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Judicial independence
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Jump to: navigation, search
Judicial independence is the concept that the judiciary needs to be kept away from the other branches of government. That is, courts should not be subject to improper influence from the other branches of government, or from private or partisan interests. Judicial Independence is vital and important to the idea of separation of powers.
Different countries deal with the idea of judicial independence through different means of judicial selection, or choosing judges. One way to promote judicial independence is by granting life tenure or long tenure for judges, which ideally frees them to decide cases and make rulings according to the rule of law and judicial discretion, even if those decisions are politically unpopular or opposed by powerful interests. This concept can be traced back to 18th century England.
In some countries, the ability of the judiciary to check the legislature is enhanced by the power of judicial review. This power can be used, for example, by mandating certain action when the judiciary perceives that a branch of government is refusing to perform a constitutional duty, or by declaring laws passed by the legislature unconstitutional.
Contents
[hide]
1 Economic basis
2 Development of the concept
2.1 National and international developments
2.2 International standards
2.3 The justice system
3 Canada
4 Hong Kong
5 United Kingdom
5.1 England and Wales
5.1.1 History
5.1.2 Contemporary usage
6 United States of America
6.1 Federal courts
6.2 State courts
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Economic basis[edit]
Constitutional economics studies issues such as the proper distribution of national wealth including government spending on the judiciary. In transitional and developing countries, spending on the judiciary may be controlled by the executive. This undermines the principle of judicial independence because it creates a financial dependence of the judiciary on the executive. It is important to distinguish between two methods of corruption of the judiciary: the state (through budget planning and privileges) being the most dangerous, and private. State corruption of the judiciary can impede the ability of businesses to optimally facilitate the growth and development of a market economy.[1]
In some countries, the constitution also prohibits the legislative branch from reducing salaries of sitting judges.
Development of the concept[edit]
National and international developments[edit]
The development of judicial independence has been argued to involve a cycle of national law having an impact on international law, and international law subsequently impacting national law.[2] This is said to occur in three phases: the first phase is characterized by the domestic development of the concept of judicial independence, the second by the spread of these concepts internationally and their implementation in international law, and the third by the implementation in national law of these newly formulated international principles of judicial independence.[2]
A notable example illustrating this cycle is the United Kingdom. The first phase occurred in England with the original conception of judicial independence in the Act of Settlement 1701.[3] The second phase was evident when England’s concepts regarding judicial independence spread internationally, and were adopted into the domestic law of other countries; for instance, England served as the model for Montesquieu’s separation of powers doctrine,[4] and the Founding Fathers of the US Constitution used England as their dominant model in formulating the Constitution’s Article III, which is the foundation of American judicial independence.[5] Other common law countries, including Canada, Australia, and India, also adopted the British model of judicial independence.[6]
In recent decades the third phase of judicial independence has been evident in the UK,[7] as it has been significantly influenced by judicial independence principles developed by international human rights constitutional documents. The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) has had a significant impact on the conceptual analysis of judicial independence in England and Scotland. This process began in the 1990s with the ECtHR hearing UK cases and, more significantly, in the application of the European Convention on Human Rights in British law through the Human Rights Act 1998, which came into force in the UK in 2000.[8]
Where British national law had previously impacted the international development of judicial independence, the British Constitutional Reform Act 2005[9] marked a shift, with international law now impacting British domestic law. The Constitutional Reform Act dramatically reformed government control over the administration of justice in England and Wales; importantly, it discontinued the position of the Lord Chancellor, one of the country’s oldest constitutional offices, who was entrusted with a combination of legislative, executive, and judicial capacities.[10] The Lord Chancellor served as speaker of the Upper House of Parliament, the House of Lords; as a member of the executive branch and member of the senior cabinet; and as the head of the judiciary. Historically, the appellate function had a connection with the executive branch due to the types of cases typically heard – impeachment and the hearing of felony charges against peers.[11] The Constitutional Reform Act established new lines of demarcation between the Lord Chancellor and the judiciary, transferring all the judicial functions to the judiciary and entrusting the Lord Chancellor only with what are considered administrative and executive matters. In addition, the Constitutional Reform Act replaced the Lord Chancellor by the Lord Chief Justice as head of the judiciary, separated the judicial Appellate Committee of the House of Lords from the legislative parliament, reforming it as the Supreme Court, and creating a Judicial Appointments Commission.[12] The creation of the Supreme Court was important, for it finally separated the highest court of appeal from the House of Lords.[13]
Thus, the United Kingdom, where judicial independence began over three hundred years ago, illustrates the interaction over time of national and international law and jurisprudence in the area of judicial independence. In this process, concepts and ideas have become enriched as they have been implemented in successive judicial and political systems, as each system has enhanced and deepened the concepts and ideas it actualized. In addition to the UK, similar developments of conceptual cross-fertilization can be seen internationally, for example in European Union law,[14] in civil law countries such as Austria, and in other common law jurisdictions including Canada.[15]
International standards[edit]
The International Association of Judicial Independence and World Peace produced the Mt. Scopus International Standards of Judicial Independence between 2007 and 2012. These built on the same association's New Delhi Minimum Standards on Judicial independence adopted in 1982 and their Montréal Universal Declaration on the Independence of Justice in 1983. Other influences they cite for the standards include the UN Basic Principles of Judicial Independence from 1985, the Burgh House Principles of Judicial Independence in International Law (for the international judiciary), Tokyo Law Asia Principles, Council of Europe Statements on judicial independence (particularly the Recommendation of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on the independence, efficiency and role of judges), the Bangalore Principles of Judicial Conduct 2002, and the American Bar Association's revision of its ethical standards for judges.[16]
The justice system[edit]
In recent years, the principle of judicial independence has been described as one of the core values of the justice system.[17]
Canada[edit]
Canada has a level of judicial independence entrenched in its Constitution, awarding superior court justices various guarantees to independence under sections 96 to 100 of the Constitution Act, 1867. These include rights to tenure (although the Constitution has since been amended to introduce mandatory retirement at age 75) and the right to a salary determined by the Parliament of Canada (as opposed to the executive). In 1982 a measure of judicial independence was extended to inferior courts specializing in criminal law (but not civil law) by section 11 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, although in the 1986 case Valente v. The Queen it was found these rights are limited. They do, however, involve tenure, financial security and some administrative control.
The year 1997 saw a major shift towards judicial independence, as the Supreme Court of Canada in the Provincial Judges Reference found an unwritten constitutional norm guaranteeing judicial independence to all judges, including civil law inferior court judges. The unwritten norm is said to be implied by the preamble to the Constitution Act, 1867. Consequently, judicial compensation committees such as the Judicial Compensation and Benefits Commission now recommend judicial salaries in Canada. There are two types of judicial independence: institutional independence and decisional independence. Institutional independence means the judicial branch is independent from the executive and legislative branches. Decisional independence is the idea that judges should be able to decide cases solely based on the law and facts, without letting the media, politics or other concerns sway their decisions, and without fearing penalty in their careers for their decisions.
