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Superpower
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This article is about the geographic and political term. For the powers of superheroes, see Superpower (ability). For other uses, see Superpower (disambiguation).
This article focuses too much on specific examples without explaining their importance to its main subject. Please help improve this article by citing reliable, secondary sources that evaluate and synthesize these or similar examples within a broader context. (March 2016)
U.S. President Ronald Reagan and Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev, then leaders of the Cold War's rival superpowers, meeting in Geneva, Switzerland in November 1985
Superpower is a term used to describe a state with a dominant position, which is characterised by its extensive ability to exert influence or project power on a global scale. This is done through the combined-means of economic, military, technological and cultural strength, as well as diplomatic and soft power influence. Traditionally, superpowers are preeminent among the great powers.
The term was first applied post World War II to the British Empire, the United States and the Soviet Union. However, after the end of World War II and the Suez Crisis in 1956, the United Kingdom's status as a superpower was greatly diminished, leaving just the United States and Soviet Union as superpowers. For the duration of the Cold War the United States and the Soviet Union came to be generally regarded as the two remaining superpowers, dominating world affairs. At the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, only the United States appeared to fulfill the criteria of being a world superpower.[1][2][3]
Alice Lyman Miller defines a superpower as "a country that has the capacity to project dominating power and influence anywhere in the world, and sometimes, in more than one region of the globe at a time, and so may plausibly attain the status of global hegemony."[4]
There have been many attempts by historians to apply the term 'superpower' to a variety of past entities. However, since even the most powerful empires of old had little to no means to exert influence over very long distances, labeling them as such is complicated.
Contents
[hide]
1 Terminology and origin
2 Superpowers of the past
3 The Cold War
4 Post–Cold War era
4.1 Potential superpowers
5 See also
6 References
7 Bibliography
8 External links
Terminology and origin[edit]
A world map in 1945. According to William T.R. Fox, the United States (blue), the Soviet Union (red) and the British Empire (teal) were superpowers
The United States remains the world's sole superpower.
No agreed definition of what is a 'superpower' exists, and may differ between sources.[2] However, a fundamental characteristic that is consistent with all definitions of a superpower is a nation or state that has mastered the seven dimensions of state power: geography, population, economy, resources, military, diplomacy and national identity.[5]
The term was first used to describe nations with greater than great power status as early as 1944, but only gained its specific meaning with regard to the United States, the United Kingdom and its empire and the Soviet Union after World War II. This was because the United Kingdom, the United States and the Soviet Union had proved themselves to be capable of casting great influence in global politics and military dominance. The term in its current political meaning was coined by Dutch-American geostrategist Nicholas Spykman in a series of lectures in 1943 about the potential shape of a new post-war world order. This formed the foundation for the book The Geography of the Peace, which referred primarily to the unmatched maritime global supremacy of the British Empire and United States as essential for peace and prosperity in the world.
A year later, in 1944, William T. R. Fox, an American foreign policy professor, elaborated on the concept in the book The Superpowers: The United States, Britain and the Soviet Union — Their Responsibility for Peace, which spoke of the global reach of a super-empowered nation.[6] Fox used the word Superpower to identify a new category of power able to occupy the highest status in a world in which, as the war then raging demonstrated, states could challenge and fight each other on a global scale. According to him, there were (at that moment) three states that were superpowers: the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union. The British Empire was the most extensive empire in world history and considered the foremost great power, holding sway over 25% of the world's population[7] and controlling about 25% of the Earth's total land area, while the United States and the Soviet Union grew in power before and during World War II.
