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Common myna
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Not to be confused with Common miner or Noisy miner.
Common myna/Indian mynah
Acridotheres tristis in Kokrebellur, India
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Sturnidae
Genus: Acridotheres
Species: A. tristis
Binomial name
Acridotheres tristis
(Linnaeus, 1766)
Subspecies
Acridotheres tristis melanosternus
Acridotheres tristis naumanni
Acridotheres tristis tristis
Acridotheres tristis tristoides
Distribution of the common myna. Native distribution in blue, introduced in red.
The common myna/Indian mynah (Acridotheres tristis), sometimes spelled mynah, also sometimes known as "Indian myna",[2] is a member of the family Sturnidae (starlings and mynas) native to Asia. An omnivorous open woodland bird with a strong territorial instinct, the myna has adapted extremely well to urban environments.
The range of the common myna is increasing at such a rapid rate that in 2000 the IUCN Species Survival Commission declared it one of the world's most invasive species and one of only three birds in the top 100 species that pose an impact to biodiversity, agriculture and human interests.[3] In particular, the species poses a serious threat to the ecosystems of Australia where it was named "The Most Important Pest/Problem".[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
1.1 Morphometry
2 Distribution
3 Etymology
4 Taxonomy and subspecies
5 Behaviour
5.1 Vocalisation
5.2 Breeding
5.3 Food and feeding
5.4 Roosting behaviour
5.5 Habitat
5.5.1 Urban success
6 Invasive species
6.1 Australia
6.2 New Zealand
6.3 South Africa
6.4 United States
6.5 Effect on ecosystems and humans
6.5.1 Threat to native birds
6.5.2 Threat to crops and pasture
7 In culture
8 Gallery
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Description[edit]
The common myna is readily identified by the brown body, black hooded head and the bare yellow patch behind the eye. The bill and legs are bright yellow. There is a white patch on the outer primaries and the wing lining on the underside is white. The sexes are similar and birds are usually seen in pairs.[5]
The common myna obeys Gloger's rule in that the birds from northwest India tend to be paler than their darker counterparts in South India.[6][7]
Morphometry[edit]
Morphometry.[6]
Body length: 23 centimetres (9.1 in)
Parameter/sex
Male
Female
Average weight (g) 109.8 120-138
Wing chord (mm) 138-153 138-147
Bill (mm) 25-30 25-28
Tarsus (mm) 34-42 35-41
Tail (mm) 81-95 79-96
Distribution[edit]
It is a species of bird native to Asia with its initial home range spanning from Iran, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka; as well as Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Myanmar, to Malaysia, Singapore, peninsular Thailand, Indo-China and China.[6][8]
The myna has been introduced in many other parts of the world such as Canada, Australia, Israel, New Zealand, New Caledonia, United States, South Africa, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan[9] Uzbekistan and islands in the Indian Ocean (Seychelles, Mauritius, Réunion, Madagascar, Maldives, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep archipelago) and also in islands of the Atlantic, such as Ascension and St Helena, and Pacific Oceans.[6] The range of the common myna is increasing to the extent that in 2000 the IUCN Species Survival Commission declared it among the World's 100 worst invasive species.[3]
Etymology[edit]
The etymology of the scientific name is as follows:[10]
Acridotheres: Greek akris, akrodos, a locust; theres, a hunter.
tristis: Latin tristis, sad, gloomy; Modern Latin tristis, dull-coloured).
Taxonomy and subspecies[edit]
The common myna has two subspecies:[6]
Acridotheres tristis tristis (Linnaeus, 1758). Widespread, including Sri Lanka.
A. t. melanosternus Legge, 1879. Endemic to Sri Lanka.
The subspecies melanosternus is darker than the nominate subspecies, has half-black and half-white primary coverts and has a larger yellow cheek-patch.[6][7] The type locality of the nominate subspecies is Puducherry, India.[10]
Behaviour[edit]
Vocalisation[edit]
Calls
Common Myna In Guntur
Turquoise blue-coloured egg of common myna.
The calls includes croaks, squawks, chirps, clicks, whistles and 'growls', and the bird often fluffs its feathers and bobs its head in singing. The common myna screeches warnings to its mate or other birds in cases of predators in proximity or when it is about to take off flying.[11] Common mynas are popular as cage birds for their singing and "speaking" abilities. Before sleeping in communal roosts, mynas vocalise in unison, which is known as "communal noise".[12]
Breeding[edit]
Common myna evicting a nest of jungle babbler. Breaking the eggs of jungle babbler.
Common mynas are believed to pair for life. They breed through much of the year depending on the location, building their nest in a hole in a tree or wall. They breed from sea-level to 3000 m in the Himalayas.[6]
The normal clutch size is 4–6 eggs. The average size of the egg is 30.8 x 21.99 mm. The incubation period is 17 to 18 days and fledging period is 22 to 24 days.[6] The Asian koel is sometimes brood parasitic on this species.[13] Nesting material used by mynas include twigs, roots, tow and rubbish. Mynas have been known to use tissue paper, tin foil and sloughed off snake-skin.[6]
During the breeding season, the daytime activity-time budget of common myna in Pune in April to June 1978 has been recorded to comprise the following: nesting activity (42%), scanning the environment (28%), locomotion (12%), feeding (4%), vocalisation (7%) and preening-related activities, interactions and other activities (7%).[14]
The common myna uses the nests of woodpeckers, parakeets, etc. and easily takes to nest boxes; it has been recorded evicting the chicks of previously nesting pairs by holding them in the beak and later sometimes not even using the emptied nest boxes. This aggressive behaviour contributes to its success as an invasive species.[15]
However, there is also some evidence that shows that in introduced environments, the species chooses to nest in more modified and artificial structures than in natural tree cavities when compared to native species.[16]
Food and feeding[edit]
Common Myna prey on a grasshopper.
Like most starlings, the common myna is omnivorous. It feeds on insects, arachnids, crustaceans, reptiles, small mammals, seeds, grain and fruits and discarded waste from human habitation. It forages on the ground among grass for insects, and especially for grasshoppers, from which it gets the generic name Acridotheres, "grasshopper hunter". It however feeds on a wide range of insects, mostly picked from the ground.[6][17] It is a cross-pollinator of flowers such as Salmalia and Erythrina. It walks on the ground with occasional hops and is an opportunistic feeder on the insects disturbed by grazing cattle as well as fired grass fields.[6]
Roosting behaviour[edit]
Common mynas roost communally throughout the year, either in pure or mixed flocks with jungle mynas, rosy starlings, house crows, jungle crows, cattle egrets and rose-ringed parakeets and other birds. The roost population can range from less than one hundred to thousands.[18][19] The time of arrival of mynas at the roost starts before and ends just after sunset. The mynas depart before sunrise. The time and timespan of arrival and departure, time taken for final settlement at the roost, duration of communal sleep, flock size and population vary seasonally.[12][20][21]
The function of communal roosting is to synchronise various social activities, avoid predators, exchange information about food sources.[22]
Communal displays (pre-roosting and post-roosting) consist of aerial maneuvers which are exhibited in the pre-breeding season (November to March). It is assumed that this behaviour is related to pair formation.[23]
Habitat[edit]
A common myna visits a home garden in Colombo, Sri Lanka.