Hong Kong[edit]
In Hong Kong, independence of the judiciary has been the tradition since the territory became a British crown colony in 1842. After the 1997 transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong to the People's Republic of China pursuant to the Sino-British Joint Declaration, an international treaty registered with the United Nations, independence of the judiciary, along with continuation of English common law, has been enshrined in the territory's constitutional document, the Basic Law.[18][19] In recent years, this independence has been put into question after a number of interventions from China on several cases which swayed rulings in the Executive's favour, most notably the Hong Kong Legislative Council oath-taking controversy of 2016.[20]
United Kingdom[edit]
England and Wales[edit]
Main article: Judiciary of England and Wales
History[edit]
During the middle ages, under the Norman monarchy of the Kingdom of England, the king and his Curia Regis held judicial power. Judicial independence began to emerge during the early modern period; more courts were created and a judicial profession grew. By the fifteenth century, the king's role in this feature of government became small.[21] Nevertheless, kings could still influence courts and dismiss judges. The Stuart dynasty used this power frequently in order to overpower the Parliament of England. After the Stuarts were removed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, some advocated guarding against royal manipulation of the judiciary. King William III approved the Act of Settlement 1701, which established tenure for judges unless Parliament removed them.[22][23]
Contemporary usage[edit]
Under the uncodified British Constitution, there are two important conventions which help to preserve judicial independence. The first is that the Parliament of the United Kingdom does not comment on the cases which are before the court. The second is the principle of parliamentary privilege: that Members of Parliament are protected from prosecution in certain circumstances by the courts.[citation needed]
Furthermore, the independence of the judiciary is guaranteed by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005.[24] In order to try to promote the independence of the judiciary, the selection process is designed to minimize political interference. The process focuses on senior members of the judiciary rather than on politicians. Part 2 of the Tribunals, Courts and Enforcement Act 2007 aims to increase diversity among the judiciary.[citation needed]
The pay of judges is determined by an independent pay review body. It makes recommendations to the government after taking evidence from a variety of sources. The government accepts these recommendations and will traditionally implement them fully. As long as judges hold their positions in "good order," they remain in post until they wish to retire or until they reach the mandatory retirement age of 70.[citation needed]
Until 1 January 2010, the legal profession was self-regulating; with responsibility for implementing and enforcing its own professional standards and disciplining its own members. The bodies which performed this function were the Bar Council and the Law Society. However, this self-regulation came to an end when approved regulators came under the regulation of the Legal Services Board, composed of non-lawyers, following the passage of the Legal Services Act 2007. This saw the establishment of the Solicitors Regulation Authority to regular solicitors and the Bar Standards Board to regulate barristers.[25]
United States of America[edit]
Federal courts[edit]
Article III of the United States Constitution establishes the federal courts as part of the federal government.
The Constitution provides that federal judges, including judges of the Supreme Court of the United States, are appointed by the President "by and with the advice and consent of the Senate." Once appointed, federal judges:
...both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavior, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services a Compensation which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office.
Federal judges vacate office only upon death, resignation, or impeachment and removal from office by Congress; only 13 federal judges have ever been impeached. The phrase "during good behavior" predates the Declaration of Independence. John Adams equated it with quamdiu se bene gesserint in a letter to the Boston Gazette published on 11 January 1773,[26] a phrase that first appeared in section 3 of the Act of Settlement 1701 in England.
The President is free to appoint any person to the federal bench, yet typically he consults with the American Bar Association, whose Standing Committee on the Federal Judiciary rates each nominee "Well Qualified," "Qualified" or "Not Qualified."
State courts[edit]
State courts deal with independence of the judiciary in many ways, and several forms of judicial selection are used for both trial courts and appellate courts (including state supreme courts), varying between states and sometimes within states. In some states, judges are elected (sometime on a partisan ballot, other times on a nonpartisan one), while in others they are appointed by the governor or state legislature.
The 2000 case of Bush v. Gore, in which a majority of the Supreme Court, including some appointees of President George H. W. Bush, overruled challenges to the election of the George W. Bush then pending in the Florida Supreme Court, whose members had all been appointed by Democratic governors, is seen by many as reinforcing the need for judicial independence, both with regard to the Florida Supreme Court and the US Supreme Court. This case has increased focus and attention on judicial outcomes as opposed to the traditional focus on judicial qualifications.
See also[edit]
Judicial reform
Judiciary in Russia
Political corruption § Judiciary corruption
Rule According to Higher Law
Rule of law
Separation of powers
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Peter Barenboim, Defining the rules, The European Lawyer, Issue 90, October 2009
^ Jump up to: a b S Shetreet, ‘The Normative Cycle of Shaping Judicial Independence in Domestic and International Law: The Mutual Impact of National and International Jurisprudence and Contemporary Practical and Conceptual Challenges’ (2009) 10 Chicago Journal of International Law 275-332
Jump up ^ See generally Shimon Shetreet book, Judges on Trial.
Jump up ^ See Baron de Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws (Hafner 1949) (Thomas Nugent, trans).
Jump up ^ Article III of the US Constitution provides that “the judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.”
Jump up ^ Shetreet, Judicial Independence. See also Peter H. Russell, The Judiciary in Canada: The Third Branch of Government (McGraw-Hill Ryerson 1987); John Bell, Judicial Cultures and Judicial Independence, 4 Cambridge YB Eur Legal Studies 47 (2001).
Jump up ^ UK Human Rights Act - 1998
Jump up ^ Human Rights Act (1998), ch 42 (UK), available online at < "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2010-09-01. Retrieved 2013-01-02. > (visited Mar 27, 2009).
Jump up ^ Constitutional Reform Act (2005), ch 4 (UK). For a detailed analysis of the history of this act, see Lord Windlesham, The Constitutional Reform Act 2005: The Politics of Constitutional Reform, 2006 Pub L 35; Lord Windlesham, The Constitutional Reform Act 2005: Ministers, Judges and Constitutional Change, 2005 Pub L 806. For accounts of the main players, see Lord Woolf, The Pursuit of Justice 161–74 (Oxford 2008); Lord Phillips, Constitutional Reform: One Year On, The Judicial Studies Board Annual Lecture (Mar 22, 2007); Lord Woolf, The Rule of Law and a Change in the Constitution, 2004 Camb L J 317; Tom Bingham, The Business of Judging: Selected Essays and Speeches 55–68 (Oxford 2000). All three authors served as lord chief justice in these formative years. Lord Woolf was active in the shaping of the legislation and Lord Phillips succeeded him
Jump up ^ Anthony Seldon, Ed., Blair's Britain, 1997-2007 (Cambridge University Press: 2007), at 294
Jump up ^ Robert Stevens, Law and Politics: The House of Lords as a Judicial Body, 1800-1976 (University of North Carolina Press, 1978), at 6
Jump up ^ Anthony Seldon, Ed., Blair's Britain, 1997-2007 (Cambridge University Press: 2007), at 294
Jump up ^ Anthony Seldon, Ed., Blair's Britain, 1997-2007 (Cambridge University Press: 2007), at 113
Jump up ^ See Treaty on European Union, art F, 1992 OJ (C 191) 1 (Jul 29, 1992). Paragraph 2 of Article F states, “The Union shall respect fundamental rights, as guaranteed by the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms . . . and as they result from the constitutional traditions common to the Member States, as general principles of Community law.”
Jump up ^ See, for example, Valente v The Queen, [1985] 2 SCR 673 (Canada)
Jump up ^ "Mt. Scopus Approved Revised International Standards of Judicial Independence Approved March 19, 2008". International Association of Judicial Independence and World Peace - International Project of judicial independence. Retrieved 11 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Shimon Shetreet, Fundamental Values of the Justice System, 23 THE EUROPEAN BUSINESS LAW REVIEW 61-76, (2012).
Jump up ^ "The Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China"- Chapter 1, basiclaw.gov.HK, 17 March 2008. Retrieved 2016-07-14.
Jump up ^ "The Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China"- Chapter 4, Section 4, basiclaw.gov.HK, 17 March 2008. Retrieved 2016-07-14.
Jump up ^ "Hundreds of Hong Kong lawyers in silent march against Beijing oath ruling". South China Morning Post. 8 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Justice Gerard La Forest, Provincial Judges Reference, Supreme Court of Canada, para. 305.
Jump up ^ "Independence". Courts and Tribunals Judiciary. Retrieved 9 November 2014.
Jump up ^ Justice Gerard La Forest, Provincial Judges Reference, para. 306.
Jump up ^ "Constitutional reform". Courts and Tribunals Judiciary. Retrieved 9 November 2014.
Jump up ^ UK Parliament. Legal Services Act 2007 as amended (see also enacted form), from legislation.gov.uk.
Jump up ^ Adams, John (1851). The Works of John Adams, Vol 3. Boston: Little and Brown. p. 522.
External links[edit]
Independence of the judicial system Part I. The Independence of Judges Part II - the Prosecution Service Venice Commission, 2010
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See also
Fusion of powers
Separation of duties
Judicial independence
Judicial review
Dual mandate
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text:
List of Manchester City F.C. records and statistics
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about all-time records. For a season-by-season statistical breakdown, see Manchester City F.C. seasons.
This article lists various statistics related to Manchester City Football Club.
All statistics accurate as of 15 April 2018 unless stated otherwise.
