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Egyptian hieroglyphs
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Egyptian hieroglyphs
Hieroglyphs from the Great Hypostyle Hall in Karnak (Seti I, 13th century BC)
Type
Logography usable as an abjad
Languages
Egyptian language
Time period
c. 3200 BC[1] – AD 400
Parent systems
(Proto-writing)
Egyptian hieroglyphs
Child systems
Hieratic, Demotic, Coptic, Meroitic, Proto-Sinaitic
Direction
Left-to-right
ISO 15924
Egyp, 050
Unicode alias
Egyptian Hieroglyphs
Unicode range
U+13000–U+1342F
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.
Egyptian hieroglyphs (/ˈhaɪrəˌɡlɪf, -roʊ-/[2][3]) were the formal writing system used in Ancient Egypt. It combined logographic, syllabic and alphabetic elements, with a total of some 1,000 distinct characters.[4][5] Cursive hieroglyphs were used for religious literature on papyrus and wood. The later hieratic and demotic Egyptian scripts were derived from hieroglyphic writing; Meroitic was a late derivation from demotic.
The use of hieroglyphic writing arose from proto-literate symbol systems in the Early Bronze Age, around the 32nd century BC (Naqada III),[1] with the first decipherable sentence written in the Egyptian language dating to the Second Dynasty (28th century BC). Egyptian hieroglyphs developed into a mature writing system used for monumental inscription in the classical language of the Middle Kingdom period; during this period, the system made use of about 900 distinct signs. The use of this writing system continued through the New Kingdom and Late Period, and on into the Persian and Ptolemaic periods. Late survivals of hieroglyphic use are found well into the Roman period, extending into the 4th century AD.
With the final closing of pagan temples in the 5th century, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was lost. Although attempts were made, the script remained undeciphered throughout the medieval and early modern period. The decipherment of hieroglyphic writing would only be accomplished in the 1820s by Jean-François Champollion, with the help of the Rosetta Stone.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 History and evolution
2.1 Origin
2.2 Mature writing system
2.3 Late Period
2.4 Late survival
3 Decipherment
4 Writing system
4.1 Phonetic reading
4.1.1 Uniliteral signs
4.1.2 Phonetic complements
4.2 Semantic reading
4.2.1 Logograms
4.2.2 Determinatives
4.3 Additional signs
4.3.1 Cartouche
4.3.2 Filling stroke
4.4 Signs joined together
4.4.1 Doubling
4.5 Grammatical signs
5 Spelling
6 Simple examples
7 Encoding and font support
8 See also
9 Notes and references
10 Further reading
11 External links
Etymology
The word hieroglyph comes from the Greek adjective ἱερογλυφικός (hieroglyphikos),[6] a compound of ἱερός (hierós 'sacred')[7] and γλύφω (glýphō 'Ι carve, engrave'; see glyph).[8]
The glyphs themselves since the Ptolemaic period were called τὰ ἱερογλυφικὰ [γράμματα] (tà hieroglyphikà [grámmata]) "the sacred engraved letters", the Greek counterpart to the Egyptian expression of mdw.w-nṯr "god's words".[9] Greek ἱερογλυφός meant "a carver of hieroglyphs".
In English, hieroglyph as a noun is recorded from 1590, originally short for nominalised hieroglyphic (1580s, with a plural hieroglyphics), from adjectival use (hieroglyphic character).[10]
History and evolution
Origin
Seal impression of Seth-Peribsen (Second Dynasty, c. 28th century BC)
Hieroglyphs emerged from the preliterate artistic traditions of Egypt. For example, symbols on Gerzean pottery from c. 4000 BC have been argued to resemble hieroglyphic writing.[citation needed] Proto-hieroglyphic symbol systems develop in the second half of the 4th millennium BC, such as the clay labels of a Predynastic ruler called "Scorpion I" (Naqada IIIA period, c. 33rd century BC) recovered at Abydos (modern Umm el-Qa'ab) in 1998 or the Narmer Palette (c. 31st century BC).[1] The first full sentence written in hieroglyphs so far discovered was found on a seal impression found in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen at Umm el-Qa'ab, which dates from the Second Dynasty (28th or 27th century BC). There are around 800 hieroglyphs dating back to the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom Eras. By the Greco-Roman period, there are more than 5,000.[4]
Geoffrey Sampson stated that Egyptian hieroglyphs "came into existence a little after Sumerian script, and, probably [were], invented under the influence of the latter",[11] and that it is "probable that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian Mesopotamia".[12][13] However, given the lack of direct evidence, "no definitive determination has been made as to the origin of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt".[14] Instead, it is pointed out and held that "the evidence for such direct influence remains flimsy” and that “a very credible argument can also be made for the independent development of writing in Egypt..."[15] Since the 1990s, and discoveries such as the Abydos glyphs, it has been held as doubtful whether the Mesopotamian symbol system can be said to predate the Egyptian one.[16]
Mature writing system
Further information: Middle Egyptian language
Hieroglyphs consist of three kinds of glyphs: phonetic glyphs, including single-consonant characters that function like an alphabet; logographs, representing morphemes; and determinatives, which narrow down the meaning of logographic or phonetic words.
