Hydro-chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs): when derived from methane and ethane these compounds have the formula CClmFnH4−m−n and C2ClxFyH6−x−y, where m, n, x, and y are nonzero.
and bromofluorocarbons have formulae similar to the CFCs and HCFCs but also include bromine.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs): when derived from methane, ethane, propane, and butane, these compounds have the respective formulae CFmH4−m, C2FmH6−m, C3FmH8−m, and C4FmH10−m, where m is nonzero.
Numbering system[edit]
Main article: refrigerant § Refrigerants by class
A special numbering system is used for fluorinated alkanes, prefixed with Freon-, R-, CFC- and HCFC-, where the rightmost value indicates the number of fluorine atoms, the next value to the left is the number of hydrogen atoms plus 1, and the next value to the left is the number of carbon atoms less one (zeroes are not stated), and the remaining atoms are chlorine.
Freon-12, for example, indicates a methane derivative (only two numbers) containing two fluorine atoms (the second 2) and no hydrogen (1-1=0). It is therefore CCl2F2.
Another, easier equation that can be applied to get the correct molecular formula of the CFC/R/Freon class compounds is this to take the numbering and add 90 to it. The resulting value will give the number of carbons as the first numeral, the second numeral gives the number of hydrogen atoms, and the third numeral gives the number of fluorine atoms. The rest of the unaccounted carbon bonds are occupied by chlorine atoms. The value of this equation is always a three figure number. An easy example is that of CFC-12, which gives: 90+12=102 -> 1 carbon, 0 hydrogens, 2 fluorine atoms, and hence 2 chlorine atoms resulting in CCl2F2. The main advantage of this method of deducing the molecular composition in comparison with the method described in the paragraph above is that it gives the number of carbon atoms of the molecule.
Freons containing bromine are signified by four numbers. Isomers, which are common for ethane and propane derivatives, are indicated by letters following the numbers :
[hide]Principal CFCs
Systematic name
Common/trivial
name(s), code
Boiling point (°C)
Formula
Trichlorofluoromethane Freon-11, R-11, CFC-11 23.77 CCl3F
Dichlorodifluoromethane Freon-12, R-12, CFC-12 −29.8 CCl2F2
Difluoromethane/pentafluoroethane R-410A, Puron, AZ-20 −48.5 50% CH2F2/50% CHF2CF3
Chlorotrifluoromethane Freon-13, R-13, CFC-13 −81 CClF3
Chlorodifluoromethane R-22, HCFC-22 −40.8 CHClF2
Dichlorofluoromethane R-21, HCFC-21 8.9 CHCl2F
Chlorofluoromethane Freon 31, R-31, HCFC-31 −9.1 CH2ClF
Bromochlorodifluoromethane BCF, Halon 1211, H-1211, Freon 12B1 −3.7 CBrClF2
1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane Freon 113, R-113, CFC-113, 1,1,2-Trichlorotrifluoroethane 47.7 Cl2FC-CClF2
1,1,1-Trichloro-2,2,2-trifluoroethane Freon 113a, R-113a, CFC-113a 45.9 Cl3C-CF3
1,2-Dichloro-1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethane Freon 114, R-114, CFC-114, Dichlorotetrafluoroethane 3.8 ClF2C-CClF2
1-Chloro-1,1,2,2,2-pentafluoroethane Freon 115, R-115, CFC-115, Chloropentafluoroethane −38 ClF2C-CF3
2-Chloro-1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane R-124, HCFC-124 −12 CHFClCF3
1,1-Dichloro-1-fluoroethane R-141b, HCFC-141b 32 Cl2FC-CH3
1-Chloro-1,1-difluoroethane R-142b, HCFC-142b −9.2 ClF2C-CH3
Tetrachloro-1,2-difluoroethane Freon 112, R-112, CFC-112 91.5 CCl2FCCl2F
Tetrachloro-1,1-difluoroethane Freon 112a, R-112a, CFC-112a 91.5 CClF2CCl3
1,1,2-Trichlorotrifluoroethane Freon 113, R-113, CFC-113 48 CCl2FCClF2
1-bromo-2-chloro-1,1,2-trifluoroethane Halon 2311a 51.7 CHClFCBrF2
2-bromo-2-chloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane Halon 2311 50.2 CF3CHBrCl
1,1-Dichloro-2,2,3,3,3-pentafluoropropane R-225ca, HCFC-225ca 51 CF3CF2CHCl2
1,3-Dichloro-1,2,2,3,3-pentafluoropropane R-225cb, HCFC-225cb 56 CClF2CF2CHClF
History[edit]
Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) was used in fire extinguishers and glass "anti-fire grenades" from the late nineteenth century until around the end of World War II. Experimentation with chloroalkanes for fire suppression on military aircraft began at least as early as the 1920s. Freon is a trade name for a group of CFCs which are used primarily as refrigerants, but also have uses in fire-fighting and as propellants in aerosol cans. Bromomethane is widely used as a fumigant. Dichloromethane is a versatile industrial solvent.