Contents
[hide]
1 Honours
2 Player of the Year awards
3 Appearances
3.1 All-time appearances
4 Goalscorers
4.1 All-time top goalscorers
5 Transfers
5.1 Highest transfer fees paid
5.2 Highest transfer fees received
5.3 Progression of record transfer fee paid
6 Records
6.1 Scorelines
6.2 Wins
6.3 Draws
6.4 Losses
6.5 Seasonal
6.6 Internationals
6.7 Attendances
6.8 Other
7 Internationals
8 References
9 External links
Honours[edit]
Best performances in competitions entered
Competition
Best result
Championship
Runners-up
Premier League/First Division 1 !Winners 5 5
First Division/Second Division 1 !Winners 7 4
Second Division 3 !Third 0 0
FA Cup 1 !Winners 5 5
Football League Cup 1 !Winners 5 1
Full Members Cup 2 !Runners-up 0 1
Football League Trophy 5 !First Round 0 0
Community Shield/Charity Shield 1 !Winners 4 6
UEFA Champions League/European Cup 3 !Semi-Finals 0 0
UEFA Europa League/UEFA Cup 4 !Quarter-Finals 0 0
UEFA Cup Winners' Cup 1 !Winners 1 0
FA Premier League/First Division (highest tier)[1]
Champions (5): 1937, 1968, 2012, 2014, 2018
Runners-up (5): 1904, 1921, 1977, 2013, 2015
First Division/Second Division (second tier)
Champions (7, record holders): 1899, 1903, 1910, 1928, 1947, 1966, 2002
Runners-up (4): 1896, 1951, 1989, 2000
Promoted 3rd Place (1): 1985
Second Division (third tier)
Play-off winners (1): 1999
FA Cup
Winners (5): 1904, 1934, 1956, 1969, 2011
Runners-up (5): 1926, 1933, 1955, 1981, 2013
Football League Cup
Winners (5): 1970, 1976, 2014, 2016, 2018
Runners-up (1): 1974
UEFA Cup Winners' Cup
Winners (1): 1970
Semi-Finals (1): 1971
UEFA Champions League/European Cup
(Best) Semi-Finals (1): 2016
UEFA Europa League/UEFA Cup
(Best) Quarter-Finals (2): 1979, 2009
FA Community Shield/FA Charity Shield
Winners (4): 1937, 1968, 1972, 2012
Runners-up (6): 1934, 1956, 1969, 1973, 2011, 2014
Full Members' Cup
Runners-up (1): 1986
Player of the Year awards[edit]
Main article: List of Manchester City F.C. players § Player of the Year awards
Each season since the end of the 1966–67 season, the members of the Manchester City Official Supporters Club have voted by ballot to choose the player on the team they feel is the most worthy of recognition for his performances during that season. The table in the linked main article above lists all of the recipients of this award since its inception.While in 2018 they have drawn 2 and lost 1
Appearances[edit]
Youngest Player: Glyn Pardoe, 15 years, 314 days (against Birmingham City, First Division, 11 April 1962)[2]
Oldest Player: Billy Meredith, 49 years, 245 days (against Newcastle United, FA Cup semi-final, 29 March 1924)[2]
All-time appearances[edit]
As of 13 September 2017[3][4]
Name
Years
League
FA Cup
League Cup
Europe
Other[a]
Total
Oakes, AlanAlan Oakes 1959–1976 564 !561 (3) 41 !41 (0) 46 !46 (1) 17 !17 (0) 11 !11 (0) 676 !676 (4)
Corrigan, JoeJoe Corrigan 1967–1983 476 !476 (0) 37 !37 (0) 52 !52 (0) 27 !27 (0) 13 !12 (1) 604 !604 (1)
Doyle, MikeMike Doyle 1967–1978 448 !441 (7) 44 !44 (0) 23 !23 (0) 20 !20 (0) 37 !37 (0) 565 !565 (7)
Trautmann, BertBert Trautmann 1949–1964 508 !508 (0) 33 !33 (0) 04 !4 (0) 00 !00 (0) 00 !0 (0) 545 !545 (0)
Bell, ColinColin Bell 1966–1979 394 !393 (1) 33 !33 (1) 40 !40 (0) 24 !23 (1) 09 !9 (0) 498 !498 (3)
Brook, EricEric Brook 1928–1939 450 !450 (0) 41 !41 (0) 00 !0 (0) 00 !0 (0) 02 !2 (0) 493 !493 (0)[b]
Booth, TommyTommy Booth 1968–1981 382 !380 (2) 27 !27 (0) 46 !44 (2) 26 !26 (0) 11 !11 (0) 487 !487 (4)
Summerbee, MikeMike Summerbee 1965–1975 357 !355 (2) 34 !34 (0) 36 !36 (0) 16 !16 (0) 09 !8 (1) 449 !449 (3)
Power, PaulPaul Power 1975–1986 358 !358 (7) 28 !28 (0) 38 !37 (1) 08 !7 (1) 08 !7 (1) 437 !437 (10)
Donachie, WillieWillie Donachie 1970–1980 351 !347 (4) 21 !21 (0) 40 !40 (0) 14 !13 (1) 12 !12 (0) 433 !433 (5)
Notes
Jump up ^ Includes appearances in the Charity Shield, Test Matches and the now-defunct Anglo-Italian Cup, Anglo-Scottish Cup, Full Members' Cup and Texaco Cup. Wartime matches excluded.
Jump up ^ Brook also played three games in the 1939–40 season, which were expunged from the records following the outbreak of the Second World War.
Goalscorers[edit]
Sergio Agüero is the top scorer in the history of the club
Most goals scored in all competitions: 199 – Sergio Agüero
Most goals scored in First Division: 158 – Eric Brook / Tommy Johnson
Most goals scored in Premier League: 143 – Sergio Agüero
Most goals scored in FA Cup: 22 – Fred Tilson
Most goals scored in Football League Cup: 18 – Colin Bell
Most goals scored in all European competition: 33 – Sergio Agüero
Most goals scored in UEFA Champions League: 29 – Sergio Agüero
Most goals scored in one season in all competitions: 38 – Tommy Johnson, 1928–29
Most goals scored in one First Division season: 38 – Tommy Johnson, 1928–29
Most goals scored in one Premier League season: 26 – Sergio Agüero, 2014–15
Most goals scored in one UEFA Champions League season: 8 – Sergio Agüero, 2016–17
Most goals scored in one Premier League match: 5 – Sergio Agüero, 2015–16
Most goals scored in one UEFA Champions League match: 3 – Álvaro Negredo 2013–14 / Sergio Agüero 2014–15, 2016–17 (twice)
Most goals scored in a match in any competition: 6 – Denis Law v Luton Town, 28 January 1961
All-time top goalscorers[edit]
As of 25 February 2018[3][4]
Name
Years
League
FA Cup
League Cup
Europe
Other[a]
Total
1 Agüero, SergioSergio Agüero 2011– 143 !143 16 !16 7 !7 33 !33 00 !0 197 !199
2 Brook, EricEric Brook 1927–1940 158 !158 19 !19 0 !0 0 !0 0 !0 177 !177[b]
3 Johnson, TommyTommy Johnson 1920–1930 158 !158 8 !8 0 !0 0 !0 0 !0 166 !166
4 Bell, ColinColin Bell 1966–1979 117 !117 09 !9 18 !18 08 !8 01 !1 153 !153
5 Hayes, JoeJoe Hayes 1953–1965 142 !142 09 !9 01 !1 00 !0 00 !0 152 !152
= Meredith, BillyBilly Meredith 1894–1906
1921–1924 146 !146 05 !5 00 !0 00 !0 01 !1 152 !152
7 Lee, FrancisFrancis Lee 1967–1974 112 !112 07 !7 14 !14 10 !10 05 !5 148 !148
8 Browell, TommyTommy Browell 1913–1926 122 !122 17 !17 00 !0 00 !0 00 !0 487 !139
9 Gillespie, BillieBillie Gillespie 1897–1905 126 !126 06 !6 00 !0 00 !0 00 !0 132 !132
= Tilson, FredFred Tilson 1928–1938 110 !110 22 !22 00 !0 00 !0 00 !0 132 !132
Notes
Jump up ^ Includes goals in the Charity Shield, Test Matches and the now-defunct Anglo-Italian Cup, Anglo-Scottish Cup, Full Members' Cup and Texaco Cup. Wartime matches excluded.