Hieroglyphs on a funerary stela in Manchester Museum
Late Period
Further information: Late Egyptian language
As writing developed and became more widespread among the Egyptian people, simplified glyph forms developed, resulting in the hieratic (priestly) and demotic (popular) scripts. These variants were also more suited than hieroglyphs for use on papyrus. Hieroglyphic writing was not, however, eclipsed, but existed alongside the other forms, especially in monumental and other formal writing. The Rosetta Stone contains three parallel scripts – hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek.
Late survival
Hieroglyphs continued to be used under Persian rule (intermittent in the 6th and 5th centuries BC), and after Alexander the Great's conquest of Egypt, during the ensuing Ptolemaic and Roman periods. It appears that the misleading quality of comments from Greek and Roman writers about hieroglyphs came about, at least in part, as a response to the changed political situation. Some believed that hieroglyphs may have functioned as a way to distinguish 'true Egyptians' from some of the foreign conquerors. Another reason may be the refusal to tackle a foreign culture on its own terms, which characterized Greco-Roman approaches to Egyptian culture generally.[citation needed] Having learned that hieroglyphs were sacred writing, Greco-Roman authors imagined the complex but rational system as an allegorical, even magical, system transmitting secret, mystical knowledge.[citation needed]
By the 4th century, few Egyptians were capable of reading hieroglyphs, and the "myth of allegorical hieroglyphs" was ascendant.[citation needed] Monumental use of hieroglyphs ceased after the closing of all non-Christian temples in 391 by the Roman Emperor Theodosius I; the last known inscription is from Philae, known as the Graffito of Esmet-Akhom, from 394.[17]
The Hieroglyphica of Horapollo (c. 5th century) appears to retain some genuine knowledge about the writing system. It offers an explanation of close to 200 signs. Some are identified correctly, such as the "goose" hieroglyph (zꜣ) representing the word for "son".
Decipherment
Main article: Decipherment of hieroglyphic writing
Ibn Wahshiyya's translation of the Ancient Egyptian hieroglyph alphabet
Knowledge of the hieroglyphs had been lost completely by the medieval period. Early attempts at decipherment are due to Dhul-Nun al-Misri and Ibn Wahshiyya (9th and 10th century, respectively).[18]
The early modern tradition of decipherment attemtps begins with the work of Piero Valeriano Bolzani (1556). The most famous of the early "decipherers" was Athanasius Kircher. In his Lingua Aegyptiaca Restituta (1643), Kircher called hieroglyphics "this language hitherto unknown in Europe, in which there are as many pictures as letters, as many riddles as sounds, in short as many mazes to be escaped from as mountains to be climbed". While some of his notions are long discredited, portions of his work have been valuable to later scholars, and Kircher helped pioneer Egyptology as a field of serious study. All medieval and early modern attempts were hampered by the fundamental assumption that hieroglyphs recorded ideas and not the sounds of the language. As no bilingual texts were available, any such symbolic 'translation' could be proposed without the possibility of verification.
The Rosetta Stone in the British Museum
The breakthrough in decipherment came only with the discovery of the Rosetta Stone by Napoleon's troops in 1799 (during Napoleon's Egyptian invasion). As the stone presented a hieroglyphic and a demotic version of the same text in parallel with a Greek translation, plenty of material for falsifiable studies in translation was suddenly available. In the early 19th century, scholars such as Silvestre de Sacy, Johan David Åkerblad, and Thomas Young studied the inscriptions on the stone, and were able to make some headway. Finally, Jean-François Champollion made the complete decipherment by the 1820s. In his Lettre à M. Dacier (1822), he wrote:
It is a complex system, writing figurative, symbolic, and phonetic all at once, in the same text, the same phrase, I would almost say in the same word.[19]
Hieroglyphs survive today in two forms: directly, through half a dozen Demotic glyphs added to the Greek alphabet when writing Coptic; and indirectly, as the inspiration for the original alphabet that was ancestral to nearly every other alphabet ever used, including the Latin alphabet.
Writing system
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.
Visually, hieroglyphs are all more or less figurative: they represent real or illusional elements, sometimes stylized and simplified, but all generally perfectly recognizable in form. However, the same sign can, according to context, be interpreted in diverse ways: as a phonogram (phonetic reading), as a logogram, or as an ideogram (semagram; "determinative") (semantic reading). The determinative was not read as a phonetic constituent, but facilitated understanding by differentiating the word from its homophones.
Phonetic reading
Hieroglyphs typical of the Graeco-Roman period
Most non-determinative hieroglyphic signs are phonetic in nature, meaning that the sign is read independently of its visual characteristics (according to the rebus principle where, for example, the picture of an eye could stand for the English words eye and I [the first person pronoun]). This picture of an eye is called a phonogram of the word, 'I'.
Phonograms formed with one consonant are called uniliteral signs; with two consonants, biliteral signs; with three, triliteral signs.
Twenty-four uniliteral signs make up the so-called hieroglyphic alphabet. Egyptian hieroglyphic writing does not normally indicate vowels, unlike cuneiform, and for that reason has been labelled by some an abjad alphabet, i.e., an alphabet without vowels.
Thus, hieroglyphic writing representing a pintail duck is read in Egyptian as sꜣ, derived from the main consonants of the Egyptian word for this duck: 's', 'ꜣ' and 't'. (Note that ꜣ ( , two half-rings opening to the left), sometimes replaced by the digit '3', is the Egyptian alef).
