text:
Prasad Barve
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Prasad Barve
प्रसाद बर्वे
Native name
प्रसाद बर्वे (Marathi)
Born
(1982-12-10) 10 December 1982 (age 35)
Pune, India
Other names
Prasad Barve
Occupation
actor, voice actor
Prasad Barve (born 10 December 1982) is an Indian television actor, voice over artist, and occasional film actor. He speaks English, Hindi and Marathi.
Contents
[hide]
1 Career
2 Dubbing career
3 Filmography
3.1 Television
4 Dubbing roles
4.1 Television animation
4.2 Anime
4.3 Live action television
4.4 Live action films
4.5 Animated films
4.6 Anime films
5 References
6 External links
Career[edit]
His first notable role was as Nihaal, the male lead's best friend in Shree. Then he entered as a new intern in Dill Mill Gayye season 2. Both his roles are comical. He has acted in the movie Vishwavinayak as a child artist.[1] He acted in the movie Hide & Seek.[1] He has also acted in many popular advertisements including Tata Sky ad where he shared screen space with Aamir Khan. most popular add is Cadbury shots man me laddoo foota He had also appeared in SAB TV's serial, Pritam Pyare Aur Woh as the main lead character Pyaare. Along with these serials, he also was the supporting lead in Colors Mrs. Pammi Pyarelal He is currently on Zee TV's Yeh Vaada Raha as Jatin
Dubbing career[edit]
Prasad Barve is usually best known for voicing comic relief characters when it comes to dubbing foreign media and very rarely does he do voiceover roles for more serious-typed characters. He has been voicing various different cartoon characters since he was 8. As he got a bit older, he first started with dubbing for Paul C. Scott as Reggie Williams in Small Wonder. He is also known for doing the Hindi voiceover for Orlando Brown as Eddie in That's So Raven on Disney Channel. Prasad has dubbed for the iconic character of Vegeta in Dragon Ball Z and is the voice of Kemuzo Kemumaki in Ninja Hattori. He has also done Hindi voiceover roles for famous cartoons and Japanese anime like in Scooby-Doo, Stitch, Ash Ketchum (Satoshi) in Pokémon (Cartoon Network Hindi dub) and Perman.[2]
He has also lend his Hindi dubbing voice to Ivan in 2003 film, Barbie of Swan Lake and also lead his voice to Po in the Kung Fu Panda series.[3]
Filmography[edit]
Year
Film
Role
Notes
2010 Hide & Seek Young Imran Baig
2011 Nuvvila Fidel Raju Telugu film
2014 Bobby Jasoos Shetty
2017 Ti Saddhya Kay Karte Pvya Marathi film
Hanuman: Da' Damdaar Pig 1,Pig 3 and Chotu Voice roles
Animated film
Tamburo Gujarati film
Television[edit]
Year
Show
Role
TV Channel
Notes
2009-2010 Dill Mill Gayye Dr. Jitendra Prasad Star One
2013 Mrs. Pammi Pyarelal Randhir Faujdar Colors TV
2014 Pritam Pyare Aur Woh Pyaare SAB TV
2015-2017 Yeh Vaada Raha Jatin Mehta Zee TV
2016 Khatmal E Ishq... Biwi Ke Naakhre..Offo!! Ramesh Gupta SAB TV
2017 Chidiya Ghar Chamkadar
Dubbing roles[edit]
Television animation[edit]
-
Program title
Original voice
Character
Dub Language
Original Language
Number of Episodes
Original Airdate
Dubbed Airdate
Notes
What's New, Scooby-Doo? Unknown voice Unknown character Hindi English 42 (Dubbed ??) 9/14/2002-
6/29/2006 Unknown
Johnny Test Lee Tockar Eugene "Bling-Bling Boy" Hamilton Hindi English 130 (Dubbed ??) 9/17/2005-Current Unknown Another actor has voiced this character in some episodes.
Mickey Mouse Chris Diamantopoulos Mickey Mouse Hindi English 52
(Dubbed ??) 6/28/2013-Ongoing Unknown Rajesh Shukla has dubbed him for most episodes.
Recess Vince LaSalle Hindi English
Anime[edit]
Program title
Original Japanese voice
Character
Dub Language
Episodes
Original airdate
Dubbed airdate
Notes
Dragon Ball Z Ryō Horikawa (JP)
Brian Drummond (EN) Vegeta Hindi Freeza saga 4/26/1989-
1/31/1996 2001-2008 The Hindi dub of the series was based on the edited Funimation Entertainment-Saban Entertainment-Ocean Productions English dub, being a revised translation. Viraj Adhav previously voiced the character before Prasad took over permanently.
Pokémon Rica Matsumoto (JP)
Veronica Taylor(Seasons 1–8)
Sarah Natochenny (Seasons 9- present)
Kayzie Rogers (Special)
(EN) Ash Ketchum (Satoshi)
(First Dub)[4] Hindi 800+ 4/1/1997-Current First dub 5/12/2003-10/2013
(India)
2004–2013
(Pakistan)
Second dub 5/19/2014-Current The First 8 seasons dubbed, were based on the 4Kids Entertainment English dub. The later seasons were also dubbed in Hindi and are also revised translations based on the English dub. A Second Hindi dub has been produced featuring a new Hindi voice cast and translation by UTV Software Communications and aired on Hungama TV. The first dub that Barve was involved in, was produced by Crest Animation Studios for the first four seasons and then by Sound and Vision India for Cartoon Network India, Cartoon Network Pakistan and Pogo starting with the Master Quest season up until after Black and White. Nachiket Dighe voiced this character in the second Hindi dub.