Jump up ^ Brook also scored one goal in the 1939–40 season, for which the fixtures were expunged from the records following the outbreak of the Second World War.
Transfers[edit]
Many transfers have undisclosed fees, and thus transfer fees are not accurate. Where players have signed/left on undisclosed fees, a reference is given for the estimated transfer fee from a reputable source.
Highest transfer fees paid[edit]
Name
From
Fee
Date
1 Aymeric Laporte Athletic Bilbao £57M 2018
2 Kevin De Bruyne VfL Wolfsburg £55M[5] 2015
3 Benjamin Mendy Monaco £49M 2017
4 Kyle Walker Tottenham Hotspur £48M[6] 2017
5 John Stones Everton £47.5M 2016
6 Raheem Sterling Liverpool £44M[7] 2015
7 Bernardo Silva Monaco £43M 2017
8 Sergio Agüero Atlético Madrid £38M 2011
9 Leroy Sané Schalke 04 £37M 2016
10 Ederson Benfica £34.2M 2017
Highest transfer fees received[edit]
Name
To
Fee
Date
1 Kelechi Iheanacho Leicester City £25M[8] 2017
2 Álvaro Negredo Valencia £24M[9] 2015
3 Shaun Wright-Phillips Chelsea £21M[10] 2005
4 Mario Balotelli Milan £19M[11] 2013
5 Robinho Milan £18M[12] 2010
6 Javi García Zenit Saint Petersburg £13M 2014
7 Enes Ünal Villarreal £12M[13] 2017
8 Carlos Tevez Juventus £12M[14] 2013
9 Jack Rodwell Sunderland £10M[15] 2014
10 Jérôme Boateng Bayern Munich £10M[16] 2011
Progression of record transfer fee paid[edit]
Fee
Selling club
Transferred player
Transfer date
Notes
£30 Bolton Wanderers Gunn, JohnJohn Gunn 000000001896-10-01-0000October 1896 Earliest recorded transfer fee[17]
£250 Newton Heath Cassidy, JoeJoe Cassidy 000000001900-04-01-0000April 1900 [17]
£450 Glossop North End Thornley, IrvineIrvine Thornley 000000001904-04-01-0000April 1904 [17][18]
£1,200 Norwich City Ross, DavidDavid Ross 000000001907-02-01-0000February 1907 [17]
£1,780 Everton Browell, TommyTommy Browell 000000001913-10-01-0000October 1913 [17]
£2,500 Derby County Barnes, HoraceHorace Barnes 000000001914-05-01-0000May 1914 [17]
£3,400 Bolton Wanderers Roberts, FrankFrank Roberts 000000001922-10-01-0000October 1922 [17]
£4,700 Partick Thistle McMullan, JimmyJimmy McMullan 000000001926-02-01-0000February 1926 [17]
£10,000 Blackpool Doherty, PeterPeter Doherty 000000001936-02-01-0000February 1936 [17]
£25,000 Swansea Town Paul, RoyRoy Paul 000000001950-07-01-0000July 1950 [17]
£55,000 Huddersfield Town Law, DenisDenis Law 000000001960-03-01-0000March 1960 British record[17]
£60,000 Bolton Wanderers Lee, FrancisFrancis Lee 000000001967-10-01-0000October 1967 [17]
£200,000 Queens Park Rangers Marsh, RodneyRodney Marsh 000000001972-03-01-0000March 1972 [17]
£275,000 Sunderland Tueart, DennisDennis Tueart 000000001974-03-01-0000March 1974 [17]
£275,000 Luton Town Futcher, PaulPaul Futcher 000000001978-06-01-0000June 1978 [17]
£765,000 Preston North End Robinson, MichaelMichael Robinson 000000001979-09-01-0000September 1979
£1,450,277 Wolverhampton Wanderers Daley, SteveSteve Daley 000000001979-09-05-00005 September 1979 British record
£2.5M Wimbledon Curle, KeithKeith Curle 000000001991-08-14-000014 August 1991
£3M Portsmouth Bradbury, LeeLee Bradbury 000000001997-07-30-000030 July 1997
£3.65M West Ham United Wanchope, PauloPaulo Wanchope 000000002000-08-09-00009 August 2000
£5M Preston North End Macken, JonJon Macken 000000002002-02-05-00005 February 2002
£13M Paris Saint Germain Anelka, NicolasNicolas Anelka 000000002002-06-07-00007 June 2002
£19M CSKA Moscow Jô 000000002008-07-02-00002 July 2008 [19]
£32.5M Real Madrid Robinho 000000002008-09-01-00001 September 2008 British record[20]
£38M Atlético Madrid Sergio Agüero 000000002011-07-28-000028 July 2011 [21]
£44M Liverpool Raheem Sterling 000000002015-07-14-000014 July 2015 Record for an English player[22]
£54M VfL Wolfsburg Kevin De Bruyne 000000002015-08-30-000030 August 2015
£57M Athletic Bilbao Aymeric Laporte 000000002018-01-30-000030 January 2018
Records[edit]
Scorelines[edit]
Record League victory: 11–3 v Lincoln City, Division 2, 23 March 1895[23]
Record League defeat: 4–7 v Small Heath, Division 2, 17 March 1894[a][23]
Record League victory: 11–3 v Lincoln City, Division 2, 23 March 1895[23]
Record Cup victory: 11–4 v Crystal Palace, FA Cup 4th Round, 20 February 1926
Record League defeat: 1–9 v Everton, Division 1, 3 September 1906[23]
Wins[edit]
Most wins in a row (all competitions): 20, 26 August – 3 December 2017 (includes match against Wolverhampton Wanderers, won on penalties)[24]
Most wins in a row (league): 18, 26 August – 27 December 2017
Most home wins in a row (all competitions): 20, 9 September 2017 - 4 March 2018
Most away wins in a row (all competitions): 11, 21 May – 26 November 2017
Most home wins in a row (league): 20, 5 March 2011 – 21 March 2012
Most away wins in a row (league): 11, 21 May – 27 December 2017
Draws[edit]
Most draws in a row: 6, 5 April – 6 September 1913
Most home draws in a row: 6, 18 October – 20 December 1924
Most away draws in a row: 7, 9 September – 24 November 1990
Most league draws in a row: 7, 5 October - 28 October 2009
Losses[edit]
Most defeats in a row: 8, 23 August – 14 October 1995
Most home defeats in a row: 5, 5 December 1987 – 23 January 1988
Most away defeats in a row: 14, 5 November 1892 – 13 January 1894
Longest unbeaten run: 28, 27 April 2017 – 3 December 2017
Longest unbeaten run in the league: 30, 8 April 2017 – 2 January 2018
Longest unbeaten run at home: 41, 25 December 1919 – 19 November 1921
Longest unbeaten run away: 15, 26 December 1998 – 26 September 1999
Longest winless run: 17, 26 December 1979 – 7 April 1980
Longest winless run at home: 9, 26 December 1979 – 7 April 1980
Longest winless run away: 34, 11 February 1986 – 17 October 1987
Seasonal[edit]
Most goals in all competitions in a season: 156 – 2013–14[25]
Most League goals in a season: 108 – 1926–27, 2001–2002[2]
Most points in a season (2 points per win): 62 – 1946–47, Second Division[2]
Most points in a season (3 points per win): 99 – 2001–2002, First Division[2]
Most League wins in a season: 31 – 2001–02
Most home League wins in a season: 19 – 1920–21, 2001–02
Most away League wins in a season: 14 – 2017-18
Internationals[edit]
Most international caps (total while at club): 51 – David Silva - Spain[2]
Attendances[edit]
Highest home attendance: 84,569 v Stoke City, Maine Road, FA Cup, 3 March 1934[b]
Other[edit]