It is also possible to use the hieroglyph of the pintail duck without a link to its meaning in order to represent the two phonemes s and ꜣ, independently of any vowels that could accompany these consonants, and in this way write the word: sꜣ, "son", or when complemented by the context other signs detailed further in the text, sꜣ, "keep, watch"; and sꜣṯ.w, "hard ground". For example:
– the characters sꜣ;
– the same character used only in order to signify, according to the context, "pintail duck" or, with the appropriate determinative, "son", two words having the same or similar consonants; the meaning of the little vertical stroke will be explained further on:
– the character sꜣ as used in the word sꜣw, "keep, watch"[clarification needed]
As in the Arabic script, not all vowels were written in Egyptian hieroglyphs; it is debatable whether vowels were written at all. Possibly, as with Arabic, the semivowels /w/ and /j/ (as in English W and Y) could double as the vowels /u/ and /i/. In modern transcriptions, an e is added between consonants to aid in their pronunciation. For example, nfr "good" is typically written nefer. This does not reflect Egyptian vowels, which are obscure, but is merely a modern convention. Likewise, the ꜣ and ʾ are commonly transliterated as a, as in Ra.
Hieroglyphs are written from right to left, from left to right, or from top to bottom, the usual direction being from right to left[20] (although, for convenience, modern texts are often normalized into left-to-right order). The reader must consider the direction in which the asymmetrical hieroglyphs are turned in order to determine the proper reading order. For example, when human and animal hieroglyphs face to the left (i.e., they look left), they must be read from left to right, and vice versa, the idea being that the hieroglyphs face the beginning of the line.
As in many ancient writing systems, words are not separated by blanks or by punctuation marks. However, certain hieroglyphs appear particularly common only at the end of words, making it possible to readily distinguish words.
Uniliteral signs
Hieroglyphs at Amada, at temple founded by Tuthmosis III.
Main article: Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian § Uniliteral signs
The Egyptian hieroglyphic script contained 24 uniliterals (symbols that stood for single consonants, much like letters in English). It would have been possible to write all Egyptian words in the manner of these signs, but the Egyptians never did so and never simplified their complex writing into a true alphabet.[21]
Each uniliteral glyph once had a unique reading, but several of these fell together as Old Egyptian developed into Middle Egyptian. For example, the folded-cloth glyph seems to have been originally an /s/ and the door-bolt glyph a /θ/ sound, but these both came to be pronounced /s/, as the /θ/ sound was lost. A few uniliterals first appear in Middle Egyptian texts.
Besides the uniliteral glyphs, there are also the biliteral and triliteral signs, to represent a specific sequence of two or three consonants, consonants and vowels, and a few as vowel combinations only, in the language.
Phonetic complements
Egyptian writing is often redundant: in fact, it happens very frequently that a word might follow several characters writing the same sounds, in order to guide the reader. For example, the word nfr, "beautiful, good, perfect", was written with a unique triliteral that was read as nfr:
However, it is considerably more common to add to that triliteral, the uniliterals for f and r. The word can thus be written as nfr+f+r, but one still reads it merely as nfr. The two alphabetic characters are adding clarity to the spelling of the preceding triliteral hieroglyph.
Redundant characters accompanying biliteral or triliteral signs are called phonetic complements (or complementaries). They can be placed in front of the sign (rarely), after the sign (as a general rule), or even framing it (appearing both before and after). Ancient Egyptian scribes consistently avoided leaving large areas of blank space in their writing, and might add additional phonetic complements or sometimes even invert the order of signs if this would result in a more aesthetically pleasing appearance (good scribes attended to the artistic, and even religious, aspects of the hieroglyphs, and would not simply view them as a communication tool). Various examples of the use of phonetic complements can be seen below:
– md +d +w (the complementary d is placed after the sign) → it reads mdw, meaning "tongue".
– ḫ +p +ḫpr +r +j (the four complementaries frame the triliteral sign of the scarab beetle) → it reads ḫpr.j, meaning the name "Khepri", with the final glyph being the determinative for 'ruler or god'.
Notably, phonetic complements were also used to allow the reader to differentiate between signs that are homophones, or which do not always have a unique reading. For example, the symbol of "the seat" (or chair):
– This can be read st, ws and ḥtm, according to the word in which it is found. The presence of phonetic complements—and of the suitable determinative—allows the reader to know which of the three readings to choose:
1st Reading: st –
– st, written st+t ; the last character is the determinative of "the house" or that which is found there, meaning "seat, throne, place";
– st (written st+t ; the "egg" determinative is used for female personal names in some periods), meaning "Isis";
2nd Reading: ws –
– wsjr (written ws+jr, with, as a phonetic complement, "the eye", which is read jr, following the determinative of "god"), meaning "Osiris";
3rd Reading: ḥtm –
– ḥtm.t (written ḥ+ḥtm+m+t, with the determinative of "Anubis" or "the jackal"), meaning a kind of wild animal;
– ḥtm (written ḥ +ḥtm +t, with the determinative of the flying bird), meaning "to disappear".
Finally, it sometimes happens that the pronunciation of words might be changed because of their connection to Ancient Egyptian: in this case, it is not rare for writing to adopt a compromise in notation, the two readings being indicated jointly. For example, the adjective bnj, "sweet", became bnr. In Middle Egyptian, one can write:
– bnrj (written b+n+r+i, with determinative)
which is fully read as bnr, the j not being pronounced but retained in order to keep a written connection with the ancient word (in the same fashion as the English language words through, knife, or victuals, which are no longer pronounced the way they are written.)