Perman Katsue Miwa Perman 1(Mitsuo suwa) Hindi 526 (+3 specials) 4/4/1983-7/2/1987 Unknown. Aired on Nickelodeon India.
Ninja hattori Kaneta Kimotsuki Kemuzo Kemumaki Hindi 28 September 1981 – 25 December 1987 Aired on Nickelodeon India
Live action television[edit]
Title
Actor
Role
Dub Language
Original Language
Episodes
Original Airdate
Dubbed Airdate
Notes
Small Wonder Paul C. Scott Reggie Williams Hindi English 96 9/7/1985-
5/20 /1989 1994–
1998 This was Prasad Barve's very first role as his debut in his dubbing career. It aired on Star Plus from 1994–1998.
That's So Raven Orlando Brown Eddie Thomas Hindi English 100 1/17/2003-11/10/2007 12/17/2004-2008 Has aired on Disney Channel India, when it first launched.
That's So Suite Life of Hannah Montana Orlando Brown Eddie Thomas Hindi English 1 6/28/2006 Unknown A crossover special of three consistent Disney Channel sitcoms That's So Raven, The Suite Life of Zack & Cody, and Hannah Montana.
Goosebumps Unknown actor Unknown character Hindi English 74 (Dubbed ??) 10/27/1995-
11/16/1998 5/15/2006-2009 Aired on Jetix India dubbed in Hindi.
(Now known as Disney XD India.)
Kenan & Kel Kenan Thompson Kenan Rockmore Hindi English 62 July 15, 1996 – July 15, 2000 Aired on Nickelodeon dubbed in Hindi.
Live action films[edit]
Film title
Actor(s)
Character(s)
Dub Language
Original Language
Original Year release
Dub Year release
Notes
The Mummy Omid Djalili Gad Hassan Hindi English 1999 1999
Cats & Dogs Unknown Unknown Character Hindi English 2001 2001
Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets[5] Tom Felton Draco Malfoy Hindi English 2002 2003 Prasad only led his voice to this character in the second film only. A different voice actor originally dubbed him in the first movie, with Shanoor Mirza dubbing him for the rest of the series.
Daredevil Scott Terra Young Matt Hindi English 2003 2003 Performed alongside Parminder Ghumman who voiced Michael Clarke Duncan as Wilson Fisk/The Kingpin, Kishore Bhatt who voiced David Keith and Joe Pantoliano as Jack Murdock and Ben Urich in Hindi.
The Last Samurai Shin Koyamada Nobutada
(First dub) Hindi English
Japanese 2003 2003 Performed alongside Viraj Adhav
Goosebumps Ryan Lee Champ Hindi English 2015 2015
Spider-Man: Homecoming Jacob Batalon Ned Leeds Hindi English 2017 2017
Animated films[edit]
Film title
Original voice(s)
Character(s)
Dub Language
Original Language
Original Year Release
Dub Year Release
Notes
Barbie of Swan Lake Ian James Corlett Ivan Hindi English 2003 2004 Minor character role.
Hindi dub released on VCD/DVD on 5 July 2004 and aired on Television.
The Wild Unknown Monu Hindi English 2006 2006 Prasad's name is mentioned in the Hindi dub credits taken from the DVD release of the film.
Kung Fu Panda Jack Black Po Hindi English 2008 2008
Kung Fu Panda 2 Jack Black Po Hindi English 2011 2011
Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs Seann William Scott
Josh Peck Crash
Eddie Hindi English 2009 2009
Ice Age: Continental Drift Seann William Scott
Josh Peck Crash
Eddie Hindi English 2012 2012
The Croods Clark Duke Thunk Crood Hindi English 2013 2013
Frozen Josh Gad Olaf Hindi English 2013 2015 Hindi dub made for the Disney Channel. Premiered on December 12, 2015.
Kung Fu Panda 3 Jack Black Po Hindi English 2016 2016
Big Hero 6 Scott Adsit Baymax Hindi English 2014 2017
Zootopia [6] Nate Torrence Officer Benjamin Clawhauser Hindi English 2016 2017 Hindi dub made for Movies OK. Premiered September 17, 2017.
Anime films[edit]
Film title
Original Japanese voice
Character
Dub Language
Original Year Release
Dubbed Year Release
Notes
Pokémon: Mewtwo Returns Rica Matsumoto (JP)
Veronica Taylor (EN) Ash Ketchum (Satoshi)
(First Dub) Hindi 2000 2006 Aired on Television 6 years later, after the original Japanese release. The Hindi dub was a revised translation of the English dub, thus meaning all changes in the English dub were impact in the Hindi dubbed version. The exact air date was 14 November 2006.[7]
Pokémon: Lucario and the Mystery of Mew Rica Matsumoto (JP)
Veronica Taylor (EN) Ash Ketchum (Satoshi)
(First Dub) Hindi 2005 2009 (Pakistan)
2010 (India) Aired on Cartoon Network Pakistan in 2009, and on its Indian counterpart in 2010. The Hindi dub was a revised translation of the English dub, thus meaning all changes in the English dub were impact in the Hindi dubbed version.