This abundant passerine is typically found in open woodland, cultivation and around habitation. Although this is an adaptable species, its population has been decreasing significantly in Singapore and Malaysia (where it is locally called as gembala kerbau, literally 'buffalo shepherd') due to competition with its cousin, the introduced Javan myna.[24]
Urban success[edit]
The common myna thrives in urban and suburban environments; in Canberra, for instance, 110 common mynas were released between 1968 and 1971. By 1991, common myna population density in Canberra averaged 15 birds per square kilometer.[25] Only three years later, a second study found an average population density of 75 birds per square kilometer in the same area.[26]
The bird likely owes its success in the urban and suburban settings of Sydney and Canberra to its evolutionary origins; having evolved in the open woodlands of India, the common myna is pre-adapted to habitats with tall vertical structures and little to no vegetative ground cover,[27] features characteristic of city streets and urban nature preserves.
The common myna (along with European starlings, house sparrows, and feral rock pigeons) is a nuisance to city buildings; its nests block gutters and drainpipes, causing water damage to building exteriors.[28]
Invasive species[edit]
The IUCN declared this myna as one of only three birds among the world's 100 worst invasive species[3] (the other two birds being the red-vented bulbul and the European starling.) It has been introduced widely elsewhere, including adjacent areas in Southeast Asia, Madagascar,[29] the Middle East, South Africa, Madagascar, Israel, the United States, Argentina, Germany, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and various oceanic islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, including prominent populations in Fiji and Hawaii.[8][30]
The common myna is regarded as a pest in South Africa, North America, the Middle East, Australia, New Zealand and many Pacific islands. It is particularly problematic in Australia. Several methods have been tried to control the bird's numbers and protect native species.
Australia[edit]
In Sydney, Australia
In Australia, the common myna is an invasive pest. They are now often the predominant bird in urban areas all along the East coast. In a 2008 popular vote, the bird was named "The Most Important Pest/Problem" in Australia, also earning the nickname "flying rats" due to their scavenging resembling that of rats. Also known as the cane toad of the sky.[4]
The common myna was first introduced to Australia in Victoria between 1863 and 1872 into Melbourne’s market gardens to control insects. The bird is likely to have spread to New South Wales (where it is currently most populous) at around the same time, but documentation is uncertain.[31] The bird was later introduced to Queensland as a predator of grasshoppers and cane beetles. Currently, common myna populations in Australia are concentrated along the eastern coast around Sydney and its surrounding suburbs, with sparser populations in Victoria and a few isolated communities in Queensland.[32] During 2009 several municipal councils in New South Wales began trials of catching myna birds in an effort to reduce numbers.[33]
The bird can live and breed in a wide range of temperatures, ranging from the harsh winters of Canberra to the tropical climate of Cairns. Self-sustaining populations of common myna have been found in regions of mean warmest month temperature no less than 23.2 °C and mean coldest month temperature no less than -0.4 °C, implying that the common myna could potentially spread from Sydney northward along the eastern coast to Cairns and westward along the southern coast to Adelaide (though not to Tasmania, Darwin, or the arid interior regions).[34]
New Zealand[edit]
The Indian myna was introduced to both the North Island and South Island of New Zealand in the 1870s. However, the cooler summer temperatures in the South Island appear to have impeded the breeding success rate of the southern populations, preventing the proliferation of the species, which was largely non-existent there by the 1890s. In contrast, the North Island population was able to breed more successfully and large portions of the North Island are now populated. However, in the southern reaches of the North Island, the cooler summer temperatures, like those of the South Island, have prevented the establishment of large Indian myna populations.[35]
South Africa[edit]
In South Africa where it escaped into the wild in 1902, it has become very common and its distribution is greater where human populations are greater or where there is more human disturbance.[36] The bird is also notorious for being a pest, kicking other birds out of their nests and killing their young due to the myna's strong territorial instinct. In South Africa it is considered somewhat of a major pest and disturbance of the natural habitat; as a result, they are frequently shot and killed or poisoned by people in urban environments and farmers alike. Bylaws in South Africa pertaining to the protection of most animal species specifically exclude mynas from this protection.[citation needed]
Morphological studies show that the process of spatial sorting is at work on the range expansion of A. tristis in South Africa.[37] Dispersal-relevant traits are significantly correlated with distance from the range core, with strong sexual dimorphism, indicative of sex-biased dispersal. Morphological variations are significant in wing and head traits of females, suggesting females as the primary dispersing sex. In contrast, traits not related to dispersal such as those associated with foraging show no signs of spatial sorting but are significantly affected by environmental variables such as vegetation and intensity of urbanisation.
United States[edit]
In Hawaii it is out-competing a lot of the native birds for food and nesting area.
To study the invasion genetics and landscape-scale dynamics of A. tristis, scientists have recently developed 16 polymorphic nuclear microsatellite markers [38] using the next generation sequencing (NGS) approach.
Effect on ecosystems and humans[edit]
Threat to native birds[edit]
The common myna is a hollow-nesting species; that is, it nests and breeds in protected hollows found either naturally in trees or artificially on buildings (for example, recessed windowsills or low eaves).[39] Compared to native hollow-nesting species, the common myna is extremely aggressive, and breeding males will actively defend areas ranging up to 0.83 hectares in size (though males in densely populated urban settings tend to only defend the area immediately surrounding their nests).[40]
This aggressiveness has enabled the common myna to displace many breeding pairs of native hollow-nesters, thereby reducing their reproductive success. In Australia, their aggressiveness has enabled them to chase native birds as large as galahs out of their nests.