Semantic reading
Besides a phonetic interpretation, characters can also be read for their meaning: in this instance, logograms are being spoken (or ideograms) and semagrams (the latter are also called determinatives).[22]
Logograms
A hieroglyph used as a logogram defines the object of which it is an image. Logograms are therefore the most frequently used common nouns; they are always accompanied by a mute vertical stroke indicating their status as a logogram (the usage of a vertical stroke is further explained below); in theory, all hieroglyphs would have the ability to be used as logograms. Logograms can be accompanied by phonetic complements. Here are some examples:
– rꜥ, meaning "sun";
– pr, meaning "house";
– swt (sw+t), meaning "reed";
– ḏw, meaning "mountain".
In some cases, the semantic connection is indirect (metonymic or metaphoric):
– nṯr, meaning "god"; the character in fact represents a temple flag (standard);
– bꜣ, meaning "Bâ" (soul); the character is the traditional representation of a "bâ" (a bird with a human head);
– dšr, meaning "flamingo"; the corresponding phonogram means "red" and the bird is associated by metonymy with this color.
Determinatives
Determinatives or semagrams (semantic symbols specifying meaning) are placed at the end of a word. These mute characters serve to clarify what the word is about, as homophonic glyphs are common. If a similar procedure existed in English, words with the same spelling would be followed by an indicator that would not be read, but which would fine-tune the meaning: "retort [chemistry]" and "retort [rhetoric]" would thus be distinguished.
A number of determinatives exist: divinities, humans, parts of the human body, animals, plants, etc. Certain determinatives possess a literal and a figurative meaning. For example, a roll of papyrus,
is used to define "books" but also abstract ideas. The determinative of the plural is a shortcut to signal three occurrences of the word, that is to say, its plural (since the Egyptian language had a dual, sometimes indicated by two strokes). This special character is explained below.
Here, are several examples of the use of determinatives borrowed from the book, Je lis les hiéroglyphes ("I am reading hieroglyphs") by Jean Capart, which illustrate their importance:
– nfrw (w and the three strokes are the marks of the plural: [literally] "the beautiful young people", that is to say, the young military recruits. The word has a young-person determinative symbol:
– which is the determinative indicating babies and children;
– nfr.t (.t is here the suffix that forms the feminine): meaning "the nubile young woman", with
as the determinative indicating a woman;
– nfrw (the tripling of the character serving to express the plural, flexional ending w) : meaning "foundations (of a house)", with the house as a determinative,
;
– nfr : meaning "clothing" with
as the determinative for lengths of cloth;
– nfr : meaning "wine" or "beer"; with a jug
as the determinative.
All these words have a meliorative connotation: "good, beautiful, perfect". The Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian by Raymond A. Faulkner, gives some twenty words that are read nfr or which are formed from this word.
Additional signs
Cartouche
Rarely, the names of gods are placed within a cartouche; the two last names of the sitting king are always placed within a cartouche:
jmn-rꜥ, "Amon-Ra";
qljwꜣpdrꜣ.t, "Cleopatra";
Filling stroke
A filling stroke is a character indicating the end of a quadrat that would otherwise be incomplete.
Signs joined together
Some signs are the contraction of several others. These signs have, however, a function and existence of their own: for example, a forearm where the hand holds a scepter is used as a determinative for words meaning "to direct, to drive" and their derivatives.
Doubling
The doubling of a sign indicates its dual; the tripling of a sign indicates its plural.
Grammatical signs
The vertical stroke, indicating the sign is a logogram;
The two strokes of the "dual" and the three strokes of the "plural";
The direct notation of flexional endings, for example:
Spelling
Standard orthography—"correct" spelling—in Egyptian is much looser than in modern languages. In fact, one or several variants exist for almost every word. One finds:
Redundancies;
Omission of graphemes, which are ignored whether or not they are intentional;
Substitutions of one grapheme for another, such that it is impossible to distinguish a "mistake" from an "alternate spelling";
Errors of omission in the drawing of signs, which are much more problematic when the writing is cursive (hieratic) writing, but especially demotic, where the schematization of the signs is extreme.
However, many of these apparent spelling errors constitute an issue of chronology. Spelling and standards varied over time, so the writing of a word during the Old Kingdom might be considerably different during the New Kingdom. Furthermore, the Egyptians were perfectly content to include older orthography ("historical spelling") alongside newer practices, as though it were acceptable in English to use archaic spellings in modern texts. Most often, ancient "spelling errors" are simply misinterpretations of context. Today, hieroglyphicists use numerous cataloguing systems (notably the Manuel de Codage and Gardiner's Sign List) to clarify the presence of determinatives, ideograms, and other ambiguous signs in transliteration.
Simple examples
nomen or birth name
Ptolemy
in hieroglyphs
The glyphs in this cartouche are transliterated as:
p
t "ua" l
m y (ii) s
Ptolmys
though ii is considered a single letter and transliterated y.
Another way in which hieroglyphs work is illustrated by the two Egyptian words pronounced pr (usually vocalised as per). One word is 'house', and its hieroglyphic representation is straightforward:
Here, the 'house' hieroglyph works as a logogram: it represents the word with a single sign. The vertical stroke below the hieroglyph is a common way of indicating that a glyph is working as a logogram.