Pokémon: The Rise of Darkrai Rica Matsumoto (JP)
Sarah Natochenny (EN) Ash Ketchum (Satoshi)
(First Dub) Hindi 2007 2011 Aired on Television 4 years later, after the original Japanese release. The Hindi dub was a revised translation of the English dub, thus meaning all changes in the English dub were impact in the Hindi dubbed version.
Pokémon: Giratina and the Sky Warrior Rica Matsumoto (JP)
Sarah Natochenny (EN) Ash Ketchum (Satoshi)
(First Dub) Hindi 2008 2011 Aired on Cartoon Network Pakistan 3 years later, after the original Japanese release. The Hindi dub was a revised translation of the English dub, thus meaning all changes in the English dub were impact in the Hindi dubbed version.
Pokémon: Arceus and the Jewel of Life Rica Matsumoto (JP)
Sarah Natochenny (EN) Ash Ketchum (Satoshi)
(First Dub) Hindi 2009 2011 Aired on Cartoon Network Pakistan 2 years later, after the original Japanese release. The Hindi dub was a revised translation of the English dub, thus meaning all changes in the English dub were impact in the Hindi dubbed version.
Pokémon: Zoroark: Master of Illusions Rica Matsumoto (JP)
Sarah Natochenny (EN) Ash Ketchum (Satoshi)
(First Dub) Hindi 2010 2012
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Barve Bio". IMDb. Retrieved 8 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Team, Tellychakkar. "Releases". Tellychakkar.com. Retrieved 2016-06-19.
Jump up ^ "BHEL PURI at Hogwarts". epaper.timesofindia.com. Retrieved 2016-06-19.
Jump up ^ "Prasad Barve – Hindi Dubbing Stars Facebook". Facebook.com. 2 July 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "Prasad Barve – Hindi Dubbing Stars Facebook". Facebook.com. 2 July 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "Behind the Hindi Voice on Facebook". Facebook.com. 2017-09-26. Retrieved 2017-09-27.
Jump up ^ http://www.indiantelevision.com/television/broadcasting/tv-channels/kids/cartoon-network-to-join-barbie-and-pok%C3%A9mon-on-childrens-day
External links[edit]
Prasad Barve on IMDb
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prasad_Barve&oldid=818968316"
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Jesus healing the bleeding woman
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Christ Healing a bleeding woman, as depicted in the Catacombs of Rome.
Jesus healing the bleeding woman (or "woman with an issue of blood" and other variants) is one of the miracles of Jesus in the Gospels (Matthew 9:20–22, Mark 5:25–34, Luke 8:43–48).[1] [2][3][4]
In the Gospel accounts, this miracle immediately follows the exorcism at Gerasa and is combined with the miracle of the Daughter of Jairus. The incident occurred while Jesus was traveling to Jairus' house, amid a large crowd:
And a woman was there who had been subject to bleeding for twelve years. She had suffered a great deal under the care of many doctors and had spent all she had, yet instead of getting better she grew worse. When she heard about Jesus, she came up behind him in the crowd and touched his cloak, because she thought, “If I just touch his clothes, I will be healed.” Immediately her bleeding stopped and she felt in her body that she was freed from her suffering.
At once Jesus realized that power had gone out from him. He turned around in the crowd and asked, “Who touched my clothes?” “You see the people crowding against you,” his disciples answered, “and yet you can ask, ‘Who touched me?’ ” But Jesus kept looking around to see who had done it.Then the woman, knowing what had happened to her, came and fell at his feet and, trembling with fear, told him the whole truth. He said to her, “Daughter, your faith has healed you. Go in peace and be freed from your suffering.”