According to Lyman Miller, "The basic components of superpower stature may be measured along four axes of power: military, economic, political, and cultural (or what political scientist Joseph Nye has termed “soft power”).[4]
In the opinion of Kim Richard Nossal of Queen's University in Canada, "generally this term was used to signify a political community that occupied a continental-sized landmass, had a sizable population (relative at least to other major powers); a superordinate economic capacity, including ample indigenous supplies of food and natural resources; enjoyed a high degree of non-dependence on international intercourse; and, most importantly, had a well-developed nuclear capacity (eventually normally defined as second strike capability)."[2]
In the opinion of Professor Paul Dukes, "a superpower must be able to conduct a global strategy including the possibility of destroying the world; to command vast economic potential and influence; and to present a universal ideology". Although, "many modifications may be made to this basic definition".[8] According to Professor June Teufel Dreyer, "A superpower must be able to project its power, soft and hard, globally."[9] In his book, Superpower: Three Choices for America's Role in the World, Dr. Ian Bremmer, president of the Eurasia Group, argues that a superpower is "a country that can exert enough military, political, and economic power to persuade nations in every region of the world to take important actions they would not otherwise take."[10]
Superpowers of the past[edit]
Major economies from 1 AD to 2003 AD according to Angus Maddison's estimates.[11]
There have been many attempts by historians to apply the term superpower retrospectively, and sometimes very loosely, to a variety of entities in the past. Recognition by historians of these older states as superpowers may focus on various superlative traits exhibited by them. Examples of these ancient or historical superpowers include the British Empire,[6] Ancient Egypt,[12] the Hittite Empire,[13] the Achaemenid Empire,[14] the Hellenistic Empire of Alexander the Great,[15] the Roman Empire,[16] the Maurya Empire,[17][18] the Mughal Empire, the Tang Empire,[19] the Umayyad Caliphate,[20] the Mongol Empire, the Ottoman Empire,[21] the Spanish Empire,[22] and the First French Empire of Napoleon.[23]
According to historical statistics and research from the OECD, until the early modern period, Western Europe, China, and India accounted for roughly ⅔ of the world's GDP.[24]
The Cold War[edit]
Main article: Cold War
This map shows two essentially global spheres during the Cold War in 1980.
NATO member states
Other allies of the U.S. and NATO
× Anti-communist guerrillas
Warsaw Pact member states
Socialist country allied with the Warsaw Pact
Other allies of the USSR
× Communist guerrillas
Socialist country not allied with the USSR and the Warsaw Pact
Neutral nations
× Other conflicts
The 1956 Suez Crisis suggested that Britain, financially weakened by two world wars, could not then pursue its foreign policy objectives on an equal footing with the new superpowers without sacrificing convertibility of its reserve currency as a central goal of policy.[25] As the majority of World War II had been fought far from its national boundaries, the United States had not suffered the industrial destruction nor massive civilian casualties that marked the wartime situation of the countries in Europe or Asia. The war had reinforced the position of the United States as the world's largest long-term creditor nation[26] and its principal supplier of goods; moreover it had built up a strong industrial and technological infrastructure that had greatly advanced its military strength into a primary position on the global stage.[27] Despite attempts to create multinational coalitions or legislative bodies (such as the United Nations), it became increasingly clear that the superpowers had very different visions about what the post-war world ought to look like, and after the withdrawal of British aid to Greece in 1947, the United States took the lead in containing Soviet expansion in the Cold War.[28]
The two countries opposed each other ideologically, politically, militarily, and economically. The Soviet Union promoted the ideology of communism: planned economy and a one-party state, whilst the United States promoted the ideologies of liberal democracy and the free market. This was reflected in the Warsaw Pact and NATO military alliances, respectively, as most of Europe became aligned with either the United States or the Soviet Union. These alliances implied that these two nations were part of an emerging bipolar world, in contrast with a previously multipolar world.[citation needed]
The idea that the Cold War period revolved around only two blocs, or even only two nations, has been challenged by some scholars in the post–Cold War era, who have noted that the bipolar world only exists if one ignores all of the various movements and conflicts that occurred without influence from either of the two superpowers.[29] Additionally, much of the conflict between the superpowers was fought in "proxy wars", which more often than not involved issues more complex than the standard Cold War oppositions.[30]