The Belgian scientist Frédéric Swarts pioneered the synthesis of CFCs in the 1890s. He developed an effective exchange agent to replace chloride in carbon tetrachloride with fluoride to synthesize CFC-11 (CCl3F) and CFC-12 (CCl2F2).
In the late 1920s, Thomas Midgley, Jr. improved the process of synthesis and led the effort to use CFC as refrigerant to replace ammonia (NH3), chloromethane (CH3Cl), and sulfur dioxide (SO2), which are toxic but were in common use. In searching for a new refrigerant, requirements for the compound were: low boiling point, low toxicity, and to be generally non-reactive. In a demonstration for the American Chemical Society, Midgley flamboyantly demonstrated all these properties by inhaling a breath of the gas and using it to blow out a candle[6] in 1930.[7][8]
Commercial development and use[edit]
During World War II, various chloroalkanes were in standard use in military aircraft, although these early halons suffered from excessive toxicity. Nevertheless, after the war they slowly became more common in civil aviation as well. In the 1960s, fluoroalkanes and bromofluoroalkanes became available and were quickly recognized as being highly effective fire-fighting materials. Much early research with Halon 1301 was conducted under the auspices of the US Armed Forces, while Halon 1211 was, initially, mainly developed in the UK. By the late 1960s they were standard in many applications where water and dry-powder extinguishers posed a threat of damage to the protected property, including computer rooms, telecommunications switches, laboratories, museums and art collections. Beginning with warships, in the 1970s, bromofluoroalkanes also progressively came to be associated with rapid knockdown of severe fires in confined spaces with minimal risk to personnel.
By the early 1980s, bromofluoroalkanes were in common use on aircraft, ships, and large vehicles as well as in computer facilities and galleries. However, concern was beginning to be expressed about the impact of chloroalkanes and bromoalkanes on the ozone layer. The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer did not cover bromofluoroalkanes as it was thought, at the time, that emergency discharge of extinguishing systems was too small in volume to produce a significant impact, and too important to human safety for restriction.
Regulation[edit]
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Since the late 1970s, the use of CFCs has been heavily regulated because of their destructive effects on the ozone layer. After the development of his electron capture detector, James Lovelock was the first to detect the widespread presence of CFCs in the air, finding a mole fraction of 60 ppt of CFC-11 over Ireland. In a self-funded research expedition ending in 1973, Lovelock went on to measure CFC-11 in both the Arctic and Antarctic, finding the presence of the gas in each of 50 air samples collected, and concluding that CFCs are not hazardous to the environment. The experiment did however provide the first useful data on the presence of CFCs in the atmosphere. The damage caused by CFCs was discovered by Sherry Rowland and Mario Molina who, after hearing a lecture on the subject of Lovelock's work, embarked on research resulting in the first publication suggesting the connection in 1974. It turns out that one of CFCs' most attractive features—their low reactivity— is key to their most destructive effects. CFCs' lack of reactivity gives them a lifespan that can exceed 100 years, giving them time to diffuse into the upper stratosphere.[9] Once in the stratosphere, the sun's ultraviolet radiation is strong enough to cause the homolytic cleavage of the C-Cl bond.