The common myna is also known to maintain up to two roosts simultaneously; a temporary summer roost close to a breeding site (where the entire local male community sleeps during the summer, the period of highest aggression), and a permanent all-year roost where the female broods and incubates overnight. Both male and female common mynas will fiercely protect both roosts at all times, leading to further exclusion of native birds.[40]
Threat to crops and pasture[edit]
The common myna (which feeds mostly on ground-dwelling insects, tropical fruits such as grapes, plums and some berries and, in urban areas, discarded human food)[41] poses a serious threat to Australian blueberry crops, though its main threat is to native bird species.[42]
In Hawaii, where the common myna was introduced to control pest armyworms and cutworms in sugarcane crops, the bird has helped to spread the robust Lantana camara weed across the islands’ open grasslands.[43] It also has been recorded as the fourth-ranking avian pest in the fruit industry by a 2004 survey of the Hawaiian Farm Bureau and the sixth in number of complaints of avian pests overall.[44]
Mynas can cause considerable damage to ripening fruit, particularly grapes, but also figs, apples, pears, strawberries, blueberries, guava, mangoes and breadfruit. Cereal crops such as maize, wheat and rice are susceptible where they occur near urban areas. Roosting and nesting commensal with humans create aesthetic and health concerns. Mynas are known to carry avian malaria and exotic parasites such as the Ornithonyssus bursia mite which can cause dermatitis in humans. The myna can help spread agricultural weeds: for example, it spreads the seeds of Lantana camara which has been classed as a Weed of National Significance because of its invasiveness. Mynas are regularly observed to usurp nests and hollows, destroy the eggs and kill the young of native bird species including seabirds and parrots. There is evidence that Mynas have killed small land mammals such as mice, squirrels and possums, but further research on these occurrences are under consideration.[45]
In culture[edit]
The common myna widely appears under the name saarika in Indian culture from Vedic times, featuring both in classical Indian literature (Sanskrit) as well as in Prakrit Buddhist texts. The Sanskrit term shuksarika, which refers to the rose-ringed parakeet (shuk) and the common myna (saarika), is used to indicate a pair or a couple, probably because both birds are vocal and capable of mimicking human sound.[46]
In Sanskrit literature, the common myna has a number of names, most are descriptive of the appearance or behaviour of the bird. In addition to saarika, the names for the common myna include kalahapriya, which means "one who is fond of arguments" referring to the quarrelsome nature of this bird; chitranetra, meaning "picturesque eyes"; peetanetra (one with yellow eyes) and peetapaad (one with yellow legs).[47]
Gallery[edit]
Immature at nest, West Bengal
Captive Indian myna housed with Javan myna
Carrying nesting material
Common Myna at Morbi, Gujarat
Basking
Bathing in a rain water puddle
Spotted in Patiala
References[edit]
Jump up ^ BirdLife International (2012). "Acridotheres tristis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
Jump up ^ http://www.yimag.org.au/indian-myna-identification.html
^ Jump up to: a b c Lowe S., Browne M., Boudjelas S. and de Poorter M. (2000, updated 2004). 100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species: A selection from the Global Invasive Species Database. The Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG), a specialist group of the Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Auckland.
^ Jump up to: a b "ABC Wildwatch". Abc.net.au. Retrieved 2012-08-07.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, PC & JC Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia: The Ripley Guide. Vol 2. Smithsonian Institution & Lynx Edicions. p. 584.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Ali, Salim; Ripley, S. Dillon (2001). Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Volume 5 (2 (paperback) ed.). India: Oxford University Press. p. 278. ISBN 0-19-565938-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Rasmussen, Pamela C.; Anderton, John C. (2005). Birds of South Asia - The Ripley Guide (volume 2). Smithsonian Institution, Washington & Lynx edicions, Barcelona. pp. 584, 683. ISBN 84-87334-66-0.
^ Jump up to: a b "Common Myna". Retrieved December 23, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Common Myna - Audubon Field Guide". Audubon. Retrieved 2 March 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Pande, Satish (2009). Latin names of Indian birds explained. Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press. pp. 417, 506. ISBN 978-0-19-806625-5.
Jump up ^ Griffin, Andrea S. (2008). "Social learning in Indian mynahs, Acridotheres tristis: the role of distress calls". Animal Behaviour. 75 (1): 79–89. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.04.008.
^ Jump up to: a b Mahabal, Anil; Vaidya, V.G. (1989). "Diurnal rhythms and seasonal changes in the roosting behaviour of Indian Myna Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus)". Proceedings of Indian Academy of Sciences (Animal Science). Indian Academy of Sciences, Bangalore. 98 (3): 199–209. doi:10.1007/BF03179646. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Choudhury A. (1998). "Common Myna feeding a fledgling koel". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 95 (1): 115.
Jump up ^ Mahabal, Anil (1991). "Activity-time budget of Indian Myna Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus) during the breeding season". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. Bombay Natural History Society. 90 (1): 96–97. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Pande, Satish; Tambe, Saleel; Clement, Francis M; Sant, Niranjan (2003). Birds of Western Ghats, Kokan and Malabar (including birds of Goa). Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society & Oxford University Press. pp. 312, 377. ISBN 0-19-566878-2.
Jump up ^ Lowe, Katie A.; Taylor, Charlotte E.; Major, Richard E. (2011-10-01). "Do Common Mynas significantly compete with native birds in urban environments?". Journal of Ornithology. 152 (4): 909–921. doi:10.1007/s10336-011-0674-5. ISSN 0021-8375.
Jump up ^ Mathew, DN; Narendran, TC; Zacharias, VJ (1978). "A comparative study of the feeding habits of certain species of Indian birds affecting agriculture". J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (4): 1178–1197.
Jump up ^ Mahabal, Anil; Bastawade, D.B. (1991). "Mixed roosting associates of Indian Myna Acridotheres tristis in Pune city, India". Pavo. Department of Zoology, Maharaja Sayajirao Gaikwad University, Vadodara. 29 (1 & 2): 23–32. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Mahabal, Anil (1992). "Diurnal intra- and inter-specific assemblages of Indian Mynas". Biovigyanam. Maharashtra Association for the Cultivation of Science, Pune. 18 (2): 116–118. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Mahabal, Anil; Bastawade, D.B.; Vaidya, V.G. (1990). "Spatial and temporal fluctuations in the population of Common Myna Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus) in and around an Indian City". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. 87 (3): 392–398. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Mahabal, Anil (1993). "Seasonal changes in the flocking behaviour of Indian Myna Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus)". Biovigyanam. Maharashtra Association for the Cultivation of Science, Pune. 19 (1 & 2): 55–64. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Mahabal, Anil (1997). "Communal roosting in Common Mynas and its functional significanca". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. 94 (2): 342–349. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Mahabal, Anil (1993). "Communal display behaviour of Indian Myna Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus)". Pavo. Department of Zoology, Maharaja Sayajirao Gaikwad University, Vadodara. 31 (1&2): 45–54.
Jump up ^ "Ubiquitous Javan Myna". Bird Ecology Study Group, Nature Society (Singapore). Besgroup.blogspot.com. Retrieved October 25, 2007.
Jump up ^ Pell, A.S.; C.R. Tidemann (1997). "The Ecology of the Common Myna in Urban Nature Reserves in the Australian Capital Territory" (PDF). Emu. Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union. 97 (2): 141–149. doi:10.1071/MU97018.
Jump up ^ Pell 1997, p.146
Jump up ^ Pell 1997, p.141
Jump up ^ Bomford, M.; Ron Sinclair (2002). "Australian research on bird pests: impact, management and future directions" (PDF). Emu. Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union. 102: 35. doi:10.1071/MU01028.