The woman's condition, which is not clear in terms of a modern medical diagnosis, is translated as an "issue of blood" in the King James Version and a "flux of blood" in the Wycliffe Bible and some other versions. In scholarly language she is often referred to by the original New Testament Greek term as the haemorrhoissa (ἡ αἱμοῤῥοοῦσα, "bleeding woman"). The text describes her as γυνὴ αἱμορροοῦσα δώδεκα ἔτη (gynē haimorroousa dōdeka etē), with haimorroousa being a verb in the active voice present participle ("having had a flow [rhēon], of blood [haima]"). Some scholars view it as menorrhagia; others as haemorrhoids.[5]
Because of the continual bleeding, the woman would have been continually regarded in Jewish law as a niddah or menstruating woman, and so ceremonially unclean. In order to be regarded as clean, the flow of blood would need to stop for at least 7 days. Because of the constant bleeding, this woman lived in a continual state of uncleanness which would have brought upon her social and religious isolation.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Gospels of Matthew and Luke
2 In art and later traditions
3 See also
4 References
Gospels of Matthew and Luke[edit]
Matthew's and Luke's accounts specify the "fringe" of his cloak, using a Greek word which also appears in Mark 6.[7] According to the Catholic Encyclopedia article on fringes in scripture, the Pharisees (one of the sects of Second Temple Judaism) who were the progenitors of modern Rabbinic Judaism, were in the habit of wearing extra-long fringes or tassels (Matthew 23:5), a reference to the formative çîçîth (tzitzit). Because of the Pharisees' authority, people regarded the fringe with a mystical quality.[8]
In art and later traditions[edit]
Coin of Hadrian; he accepts the homage of a figure representing Achaea in this example
Eusebius, writing in the reign of Constantine I says he himself saw a pair of statues in bronze in Panease or Caesarea Philippi (on the Golan Heights in modern terms) of Jesus and the haemorrhoissa, sculpture being at this time an unusual form for the depiction of Jesus. By his description they resembled a sculptural version of the couple as they were shown in a number of paintings in the Catacombs of Rome (see illustration at top). He sees this in terms of ancient traditions of commemorating local notables rather than newer ones of Early Christian art. The statues were placed outside the house of the woman, who came from the city, and was called Veronica (meaning "true image"), according to the apocrypha Acts of Pilate and later tradition, which gave other details of her life.[9]
When Julian the Apostate became emperor in 361 he instigated a programme to restore Hellenic paganism as the state religion.[10] In Panease this resulted in the replacement of the statue of Christ, with results described by Sozomen, writing in the 440s:
”Having heard that at Caesarea Philippi, otherwise called Panease Paneades, a city of Phoenicia, there was a celebrated statue of Christ, which had been erected by a woman whom the Lord had cured of a flow of blood. Julian commanded it to be taken down, and a statue of himself erected in its place; but a violent fire from the heaven fell upon it, and broke off the parts contiguous to the breast; the head and neck were thrown prostrate, and it was transfixed to the ground with the face downwards at the point where the fracture of the bust was; and it has stood in that fashion from that day until now, full of the rust of the lightning.”[11]
However, it has been pointed out since the 19th century that the statues were probably a misunderstanding or distortion of a sculptural group in fact originally representing the submission of Judea to the Emperor Hadrian. Images of this particular coupling, typical of Roman Imperial adventus imagery, appear on a number of Hadrian's coins, after the suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–136. The statues seem to have been buried in a landslide and some time later rediscovered and interpreted as Christian. Since Caesarea Philippi had been celebrated for its temple of the god Pan, a Christian tourist attraction was no doubt welcome news for the city's economy.[12]
Representations of the episode which seem clearly to draw on the lost statue, and so resemble surviving coins of the imperial image, appear rather frequently in Early Christian art, with several in the Catacombs of Rome, as illustrated above, on the Brescia Casket and Early Christian sarcophagi, and in mosaic cycles of the Life of Christ such as San Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna. It continued to be depicted sometimes until the Gothic period, and then after the Renaissance.[13]
The story was later elaborated in the 11th century in the West by adding that Christ gave her a portrait of himself on a cloth, with which she later cured Tiberius. This Western rival to the Image of Edessa or Mandylion eventually turned into the major Western icon of the Veil of Veronica, now with a different story for "Veronica". The linking of this image with the bearing of the cross in the Passion, and the miraculous appearance of the image was made by Roger d'Argenteuil's Bible in French in the 13th century,[14] and gained further popularity following the internationally popular work, Meditations on the Life of Christ of about 1300 by a Pseudo-Bonaventuran author. It is also at this point that other depictions of the image change to include a crown of thorns, blood, and the expression of a man in pain,[14] and the image became very common throughout Catholic Europe, forming part of the Arma Christi, and with the meeting of Jesus and Veronica becoming one of the Stations of the Cross.
See also[edit]
Daughter of Jairus
Tzitzit
Related Bible parts: Matthew 9, Mark 5, Luke 8
References[edit]
Jump up ^ John R. Donahue, Daniel J. Harrington 2005 The Gospel of Mark ISBN 0-8146-5965-9 page 182
Jump up ^ "Biblegateway Mark 5:25–34". Biblegateway.com. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
Jump up ^ "Biblegateway Matthew 9:20–22". Biblegateway.com. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
Jump up ^ "Biblegateway Luke 8:43–48". Biblegateway.com. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
Jump up ^ "Matthew 9:20 Commentaries: And a woman who had been suffering from a hemorrhage for twelve years, came up behind Him and touched the fringe of His cloak". Biblehub.com. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
Jump up ^ McArthur, Dr. John (1987). Matthew 8–15 MacArthur New Testament Commentary. The Moody Bible Institute of Chicago. pp. 79–80. ISBN 0-8024-0763-3.
Jump up ^ κράσπεδον/kraspedon, see Strong's G2899
Jump up ^ Knight, Kevin (2009), "Fringes (in Scripture)", The Catholic Encyclopedia, retrieved 30 December 2011
Jump up ^ Wace, Henry, "Veronica" in the Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century A.D., with an Account of the Principal Sects and Heresies, online; Schiller, I, 78–79
Jump up ^ Brown, Peter, The World of Late Antiquity, W. W. Norton, New York, 1971, ISBN 0-393-95803-5 p. 93.