Most Clean Sheets in a season (total): 29[26] – Joe Hart, 2010–11 season - in Premier League, FA Cup and UEFA Europa League
Notes
Jump up ^ Cite error: The named reference Ardwick was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
Jump up ^ Record for any English club outside of games at Wembley Stadium
Internationals[edit]
The following players represented their countries while playing for Manchester City (the figure in brackets is the number of caps gained while a Manchester City player. Many of these players also gained caps while at other clubs.) Figures for active players (in bold) last updated 25 April 2014
Algeria
Djamel Belmadi (1)[27]
Argentina
Sergio Agüero (35)
Carlos Tevez (16)
Pablo Zabaleta (42)
Martín Demichelis (6)
Nicolás Otamendi (0)
Australia
Danny Tiatto (14)[28]
Belgium
Dedryck Boyata (1)[29]
Jason Denayer * (1)[30]
Vincent Kompany (46)[31]
Émile Mpenza (2)[32]
Kevin De Bruyne
Bermuda
Shaun Goater
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Edin Džeko (39)
Brazil
Elano (18)[33][34]
Jô (2)[34]
Robinho (25)[34][35]
Fernando
Fernandinho (13)[36]
Gabriel Jesus
Danilo
Ederson
Bulgaria
Valeri Bojinov (7)
Martin Petrov (19)
Cameroon
Marc-Vivien Foé (5)[37]
Lucien Mettomo (14)[38]
Chile
Claudio Bravo
China
Sun Jihai
Costa Rica
Paulo Wanchope (23)[39]
Croatia
Vedran Ćorluka (13)
Denmark
Niclas Jensen (18)[40]
Ecuador
Felipe Caicedo (10)
England
Billy Austin (1)[41]
Sam Barkas (5)[41]
Peter Barnes (14)[41]
Gareth Barry (24)[42]
Joey Barton (1) [43]
Colin Bell (48)[41]
Frank Booth (1)[41]
Jackie Bray (6)[41]
Wayne Bridge (4)[44]
Ivor Broadis (8)[41]
Eric Brook (18)[41]
Herbert Burgess (4)[41]
Mick Channon (1)[41]
Joe Corrigan (9)[41]
Sam Cowan (3)[41]
Keith Curle (2)[45]
Mike Doyle (5)[41]
Trevor Francis (10)[41]
Joe Hart (50)[46]
David James (13)[45]
Adam Johnson (12)[47]
Tommy Johnson (2)[41]
Francis Lee (27)[41]
Joleon Lescott (19)[48]
Rodney Marsh (8)[41]
Jimmy Meadows (1)[41]
James Milner (41)[49]
James Mitchell (1)[41]
Kevin Reeves (2)[41]
Don Revie (6)[41]
Micah Richards (13)[50]
Frank Roberts (4)[41]
Joe Royle (4)[41]
Trevor Sinclair (1)[45]
Bert Sproston (1)[41]
Mike Summerbee (8)[41]
Frank Swift (19)[41]
Irvine Thornley (1)[41]
Fred Tilson (4)[41]
Dennis Tueart (6)[41]
David Watson (30)[41]
David White (1)[45]
Max Woosnam (1)[41]
Shaun Wright-Phillips (20)[51]
John Stones
Fabian Delph
Raheem Sterling
Kyle Walker
Faroe Islands
Gunnar Nielsen (6)
Finland
Tuomas Haapala* (2)
France
Gaël Clichy (9)
Samir Nasri (17)
Bacary Sagna (17)
Eliaquim Mangala (2)
Benjamin Mendy
Georgia
Mikhail Kavelashvili (2)[52][53]
Georgi Kinkladze (19)
Murtaz Shelia (5)[54][55][56]
Germany
Jérôme Boateng (8)[57]
Leroy Sané
İlkay Gündogan
Greece
Georgios Samaras (16)
Iceland
Árni Gautur Arason (4)
Ireland
Peter Doherty (6)[41]
Jimmy Elwood (1)[41]
Mickey Hamill (1)[41]
Paddy Kelly (1)[41]
Keiller McCullough (3)[41]
Jimmy Mulligan (1)[41]
Billy Walsh (5)[41]
Israel
Tal Ben Haim (10)[58]
Eyal Berkovic (6)[58]
Italy
Mario Balotelli (15)[59]
Ivory Coast
Wilfried Bony (6)
Abdul Razak (5)
Kolo Touré (31)
Yaya Touré (45)
Kenya
Farhan Bux
Liberia
George Weah
Mexico
Nery Castillo (2)
Montenegro
Stefan Savić (8)
Stevan Jovetić (9)
Netherlands
Paul Bosvelt (5)[60]
Nigel de Jong (34)[61]
New Zealand
Chris Killen (13)[62]
Nigeria
Kelechi Iheanacho (3)[63]
Northern Ireland
Johnny Crossan (10)[41]
Gary Fleming (2)[64]
Kevin Horlock (27)[65][66]
Michael Hughes (4)[65]
Steve Lomas (18)[65]
Billy McAdams (5)[41]
Ryan McGivern*
Sammy McIlroy (10)[64]
Martin O'Neill(1)[41]
Jeff Whitley (7)[66]
Jim Whitley (3)[65]
Tommy Wright (4)[65]
Norway
Alf-Inge Håland
Kåre Ingebrigtsen
Paraguay
Roque Santa Cruz (27)
Portugal
Bernardo Silva
Republic of Ireland
Jimmy Conway (1)[41]
Greg Cunningham (2)
Richard Dunne (30)
Paddy Fagan (2)[41]
Shay Given (22)
Stephen Ireland (6)
Mark Kennedy
Alan Kernaghan
Jon Macken (1)
Mick McCarthy
Terry Phelan
Niall Quinn
Billy Walsh (9)[41]
Scotland
Matt Busby (1)[41]
Paul Dickov (3)[67]
Willie Donachie (35)[41]
Asa Hartford (36)[41]
Bobby Johnstone (4)[41]
Denis Law (11)[41]
George Livingstone (1)[41]
Jimmy McLuckie (1)[41]
Jimmy McMullan (8)[41]
Jackie Plenderleith (1)[41]
George Stewart (2)[41]
Serbia
Aleksandar Kolarov (37)
Matija Nastasić (14)
Slovakia
Vladimír Weiss (24)
Spain
David Silva (51)
Jesús Navas (13)
Álvaro Negredo (7)
Nolito
Sweden
John Guidetti (2)
Andreas Isaksson (16)
Switzerland
Gelson Fernandes (14)
Thailand
Teerasil Dangda*
Kiatprawut Saiwaeo*
Suree Sukha*
Togo
Emmanuel Adebayor (3)
Ukraine
Oleksandr Zinchenko *
United States
DaMarcus Beasley
Claudio Reyna
Wales
Craig Bellamy (8)
Tommy Chapman (2)[41]
Roy Clarke (22)[41]
Gordon Davies[68]
Joe Davies
Wyn Davies (3)[41]
Andy Dibble (1)[68]
Ched Evans (8)
Edwin Hughes (3)[41]
Di Jones (2)[41]
Lot Jones (18)[41]
Billy Lewis (2)[41]
Billy Meredith (22)[41]
Hugh Morris (1)[41]
Roy Paul (24)[41]
David Phillips (10)[68]
Cliff Sear (1)[41]
Kit Symons (9)[69]
Ben Thatcher (4)[70]
George Wynn (8)[41]
Zimbabwe
Benjani (4)
*Players with no first team appearances.
References[edit]
General
James, Gary (2006). Manchester City - The Complete Record. Derby: Breedon. ISBN 1-85983-512-0.
Specific
Jump up ^ Up until 1992, the top division of English football was the Football League First Division; since then, it has been the FA Premier League. At the same time, the Second Division was renamed the First Division, and the Third Division was renamed the Second Division.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Roll of Honour". Manchester City FC. Archived from the original on 5 August 2008. Retrieved 12 August 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b "City Top Tens". Manchester City FC. Archived from the original on 4 August 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b James, Manchester City - The Complete Record, pp155–167
Jump up ^ "Kevin De Bruyne in line to make Manchester City debut at Crystal Palace". The Guardian. 11 September 2015. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Man City agree £50m fee to sign Kyle Walker from Tottenham". SkySports. Retrieved 14 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Details of Raheem Sterling's £49M deal revealed". MEN. 14 July 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2015. He will cost an initial £44m with a further £5m in add-ons, depending on his success at the Etihad.