NASA projection of stratospheric ozone, in Dobson units, if chlorofluorocarbons had not been banned. Animated version.
By 1987, in response to a dramatic seasonal depletion of the ozone layer over Antarctica, diplomats in Montreal forged a treaty, the Montreal Protocol, which called for drastic reductions in the production of CFCs. On 2 March 1989, 12 European Community nations agreed to ban the production of all CFCs by the end of the century. In 1990, diplomats met in London and voted to significantly strengthen the Montreal Protocol by calling for a complete elimination of CFCs by the year 2000. By the year 2010, CFCs should have been completely eliminated from developing countries as well.
Ozone-depleting gas trends
Because the only CFCs available to countries adhering to the treaty is from recycling, their prices have increased considerably. A worldwide end to production should also terminate the smuggling of this material. However, there are current CFC smuggling issues, as recognized by the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) in a 2006 report titled "Illegal Trade in Ozone Depleting Substances". UNEP estimates that between 16,000–38,000 tonnes of CFCs passed through the black market in the mid-1990s. The report estimated between 7,000 and 14,000 tonnes of CFCs are smuggled annually into developing countries. Asian countries are those with the most smuggling; as of 2007, China, India and South Korea were found to account for around 70% of global CFC production,[10] South Korea later to ban CFC production in 2010.[11] Possible reasons for continued CFC smuggling were also examined: the report noted that many banned CFC producing products have long lifespans and continue to operate. The cost of replacing the equipment of these items is sometimes cheaper than outfitting them with a more ozone-friendly appliance. Additionally, CFC smuggling is not considered a significant issue, so the perceived penalties for smuggling are low. While the eventual phaseout of CFCs is likely, efforts are being taken to stem these current non-compliance problems.
By the time of the Montreal Protocol, it was realised that deliberate and accidental discharges during system tests and maintenance accounted for substantially larger volumes than emergency discharges, and consequently halons were brought into the treaty, albeit with many exceptions.
Regulatory gap[edit]
While the production and consumption of CFCs are regulated under the Montreal Protocol, emissions from existing banks of CFCs are not regulated under the agreement. In 2002, there were an estimated 5,791 kilotons of CFCs in existing products such as refrigerators, air conditioners, aerosol cans and others.[12] Approximately one-third of these CFCs are projected to be emitted over the next decade if action is not taken, posing a threat to both the ozone layer and the climate.[13] A proportion of these CFCs can be safely captured and destroyed.
Regulation and DuPont[edit]
In 1978 the United States banned the use of CFCs such as Freon in aerosol cans, the beginning of a long series of regulatory actions against their use. The critical DuPont manufacturing patent for Freon ("Process for Fluorinating Halohydrocarbons", U.S. Patent #3258500) was set to expire in 1979. In conjunction with other industrial peers DuPont formed a lobbying group, the "Alliance for Responsible CFC Policy," to combat regulations of ozone-depleting compounds.[14] In 1986 DuPont, with new patents in hand, reversed its previous stance and publicly condemned CFCs.[15] DuPont representatives appeared before the Montreal Protocol urging that CFCs be banned worldwide and stated that their new HCFCs would meet the worldwide demand for refrigerants.[15]
Phasing-out of CFCs[edit]
Use of certain chloroalkanes as solvents for large scale application, such as dry cleaning, have been phased out, for example, by the IPPC directive on greenhouse gases in 1994 and by the volatile organic compounds (VOC) directive of the EU in 1997. Permitted chlorofluoroalkane uses are medicinal only.
Bromofluoroalkanes have been largely phased out and the possession of equipment for their use is prohibited in some countries like the Netherlands and Belgium, from 1 January 2004, based on the Montreal Protocol and guidelines of the European Union.
Production of new stocks ceased in most (probably all) countries in 1994.[citation needed] However many countries still require aircraft to be fitted with halon fire suppression systems because no safe and completely satisfactory alternative has been discovered for this application. There are also a few other, highly specialized uses. These programs recycle halon through "halon banks" coordinated by the Halon Recycling Corporation[16] to ensure that discharge to the atmosphere occurs only in a genuine emergency and to conserve remaining stocks.