Jump up ^ Wilme, Lucienne (1996). "Composition and characteristics of bird communities in Madagascar" (PDF). Biogéographie de Madagascar: 349–362.
Jump up ^ Long, John L. (1981). Introduced Birds of the World. Agricultural Protection Board of Western Australia, 21-493
Jump up ^ Hone, J. (1978). "Introduction and Spread of the Common Myna in New South Wales" (PDF). Emu. Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union. 78 (4): 227. doi:10.1071/MU9780227.
Jump up ^ Martin, W.K. (1996). "The Current and Potential Distribution of the Common Myna Acridotheres tristis in Australia" (PDF). Emu. Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union. 96 (3): 169–170. doi:10.1071/MU9960166.
Jump up ^ Vikki, By (2009-05-12). "Councils assessing backyard traps to catch Indian Mynah birds | thetelegraph.com.au". Dailytelegraph.com.au. Retrieved 2012-08-07.
Jump up ^ Martin 1996, pp.169–170
Jump up ^ http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/introduced-land-birds/page-9
Jump up ^ Derick S. Peacock; Berndt J. van Rensburg & Mark P. Robertson (2007). "The distribution and spread of the invasive alien Common Myna, Acridotheres tristis L. (Aves: Sturnidae), in southern Africa". South African Journal of Science. 103: 465–473.
Jump up ^ Berthouly-Salazar, C.; van Rensburg, B.J.; van Vuuren, B.J.; Hui, C. (2012). "Spatial sorting drives morphological variation in the invasive bird, Acridotheres tristis". PLoS ONE. 7 (5): e38145. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0038145.
Jump up ^ Berthouly-Salazar, C.; Cassey, P.; van Vuuren, B.J.; van Rensburg, B.J.; Hui, C.; le Roux, J.J. (2012). "Development and characterization of 13 new, and cross amplification of 3, polymorphic nuclear microsatellite loci in the Common myna (Acridotheres tristis)". Conservation Genetics Resources. 4: 621–624. doi:10.1007/s12686-012-9607-8.
Jump up ^ Bomford 2002, p.34
^ Jump up to: a b Pell 1997, p.148
Jump up ^ Pell 1997, p.147
Jump up ^ Bomford 2002, p.30
Jump up ^ Pimentel, D.; Lori Lach; Rodolfo Zuniga; Doug Morrison (January 2000). "Environmental and Economic Costs of Nonindigenous Species in the United States". BioScience. American Institute of Biological Sciences. 50 (1): 53–56. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2000)050[0053:EAECON]2.3.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Koopman, ME & W C Pitt (2007). "Crop diversification leads to diverse bird problems in Hawaiian agriculture" (PDF). Human–Wildlife Conflicts. 1 (2): 235–243.
Jump up ^ https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/vertebrate-pests/pest-animals-in-nsw/pest-birds/myna-birds
Jump up ^ Pande, Dr Suruchi. (2007). Some reflections on birds in Sanskrit literature. (A Thesis submitted for the degree of Vidyavachaspati (PhD) (Sanskrit) awarded from Shri Balmukund Lohiya Centre of Sanskrit and Indological Studies, Tilak Maharashtra Vidyapeeth, Pune).
Jump up ^ Dave, K. N. (2005). Birds in Sanskrit Literature (revised ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Private Ltd. pp. 468, 516. ISBN 81-208-1842-3.
Further reading[edit]
Feare, Chris; Craig, Adrian (1999). Starlings and Mynas. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-7136-3961-X.
Grimmett, Inskipp and Inskipp, Birds of India ISBN 0-691-04910-6
Pell, A.S. & Tidemann, C.R. (1997) "The impact of two exotic hollow-nesting birds on two native parrots in savannah and woodland in eastern Australia", Biological Conservation, 79, 145-153. A study showing native birds being excluded from up to 80% of nesting sites in Canberra, Australia.
External links[edit]
Common Myna videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
(Indian Myna =) Common Myna - Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds.
Indian Myna Control Handbook
"Acridotheres tristis". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 23 February 2009.
Common Myna video on Wild Sri Lanka
ANU Indian Common Myna page about mynas as an invasive species in Australia and what can be done to control them
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q116667
ADW: Acridotheres_tristis
ARKive: acridotheres-tristis
eBird: commyn
EoL: 1178476
EPPO: ACRHTR
Fauna Europaea: 97249
GBIF: 2489005
iNaturalist: 204454
ITIS: 554025
IUCN: 22710921
NCBI: 279927
NZOR: 19c7edfa-9ef8-443d-afcd-60926519bbfa
uBio: 2332984
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_myna&oldid=838420824"
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text:
Timeline of the flag of the United States
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
1776 January 1 – The Continental Colours designed during 1775, is displayed at the camp of the commanding General George Washington of Virginia over the Continental Army Revolutionary/Rebel forces in the American Revolutionary War at Prospect Hill, north of Cambridge and Boston, Massachusetts during the Siege of Boston. It has 13 alternate red and white stripes representing the original Thirteen Colonies and the British Union Jack flag, in a square in the upper left-hand corner.[1]
1776 May – A popular legend promulgated by the descendants of Betsy Ross, of Philadelphia, during the 1870s, over a century later, holds that the seamstress sewed the first American flag. The claim is widely discredited by researchers/historians.[2]
1777 June 14 – Continental Congress adopts the following: "Resolved, That the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation."[3]
1787 Captain Robert Gray carries the flag around the world on his sailing vessel (around the tip of South America, to China, and beyond).
1795 Flag with 15 stars and 15 stripes designed - often with unique red stripe under the blue field /canton (added Vermont, Kentucky to the original Thirteen Colonies stars)
1814 September 14 – Francis Scott Key writes the four stanza poem "The Star-Spangled Banner". It officially becomes the U.S.A. national anthem in 1931. The unique 15 - star, 15 - stripe design with a red stripe under the blue canton with stars (used 1795-1818) of the huge flag made by Mary Young Pickersgill later seen by Key flying over Fort McHenry outside Baltimore in September 1814 during the Battle of Baltimore in a British land/sea attack becomes known as the "Star Spangled Banner Flag".
1818 Flag with 20 stars and returned to the 13 stripes design of alternating red and white colors of 1777. It remains at 13 stripes hereafter to the present with only stars added for additional states admitted to the Union, on next following Independence Day, Fourth of July. (Tennessee(1796), Ohio (1803), Louisiana (1812), Indiana (1816}, Mississippi (1817) added from previous years).