Another word pr is the verb 'to go out, leave'. When this word is written, the 'house' hieroglyph is used as a phonetic symbol:
Here, the 'house' glyph stands for the consonants pr. The 'mouth' glyph below it is a phonetic complement: it is read as r, reinforcing the phonetic reading of pr. The third hieroglyph is a determinative: it is an ideogram for verbs of motion that gives the reader an idea of the meaning of the word.
Encoding and font support
Egyptian hieroglyphs were added to the Unicode Standard in October 2009 with the release of version 5.2 which introduced the Egyptian Hieroglyphs block (U+13000–U+1342F) with 1,070 defined characters (and one reserved codepoint).
As of July 2013[update], four fonts, Aegyptus, NewGardiner, Noto Sans Egyptian Hieroglyphs and JSeshFont support this range. Another font, Segoe UI Historic, comes bundled with Windows 10 and also contains glyphs for the entire Egyptian Hieroglyphs block.
See also
Ancient Egypt portal
List of Egyptian hieroglyphs
Gardiner's sign list
Egyptian numerals
Egyptian language
Middle Bronze Age alphabets
Writing in Ancient Egypt
Manuel de Codage
Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian
Notes and references
^ Jump up to: a b c Richard Mattessich (2002). "The oldest writings, and inventory tags of Egypt". Accounting Historians Journal. 29 (1): 195–208. JSTOR 40698264.
Jump up ^ Jones, Daniel (2003) [1917], Peter Roach, James Hartmann and Jane Setter, eds., English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 3-12-539683-2 CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ "hieroglyph". Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
^ Jump up to: a b There were about 1,000 graphemes in the Old Kingdom period, reduced to around 750 to 850 in the classical language of the Middle Kingdom, but inflated to the order of some 5,000 signs in the Ptolemaic period. Antonio Loprieno, Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995), p. 12.
Jump up ^ The standard inventory of characters used in Egyptology is Gardiner's sign list (1928–1953). A.H. Gardiner (1928), Catalogue of the Egyptian hieroglyphic printing type, from matrices owned and controlled by Dr. Alan Gardiner, "Additions to the new hieroglyphic fount (1928)", in The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 15 (1929), p. 95; , "Additions to the new hieroglyphic fount (1931)", in The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 17 (1931), pp. 245-247; A.H. Gardiner , "Supplement to the catalogue of the Egyptian hieroglyphic printing type, showing acquisitions to December 1953" (1953). Unicode Egyptian Hieroglyphs as of version 5.2 (2009) assigned 1,070 Unicode characters.
Jump up ^ ἱερογλυφικός, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
Jump up ^ ἱερός, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
Jump up ^ γλύφω, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
Jump up ^ Antonio Loprieno, Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995), p. 11.
Jump up ^ "Hieroglyphic | Definition of Hieroglyphic by Merriam-Webster". Retrieved 2016-08-27.
Jump up ^ Geoffrey Sampson (1 January 1990). Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction. Stanford University Press. pp. 78–. ISBN 978-0-8047-1756-4. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Geoffrey W. Bromiley (June 1995). The international standard Bible encyclopedia. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 1150–. ISBN 978-0-8028-3784-4. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards, et al., The Cambridge Ancient History (3d ed. 1970) pp. 43–44.
Jump up ^ Robert E. Krebs; Carolyn A. Krebs (December 2003). Groundbreaking scientific experiments, inventions, and discoveries of the ancient world. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 91–. ISBN 978-0-313-31342-4. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Simson Najovits, Egypt, Trunk of the Tree: A Modern Survey of an Ancient Land, Algora Publishing, 2004, pp. 55–56.
Jump up ^ "challenge the commonly held belief that early logographs, pictographic symbols representing a specific place, object, or quantity, first evolved into more complex phonetic symbols in Mesopotamia." Mitchell, Larkin. "Earliest Egyptian Glyphs". Archaeology. Archaeological Institute of America. Retrieved 29 February 2012.
Jump up ^ The latest presently known hieroglyphic inscription date: Birthday of Osiris, year 110 [of Diocletian], dated to August 24, 394[citation needed]
Jump up ^ Ahmed ibn 'Ali ibn al Mukhtar ibn 'Abd al Karim (called Ibn Wahshiyah) (1806). Ancient alphabets & hieroglyphic characters explained: with an account of the Egyptian priests, their classes, initiation time, & sacrifices by the aztecs and their birds, in the Arabic language. W. Bulmer & co. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Jean-François Champollion, Letter to M. Dacier , September 27, 1822
Jump up ^ Sir Alan H. Gardiner, Egyptian Grammar, Third Edition Revised , Griffith Institute (2005), p.25
Jump up ^ Gardiner, Sir Alan H. (1973). Egyptian Grammar. Griffith Institute. ISBN 0-900416-35-1.
Jump up ^ Antonio Loprieno, Ancient Egyptian, A Linguistic Introduction , Cambridge University Press (1995), p. 13
Further reading
Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy (2000). The Keys of Egypt: The Obsession to Decipher Egyptian Hieroglyphs. HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 0-06-019439-1.
Allen, James P. (1999). Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-77483-7.
Collier, Mark & Bill Manley (1998). How to Read Egyptian Hieroglyphs: a step-by-step guide to teach yourself. British Museum Press. ISBN 0-7141-1910-5.
Selden, Daniel L. (2013). Hieroglyphic Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Literature of the Middle Kingdom. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-27546-2.
Faulkner, Raymond O. (1962). Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian. Griffith Institute. ISBN 0-900416-32-7.