The interim replacements for CFCs are hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which deplete stratospheric ozone, but to a much lesser extent than CFCs.[17] Ultimately, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) will replace HCFCs. Unlike CFCs and HCFCs, HFCs have an ozone depletion potential (ODP) of 0.[18] DuPont began producing hydrofluorocarbons as alternatives to Freon in the 1980s. These included Suva refrigerants and Dymel propellants.[19] Natural refrigerants are climate friendly solutions that are enjoying increasing support from large companies and governments interested in reducing global warming emissions from refrigeration and air conditioning. Hydrofluorocarbons are included in the Kyoto Protocol because of their very high Global Warming Potential and are facing calls to be regulated under the Montreal Protocol[dubious – discuss][20] due to the recognition of halocarbon contributions to climate change.[21]
On 21 September 2007, approximately 200 countries agreed to accelerate the elimination of hydrochlorofluorocarbons entirely by 2020 in a United Nations-sponsored Montreal summit. Developing nations were given until 2030. Many nations, such as the United States and China, who had previously resisted such efforts, agreed with the accelerated phase out schedule.[22]
Development of alternatives for CFCs[edit]
Work on alternatives for chlorofluorocarbons in refrigerants began in the late 1970s after the first warnings of damage to stratospheric ozone were published.
The hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are less stable in the lower atmosphere, enabling them to break down before reaching the ozone layer. Nevertheless, a significant fraction of the HCFCs do break down in the stratosphere and they have contributed to more chlorine buildup there than originally predicted. Later alternatives lacking the chlorine, the hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) have an even shorter lifetimes in the lower atmosphere.[17] One of these compounds, HFC-134a, is now used in place of CFC-12 in automobile air conditioners. Hydrocarbon refrigerants (a propane/isobutane blend) are also used extensively in mobile air conditioning systems in Australia, the USA and many other countries, as they have excellent thermodynamic properties and perform particularly well in high ambient temperatures.
One of the natural refrigerants (along with ammonia and carbon dioxide), hydrocarbons have negligible environmental impacts and are also used worldwide in domestic and commercial refrigeration applications, and are becoming available in new split system air conditioners.[23] Various other solvents and methods have replaced the use of CFCs in laboratory analytics.[24]
In Metered-dose inhalers (MDI), a non-ozone effecting substitute was developed as a propellant, known as "hydrofluoroalkane."[25]
Applications and replacements for CFCs
Application
Previously used CFC
Replacement
Refrigeration & air-conditioning CFC-12 (CCl2F2); CFC-11(CCl3F); CFC-13(CClF3); HCFC-22 (CHClF2); CFC-113 (Cl2FCCClF2); CFC-114 (CClF2CClF2); CFC-115 (CF3CClF2); HFC-23 (CHF3); HFC-134a (CF3CFH2); HFC-507 (a 1:1 azeotropic mixture of HFC 125 (CF3 CHF2) and HFC-143a (CF3CH3)); HFC 410 (a 1:1 azeotropic mixture of HFC-32 (CF2H2) and HFC-125 (CF3CF2H))
Propellants in medicinal aerosols CFC-114 (CClF2CClF2) HFC-134a (CF3CFH2); HFC-227ea (CF3CHFCF3)
Blowing agents for foams CFC-11 (CCl3F); CFC 113 (Cl2FCCClF2); HCFC-141b (CCl2FCH3) HFC-245fa (CF3CH2CHF2); HFC-365 mfc (CF3CH2CF2CH3)
Solvents, degreasing agents, cleaning agents CFC-11 (CCl3F); CFC-113 (CCl2FCClF2) None
Environmental impacts[edit]
As previously discussed, CFCs were phased out via the Montreal Protocol due to their part in ozone depletion. However, the atmospheric impacts of CFCs are not limited to its role as an active ozone reducer. This anthropogenic compound is also a greenhouse gas, with a much higher potential to enhance the greenhouse effect than CO2.