1819 Flag with 21 stars (Illinois)
1820 Flag with 23 stars (Alabama, Maine) first flag on Pikes Peak, (located in future Colorado)
1822 Flag with 24 stars (Missouri)
1836 Flag with 25 stars (Arkansas)
1837 Flag with 26 stars (Michigan)
1845 Flag with 27 stars (Florida)
1846 Flag with 28 stars (Texas)
1847 Flag with 29 stars (Iowa)
1848 Flag with 30 stars (Wisconsin)
1851 Flag with 31 stars (California)
1858 Flag with 32 stars (Minnesota)
1859 Flag with 33 stars (Oregon)
1861 Flag with 34 stars; (Kansas) Note: Even after the Southern states seceded from the Union, establishing the Confederate States of America, 16th President Abraham Lincoln would not allow any star to be removed from the American flag. • First First National Flag of the Confederacy (nicknamed "The Stars and Bars") adopted by provisional government in temporary capital in Montgomery, Alabama
1863 Flag with 35 stars (West Virginia western counties withdrew from seceded Virginia)
1865 Flag with 36 stars (Nevada)
1867 Flag with 37 stars (Nebraska)
1869 First flag on a U.S. postage stamp
1876 Flag with 38 stars (Colorado)
1889 Flag with 39 stars that never was. Flag manufacturers mistakenly believed that the two Dakotas would be admitted instead as one state and so manufactured this flag, some of which still exist. It was never an official flag.
1890 Flag with 43 stars (North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Idaho)
1891 Flag with 44 stars (Wyoming)
1892 "Pledge of Allegiance" first published in a magazine called "The Youth's Companion", written by Francis Bellamy. Revised in 1954.
1896 Flag with 45 stars (Utah)
1897 Adoption of State Flag Desecration Statutes – By the late 1800s an organized flag protection movement was born in reaction to perceived commercial and political misuse of the flag. After supporters failed to obtain federal legislation, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and South Dakota became the first States to adopt flag desecration statutes. By 1932, all of the States had adopted flag desecration laws. In general, these State laws outlawed: (i) placing any kind of marking on the flag, whether for commercial, political, or other purposes; (ii) using the flag in any form of advertising; and (iii) publicly mutilating, trampling, defacing, defiling, defying or casting contempt, either by words or by act, upon the flag. Under the model flag desecration law, the term "flag" was defined to include any flag, standard, ensign, or color, or any representation of such made of any substance whatsoever and of any size that evidently purported to be said flag or a picture or representation thereof, upon which shall be shown the colors, the stars and stripes in any number, or by which the person seeing the same without deliberation may believe the same to represent the flag of the U.S.
1907 Halter v. Nebraska (205 U.S. 34) – The U.S. Supreme Court held that although the flag was a federal creation, the States' had the authority to promulgate flag desecration laws under their general police power to safeguard public safety and welfare. Halter involved a conviction of two businessmen selling "Stars and Stripes" brand beer with representations of the U.S. flag affixed to the labels. The defendants did not raise any constitutional First Amendment claim.
1908 Flag with 46 stars (Oklahoma)
1909 Explorer Robert Peary places the flag his wife sewed atop the North Pole. He left pieces of another flag along the way. He was never censured for his action.
1912 Flag with 48 stars (New Mexico, Arizona) completing "Lower 48" continental U.S.A. Becomes longest serving flag of 48 years 1912-1960, until later 50-star flag surpasses in 2008.
1931 Stromberg v. California (283 U.S. 359) – The Supreme Court found that a State statute prohibiting the display of a "red flag" as a sign of opposition to organized government unconstitutionally infringed on the defendant's First Amendment rights. Stromberg represented the Court's first declaration that "symbolic speech" was protected by the First Amendment.
1942 Federal Flag Code (36 U.S.C. 171 et seq.) – On June 22, 1942, 32nd President Franklin D. Roosevelt approved the Federal Flag Code, providing for uniform guidelines for the display and respect shown to the flag. The Flag Code does not prescribe any penalties for non-compliance nor does it include any enforcement provisions, rather it functions simply as a guide for voluntary civilian compliance.
1943 West Virginia Board of Education v. Barnette (319 U.S. 624) – The Supreme Court held that public school children could not be compelled to salute the U.S. flag. In a now famous passage, Justice Robert Jackson highlighted the importance of freedom of expression under the First Amendment: Freedom to differ is not limited to things that do not matter much. That would be a mere shadow of freedom. The test of its substance is the right to differ as to things that touch the heart of the existing order. If there is any fixed star in our constitutional constellation it is that no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion or other matters of opinion.
1945 The flag that flew over Pearl Harbor naval base in Hawaii on Sunday, December 7, 1941, is flown over the White House on August 14, 1945, "V-J Day" when the Japanese accepted surrender terms.
1949 August 3 – 34th President Harry Truman signs bill requesting the President call for a Flag Day (June 14th) observance each year by proclamation.
1954 By act of Congress, the words "Under God" are inserted into the Pledge of Allegiance
1959 Flag with 49 stars (Alaska)
1960 Flag with 50 stars (Hawaii)
1963 American Flag placed on top of Mount Everest in Himalayas Mountains in Nepal (tallest in the world), by Barry Bishop.
1968 Adoption of Federal Flag Desecration Law (18 U.S.C. 700 et seq.) – Congress approved the first federal flag desecration law in the wake of a highly publicized Central Park flag burning incident in New York City in protest of the Vietnam War. The federal law made it illegal to "knowingly" cast "contempt" upon "any flag of the United States by publicly mutilating, defacing, defiling, burning or trampling upon it." The law defined flag in an expansive manner similar to most States.
1969 July 20 – Astronauts Neil Armstrong with Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin of Apollo 11 places the American flag on the Moon at "Tranquillity Base".
1969 Street v. New York (394 U.S. 576) – The Supreme Court held that New York State could not convict a person based on his verbal remarks disparaging the flag. Street was arrested after he learned of the shooting of civil rights leader James Meredith and reacted by burning his own flag and exclaiming to a small crowd that if the government could allow Meredith to be killed, "we don't need no damn flag." The Court avoided deciding whether flag burning was protected by the First Amendment, and instead overturned the conviction based on Street's oral remarks. In Street, the Court found there was not a sufficient governmental interest to warrant regulating verbal criticism of the flag.
1972 Smith v. Goguen (415 U.S. 94) – The Supreme Court held that Massachusetts could not prosecute a person for wearing a small cloth replica of the flag on the seat of his pants based on a State law making it a crime to publicly treat the flag of the United States with "contempt". The Massachusetts statute was held to be unconstitutionally "void for vagueness."
1974 Spence v. Washington (418 U.S. 405) – The Supreme Court held that the State of Washington could not convict a person for attaching removable tape in the form of a peace sign to a flag. The defendant had attached the tape to his flag and draped it outside of his window in protest of the 1970 U.S. invasion of Cambodia and the Kent State killings. The Court again found under the First Amendment there was not a sufficient governmental interest to justify regulating this form of symbolic speech. Although not a flag burning case, this represented the first time the Court had clearly stated that protest involving the physical use of the flag should be seen as a form of protected expression under the First Amendment.