Jump up ^ Wilson, John Francis. (2004) ibid p 99
Jump up ^ Wace, op. cit., note 2296; for other possibilities, and possible visual depictions of the statue, see Caesarea Philippi: Banias, The Lost City of Pan, pp. 90–97, John Wilson, 2004, IB Taurus, ISBN 1-85043-440-9, ISBN 978-1-85043-440-5
Jump up ^ Schiller, Gertud, Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I, 1971 (English trans from German), Lund Humphries, London, ISBN 0-85331-270-2, pp. 178–179
^ Jump up to: a b G Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. II, 1972 (English trans from German), Lund Humphries, London, pp. 78–9, ISBN 0-85331-324-5
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Universal grammar
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Universal grammar (UG) in linguistics, is the theory of the genetic component of the language faculty, usually credited to Noam Chomsky. The basic postulate of UG is that a certain set of structural rules are innate to humans, independent of sensory experience. With more linguistic stimuli received in the course of psychological development, children then adopt specific syntactic rules that conform to UG.[1] It is sometimes known as "mental grammar", and stands contrasted with other "grammars", e.g. prescriptive, descriptive and pedagogical.[2][3] The advocates of this theory emphasize and partially rely on the poverty of the stimulus (POS) argument and the existence of some universal properties of natural human languages. However, the latter has especially not been firmly established, as some linguists have argued languages are so diverse that such universality is rare.[4] It is a matter of empirical investigation to determine precisely what properties are universal and what linguistic capacities are innate.
Contents
[hide]
1 Argument
2 Relation to the evolution of language
3 History
4 Chomsky's theory
5 Presence of creole languages
6 Criticisms
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
Argument[edit]
The theory of universal grammar proposes that if human beings are brought up under normal conditions (not those of extreme sensory deprivation), then they will always develop language with certain properties (e.g., distinguishing nouns from verbs, or distinguishing function words from content words). The theory proposes that there is an innate, genetically determined language faculty that knows these rules, making it easier and faster for children to learn to speak than it otherwise would be.[5] This faculty does not know the vocabulary of any particular language (so words and their meanings must be learned), and there remain several parameters which can vary freely among languages (such as whether adjectives come before or after nouns) which must also be learned.
As Chomsky puts it, "Evidently, development of language in the individual must involve three factors: (1) genetic endowment, which sets limits on the attainable languages, thereby making language acquisition possible; (2) external data, converted to the experience that selects one or another language within a narrow range; (3) principles not specific to the Faculty of Language."[6]
Occasionally, aspects of universal grammar seem describable in terms of general details regarding cognition. For example, if a predisposition to categorize events and objects as different classes of things is part of human cognition, and directly results in nouns and verbs showing up in all languages, then it could be assumed that rather than this aspect of universal grammar being specific to language, it is more generally a part of human cognition. To distinguish properties of languages that can be traced to other facts regarding cognition from properties of languages that cannot, the abbreviation UG* can be used. UG is the term often used by Chomsky for those aspects of the human brain which cause language to be the way that it is (i.e. are universal grammar in the sense used here) but here for discussion, it is used for those aspects which are furthermore specific to language (thus UG, as Chomsky uses it, is just an abbreviation for universal grammar, but UG* as used here is a subset of universal grammar).
In the same article, Chomsky casts the theme of a larger research program in terms of the following question: "How little can be attributed to UG while still accounting for the variety of 'I-languages' attained, relying on third factor principles?" (I-languages meaning internal languages, the brain states that correspond to knowing how to speak and understand a particular language, and third factor principles meaning (3) in the previous quote).
Chomsky has speculated that UG might be extremely simple and abstract, for example only a mechanism for combining symbols in a particular way, which he calls "merge". The following quote shows that Chomsky does not use the term "UG" in the narrow sense UG* suggested above:
"The conclusion that merge falls within UG holds whether such recursive generation is unique to FL (faculty of language) or is appropriated from other systems."
In other words, merge is seen as part of UG because it causes language to be the way it is, universal, and is not part of the environment or general properties independent of genetics and environment. Merge is part of universal grammar whether it is specific to language, or whether, as Chomsky suggests, it is also used for an example in mathematical thinking.
The distinction is important because there is a long history of argument about UG*, whereas most people working on language agree that there is universal grammar. Many people assume that Chomsky means UG* when he writes UG (and in some cases he might actually mean UG* [though not in the passage quoted above]).
Some students of universal grammar study a variety of grammars to extract generalizations called linguistic universals, often in the form of "If X holds true, then Y occurs." These have been extended to a variety of traits, such as the phonemes found in languages, the word orders which languages choose, and the reasons why children exhibit certain linguistic behaviors.
Later linguists who have influenced this theory include Chomsky and Richard Montague, developing their version of this theory as they considered issues of the argument from poverty of the stimulus to arise from the constructivist approach to linguistic theory. The application of the idea of universal grammar to the study of second language acquisition (SLA) is represented mainly in the work of McGill linguist Lydia White.
Syntacticians generally hold that there are parametric points of variation between languages, although heated debate occurs over whether UG constraints are essentially universal due to being "hard-wired" (Chomsky's principles and parameters approach), a logical consequence of a specific syntactic architecture (the generalized phrase structure approach) or the result of functional constraints on communication (the functionalist approach).[7]
Relation to the evolution of language[edit]
In an article titled, "The Faculty of Language: What Is It, Who Has It, and How Did It Evolve?"[8] Hauser, Chomsky, and Fitch present the three leading hypotheses for how language evolved and brought humans to the point where they have a universal grammar.
The first hypothesis states that the faculty of language in the broad sense (FLb) is strictly homologous to animal communication. This means that homologous aspects of the faculty of language exist in non-human animals.
The second hypothesis states that the FLb is a derived, uniquely human, adaptation for language. This hypothesis holds that individual traits were subject to natural selection and came to be specialized for humans.