Jump up ^ "Kelechi Iheanacho completes £25 million Leicester switch - sources". ESPN FC. 1 August 2017. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Alvaro Negredo WILL sign £24m deal at Valencia, insist Manchester City". Daily Mail. 16 April 2015. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Wright-Phillips signs for Chelsea". BBC Sport. 18 July 2005. Retrieved 1 September 2011.
Jump up ^ "Mario Balotelli seals move to AC Milan from Manchester City". BBC. 31 January 2013. Retrieved 1 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Robinho agrees permanent Milan move". The Guardian. 31 August 2010. Retrieved 1 September 2011.
Jump up ^ "Villareal land Enes Unal for £12m from Manchester City". The Guardian. 31 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Carlos Tevez: Manchester City & Juventus agree £12m deal". BBC Sport. 25 June 2013.
Jump up ^ "Jack Rodwell completes move from Manchester City to Sunderland". The Guardian. 5 August 2014.
Jump up ^ "Bayern reach agreement with Manchester City on £10m deal for Boateng". Daily Mail. 14 July 2011. Retrieved 1 September 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o "Chronological Progression of Record". Manchester City FC Match programme. 13 September 2008.
Jump up ^ Some contemporary sources reported the fee as £800, a British record. However, Manchester City's accounts listed the fee as £450.
Jump up ^ "Jô signs for Club record transfer fee". mcfc.co.uk. 2 July 2008. Archived from the original on 19 September 2008. Retrieved 2 July 2008.
Jump up ^ "Robinho joins City". mcfc.co.uk. 2 September 2008. Archived from the original on 8 February 2008. Retrieved 2 September 2008.
Jump up ^ "Sergio Aguero completes £35 million transfer to Manchester City". Daily Telegraph. 28 July 2011.
Jump up ^ "Raheem Sterling joins Manchester City". 14 July 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d James, Manchester City - The Complete Record, p509
Jump up ^ "CITY BREAK CLUB RECORD WITH 12TH CONSECUTIVE WIN". Manchester City. Retrieved 24 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Manuel Pellegrini hails record-breaking champions Man City for stylish season". Daily Star. 11 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Manchester City and England goalkeeper Joe Hart's show-stopping story of success". The Telegraph. 3 June 2011. Retrieved 1 September 2011. Man City record - Ends the season with 29 clean sheets in all competitions for City. His consistent brilliance sees him break the club record of 26, set by Nicky Weaver in League One in 1998–99.
Jump up ^ "Algeria - Details of International Matches 2002". RSSSF. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "Australian Player Database - TI". Australian Player Database. Retrieved 6 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "Dedryck Boyata". Royal Belgian Football Association. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "Jason Denayer". Royal Belgian Football Association. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "Vincent Kompany". Royal Belgian Football Association. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "Emile Mpenza". Royal Belgian Football Association. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "Seleção Brasileira (Brazilian National Team) 2006–2007". RSSSF Brazil. Retrieved 6 September 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Seleção Brasileira (Brazilian National Team) 2008–2009". RSSSF Brazil. Retrieved 6 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "Seleção Brasileira (Brazilian National Team) 2010". RSSSF Brazil. Retrieved 6 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "Seleção Brasileira (Brazilian National Team) 2014–2015". RSSSF Brazil. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "Cameroon - Details of International Matches 2003". RSSSF. Retrieved 6 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "Cameroon - Details of International Matches 2000-2009". RSSSF. Retrieved 22 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "Costa Rica - Details International Matches 1993-2003". RSSSF. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "Landholdsdatabasen spiller information". Dansk Boldspil-Union. Retrieved 6 September 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn Ward, Andrew (1984). The Manchester City Story. Derby: Breedon. p. 95. ISBN 0-907969-05-4.
Jump up ^ "England Players - Gareth Barry". England Football Online. Retrieved 22 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "England Players - Joey Barton". England Football Online. Retrieved 22 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "England Players - Wayne Bridge". England Football Online. Retrieved 22 March 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Club Affiliations - Manchester City". England Football Online. Retrieved 6 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "England Goalkeepers - Joe Hart". England Football Online. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "England Players - Adam Johnson". England Football Online. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "England Players - Joleon Lescott". England Football Online. Retrieved 29 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "England Players - James Milner". England Football Online. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "England Players - Micah Richards". England Football Online. Retrieved 22 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "England Players - Shaun Wright-Phillips". England Football Online. Retrieved 22 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "1996 Matches – Europe (July – September)". Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation. Retrieved 20 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "1997 Matches – Europe (January – June)". Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation. Retrieved 20 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "1998 Matches – Europe (January – June)". Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "1998 Matches Intercontinental". Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "1998 Matches – Europe (July – December)". Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "Germany - International Results - Details 2010-2019". RSSSF. Retrieved 22 March 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Israel Official Games 2000-2009". RSSSF. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "Italy - International Matches 2010-2019". RSSSF. Retrieved 22 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "Nederland International Matches - Details 2000-2009". RSSSF. Archived from the original on 9 October 2013. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "Interlands, doelpunten Nigel de Jong". Voetbalstats. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "New Zealand International Matches - Details 2000-2006". RSSSF. Retrieved 25 March 2013.
Jump up ^ List of Manchester City F.C. records and statistics at Soccerway
^ Jump up to: a b "(Northern) Ireland - International Results 1980-1989 - Details". RSSSF. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "(Northern) Ireland - International Results 1990-1999 - Details". RSSSF. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "(Northern) Ireland - International Results 2000-2005 - Details". RSSSF. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "Scotland football record with players from Manchester City". Scotland the Complete. Retrieved 6 September 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Wales - International Results 1980-1989 - Details". RSSSF. Archived from the original on 8 August 2007. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "Wales - International Results 1990-1999 - Details". RSSSF. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "Wales - International Results 2000-2005 - Details". RSSSF. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
External links[edit]
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Tree-topper
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with Tree Topper.
A Christmas tree crowned with a star tree-topper in Little Stanney, Cheshire, in England
A tree-topper or treetopper is a decorative ornament placed on the top (or "crown") of a Christmas tree or Hanukkah bush. Tree-toppers can take any form, but the most common shapes are a star (representing either the Star of Bethlehem or the Star of David), finials, angels ("Christmas angel"), or fairies. Other tree-toppers include paper rosettes, ribbon bows, Father Christmases or Santa Clauses, Christian crosses, owls, and sunbursts.
Tree-toppers may be made of blown glass, metal, or plastic, among other materials. Plastic tree-toppers are often electric and once connected with the tree's lights glow from within. Following World War II, various symbols of Christmastide, such as Santa Claus, were introduced as electrified tree-toppers.
Hans Christian Andersen's short story of "The Fir-Tree" describes the decoration of a Danish Christmas tree, including its topper, thus:
"On one branch there hung little nets cut out of colored paper, and each net was filled with sugarplums; and among the other boughs gilded apples and walnuts were suspended, looking as though they had grown there, and little blue and white tapers were placed among the leaves. Dolls that looked for all the world like men—the Tree had never beheld such before—were seen among the foliage, and at the very top a large star of gold tinsel was fixed."[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin and use
2 Alternatives
3 Gallery
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Origin and use[edit]
"That pretty German toy, a Christmas tree" (1848), The Illustrated London News
Use of a Christmas angel as a tree-topper represents to some the angel Gabriel from the Nativity of Jesus:
"And in the sixth month the angel Gabriel was sent from God unto a city of Galilee, named Nazareth, to a virgin espoused to a man whose name was Joseph, of the house of David; and the virgin's name was Mary."
—  Luke 1:26–27 (KJV)
Use of a star represents the Star of Bethlehem:
"Now when Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judaea in the days of Herod the king, behold, there came wise men from the east to Jerusalem, saying, 'Where is he that is born King of the Jews? for we have seen his star in the east, and are come to worship him.'"
—  Matthew 2:1–2 (KJV)
The use of the angel tree-topper goes back to the Victorian era, corresponding to the rise in popularity of Christmas trees in England. The Illustrated London News published a picture of Queen Victoria, Prince Albert, and their family around a Christmas tree topped with an angel, and by its influence the Christmas angel became the most common tree-topper.[2]
During the 1870s, in conjunction with the growing power of the British Empire, the Union Jack had become the most popular tree-topper.[3]
Alternatives[edit]
In Jewish homes that use a Hanukkah bush, the Star of David is used as a tree-topper.