Gardiner, Sir Alan H. (1957). Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs, 3rd ed. The Griffith Institute.
Hill, Marsha (2007). Gifts for the gods: images from Egyptian temples. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9781588392312.
Kamrin, Janice (2004). Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphs: A Practical Guide. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN 0-8109-4961-X.
McDonald, Angela. Write Your Own Egyptian Hieroglyphs. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007 (paperback, ISBN 0-520-25235-7).
External links
Look up hieroglyph in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Egyptian hieroglyphs.
Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphics – Aldokkan
Glyphs and Grammars – Resources for those interested in learning hieroglyphs, compiled by Aayko Eyma
Hieroglyphics! – Annotated directory of popular and scholarly resources
Egyptian Language and Writing
Full-text of The stela of Menthu-weser
Wikimedia's hieroglyph writing codes
Unicode Fonts for Ancient Scripts – Ancient scripts free software fonts
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Egyptian hieroglyphs
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NDL: 00978198
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_hieroglyphs&oldid=837798118"
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AirDrop
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the use of aircraft to drop supplies and material, see Airdrop.
AirDrop
AirDrop on OS X.
Developer(s)
Apple Inc.
Initial release
July 20, 2011; 6 years ago (2011-07-20)
Operating system
iOS 7 and later
OS X 10.7 and later
Platform
iPhone 5 and later
iPad (4th generation) and later
iPad Mini (1st generation) and later
iPod Touch (5th generation) and later
MacBook Pro
MacBook Air
MacBook
iMac
Mac Mini
Mac Pro
Type
Utility software
License
Bundled proprietary software
Website
support.apple.com/en-us/HT203106
AirDrop is an ad-hoc service in Apple Inc.'s macOS and iOS operating systems, introduced in Mac OS X Lion (Mac OS X 10.7) and iOS 7,[1] which enables the transfer of files among supported Macintosh computers and iOS devices over Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, without using mail or a mass storage device.[1]
Prior to OS X Yosemite (OS X 10.10), and under OS X Lion, Mountain Lion, and Mavericks (OS X 10.7–10.9, respectively) the AirDrop protocol in macOS was different from the AirDrop protocol of iOS, and were therefore not interoperable with each other.[2] However, OS X Yosemite and later support the iOS AirDrop protocol (uses both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth), which is used for transfers between a Mac and an iOS device as well as between two 2012 or later Mac computers.[3][4] Legacy mode for the old AirDrop protocol (only uses Wi-Fi) between two 2012 or older Mac computers is also available.[4]
There is no restriction on the size of the file which AirDrop will accommodate.
Contents
[hide]
1 Routine
1.1 macOS
1.2 iOS
2 System limitations
2.1 iOS requirements (transfer between two iOS devices)
2.2 macOS requirements (transfer between two Mac computers)
2.3 macOS and iOS requirements (transfer between a Mac and an iOS device)
3 Security and privacy
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Routine[edit]
macOS[edit]
On Macs running macOS 10.7 and greater, AirDrop is available in the Finder window sidebar.[5] On Macs running OS X 10.8.1 or later, it can also be accessed through the menu option Go → AirDrop or by pressing ⇧ Shift+⌘ Cmd+R.[6]
Wi-Fi must be turned on in order for AirDrop to recognize the other device. The other device must also have AirDrop selected in a Finder window sidebar to be able to transfer files. Furthermore, files are not automatically accepted; the receiving user must accept the transfer.[5] This is done to improve security and privacy.[5]
iOS[edit]
AirDrop on iOS 7.
On iOS 7 and later, AirDrop can be accessed by either tapping on Settings > General > AirDrop,[7] or swiping up the home screen through Control Center.[8] Both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth are automatically switched on when AirDrop is enabled as they are both utilized.[8]
Options for controlling AirDrop discovery by other devices include:[8]
No one can see device (Airdrop disabled)
Only contacts can see device
Everyone can see device.
In iOS 7 or later, if an application implements AirDrop support, it is available through the share button.[9] AirDrop is subject to a number of restrictions on iOS, such as the inability to share music or videos from the native apps.[10]
System limitations[edit]
iOS requirements (transfer between two iOS devices)[edit]
Running iOS 7 or later:[8]
iPhone: iPhone 5 or later
iPad: iPad (4th generation) or later
iPad Pro: iPad Pro (1st generation) or later
iPad Mini: iPad Mini (1st generation) or later
iPod Touch: iPod Touch (5th generation) or later
AirDrop can be enabled unofficially on iPad (3rd generation). Although not supported by default, AirDrop can be enabled by jailbreaking the device and installing "AirDrop Enabler 7.0+" from cydia. This procedure is not supported by Apple.[11]
macOS requirements (transfer between two Mac computers)[edit]
Running Mac OS X Lion (10.7) or later:[4]
MacBook Pro (Late 2008) or later, excluding the MacBook Pro (17-inch, Late 2008)
MacBook Air (Late 2010) or later
MacBook (Late 2008) or later, excluding the white MacBook (Late 2008)
iMac (Early 2009) or later
Mac Mini (Mid 2010) or later
Mac Pro (Early 2009 with AirPort Extreme card, or Mid 2010 or later)
macOS and iOS requirements (transfer between a Mac and an iOS device)[edit]
To transfer files between a Mac and an iPhone, iPad or iPod touch, the following minimum requirements have to be met:[12]
Running OS X Yosemite (10.10) or later:[4]
MacBook Air (Mid 2012) or later
MacBook Pro (Mid 2012) or later
iMac (Late 2012) or later
Mac Mini (Late 2012) or later
Mac Pro (Late 2013) or later
Running iOS 8 or later:[8]
iPhone: iPhone 5 or later
iPad: iPad (4th generation) or later
iPad Pro: iPad Pro (1st generation) or later
iPad Mini: iPad Mini (1st generation) or later
iPod Touch: iPod Touch (5th generation) or later
Bluetooth and Wi-Fi have to be turned on for both Mac and iOS devices. (Both devices are not required to be connected to the same Wi-Fi network.)