Infrared absorption bands trap heat from escaping earth's atmosphere. In the case of CFCs, the strongest of these bands are located in the spectral region 7.8–15.3 µm [26] – referred to as an atmospheric window due to the relative transparency of the atmosphere within this region.[27] The strength of CFC bands and the unique susceptibility of the atmosphere, at which the compound absorbs and emits radiation, are two factors that contribute to CFCs' "super" greenhouse effect.[28] Another such factor is the low concentration of the compound. Because CO2 is close to saturation with high concentrations,[clarification needed] it takes more of the substance to enhance the greenhouse effect. Conversely, the low concentration of CFCs allow their effects to increase linearly with mass.[28]
Tracer of ocean circulation[edit]
Because the time history of CFC concentrations in the atmosphere is relatively well known, they have provided an important constraint on ocean circulation. CFCs dissolve in seawater at the ocean surface and are subsequently transported into the ocean interior. Because CFCs are inert, their concentration in the ocean interior reflects simply the convolution of their atmospheric time evolution and ocean circulation and mixing.
CFC and SF6 tracer-derived age of ocean water[edit]
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are anthropogenic compounds that have been released into the atmosphere since the 1930s in various applications such as in air-conditioning, refrigeration, blowing agents in foams, insulations and packing materials, propellants in aerosol cans, and as solvents.[29] The entry of CFCs into the ocean makes them extremely useful as transient tracers to estimate rates and pathways of ocean circulation and mixing processes.[30] However, due to production restrictions of CFCs in the 1980s, atmospheric concentrations of CFC-11 and CFC-12 has stopped increasing, and the CFC-11 to CFC-12 ratio in the atmosphere have been steadily decreasing, making water dating of water masses more problematic.[30] Incidentally, production and release of sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) have rapidly increased in the atmosphere since the 1970s.[30] Similar to CFCs, SF6 is also an inert gas and is not affected by oceanic chemical or biological activities.[31] Thus, using CFCs in concert with SF6 as a tracer resolves the water dating issues due to decreased CFC concentrations.
Using CFCs or SF6 as a tracer of ocean circulation allows for the derivation of rates for ocean processes due to the time-dependent source function. The elapsed time since a subsurface water mass was last in contact with the atmosphere is the tracer-derived age.[32] Estimates of age can be derived based on the partial pressure of an individual compound and the ratio of the partial pressure of CFCs to each other (or SF6).[32]
Partial pressure and ratio dating techniques[edit]
The age of a water parcel can be estimated by the CFC partial pressure (pCFC) age or SF6 partial pressure (pSF6) age. The pCFC age of a water sample is defined as:
p C F C = [ C F C ] F ( T , S ) {\displaystyle pCFC={\frac {[CFC]}{F(T,S)}}}
where [CFC] is the measured CFC concentration (pmol kg−1) and F is the solubility of CFC gas in seawater as a function of temperature and salinity.[33] The CFC partial pressure is expressed in units of 10–12 atmospheres or parts-per-trillion (ppt).[34] The solubility measurements of CFC-11 and CFC-12 have been previously measured by Warner and Weiss[34] Additionally, the solubility measurement of CFC-113 was measured by Bu and Warner[35] and SF6 by Wanninkhof et al.[36] and Bullister et al.[37] Theses authors mentioned above have expressed the solubility, F, at a total pressure of 1 atm as:
ln  F = a 1 + a 2 ( 100 T ) + a 3 ln  ( T 100 ) + a 4 ( T 100 ) 2 + S [ b 1 + b 2 ( T 100 ) + b 3 ( T 100 ) ] {\displaystyle \ln F=a_{1}+a_{2}\left({\frac {100}{T}}\right)+a_{3}\ln \left({\frac {T}{100}}\right)+a_{4}\left({\frac {T}{100}}\right)^{2}+S\left[b_{1}+b_{2}\left({\frac {T}{100}}\right)+b_{3}\left({\frac {T}{100}}\right)\right]}