Some Neo-pagan homes celebrate the winter solstice, which falls close to Christmas, by decorating an evergreen tree as a symbol of continuing life,[4] but make an effort to decorate it with non-Christian symbols and often choose tree-toppers representing the sun.
Gallery[edit]
Post-War NOMA plastic, electrified angel tree-topper
Croatian Christmas star
Homemade Christmas angel
A Christmas tree crowned with a star tree-topper Köln Germany
See also[edit]
Christmas tree
Christmas ornament
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Andersen's Fairy Tales, Project Gutenberg text
Jump up ^ History of Christmas Trees at Christmas Archives
Jump up ^ History of Tree-toppers
Jump up ^ Christmas Tree-topper at Mahalo
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Christmas tree.
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English alphabet
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The modern English alphabet is a Latin alphabet consisting of 26 letters (each having an uppercase and a lowercase form) – exactly the same letters that are found in the ISO basic Latin alphabet:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Majuscule forms (also called uppercase or capital letters)
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Minuscule forms (also called lowercase or small letters)
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
The exact shape of printed letters varies depending on the typeface (and font). The shape of handwritten letters can differ significantly from the standard printed form (and between individuals), especially when written in cursive style. See the individual letter articles for information about letter shapes and origins (follow the links on any of the uppercase letters above).
Written English uses 18[1] digraphs, such as ch, sh, th, ph, wh, etc., but they are not considered separate letters of the alphabet. Some traditions[which?] also use two ligatures, æ and œ,[nb 1] or consider the ampersand (&) part of the alphabet.
English alphabet
(Listen to a Received Pronunciation British English speaker recite the English alphabet)
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Old English
1.2 Modern English
1.3 Ligatures in recent usage
2 Proposed reforms
3 Diacritics
4 Ampersand
5 Apostrophe
6 Letter names
6.1 Etymology
7 Phonology
8 Letter numbers and frequencies
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 Further reading
History[edit]
See also: History of the Latin alphabet and English orthography
Old English[edit]
Main article: Old English Latin alphabet
The English language was first written in the Anglo-Saxon futhorc runic alphabet, in use from the 5th century. This alphabet was brought to what is now England, along with the proto-form of the language itself, by Anglo-Saxon settlers. Very few examples of this form of written Old English have survived, these being mostly short inscriptions or fragments.
The Latin script, introduced by Christian missionaries, began to replace the Anglo-Saxon futhorc from about the 7th century, although the two continued in parallel for some time. Futhorc influenced the emerging English alphabet by providing it with the letters thorn (Þ þ) and wynn (Ƿ ƿ). The letter eth (Ð ð) was later devised as a modification of dee (D d), and finally yogh (Ȝ ȝ) was created by Norman scribes from the insular g in Old English and Irish, and used alongside their Carolingian g.
The a-e ligature ash (Æ æ) was adopted as a letter in its own right, named after a futhorc rune æsc. In very early Old English the o-e ligature ethel (Œ œ) also appeared as a distinct letter, likewise named after a rune, œðel[citation needed]. Additionally, the v-v or u-u ligature double-u (W w) was in use.
In the year 1011, a monk named Byrhtferð recorded the traditional order of the Old English alphabet.[2] He listed the 24 letters of the Latin alphabet first (including ampersand), then 5 additional English letters, starting with the Tironian note ond (⁊), an insular symbol for and:
A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X Y Z & ⁊ Ƿ Þ Ð Æ
Modern English[edit]
In the orthography of Modern English, thorn (þ), eth (ð), wynn (ƿ), yogh (ȝ), ash (æ), and ethel (œ) are obsolete. Latin borrowings reintroduced homographs of ash and ethel into Middle English and Early Modern English, though they are not considered to be the same letters[citation needed] but rather ligatures, and in any case are somewhat old-fashioned. Thorn and eth were both replaced by th, though thorn continued in existence for some time, its lowercase form gradually becoming graphically indistinguishable from the minuscule y in most handwriting. Y for th can still be seen in pseudo-archaisms such as "Ye Olde Booke Shoppe". The letters þ and ð are still used in present-day Icelandic while ð is still used in present-day Faroese. Wynn disappeared from English around the 14th century when it was supplanted by uu, which ultimately developed into the modern w. Yogh disappeared around the 15th century and was typically replaced by gh.
The letters u and j, as distinct from v and i, were introduced in the 16th century, and w assumed the status of an independent letter, so that the English alphabet is now considered to consist of the following 26 letters:
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
The variant lowercase form long s (ſ) lasted into early modern English, and was used in non-final position up to the early 19th century.
Ligatures in recent usage[edit]
Outside of professional papers on specific subjects that traditionally use ligatures in loanwords, ligatures are seldom used in modern English.
The ligatures æ and œ were until the 19th century (slightly later in American English)[citation needed] used in formal writing for certain words of Greek or Latin origin, such as encyclopædia and cœlom, although such ligatures were not used in either classical Latin or ancient Greek. These are now usually rendered as "ae" and "oe" in all types of writing,[citation needed] although in American English, a lone e has mostly supplanted both (for example, encyclopedia for encyclopaedia, and maneuver for manoeuvre).
Some fonts for typesetting English contain commonly used ligatures, such as for ⟨tt⟩, ⟨fi⟩, ⟨fl⟩, ⟨ffi⟩, and ⟨ffl⟩. These are not independent letters, but rather allographs.
Proposed reforms[edit]
Alternative scripts have been proposed for written English – mostly extending or replacing the basic English alphabet – such as the Deseret alphabet, the Shavian alphabet, Gregg shorthand, etc.
Diacritics[edit]
Main article: English terms with diacritical marks
Diacritic marks mainly appear in loanwords such as naïve and façade. As such words become naturalised in English, there is a tendency to drop the diacritics, as has happened with old borrowings such as hôtel, from French. Informal English writing tends to omit diacritics because of their absence from the keyboard, while professional copywriters and typesetters tend to include them.[3] Words that are still perceived as foreign tend to retain them; for example, the only spelling of soupçon found in English dictionaries (the OED and others) uses the diacritic. Diacritics are also more likely to be retained where there would otherwise be confusion with another word (for example, résumé (or resumé) rather than resume), and, rarely, even added (as in maté, from Spanish yerba mate, but following the pattern of café, from French).
Occasionally, especially in older writing, diacritics are used to indicate the syllables of a word: cursed (verb) is pronounced with one syllable, while cursèd (adjective) is pronounced with two. È is used widely in poetry, e.g. in Shakespeare's sonnets. J.R.R. Tolkien uses ë, as in O wingëd crown. Similarly, while in chicken coop the letters -oo- represent a single vowel sound (a digraph), in obsolete spellings such as zoölogist and coöperation, they represent two. This use of the diaeresis is rarely seen, but persists into the 2000s in some publications, such as MIT Technology Review and The New Yorker.
An acute, grave, or diaeresis may also be placed over an "e" at the end of a word to indicate that it is not silent, as in saké. In general, these devices are often not used even where they would serve to alleviate some degree of confusion.
Ampersand[edit]
The & has sometimes appeared at the end of the English alphabet, as in Byrhtferð's list of letters in 1011.[2] Historically, the figure is a ligature for the letters Et. In English and many other languages it is used to represent the word and and occasionally the Latin word et, as in the abbreviation &c (et cetera).
Apostrophe[edit]
The apostrophe, while not considered part of the English alphabet, is used to contract English words. A few pairs of words, such as its (belonging to it) and it's (it is or it has), were (plural of was) and we're (we are), and shed (to get rid of) and she'd (she would or she had) are distinguished in writing only by the presence or absence of an apostrophe. The apostrophe also distinguishes the possessive endings -'s and -s' from the common plural ending -s, a practice introduced in the 18th century; before, all three endings were written -s, which could lead to confusion (as in, the Apostles words).[4]
Letter names[edit]
The names of the letters are rarely spelled out, except when used in derivations or compound words (for example tee-shirt, deejay, emcee, okay, aitchless, etc.), derived forms (for example exed out, effing, to eff and blind, etc.), and in the names of objects named after letters (for example em (space) in printing and wye (junction) in railroading). The forms listed below are from the Oxford English Dictionary. Vowels stand for themselves, and consonants usually have the form consonant + ee or e + consonant (e.g. bee and ef). The exceptions are the letters aitch, jay, kay, cue, ar, ess (but es- in compounds ), double u, wye, and zed. Plurals of consonants end in -s (bees, efs, ems) or, in the cases of aitch, ess, and ex, in -es (aitches, esses, exes). Plurals of vowels end in -es (aes, ees, ies, oes, ues); these are rare. All letters may stand for themselves, generally in capitalized form (okay or OK, emcee or MC), and plurals may be based on these (aes or As, cees or Cs, etc.)