Security and privacy[edit]
AirDrop uses TLS encryption when transferring files.[13]
On August 13, 2017, New York Post informed that at least two women were sent nude pictures while commuting[14]. In at least one case, a user with AirDrop set to receive from "Everyone" was sent unwanted sexually explicit images from a nearby stranger.[15]
See also[edit]
Android Beam, a similar technology for Android smart phones (NFC based)
Wi-Fi Direct, a similar technology
Bonjour, the service discovery protocol employed
Shoutr, a free P2P multi-user solution for sharing files among multiple people (Wi-Fi)
Zapya, a free file transfer solution over Wi-Fi
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Nations, Daniel. "What Is AirDrop? How Does It Work?". About.com. Retrieved 12 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Etherington, Darrell (September 17, 2013). "Apple iOS 7 Review: A Major Makeover That Delivers, But Takes Some Getting Used To". TechCrunch. AOL. Retrieved October 3, 2013.
Jump up ^ Jason (June 23, 2014). "iOS 8 and OS X Yosemite Preview: AirDrop finally works across iOS and Mac". iPhone Hacks. iPhone Hacks. Retrieved October 14, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Use AirDrop to send content from your Mac". Apple Inc. September 30, 2015. Retrieved October 14, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Rawlinson, Nik (September 29, 2011). "How to use OS X Lion AirDrop - CNET". CNET. CNET. Retrieved October 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ "OS X Automation Workshop: Sharing Content Locally". Mac OS X Automation. Retrieved October 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Two Easy Ways to Access AirDrop in iOS 11". iDrop News. 2017-12-04. Retrieved 2017-12-05.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Share content with AirDrop from your iPhone, iPad, or iPod touch". Apple Inc. July 23, 2015. Retrieved October 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ Ng, Simon (October 30, 2013). "iOS Programming Tutorial: Adding AirDrop File Sharing Feature to Your iOS Apps". AppCoda. AppCoda. Retrieved October 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ "AnyDrop enables you to Send/Receive any file including Music using AirDrop - iOS Hacker". iOS Hacker. iOS Hacker. March 24, 2014. Retrieved October 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ "AirDrop Port Explaination [sic]". Thuchapol. December 27, 2013. Archived from the original on February 22, 2014. Retrieved February 13, 2014.
Jump up ^ "OS X Yosemite: supported devices for Handoff, Instant Hotspot, Phone Calling, SMS, and AirDrop". Apple. Retrieved October 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ https://www.apple.com/business/docs/iOS_Security_Guide.pdf
Jump up ^ Licea, Melkorka (12 August 2017). "AirDropping penis pics is the latest horrifying subway trend". NYPost. Retrieved 14 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Sarah Bell (13 August 2015). "Police investigate 'first cyber-flashing' case".
External links[edit]
How-to: Use AirDrop to send content from your Mac
How-to: How to use AirDrop with your iPhone, iPad, or iPod touch
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AirDrop on OS X.

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Salt mining
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about mining for salt. For the secret CIA prison, see Salt Pit.
Modern rock-salt mine near Mount Morris, New York
A salt mine is a mine from which halite, commonly known as rock salt, is extracted from evaporite formations.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Mining regions around the world
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
Diorama of an underground salt mine in Germany.
Inside Salina Veche, in Slănic, Prahova, Romania. The railing (lower middle) gives the viewer an idea of scale.
Before the advent of the modern internal combustion engine and earth moving equipment, mining salt was one of the most expensive and dangerous of operations, due to rapid dehydration caused by constant contact with the salt (both in the mine passages and scattered in the air as salt dust), among other problems borne of accidental excessive sodium intake. While salt is now plentiful, until the Industrial Revolution it was difficult to come by, and salt mining was often done by slave or prison labor and life expectancy among those sentenced was low.
In ancient Rome, salt on the table was a mark of a rich patron; those who sat nearer the host were "above the salt", and those less favored were "below the salt". The Roman historian Pliny the Elder stated as an aside in his Natural History's discussion of sea water, that "[I]n Rome ... the soldier's pay was originally salt and the word 'salary' derives from it ..."[2]
Ancient China was among the earliest civilizations in the world with cultivation and trade of salt mining.[3] They first discovered natural gas when they excavated rock salt. The Chinese writer, poet, and politician Zhang Hua of the Jin Dynasty wrote in his book Bowuzhi how people in Zigong, Sichuan excavated natural gas and used it to boil a rock salt solution.[4] The ancient Chinese gradually mastered and advanced the techniques of producing salt. Salt mining was an arduous task for the ancient Chinese, who faced geographical and technological constraints. Salt was mainly extracted from the sea, and salt works in the coastal areas in late imperial China equated to more than 80 percent of national production.[5] In conjunction with this, the Chinese made use of natural crystallization of salt lakes and constructed some artificial evaporation basins close to shore.[3] In 1041, during the medieval Song dynasty, a well with a diameter about the size of a bowl and several dozen feet deep was drilled for salt production.[6] In Southwestern China, natural salt deposits were mined with bores that could reach to a depth of more than 1000 meters but the yields of ground and salt were relatively low.[5] As salt was a necessity of life for human civilization, salt mining played a pivotal role as one of the most important sources of Imperial Chinese government revenue and state development.[5]
Most modern salt mines are privately operated or operated by large multinational companies such K+S, AkzoNobel, Cargill, and Compass Minerals.