1970–1980 Revision of State Flag Desecration Statutes – During this period legislatures in some 20 States narrowed the scope of their flag desecration laws in an effort to conform to perceived Constitutional restrictions under the Street, Smith, and Spence cases and to more generally parallel the Federal Law (i.e., focusing more specifically on mutilation and other forms of physical desecration, rather than verbal abuse or commercial or political misuse).
1989 Texas v. Johnson (491 U.S. 397) – The Supreme Court upheld the Texas Court of Criminal appeals finding that Texas law – making it a crime to "desecrate" or otherwise "mistreat" the flag in a way the "actor knows will seriously offend one or more persons" – was unconstitutional as applied. This was the first time the Supreme Court had directly considered the applicability of the First Amendment to flag burning. Gregory Johnson, a member of the Revolutionary Communist Party, was arrested during a demonstration outside of the 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas after he set fire to a flag while protesters chanted "America, the red, white, and blue, we spit on you." In a 5–4 decision authored by Justice William Brennan, the Court first found that burning the flag was a form of symbolic speech subject to protection under the First Amendment. The Court also determined that under United States v. O'Brien, 391 U.S. 367 (1968), since the State law was related to the suppression of freedom of expression, the conviction could only be upheld if Texas could demonstrate a "compelling" interest in its law. The Court next found that Texas' asserted interest in "protecting the peace" was not implicated under the facts of the case. Finally, while the Court acknowledged that Texas had a legitimate interest in preserving the flag as a "symbol of national unity", this interest was not sufficiently compelling to justify a "content based" legal restriction (i.e., the law was not based on protecting the physical integrity of the flag in all circumstances, but was designed to protect it from symbolic protest likely to cause offense to others).
1989 Revision of Federal Flag Desecration Statute – Pursuant to the Flag Protection Act of 1989, Congress amended the 1968 federal flag desecration statute in an effort to make it "content neutral" and conform to the Constitutional requirements of the Johnson case. As a result, the 1989 Act sought to prohibit flag desecration under all circumstances by deleting the statutory requirement that the conduct cast contempt upon the flag and narrowing the definition of the term "flag" so that its meaning was not based on the observation of third parties.
1990 - United States v. Eichman (496 U.S. 310) – Passage of the Flag Protection Act of 1989 resulted in a number of flag burning incidents protesting the new law. The Supreme Court overturned several flag burning convictions brought under the Flag Protection Act. The Court held that notwithstanding Congress' effort to adopt a more content neutral law, the federal law continued to be principally aimed at limiting symbolic speech.
1990 - Rejection of Constitutional Amendment – Following the Eichman decision, Congress considered and rejected a Constitutional Amendment specifying that "the Congress and the States have the power to prohibit the physical desecration of the flag of the United States." The amendment failed to muster the necessary two-thirds Congressional majorities, as it was supported by only a 254 – 177 margin in the House (290 votes were necessary) and a 58 – 42 margin in the Senate (67 votes were necessary).
1995 – The Flag Desecration Constitutional Amendment is narrowly defeated in the U.S. Senate. The Amendment to the Constitution would make burning the flag a punishable crime.
2005 - U.S. House of Representatives passes a new flag desecration constitutional amendment
2006 – U.S. Senate rejects new constitutional amendment
2007 - The longevity in years used of the present 50-star flag is now tied with that of the 48-star flag, both having experienced 47 years of continuous use.[citation needed] After this date, the 50-star flag became the longest-used version of the Flag of the United States of America.
See also[edit]
Book: Flags of the United States
Flag Acts (United States)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Congress, Joint Committee on Printing (1989). Our Flag. Darby, PA: Diane Pub Co. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-7881-0219-6.
Jump up ^ Marc Leepson, "Five myths about the American flag", The Washington Post, June 12, 2011, p. B2.
Jump up ^ "Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789, 8:464".
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Henry Moseley
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For other people named Henry Moseley, see Henry Moseley (disambiguation).
Henry Moseley
Henry G. J. Moseley in the Balliol-Trinity Laboratories, Oxford University (1910).
Born
23 November 1887 (1887-11-23)
Weymouth, Dorset, England
Died
10 August 1915 (1915-08-11) (aged 27)
Gallipoli, Turkey
Nationality
English
Citizenship
British
Education
Trinity College, University of Oxford
University of Manchester
Known for
Atomic Number, Moseley's Law
Awards
Matteucci Medal (1919)
Scientific career
Fields
Physics, chemistry
Influences
Ernest Rutherford
Henry Gwyn Jeffrey's Moseley (23 November 1887 – 10 August 1915) was an English physicist, whose contribution to the science of physics was the justification from physical laws of the previous empirical and chemical concept of the atomic number. This stemmed from his development of Moseley's law in X-ray spectra. Moseley's Law justified many concepts in chemistry by sorting the chemical elements of the periodic table of the elements in a logical order based on their physics. He published first the Long Form periodic table or Modern periodic table[citation needed] which is used till date.
Moseley's law advanced atomic physics, nuclear physics and quantum physics by providing the first experimental evidence in favour of Niels Bohr's theory, aside from the hydrogen atom spectrum which the Bohr theory was designed to reproduce. That theory refined Ernest Rutherford's and Antonius van den Broek's model, which proposed that the atom contains in its nucleus a number of positive nuclear charges that is equal to its (atomic) number in the periodic table. This remains the accepted model today.
When World War I broke out in Western Europe, Moseley left his research work at the University of Oxford behind to volunteer for the Royal Engineers of the British Army. Moseley was assigned to the force of British Empire soldiers that invaded the region of Gallipoli, Turkey, in April 1915, as a telecommunications officer. Moseley was shot and killed during the Battle of Gallipoli on 10 August 1915, at the age of 27. Experts have speculated that Moseley could have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1916, had he not been killed.[1][2] As a consequence, the British government instituted new policies for eligibility for combat duty.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Biography
2 Scientific work
2.1 Contribution to understanding of the atom
2.2 Use of X-ray spectrometer
3 Death and aftermath
4 Notes
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Biography[edit]
Henry G. J. Moseley, known to his friends as Harry,[4] was born in Weymouth in Dorset in 1887. His father Henry Nottidge Moseley (1844–91), who died when Henry Moseley was quite young, was a biologist and also a professor of anatomy and physiology at the University of Oxford, who had been a member of the Challenger Expedition.[5] Moseley's mother was Amabel Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley, the daughter of the Welsh biologist and conchologist John Gwyn Jeffreys.[a]
Henry Moseley had been a very promising schoolboy at Summer Fields School (where one of the four 'leagues' is named after him), and he was awarded a King's scholarship to attend Eton College.[6] In 1906 he won the chemistry and physics prizes at Eton.[7] In 1906, Moseley entered Trinity College of the University of Oxford, where he earned his bachelor's degree. Immediately after graduation from Oxford in 1910, Moseley became a demonstrator in physics at the University of Manchester under the supervision of Sir Ernest Rutherford.[8] During Moseley's first year at Manchester, he had a teaching load as a graduate teaching assistant, but following that first year, he was reassigned from his teaching duties to work as a graduate research assistant. He declined a fellowship offered by Rutherford, preferring to move back to Oxford, in November 1913, where he was given laboratory facilities but no support.[9]
Scientific work[edit]
Experimenting with the energy of β-particles in 1912, Moseley showed that high potentials were attainable from a radioactive source of radium, thereby inventing the first atomic battery, though he was unable to produce the 1MeV necessary to stop the particles.[10]
In 1913, Moseley observed and measured the X-ray spectra of various chemical elements (mostly metals) that were found by the method of diffraction through crystals. This was a pioneering use of the method of X-ray spectroscopy in physics, using Bragg's diffraction law to determine the X-ray wavelengths. Moseley discovered a systematic mathematical relationship between the wavelengths of the X-rays produced and the atomic numbers of the metals that were used as the targets in X-ray tubes. This has become known as Moseley's law.