After the Soviet Union disintegrated in the early 1990s, the term hyperpower began to be applied to the United States, as the sole remaining superpower of the Cold War era.[2] This term, popularized by French foreign minister Hubert Védrine in the late 1990s, is controversial and the validity of classifying the United States in this way is disputed. One notable opponent to this theory, Samuel P. Huntington, rejects this theory in favor of a multipolar balance of power. Other international relations theorists, such as Henry Kissinger, theorize that because the threat of the Soviet Union no longer exists to formerly American-dominated regions such as Western Europe and Japan, American influence is only declining since the end of the Cold War, because such regions no longer need protection or have necessarily similar foreign policies as the United States.[31]
The Soviet Union and the United States fulfilled the superpower criteria in the following ways:
Soviet Union
United States
Demography Had a population of 286.7 million in 1989, the third largest on Earth behind China and India.[32] Had a population of 248.7 million in 1990, at that time the fourth largest on Earth behind China, India and the Soviet Union.[33]
Geography Largest state in the world (actually a superstate), with a surface area of 22,270,000 km2 (8,600,000 sq mi).[32] Fourth largest country in the world, with an area of 9,147,593 km2 (3,531,905 sq mi).[34]
Economy GDP of $2.9 trillion in 1990 (equivalent to $5.4 trillion in 2017). Second largest economy in the world.[35] Enormous mineral energy resources and fuel supply. Generally self-sufficient using a minimal amount of imports, though suffered resource inadequacies such as in agriculture. Marxist economic theory based primarily on production: Large-scale industrial production directed by centralised state organs leading to a high degree of inefficiency. Five-year plans frequently used to accomplish economic goals. Economic benefits such as guaranteed employment, free healthcare, free education provided to all levels of society, though were frequently below Western standards such as in health care. Economy tied to Central and Eastern-European satellite states. GDP of $5.2 trillion in 1990 (equivalent to $9.7 trillion in 2017). Largest economy in the world. Capitalist free market economic theory based on supply and demand: production determined by customers' demands, though it also included rising income inequality since 1979.[36] Enormous industrial base and a large and modernized farming industry. Large volume of imports and exports. Large resources of minerals, energy resources, metals, and timber. High standard of living with accessibility to many manufactured goods, though only modern industrialized nation without national, publicly-funded and government-provided healthcare and education programs. Home to a multitude of the largest global corporations. U.S. Dollar served as the dominant world reserve currency under Bretton Woods Conference. Allied with G7 major economies. Supported allied countries' economies via such programmes as the Marshall Plan.
Politics Strong Communist state with extensive secret police apparatus, organized under a quasi-parliamentary system with strong Fusion of Powers, with checks and balances for both the executive and (unusually) the judiciary primarily based on commanding the legislature's confidence. The Supreme Soviet enjoyed de facto parliamentary sovereignty, despite a written constitution and nominal federalism, as no court was vested with Judicial review. No formal office of President has existed; the standing legislature also served as a collective Head of State. The only national-level popular elections were the quinquennial elections to the Supreme Soviet, which were yes-or-no votes on candidates handpicked beforehand. However, radical government reforms in 1989 introduced competitive elections, a directly-elected executive President and a Constitutional Court, both having rudimentary Separation of Powers from the existing components of the system. One-party system with the Far-left Communist Party having an institutionalized monopoly of power. Permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council. Strong capitalist constitutional republic, organized under a presidential system with strong Separation of Powers, with a complicated system of checks and balances exercised between the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary. The legislative powers of the United States Congress were limited both by the written constitution and by the federal nature of the national government. Despite the lack of a dedicated Constitutional Court, Judicial review of laws has been vested in the Supreme Court by judicial precedent. The President was not only Head of State, but also Head of Government, and his Cabinet was not required to command congressional confidence. The only national popular elections were the biennial congressional elections; however the quadrennial presidential election has de facto changed from an indirect election by an Electoral College into a direct, though weighted, popular election. Two-party system between Left-wing Democrats and Right-wing Republicans. Permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council plus two allies (France and the UK) with permanent seats.