The third hypothesis states that only the faculty of language in the narrow sense (FLn) is unique to humans. It holds that while mechanisms of the FLb are present in both human and non-human animals, the computational mechanism of recursion is recently evolved solely in humans.[8] This is the hypothesis which most closely aligns to the typical theory of universal grammar championed by Chomsky.
History[edit]
The idea of a universal grammar can be traced back to Roger Bacon's observations in his c. 1245 Overview of Grammar and c. 1268 Greek Grammar that all languages are built upon a common grammar, even though it may undergo incidental variations; and the 13th century speculative grammarians who, following Bacon, postulated universal rules underlying all grammars. The concept of a universal grammar or language was at the core of the 17th century projects for philosophical languages. There is a Scottish school of universal grammarians from the 18th century, as distinguished from the philosophical language project, which included authors such as James Beattie, Hugh Blair, James Burnett, James Harris, and Adam Smith. The article on grammar in the first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1771) contains an extensive section titled "Of Universal Grammar".
The idea rose to prominence and influence, in modern linguistics with theories from Chomsky and Montague in the 1950s–1970s, as part of the "linguistics wars".
During the early 20th century, in contrast, language was usually understood from a behaviourist perspective, suggesting that language acquisition, like any other kind of learning, could be explained by a succession of trials, errors, and rewards for success.[9] In other words, children learned their mother tongue by simple imitation, through listening and repeating what adults said. For example, when a child says "milk" and the mother will smile and give her some as a result, the child will find this outcome rewarding, thus enhancing the child's language development.[10]
Chomsky's theory[edit]
Further information: Language acquisition device, Generative grammar, X-bar theory, Government and binding, Principles and parameters, and Minimalist program
Chomsky argued that the human brain contains a limited set of constraints for organizing language. This implies in turn that all languages have a common structural basis: the set of rules known as "universal grammar".
Speakers proficient in a language know which expressions are acceptable in their language and which are unacceptable. The key puzzle is how speakers come to know these restrictions of their language, since expressions that violate those restrictions are not present in the input, indicated as such. Chomsky argued that this poverty of stimulus means that Skinner's behaviourist perspective cannot explain language acquisition. The absence of negative evidence—evidence that an expression is part of a class of ungrammatical sentences in a given language—is the core of his argument.[11] For example, in English, an interrogative pronoun like what cannot be related to a predicate within a relative clause:
*"What did John meet a man who sold?"
Such expressions are not available to language learners: they are, by hypothesis, ungrammatical. Speakers of the local language do not use them, nor note them as unacceptable to language learners. Universal grammar offers an explanation for the presence of the poverty of the stimulus, by making certain restrictions into universal characteristics of human languages. Language learners are consequently never tempted to generalize in an illicit fashion.
Presence of creole languages[edit]
The presence of creole languages is sometimes cited as further support for this theory, especially by Bickerton's controversial language bioprogram theory. Creoles are languages that develop and form when disparate societies come together and are forced to devise a new system of communication. The system used by the original speakers is typically an inconsistent mix of vocabulary items, known as a pidgin. As these speakers' children begin to acquire their first language, they use the pidgin input to effectively create their own original language, known as a creole. Unlike pidgins, creoles have native speakers (those with acquisition from early childhood) and make use of a full, systematic grammar.
According to Bickerton, the idea of universal grammar is supported by creole languages because certain features are shared by virtually all in the category. For example, their default point of reference in time (expressed by bare verb stems) is not the present moment, but the past. Using pre-verbal auxiliaries, they uniformly express tense, aspect, and mood. Negative concord occurs, but it affects the verbal subject (as opposed to the object, as it does in languages like Spanish). Another similarity among creoles can be seen in the fact that questions are created simply by changing the intonation of a declarative sentence, not its word order or content.
However, extensive work by Carla Hudson-Kam and Elissa Newport suggests that creole languages may not support a universal grammar at all. In a series of experiments, Hudson-Kam and Newport looked at how children and adults learn artificial grammars. They found that children tend to ignore minor variations in the input when those variations are infrequent, and reproduce only the most frequent forms. In doing so, they tend to standardize the language that they hear around them. Hudson-Kam and Newport hypothesize that in a pidgin-development situation (and in the real-life situation of a deaf child whose parents are or were disfluent signers), children systematize the language they hear, based on the probability and frequency of forms, and not that which has been suggested on the basis of a universal grammar.[12][13] Further, it seems to follow that creoles would share features with the languages from which they are derived, and thus look similar in terms of grammar.
Many researchers of universal grammar argue against a concept of relexification, which says that a language replaces its lexicon almost entirely with that of another. This goes against universalist ideas of a universal grammar, which has an innate grammar.