Before Moseley's discovery, the atomic numbers (or elemental number) of an element had been thought of as a semi-arbitrary sequential number, based on the sequence of atomic masses, but modified somewhat where chemists found this modification to be desirable, such as by the Russian chemist, Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev. In his invention of the Periodic Table of the Elements, Mendeleev had interchanged the orders of a few pairs of elements in order to put them in more appropriate places in this table of the elements. For example, the metals cobalt and nickel had been assigned the atomic numbers 27 and 28, respectively, based on their known chemical and physical properties, even though they have nearly the same atomic masses. In fact, the atomic mass of cobalt is slightly larger than that of nickel, which would have placed them in backwards order if they had been placed in the Periodic Table blindly according to atomic mass. Moseley's experiments in X-ray spectroscopy showed directly from their physics that cobalt and nickel have the different atomic numbers, 27 and 28, and that they are placed in the Periodic Table correctly by Moseley's objective measurements of their atomic numbers. Hence, Moseley's discovery demonstrated that the atomic numbers of elements are not just rather arbitrary numbers based on chemistry and the intuition of chemists, but rather, they have a firm experimental basis from the physics of their X-ray spectra.
In addition, Moseley showed that there were gaps in the atomic number sequence at numbers 43, 61, 72, and 75. These spaces are now known, respectively, to be the places of the radioactive synthetic elements technetium and promethium, and also the last two quite rare naturally occurring stable elements hafnium (discovered 1923) and rhenium (discovered 1925). Nothing was known about these four elements in Moseley's lifetime, not even their very existence. Based on the intuition of a very experienced chemist, Dmitri Mendeleev had predicted the existence of a missing element in the Periodic Table, which was later found to be filled by technetium, and Bohuslav Brauner had predicted the existence of another missing element in this Table, which was later found to be filled by promethium. Henry Moseley's experiments confirmed these predictions, by showing exactly what the missing atomic numbers were, 43 and 61. In addition, Moseley predicted the existence of two more undiscovered elements, those with the atomic numbers 72 and 75, and gave very strong evidence that there were no other gaps in the Periodic Table between the elements aluminium (atomic number 13) and gold (atomic number 79).
This latter question about the possibility of more undiscovered ("missing") elements had been a standing problem among the chemists of the world, particularly given the existence of the large family of the lanthanide series of rare earth elements. Moseley was able to demonstrate that these lanthanide elements, i.e. lanthanum through lutetium, must have exactly 15 members – no more and no less. The number of elements in the lanthanides had been a question that was very far from being settled by the chemists of the early 20th Century. They could not yet produce pure samples of all the rare-earth elements, even in the form of their salts, and in some cases they were unable to distinguish between mixtures of two very similar (adjacent) rare-earth elements from the nearby pure metals in the Periodic Table. For example, there was a so-called "element" that was even given the chemical name of "didymium". "Didymium" was found some years later to be simply a mixture of two genuine rare-earth elements, and these were given the names neodymium and praseodymium, meaning "new twin" and "green twin". Also, the method of separating the rare-earth elements by the method of ion exchange had not been invented yet in Moseley's time.
Moseley's method in early X-ray spectroscopy was able to sort out the above chemical problems promptly, some of which had occupied chemists for a number of years. Moseley also predicted the existence of element 61, a lanthanide whose existence was previously unsuspected. Quite a few years later, this element 61 was created artificially in nuclear reactors and was named promethium.[11]
Contribution to understanding of the atom[edit]
Before Moseley and his law, atomic numbers had been thought of as a semi-arbitrary ordering number, vaguely increasing with atomic weight but not strictly defined by it. Moseley's discovery showed that atomic numbers were not arbitrarily assigned, but rather, they have a definite physical basis. Moseley postulated that each successive element has a nuclear charge exactly one unit greater than its predecessor. Moseley redefined the idea of atomic numbers from its previous status as an ad hoc numerical tag to help sorting the elements into an exact sequence of ascending atomic numbers that made the Periodic Table exact. (This was later to be the basis of the Aufbau principle in atomic studies.) As noted by Bohr, Moseley's law provided a reasonably complete experimental set of data that supported the (new from 1911) conception by Ernest Rutherford and Antonius van den Broek of the atom, with a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons in which the atomic number is understood to be the exact physical number of positive charges (later discovered and called protons) in the central atomic nuclei of the elements. Moseley mentioned the two scientists above in his research paper, but he did not actually mention Bohr, who was rather new on the scene then. Simple modification of Rydberg's and Bohr's formulas were found to give theoretical justification for Moseley's empirically derived law for determining atomic numbers.
Use of X-ray spectrometer[edit]
X-ray spectrometers are the foundation-stones of X-ray crystallography. The X-ray spectrometers as Moseley knew them worked as follows. A glass-bulb electron tube was used, similar to that held by Moseley in the photo at the top of this article. Inside the evacuated tube, electrons were fired at a metallic substance (i.e. a sample of pure element in Moseley's work), causing the ionization of electrons from the inner electron shells of the element. The rebound of electrons into these holes in the inner shells next causes the emission of X-ray photons that were led out of the tube in a semi-beam, through an opening in the external X-ray shielding. These are next diffracted by a standardized salt crystal, with angular results read out as photographic lines by the exposure of an X-ray film fixed at the outside the vacuum tube at a known distance. Application of Bragg's law (after some initial guesswork of the mean distances between atoms in the metallic crystal, based on its density) next allowed the wavelength of the emitted -rays to be calculated.