Foreign relations Strong ties with Central and Eastern Europe, countries in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa. Also had an alliance with China up until 1961. Supported Communist and socialist countries around the world. Strong ties with Western Europe, some countries in Latin America, the Commonwealth of Nations, and several East Asian countries. Supported democracies and anti-Communist dictatorships around the world.
Military Possessed largest armed forces and air force in the world, and the second of the world's largest navies. Possessed bases around the world. Held the world's largest stockpile of nuclear weapons for the second half of the Cold War. Founder of Warsaw Pact with satellite states in Central and Eastern Europe. Global intelligence network with the GRU and the First Chief Directorate of the KGB. Ties with paramilitary and guerrilla groups in the developing world. Large arms industry production with global distribution. Highest military expenditure in the world,[37] with the world's largest navy surpassing the next 13 largest navies combined,[38][39] and an army and air force rivaled only by that of the Soviet Union. Possessed bases around the world, particularly in an incomplete "ring" bordering the Warsaw Pact to the West, South and East. Largest nuclear arsenal in the world during the first half of the Cold War. Powerful military allies in Western Europe (NATO) with their own nuclear capabilities. Global intelligence networks with the United States Intelligence Community (IC). Ties with paramilitary and guerrilla groups in the developing world. Large armament production through defense contractors along with its developed allies for the global market.
Media Constitutional guarantees for freedom of speech and freedom of the press were made conditional both for fulfilling one's citizen's duties and for conformity with the interests of the government, thereby turning them into effective dead letters. Press explicitly controlled and censored. Promoted, through the use of propaganda, its Communist and Socialist ideal that workers of all countries should unite to overthrow capitalist society and what they called the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie and replace it with a socialist society where all means of production are publicly owned. Maintained constitutional guarantees for freedom of speech and freedom of the press, though the ongoing Cold War did lead to a degree of censorship, particularly during the Vietnam War and the Second Red Scare when censorship was the heaviest.
Culture Rich tradition in literature, classical music, and ballet. Rich tradition and worldwide cultural influence in music, literature, film, television, cuisine, art, and fashion.
Post–Cold War era[edit]
The New York Stock Exchange trading floor. Economic power such as a large nominal GDP and a world reserve currency are important factors in projection of hard power.
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 which ended the Cold War, the post–Cold War world has in the past been considered by some to be a unipolar world,[40][41] with the United States as the world's sole remaining superpower.[42] In 1999, Samuel P. Huntington wrote, "The United States, of course, is the sole state with preeminence in every domain of power – economic, military, diplomatic, ideological, technological, and cultural – with the reach and capabilities to promote its interests in virtually every part of the world." However, he rejected the claim that the world was unipolar: "There is now only one superpower. But that does not mean that the world is unipolar," describing it instead as "a strange hybrid, a uni-multipolar system with one superpower and several major powers." He further wrote that "Washington is blind to the fact that it no longer enjoys the dominance it had at the end of the Cold War. It must relearn the game of international politics as a major power, not a superpower, and make compromises."[43]
Experts argue that this older assessment of global politics is too simplified, in part because of the difficulty in classifying the European Union at its current stage of development. Others argue that the notion of a superpower is outdated, considering complex global economic interdependencies, and propose that the world is multipolar.[44][45][46][47]
A 2012 report by the National Intelligence Council said that America's superpower status will have eroded to merely being first among equals by 2030, but that the US would remain highest among the world's most powerful countries because of its influence in many different fields and global connections that the great regional powers of the time would not match.[48] Additionally, some experts have suggested the possibility of the United States losing its superpower status completely in the future. Citing speculation of the United States relative decline in power to the rest of the world, economic hardships, a declining dollar, Cold War allies becoming less dependent on the United States and the emergence of future powers around the world.[49][50][51][52]
Some people doubt the existence of superpowers in the post–Cold War era altogether, stating that today's complex global marketplace and the rising interdependency between the world's nations has made the concept of a superpower an idea of the past and that the world is now multipolar. However, while the military dominance of the United States remains unquestioned for now and its international influence has made it an eminent world power, countries such as China, India, Brazil and Russia are inventing new ways to counter US military supremacy (namely space) and are making great strides in science, literature, soft power, and diplomacy.[44][45][46][47]
Potential superpowers[edit]
Main article: Potential superpowers
A map showing the United States as the current superpower, along with other political entities that have varying degrees of academic support as potential superpowers.