where F = solubility expressed in either mol l−1 or mol kg−1 atm−1, T = absolute temperature, S = salinity in parts per thousand (ppt), a1, a2, a3, b1, b2, and b3 are constants to be determined from the least squares fit to the solubility measurements.[35] This equation is derived from the integrated Van 't Hoff equation and the logarithmic Setchenow salinity dependence.[35]
It can be noted that the solubility of CFCs increase with decreasing temperature at approximately 1% per degree Celsius.[32]
Once the partial pressure of the CFC (or SF6) is derived, it is then compared to the atmospheric time histories for CFC-11, CFC-12, or SF6 in which the pCFC directly corresponds to the year with the same. The difference between the corresponding date and the collection date of the seawater sample is the average age for the water parcel.[32] The age of a parcel of water can also be calculated using the ratio of two CFC partial pressures or the ratio of the SF6 partial pressure to a CFC partial pressure.[32]
Safety[edit]
According to their material safety data sheets, CFCs and HCFCs are colorless, volatile, toxic liquids and gases with a faintly sweet ethereal odor. Overexposure at concentrations of 11% or more may cause dizziness, loss of concentration, central nervous system depression and/or cardiac arrhythmia. Vapors displace air and can cause asphyxiation in confined spaces. Although non-flammable, their combustion products include hydrofluoric acid, and related species.[38] Normal occupational exposure is rated at 0.07% and does not pose any serious health risks.[39]
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External links[edit]
Gas conversion table
Nomenclature FAQ
Numbering scheme for Ozone-Depleting Substances and their substitutes
Class I Ozone-Depleting Substances
Class II Ozone-Depleting Substances (HCFCs)
CFC illegal trade
History of halon-use by the US Navy
Ozone Loss: The Chemical Culprits
Process using pyrolysis in an ultra high temperature plasma arc, for the elimination of CFCs
[1] Environmental Investigation Agency: Reports etc. on illegal trade and solutions
[2] Environmental Investigation Agency in the USA: Reports etc. on illegal trade and solutions
Freon in car A/C
[3] Phasing out halons in extinguishers
[show]
v
t
e
Halomethanes
Monosubstituted
CH3F
CH3Cl
CH3Br
CH3I
Disubstituted
CH2F2
CH2ClF
CH2BrF
CH2FI
CH2Cl2
CH2BrCl
CH2ClI
CH2Br2
CH2BrI
CH2I2
Trisubstituted
CHF3
CHClF2
CHBrF2
CHF2I
CHCl2F
C*HBrClF
C*HClFI
CHBr2F
C*HBrFI
CHFI2
CHCl3
CHBrCl2
CHCl2I
CHBr2Cl
C*HBrClI
CHClI2
CHBr3
CHBr2I
CHBrI2
CHI3
Tetrasubstituted
CF4
CClF3
CBrF3
CF3I
CCl2F2
CBrClF2
CClF2I
CBr2F2
CBrF2I
CF2I2
CCl3F
CBrCl2F
CCl2FI
CBr2ClF
C*BrClFI
CClFI2
CBr3F
CBr2FI
CBrFI2
CFI3
CCl4
CBrCl3
CCl3I
CBr2Cl2
CBrCl2I
CCl2I2
CBr3Cl
CBr2ClI
CBrClI2
CClI3
CBr4
CBr3I
CBr2I2
CBrI3
CI4
CAt4
* Chiral compound.
[show]
v
t
e
Functional groups
Only carbon,
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Hydrocarbons
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Ynone
Only one
element
apart from
C, H, O
Nitrogen
Amine
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Thial
Thioester
Thioether
Thioketone
Thiol
Selenium
Selenol
Selenonic acid
Seleninic acid
Selenenic acid
Tellurium
Tellurol
Other
Isothiocyanate
Phosphoramide
Sulfenyl chloride
Sulfonamide
Thiocyanate
See also chemical classification, chemical nomenclature (inorganic, organic)
[show]
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value: Edit section: Development of alternatives for CFCs

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//doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01611234

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value: Difluoroiodomethane (page does not exist)

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