Criticisms[edit]
Geoffrey Sampson maintains that universal grammar theories are not falsifiable and are therefore pseudoscientific. He argues that the grammatical "rules" linguists posit are simply post-hoc observations about existing languages, rather than predictions about what is possible in a language.[14] Similarly, Jeffrey Elman argues that the unlearnability of languages assumed by universal grammar is based on a too-strict, "worst-case" model of grammar, that is not in keeping with any actual grammar. In keeping with these points, James Hurford argues that the postulate of a language acquisition device (LAD) essentially amounts to the trivial claim that languages are learnt by humans, and thus, that the LAD is less a theory than an explanandum looking for theories.[15]
Morten H. Christiansen and Nick Chater have argued that the relatively fast-changing nature of language would prevent the slower-changing genetic structures from ever catching up, undermining the possibility of a genetically hard-wired universal grammar. Instead of an innate universal grammar, they claim, "apparently arbitrary aspects of linguistic structure may result from general learning and processing biases deriving from the structure of thought processes, perceptuo-motor factors, cognitive limitations, and pragmatics".[16]
Hinzen summarizes the most common criticisms of universal grammar:
Universal grammar has no coherent formulation and is indeed unnecessary.
Universal grammar is in conflict with biology: it cannot have evolved by standardly accepted neo-Darwinian evolutionary principles.
There are no linguistic universals: universal grammar is refuted by abundant variation at all levels of linguistic organization, which lies at the heart of human faculty of language.[17]
In addition, it has been suggested that people learn about probabilistic patterns of word distributions in their language, rather than hard and fast rules (see Distributional hypothesis).[18] For example, children overgeneralize the past tense marker "ed" and mispronounce the irregular verbs, producing forms like goed and eated and correct these errors over time.[19] It has also been proposed that the poverty of the stimulus problem can be largely avoided, if it is assumed that children employ similarity-based generalization strategies in language learning, generalizing about the usage of new words from similar words that they already know how to use.[20]
Language acquisition researcher Michael Ramscar has suggested that when children erroneously expect an ungrammatical form that then never occurs, the repeated failure of expectation serves as a form of implicit negative feedback that allows them to correct their errors over time such as how children correct grammar generalizations like goed to went through repetitive failure.[19][21] This implies that word learning is a probabilistic, error-driven process, rather than a process of fast mapping, as many nativists assume.
In the domain of field research, the Pirahã language is claimed to be a counterexample to the basic tenets of universal grammar. This research has been led by Daniel Everett. Among other things, this language is alleged to lack all evidence for recursion, including embedded clauses, as well as quantifiers and colour terms.[22] According to the writings of Everett, the Pirahã showed these linguistic shortcomings not because they were simple-minded, but because their culture—which emphasized concrete matters in the present and also lacked creation myths and traditions of art making—did not necessitate it.[23] Some other linguists have argued, however, that some of these properties have been misanalyzed, and that others are actually expected under current theories of universal grammar.[24] Other linguists have attempted to reassess Pirahã to see if it did indeed use recursion. In a corpus analysis of the Pirahã language, linguists failed to disprove Everett's arguments against universal grammar and the lack of recursion in Pirahã. However, they also stated that there was "no strong evidence for the lack of recursion either" and they provided "suggestive evidence that Pirahã may have sentences with recursive structures".[25]
Daniel Everett has gone as far as claiming that universal grammar does not exist. In his words, "universal grammar doesn't seem to work, there doesn't seem to be much evidence for [it]. And what can we put in its place? A complex interplay of factors, of which culture, the values human beings share, plays a major role in structuring the way that we talk and the things that we talk about."[26] Michael Tomasello, a developmental psychologist, also supports this claim, arguing that "although many aspects of human linguistic competence have indeed evolved biologically, specific grammatical principles and constructions have not. And universals in the grammatical structure of different languages have come from more general processes and constraints of human cognition, communication, and vocal-auditory processing, operating during the conventionalization and transmission of the particular grammatical constructions of particular linguistic communities."[27]
See also[edit]
Applicative universal grammar
Broca's area
Generative grammar
Linguistic universal
Native language
Optimality theory
Origin of language
Principles and parameters
Psychological nativism
Universal Networking Language
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Noam Chomsky. "Tool Module: Chomsky's Universal Grammar". Retrieved 2010-10-07.
Jump up ^ Thornbury, Scott (2006). An A-Z of ELT. Macmillan Education. p. 92. ISBN 1-4050-7063-3.
Jump up ^ Szendroi, Kriszta (16 December 2014). "First Words: How do children develop language?". Word of Mouth. BBC Radio 4. Retrieved 24 December 2014.
Jump up ^ Evans, N. (2009). The Myth of Language Universals: Language diversity and its importance for cognitive science. In Behavioral and Brain Sciences. Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ "Tool Module: Chomsky's Universal Grammar". thebrain.mcgill.ca. Retrieved 2017-08-28.
Jump up ^ Chomsky, Noam (2007). "Approaching UG from Below". In Hans-Martin Gärtner; Uli Sauerland. Interfaces + Recursion = Language? Chomsky's Minimalism and the View from Syntax-Semantics. Studies in Generative Grammar. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-018872-1.
Jump up ^ Mark C. Baker (2003). "Syntax". In Mark Aronoff; Janie Rees-Miller. The Handbook of Linguistics. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-0252-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Hauser, Marc; Chomsky, Noam; Fitch, William Tecumseh (22 November 2002), "The Faculty of Language: What Is It, Who Has It, and How Did It Evolve?" (PDF), Science, 298 (5598): 1569–1579, doi:10.1126/science.298.5598.1569, PMID 12446899
Jump up ^ Noam Chomsky. "Tool Module: Chomsky's Universal Grammar". Retrieved 2010-10-07.
Jump up ^ Ambridge & Lieven, 2011.