Brazil
China
European Union
India
Russia
United States
The term 'potential superpowers' has been applied by scholars and other qualified commentators to the possibility of several states achieving superpower status in the 21st century. Due to their large markets, growing military strength, economic potential, and influence in international affairs, China,[53][54][55] the European Union,[56][57] India,[58] and Russia[59] are among the countries (or political entities) most cited as having the potential of achieving superpower status in the 21st century. Many historians, writers, and critics have expressed doubts, however, whether any of these countries would ever emerge as a new superpower.[60][61] Some political scientists and other commentators have even suggested that such countries might simply be emerging powers, as opposed to potential superpowers.[62]
Besides those mentioned above, a limited number of observers have also discussed, though ultimately dismissed, Brazil having the potential to emerge as a superpower.[63]
The record of such predictions has admittedly not been perfect. For example, in the 1980s, some commentators thought Japan would become a superpower, due to its large GDP and high economic growth at the time.[64] However, Japan's economy crashed in 1991, creating a long period of economic slump in the country which has become known as The Lost Years. As of August 2012, Japan had yet to fully recover from the 1991 crash.[65]
See also[edit]
International relations portal
Emerging power
Great Power
Group of Two
Hegemony
International relations theory
List of modern great powers
Middle power
Monroe Doctrine
NATO
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
Second Superpower
Small power
Unipolarity
Hyperpower
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Superpowers.
"To Paris, U.S. Looks Like a 'Hyperpower'". The International Herald Tribune. February 5, 1999. Archived from the original on October 26, 2006. Retrieved August 20, 2006.
Last, Jonathan (October 21, 2005). "Rule America?". The Weekly Standard. News America Incorporated. Archived from the original on 2007-03-11. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
Védrine, Hubert. France in an Age of Globalization, Brookings Institution Press, 2001. ISBN 0-8157-0007-5
"Word Spy - hyper-power". Retrieved 2006-09-15.
Li, Bo; Zheng Yin (Chinese) (2001) 5000 years of Chinese history, Inner Mongolian People's publishing corp, ISBN 7-204-04420-7
CHAPTER FOUR. World Hegemony, 900-300 bce
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Right to keep and bear arms
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Bear arms (disambiguation), Right to keep and bear arms in the United States, and Overview of gun laws by nation.