Moseley participated in the design and development of early X-ray spectrometry equipment, learning some techniques from William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg at the University of Leeds, and developing others himself. Many of the techniques of X-ray spectroscopy were inspired by the methods that are used with visible light spectroscopes and spectrograms, by substituting crystals, ionization chambers, and photographic plates for their analogs in light spectroscopy. In some cases, Moseley found it necessary to modify his equipment to detect particularly soft [lower frequency] X-rays that could not penetrate either air or paper, by working with his instruments in a vacuum chamber.
Death and aftermath[edit]
Sometime in the first half of 1914, Moseley resigned from his position at Manchester, with plans to return to Oxford and continue his physics research there. However, World War I broke out in August 1914, and Moseley turned down this job offer to instead enlist with the Royal Engineers of the British Army. His family and friends tried to persuade him not to join, but he thought it his duty.[12] Moseley served as a technical officer in communications during the Battle of Gallipoli, in Turkey, beginning in April 1915, where he was killed in action on 10 August 1915. Moseley was shot in the head by a Turkish sniper while in the act of telephoning a military order.
Blue plaque erected by the Royal Society of Chemistry on the Townsend Building of the Clarendon Laboratory at Oxford in 2007, commemorating Moseley's early 20th-century research work on X-rays emitted by elements.
Only twenty-seven years old at the time of his death, Moseley could, in the opinion of some scientists, have contributed much to the knowledge of atomic structure had he survived. Niels Bohr said in 1962 that the Rutherford's work "was not taken seriously at all" and that the "great change came from Moseley."[13]
Isaac Asimov wrote, "In view of what he [Moseley] might still have accomplished … his death might well have been the most costly single death of the War to mankind generally."[14] Because of Moseley's death in World War I, and after much lobbying by Ernest Rutherford,[15] the British government instituted a policy of no longer allowing its prominent and promising scientists to enlist for combat duty in the armed forces of the Crown.[3]
Isaac Asimov also speculated that, in the event that he had not been killed while in the service of the British Empire, Moseley might very well have been awarded the 1916 Nobel Prize in Physics, which, along with the prize for chemistry, was not awarded to anyone that year. Additional credence is given to this idea by noting the recipients of the Nobel Prize in Physics in the two preceding years, 1914 and 1915, and in the following year, 1917. In 1914, Max von Laue of Germany won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the diffraction of X-rays by crystals, which was a crucial step towards the invention of X-ray spectroscopy. Then, in 1915, William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg, a British father-son pair, shared this Nobel Prize for their discoveries in the reverse problem — determining the structure of crystals using X-rays (Robert Charles Bragg, William Henry Bragg's other son, had also been killed at Gallipoli, on 2 September 1915[16]). Next, Moseley used the diffraction of X-rays by known crystals in measuring the X-ray spectra of metals. This was the first use of X-ray spectroscopy and also one more step towards the creation of X-ray crystallography. In addition, Moseley's methods and analyses substantially supported the concept of atomic number, placing it on a firm, physics-based foundation. Moreover, Charles Barkla of Great Britain was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1917 for his experimental work in using X-ray spectroscopy in discovering the characteristic X-ray frequencies emitted by the various elements, especially the metals. "Siegbahn, who carried on Moseley's work, received one [the 1924 Nobel Prize in Physics]."[17] Moseley's discoveries were thus of the same scope as those of his peers, and in addition, Moseley made the larger step of demonstrating the actual foundation of atomic numbers. Ernest Rutherford commented that Moseley's work, "Allowed him to complete during two years at the outset of his career a set of researches that would surely have brought him a Nobel prize".[18]
Memorial plaques to Moseley were installed at Manchester and Eton, and a Royal Society scholarship, established by his will, had as its second recipient the physicist P. M. S. Blackett, who later became president of the Society.[19]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ After the death of her first husband, she married again, to William Johnson Sollas, a professor of geology at Oxford University. Amabel Moseley was also the British ladies' champion of chess in 1913
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Moseley, Henry Gwyn Jeffreys", in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, http://www.oxforddnb.com/article/35125 .
Jump up ^ Isaac Asimov (1972), Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and technology, New York: Doubleday, p. 921. ISBN 0-385-17771-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Smoot, Robert C.; Jack Price (1983). Chemistry: a modern course. Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co. p. 195. ISBN 0-675-07160-7.
Jump up ^ Making of the atomic bomb. Richard Rhodes
Jump up ^ Brief biography of Moseley, in The Hutchinson Dictionary of Scientific Biography
Jump up ^ John L. Heilbron (1966). "The Work of H. G. J. Moseley". Isis. 57 (3): 336–364. doi:10.1086/350143. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 228365. - JSTOR article; permission required
Jump up ^ Public Schools Year Book 1906.
Jump up ^ Brief biography, Henry Moseley X-Ray Imaging Facility Archived 22 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Heilbron 1974, p. 95
Jump up ^ Moseley, H.G.W. (1913). "The attainment of high potentials by the use of Radium". Proceedings of the Royal Society. 88 (605): 471–6. Bibcode:1913RSPSA..88..471M. doi:10.1098/rspa.1913.0045. Retrieved 5 Jan 2013.
Jump up ^ "American Chemical Society". Retrieved 14 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Reynosa, Peter. "An Ode to Henry Moseley". Huffington Post. Retrieved January 7, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Oral History Transcript — Niels Bohr". American Institute of Physics. Retrieved 2012-09-07.
Jump up ^ Asimov, Isaac (1972). Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. New York: Doubleday and Company. p. 921. ISBN 0-385-17771-2.
Jump up ^ Reynosa, Peter. "An Ode to Henry Moseley". The Huffington Post. Retrieved January 7, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Casualty Details: Bragg, Robert Charles". Commonwealth War Graves Commission.
Jump up ^ Isaac Asimov, "Moseley, Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys", in Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology: The Lives and Achievements of 1510 Great Scientists from Ancient Times to the Present Chronologically Arranged (1982), Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Second Revised Edition.
Jump up ^ Rutherford, Ernest, Moseley, Henry Gwyn Jeffreys (1887–1915), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, retrieved 5 Jan 2013
Jump up ^ Heilbron 1974, p. 126
Further reading[edit]
Heilbron, John L. (1974). H. G. J. Moseley: The Life and Letters of an English Physicist, 1887–1915. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-02375-7.
Jaffe, Bernard (1971). Moseley and the Numbering of the Elements. Garden City, New York: Anchor Books.
Scerri, Eric R. (2007). The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-530573-6.
Eric R. Scerri (2014). Master of Missing Elements, American Scientist, 102, 358-365
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Henry Moseley.
Wikisource has the text of a 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica article about Henry Moseley.
Moseley's original article, with illustration
Annotated Bibliography for Henry Moseley from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
Moseley plot of characteristic x-rays
Brief biography (Archived 22 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine.) – Henry Moseley X-Ray Imaging Facility
Henry Moseley (biography). "This Month in Physics History". American Physical Society. 2012.
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