Letter
Modern English name
Modern English pronunciation
Latin name
Latin pronunciation
Old French
Middle English
A a /eɪ/, /æ/[nb 2] ā /aː/ /aː/ /aː/
B bee /biː/ bē /beː/ /beː/ /beː/
C cee /siː/ cē /keː/ /tʃeː/ > /tseː/ > /seː/ /seː/
D dee /diː/ dē /deː/ /deː/ /deː/
E e /iː/ ē /eː/ /eː/ /eː/
F ef (eff as a verb) /ɛf/ ef /ɛf/ /ɛf/ /ɛf/
G gee /dʒiː/ gē /ɡeː/ /dʒeː/ /dʒeː/
jee
H aitch /eɪtʃ/ hā /haː/ > /ˈaha/ > /ˈakːa/ /ˈaːtʃə/ /aːtʃ/
haitch[nb 3] /heɪtʃ/
I i /aɪ/ ī /iː/ /iː/ /iː/
J jay /dʒeɪ/ – – – /ja:/
jy[nb 4] /dʒaɪ/
K kay /keɪ/ kā /kaː/ /kaː/ /kaː/
L el or ell /ɛl/ el /ɛl/ /ɛl/ /ɛl/
M em /ɛm/ em /ɛm/ /ɛm/ /ɛm/
N en /ɛn/ en /ɛn/ /ɛn/ /ɛn/
O o /oʊ/ ō /oː/ /oː/ /oː/
P pee /piː/ pē /peː/ /peː/ /peː/
Q cue[nb 5] /kjuː/ qū /kuː/ /kyː/ /kiw/
R ar /ɑːr/ er /ɛr/ /ɛr/ /ɛr/ > /ar/
or[nb 6] /ɔːr/
S ess (es-)[nb 7] /ɛs/ es /ɛs/ /ɛs/ /ɛs/
T tee /tiː/ tē /teː/ /teː/ /teː/
U u /juː/ ū /uː/ /yː/ /iw/
V vee /viː/ – – – –
W double-u /ˈdʌbəl.juː/[nb 8] – – – –
X ex /ɛks/ ex /ɛks/ /iks/ /ɛks/
ix /ɪks/
Y wy /waɪ/ hȳ /hyː/ ui, gui ? /wiː/ ?
/iː/
ī graeca /iː ˈɡraɪka/ /iː ɡrɛːk/
Z zed[nb 9] /zɛd/ zēta /ˈzeːta/ /ˈzɛːdə/ /zɛd/
zee[nb 10] /ziː/
izzard[nb 11] /ˈɪzərd/ /e(t) ˈzɛːdə/ /ˈɛzɛd/
Some groups of letters, such as pee and bee, or em and en, are easily confused in speech, especially when heard over the telephone or a radio communications link. Spelling alphabets such as the ICAO spelling alphabet, used by aircraft pilots, police and others, are designed to eliminate this potential confusion by giving each letter a name that sounds quite different from any other.
Etymology[edit]
The names of the letters are for the most part direct descendants, via French, of the Latin (and Etruscan) names. (See Latin alphabet: Origins.)
The regular phonological developments (in rough chronological order) are:
palatalization before front vowels of Latin /k/ successively to /tʃ/, /ts/, and finally to Middle French /s/. Affects C.
palatalization before front vowels of Latin /ɡ/ to Proto-Romance and Middle French /dʒ/. Affects G.
fronting of Latin /uː/ to Middle French /yː/, becoming Middle English /iw/ and then Modern English /juː/. Affects Q, U.
the inconsistent lowering of Middle English /ɛr/ to /ar/. Affects R.
the Great Vowel Shift, shifting all Middle English long vowels. Affects A, B, C, D, E, G, H, I, K, O, P, T, and presumably Y.
The novel forms are aitch, a regular development of Medieval Latin acca; jay, a new letter presumably vocalized like neighboring kay to avoid confusion with established gee (the other name, jy, was taken from French); vee, a new letter named by analogy with the majority; double-u, a new letter, self-explanatory (the name of Latin V was ū); wye, of obscure origin but with an antecedent in Old French wi; zee, an American leveling of zed by analogy with the majority; and izzard, from the Romance phrase i zed or i zeto "and Z" said when reciting the alphabet.
Phonology[edit]
Main article: English phonology
The letters A, E, I, O, and U are considered vowel letters, since (except when silent) they represent vowels; the remaining letters are considered consonant letters, since when not silent they generally represent consonants. However, Y commonly represents vowels as well as a consonant (e.g., "myth"), as very rarely does W (e.g., "cwm"). Conversely, U and I sometimes represent a consonant (e.g., "quiz" and "onion" respectively).
W and Y are sometimes referred as semivowels by linguists.
Letter numbers and frequencies[edit]
Main article: Letter frequency
The letter most commonly used in English is E. The least used letter is Z.
The table below shows the frequency of letter usage in a particular sample of written English,[vague] although the frequencies vary somewhat according to the type of text.[5]
N
Letter
Frequency
1 A 8.17%
2 B 1.49%
3 C 2.78%
4 D 4.25%
5 E 12.70%
6 F 2.23%
7 G 2.02%
8 H 6.09%
9 I 6.97%
10 J 0.15%
11 K 0.77%
12 L 4.03%
13 M 2.41%
14 N 6.75%
15 O 7.51%
16 P 1.93%
17 Q 0.10%
18 R 5.99%
19 S 6.33%
20 T 9.06%
21 U 2.76%
22 V 0.98%
23 W 2.36%
24 X 0.15%
25 Y 1.97%
26 Z 0.07%
See also[edit]
Alphabet song
NATO phonetic alphabet
English orthography
English spelling reform
American manual alphabet
Two-handed manual alphabets
English braille
American braille
New York Point
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ See also the section on Ligatures
Jump up ^ often in Hiberno-English, due to the letter's pronunciation in the Irish language
Jump up ^ mostly in Hiberno-English, sometimes in Australian English, usually in Indian English[citation needed] (although often considered incorrect)[citation needed], and also used in Malaysian English
Jump up ^ in Scottish English
Jump up ^ One of the few letter names not spelled with the letter in question. The spelling qu ~ que is obsolete, being attested from the 16th century.
Jump up ^ in Hiberno-English
Jump up ^ in compounds such as es-hook
Jump up ^ Especially in American English, the /l/ is often not pronounced in informal speech. (Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 10th ed). Common colloquial pronunciations are /ˈdʌbəjuː/, /ˈdʌbəjə/, and /ˈdʌbjə/, as in the nickname "Dubya", especially in terms like www.
Jump up ^ in British English, Hiberno-English and Commonwealth English
Jump up ^ in American English
Jump up ^ in Scottish English
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Digraphs (Phonics on the Web)". www.phonicsontheweb.com. Retrieved 2016-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Michael Everson, Evertype, Baldur Sigurðsson, Íslensk Málstöð, On the Status of the Latin Letter Þorn and of its Sorting Order
Jump up ^ "Dictionary.com definition". Retrieved 18 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "Apostrophe Definition". dictionary.com. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Beker, Henry; Piper, Fred (1982). Cipher Systems: The Protection of Communications. Wiley-Interscience. p. 397. Table also available from Lewand, Robert (2000). Cryptological Mathematics. The Mathematical Association of America. p. 36. ISBN 978-0883857199. and "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2008-07-08. Retrieved 2008-06-25.
Further reading[edit]
Michael Rosen (2015). Alphabetical: How Every Letter Tells a Story. Counterpoint. ISBN 978-1619027022.
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