The right to keep and bear arms (often referred to as the right to bear arms) is the people's right to possess weapons (arms) for their own defense, as described in the philosophical and political writings of Aristotle, Cicero, John Locke, Machiavelli, the English Whigs and others.[1]
Inclusion of this right in a written constitution is uncommon. In 1875, 17 percent of constitutions included a right to bear arms, yet, since the early twentieth century, "the proportion has been less than 9 percent and falling".[2] In their historical survey and comparative analysis of constitutions dating back to 1789,[2] Tom Ginsburg and colleagues "identified only 15 constitutions (in nine countries) that had ever included an explicit right to bear arms. Almost all of these constitutions have been in Latin America, and most were from the 19th century".[3]
Generally, where modern constitutions refer to arms at all, the purpose is "to allow the government to regulate their use or to compel military service, not to provide a right to bear them".[2] Constitutions which historically guaranteed a right to bear arms are those of Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Liberia, Mexico, Nicaragua and the United States of America.[4] Nearly all of the Latin American examples were modelled on that of the United States.[3] At present, out of the world’s nearly 200 constitutions, three still include a right to bear arms: Guatemala, Mexico, and the United States; of these three, only the last does not include explicit restrictive conditions.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Americas
2.1 Guatemala
2.2 Mexico
2.3 United States
3 Europe
3.1 United Kingdom
3.2 Switzerland
4 Gun violence and the politics of the right to bear arms
5 See also
6 Notes and references
7 Further reading
Background[edit]
The Bill of Rights 1689 allowed Protestant citizens of England to "have Arms for their Defence suitable to their Conditions and as allowed by Law" and restricted the ability of the English Crown to have a standing army or to interfere with Protestants' right to bear arms "when Papists were both Armed and Imployed contrary to Law" and established that Parliament, not the Crown, could regulate the right to bear arms.[5][6]
Sir William Blackstone wrote in the 18th century that the right to have arms was auxiliary to the "natural right of resistance and self-preservation" subject to suitability and allowance by law.[7]
The term arms is derived from the Latin arma (neuter plural), meaning weapons and/or armor, and armare, which means to equip.[8] Originally used in the 1600s, the term refers to the process of equipping for war.[9] It is commonly used as a synonym for weapon.[10] Use of these terms with regard to the right to keep and bear arms is predicated on the concepts of the right of self-defense, defense of property, and defense of state.[citation needed]
In Old English, beran (past tense bær) means to bear, bring, bring forth, or produce; to endure or sustain; or to wear.[11]
Since the initial use of the term in the 1300s, arms have evolved and advanced.[12] In the 17th century, firearms were relatively new devices for warfare or practical uses such as hunting, and swords, spears, and other manual weapons were more prevalent until the 18th century.[12] In the 19th and 20th centuries, firearms came to the forefront of the concept of the right to keep and bear arms.[13]
No right to bear firearms exists under international law, in particular there is no human right to self-defense and its means. Instead, states are under an obligation to reasonably limit access to firearms as part of their duty to protect the right to life.[14]
Americas[edit]
Guatemala[edit]
Gun rights in Guatemala have changed over time. In the current constitution, residents have the right to own and use firearms in their homes, which can be forfeited only by judicial order.[15] Article 38 of Guatemalan constitution states the following:
The right to own weapons for personal use, not prohibited by the law, in the place of inhabitation, is recognized. There will not be an obligation to hand them over, except in cases ordered by a competent judge.
The right to bear arms is recognized, [and is] regulated by the law.[16]
Mexico[edit]
See also: Gun politics in Mexico
Article 10 of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 states the following:
The inhabitants of the United Mexican States have the right to possess arms within their domicile, for their safety and legitimate defense, except those forbidden by Federal Law and those reserved for the exclusive use of the Army, Militia, Air Force and National Guard. Federal law shall provide in what cases, conditions, under what requirements and in which places inhabitants shall be authorized to bear arms.[17]
United States[edit]
Main article: Right to keep and bear arms in the United States
In the United States, which has an English common law tradition, a longstanding right to keep and bear arms was recognized prior to the creation of a written national constitution.[18] Today, the right is specifically protected by the US Constitution and many state constitutions,[19] which grant a right to own arms for individual use and to bear these same arms both for personal protection and for use in a militia.[20] The Second Amendment to the United States Constitution reads:
A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.[21]
Convicted felons, persons adjudicated as mentally ill, and some others are prohibited from possessing firearms and ammunition in the US. In most states, residents may carry a handgun or other weapon in public in a concealed or open manner on one's person or in proximity, but that is restricted by some states and many cities. Some jurisdictions require a permit for concealed carry, but most jurisdictions do not require a permit for open carry, if it is allowed. Some states and localities require licenses to own or purchase guns and ammunition, as detailed in a summary of gun laws in the United States. Other states do not require such formalities and some allow the ownership and use of weapons taxed by the NFA.