Mining regions around the world[edit]
The Crystal Valley region of the Khewra Salt Mines in Pakistan. With around 250,000 visitors a year, the site is a major tourist attraction.
A small mosque made of salt bricks inside the Khewra Salt Mines complex
Areas known for their salt mines include:
Country
Site/s
Austria Hallstatt and Salzkammergut.
Bosnia Tuzla
Bulgaria Provadiya; and Solnitsata, an ancient town believed by Bulgarian archaeologists to be the oldest in Europe and the site of a salt production facility approximately six millennia ago.[7]
Canada Sifto Salt Mine in Goderich, Ontario, which, at 1.5 miles (2.4 km) wide and 2 miles (3.2 km) long,[8] is one of the largest salt mines in the world extending 7 km2 (2.7 sq mi) .[9]
Colombia Zipaquirá
England The "-wich towns" of Cheshire and Worcestershire.
Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti Danakil Desert, where manual labor is used.[10]
Germany Rheinberg, Berchtesgaden, Heilbronn
Italy Racalmuto, Realmonte and Petralia Soprana[11] within the production sites managed by Italkali.
Morocco JMS salt mine in Khemisset.
N. Ireland Kilroot, near Carrickfergus, more than a century old and containing passages whose combined length exceeds 25 km.
Pakistan Khewra Salt Mines, the world's second largest salt-mining operation, spanning over 300 km.
Poland Wieliczka and Bochnia, both established in the mid-13th century and still operating, mostly as museums. Kłodawa Salt Mine.
Romania Slănic (with Salina Veche, Europe's largest salt mine), Cacica, Ocnele Mari, Salina Turda, Târgu Ocna, Ocna Sibiului, Praid and Salina Ocna Dej.
Russia Solikamsk
United States
Hutchinson, Kansas, Underground mining began at Hutchinson in 1923. In 1990 the Hutchinson Salt Company was formed and purchased the mine.
Avery Island, Louisiana;
Detroit, Michigan, 1,100 feet (340 m) beneath which the Detroit Salt Company's 1,500-acre (10 km2) subterranean complex extends;[12]
Saltville, Virginia, which served as the site of one of the Confederacy's main saltworks.
Western New York and Central New York, location of American Rock Salt, the largest operating salt mine in the United States with a capacity for producing up to 18,000 tons each day.[13] Syracuse earned the nickname "The Salt City" for its salt mining, an activity that continues in the region to the present day.[14]
Houston, Texas, near Minute Maid Park is a newly discovered saltworks. Grand Saline in East Texas has a Morton Salt mine. It is one of the largest in the world.
See also[edit]
Salt mines
Khewra
Schacht Asse II
Turda
Wieliczka
Windsor
General
Salt evaporation pond
Salt lake
Salt dome
Miner
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Oilfield Glossary: Term 'evaporite'". Glossary.oilfield.slb.com. Retrieved 2012-02-13.
Jump up ^ "''Plinius Naturalis Historia XXXI.''". Penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2012-02-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Harris, Peter (2017). Studies in the History of Tax Law. 8. Hart Publications (published August 10, 2017). p. 518. ISBN 978-1509908370.
Jump up ^ Deng, Yinke (2011). "Ancient Chinese Inventions". p. 41. ISBN 978-0521186926. Missing or empty |url= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b c Höllmann, Thomas O. (2013). The Land of the Five Flavors: A Cultural History of Chinese Cuisine. Columbia University Press (published November 26, 2013). p. 33. ISBN 978-0231161862.
Jump up ^ Deng, Yinke (2011). "Ancient Chinese Inventions". p. 41. ISBN 978-0521186926. Missing or empty |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Maugh II, Thomas H. (1 November 2012). "Bulgarians find oldest European town, a salt production center". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 5 December 2012.
Jump up ^ "Industries in Godrich". Archived from the original on December 26, 2007. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
Jump up ^ "CBC-TV - Geologic Journey - Goderich, Ontario and Detroit Michigan". CBC 2012. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "Salt mine in the Danakil Depression in Ethiopia, 2015". Independent Travellers. independent-travellers.com. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Italkali Spa - Production Sites". Archived from the original (online) on 2012-03-31. Retrieved 2011-05-09.
Jump up ^ "The Detroit Salt Company -- Explore the City under the City". Archived from the original (online) on 2009-04-12. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
Jump up ^ Spector, Joseph (13 Jan 2015). "American Rock Salt to expand in LIvingston". Democrat and Chronicle. Retrieved 20 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "All 17 Cargill Salt Miners Trapped on Underground Elevator Freed". NBC News. January 7, 2016. Retrieved January 7, 2016.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Salt mining.
JMS Salt - production site
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