Jump up ^ Northumbria University, Ewa Dąbrowska. "What exactly is Universal Grammar, and has anyone seen it?" (PDF). www.northumbria.ac.uk.
Jump up ^ Hudson Kam, C. L.; Newport, E. L. (2009). "Getting it right by getting it wrong: When learners change languages". Cognitive Psychology. 59: 30–66. doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2009.01.001. PMC 2703698  . PMID 19324332.
Jump up ^ Melody Dye (February 9, 2010). "The Advantages of Being Helpless". Scientific American. Retrieved June 10, 2014.
Jump up ^ Sampson, Geoffrey (2005). The 'Language Instinct' Debate: Revised Edition. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-0-8264-7385-1.
Jump up ^ James R. Hurford (1995). "Nativist and Functional Explanations in Language Acquisition". In I. M. Roca. Logical Issues in Language Acquisition (PDF). Dordrecht, Holland and Providence, Rhode Island: Foris Publications. p. 88. Retrieved June 10, 2014.
Jump up ^ Christiansen, Morten H. and Chater, Nick. "Language as Shaped by the Brain". Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 31.5 (2008): 489–509.
Jump up ^ Hinzen, Wolfram (September 2012). "The philosophical significance of Universal Grammar". Language Sciences. 34 (5): 635–649. doi:10.1016/j.langsci.2012.03.005.
Jump up ^ McDonald, Scott; Ramscar, Michael (2001). "Testing the distributional hypothesis: The influence of context on judgements of semantic similarity". Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society: 611–616. Retrieved June 10, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Fernández, Eva M.; Helen Smith Cairns (2011). Fundamentals of Psycholinguistics. Chichester, West Sussex, England:: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-9147-0.
Jump up ^ Yarlett, Daniel G.; Ramscar, Michael J. A. (2008). "Language Learning Through Similarity-Based Generalization". Retrieved June 10, 2014.
Jump up ^ Ramscar, Michael; Yarlett, Daniel (2007). "Linguistic self-correction in the absence of feedback: A new approach to the logical problem of language acquisition". Cognitive Science. 31 (6): 927–960. doi:10.1080/03640210701703576. PMID 21635323.
Jump up ^ Everett, Daniel L. (August–October 2005). "Cultural Constraints on Grammar and Cognition in Pirahã: Another Look at the Design Features of Human Language" (PDF). Current Anthropology. 46 (4): 621–646. doi:10.1086/431525.
Jump up ^ Schuessler, Jennifer (March 22, 2012). "How Do You Say 'Disagreement' in Pirahã?". The New York Times. p. C1. Retrieved June 10, 2014.
Jump up ^ Nevins, et al., 2007 Pirahã Exceptionality: a Reassessment [1]. Archived May 21, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Piantadosi, Steven T.; Stearns, Laura; Everett, Daniel L.; Gibson, Edward (August 2012). "A corpus analysis of Pirahã grammar: An investigation of recursion" (PDF).
Jump up ^ McCrum, Robert (March 24, 2012). "Daniel Everett: 'There is no such thing as universal grammar". The Observer. Retrieved June 10, 2014.
Jump up ^ Tomasello, Michael (2008). Origins of human communication. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-51520-7.
References[edit]
Ambridge, Ben; Lieven, Elena V. M. Child Language Acquisition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76804-7.
Baker, Mark C. The Atoms of Language: The Mind's Hidden Rules of Grammar. Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-860632-X.
Beattie, James. "Of Universal Grammar". Section II, The Theory of Language (1788). Rpt in Dissertations Moral and Critical (1783, 1986.)
Blair, Hugh. Lecture 6, 7, and 8, Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, (1783). Rpt New York: Garland, 1970.
Burnett, James. Of the Origin and Progress of Language. Edinburgh, 1774–1792.
Chomsky, N. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. MIT Press, 1965. ISBN 0-262-53007-4.
Elman, J., Bates, E. et al. Rethinking innateness. MIT Press, 1996.
Harris, James. Hermes or A Philosophical Inquiry Concerning Universal Grammar. (1751, 1771.)
Kliesch, C. (2012). Making sense of syntax – Innate or acquired? Contrasting universal grammar with other approaches to language acquisition. Journal of European Psychology Students, 3, 88–94,
"Of Universal Grammar". In "Grammar". Encyclopædia Britannica, (1771).
Pesetsky, David. "Linguistic Universals and Universal Grammar". In The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences. Ed. Robert A. Wilson and Frank C. Keil Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 1999.
Sampson, G. The "Language Instinct" Debate. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2005. ISBN 0-8264-7384-9.
Smith, Adam. "Considerations Concerning the First Formation of Languages". In Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres. Ed. J. C. Bryce. Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1983, 203–226.
Smith, Adam. "Of the Origin and Progress of Language". Lecture 3, Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres. Ed. J. C. Bryce. Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1983, 9–13.
Tomasello, M. Constructing a Language: A Usage-Based Theory of Language Acquisition. Harvard University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-674-01030-2.
Window on Humanity. A Concise Introduction to Anthropology. Conrad Phillip Kottak. Ed. Kevin Witt, Jill Gordon. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 2005.
White, Lydia. "Second Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar". Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-79647-4
Zuidema, Willem. How the poverty of stimulus solves the poverty of stimulus. "Evolution of Language: Fourth International Conference", Harvard University, March 2002.
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