Early legal wording can be found in the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776. Following the American Revolution, one of the first legislative acts undertaken by each of the newly independent states was to adopt a reception statute that gave legal effect to the existing body of English common law to the extent that American legislation or the Constitution had not explicitly rejected it.[22] Many English common-law traditions, such as the right to keep and bear arms, habeas corpus, jury trials, and various other civil liberties, were enumerated in the US Constitution. Significant principles of English common law prior to 1776 remain in effect in many jurisdictions in the United States. The common law of England is still the rule of decision, except if it conflicts with the US Constitution, state constitutions, or acts of Congress or state legislatures, in every state except Louisiana.[23]
Europe[edit]
United Kingdom[edit]
See also: Firearms policy in the United Kingdom
The right to keep and bear arms is not legally or constitutionally protected in the United Kingdom.[24] Most[25] handguns, automatic, and centerfire semi-automatic weapons are illegal to possess without special proviso.[24][26]
The English Bill of Rights 1689 allowed Protestants the right to bear arms within the law.[27] The first serious control on firearms was established with the passing of the Firearms Act 1920.[28] Since the passing of gun control laws, the UK has one of the lowest firearm death rates among developed nations, with 0.2 deaths per 100,000, compared to 10.2 in the U.S.[29]
Since 1953, it has been a criminal offence in the United Kingdom to carry a knife (with the exception of non-locking folding knives with a blade length of 3 inches (7.62 centimetres) or less) or any "offensive weapon" in a public place without lawful authority or reasonable excuse.
Switzerland[edit]
Further information: Gun politics in Switzerland
The Swiss have a statutory right to bear arms under Article 3 of the 1997 Weapons Act.[30][31][32] Switzerland practices universal conscription, which requires that all able-bodied male citizens keep fully automatic firearms at home in case of a call-up. Every male between the ages of 20 and 34 is considered a candidate for conscription into the military, and following a brief period of active duty will commonly be enrolled in the militia until age or an inability to serve ends his obligation.[33] Until December 2009, these men were required to keep their government-issued selective fire combat rifles and semi-automatic handguns in their homes as long as they were enrolled in the armed forces.[34] Since January 2010, they have had the option of depositing their personal firearm at a government arsenal.[35] Until September 2007, soldiers received 50 rounds of government-issued ammunition in a sealed box for storage at home; after 2007 only about 2,000 specialist troops are allowed to keep the ammunition at home.[36]
Switzerland is estimated to have one of the highest personal gun ownership rates in the world.[37] While it has a low overall crime rate by European standards, it has one of the highest gun suicide rates in Europe.[38] However, it also has one of the world's lowest overall homicide rates, considerably lower than the European average.[39] The gun homicide rate ranks in the middle of Western European countries.[40]
Swiss gun laws are considered restrictive.[41] Owners are legally responsible for third-party access to and usage of their weapons. Licensing procedures are similar to those in other Germanic countries.[42] In a referendum in February 2011, voters rejected a citizens' initiative that would have obliged members of the armed services to store their rifles and pistols on military compounds and required that privately owned firearms be registered.[43]
Gun violence and the politics of the right to bear arms[edit]
Legal restrictions on the right to keep and bear arms are usually put in place by legislators because they believe that they will reduce gun related violence.[44][45][46] Their actions are frequently the result of grass roots pressure for such controls. The Brady and Snowdrop Campaigns and the Million Mom March are recent examples of campaigns calling for tighter restrictions on the right to keep and bear arms.
Accident statistics are hard to obtain, but much data is available on the issue of gun ownership and gun related deaths. The United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI) has made comparisons between countries with different levels of gun ownership and investigated the correlation between gun ownership levels and gun homicides, and between gun ownership levels and gun suicides. A strong correlation is seen in both.
During the 1989 and 1992 International Crime Surveys, data on gun ownership in eighteen countries have been collected on which WHO data on suicide and homicide committed with guns and other means are also available. The results presented in a previous paper based on the fourteen countries surveyed during the first ICS and on rank correlations (Spearman's rho), suggested that gun ownership may increase suicides and homicides using firearms, while it may not reduce suicides and homicides with other means. In the present analysis, four additional countries covered by the 1992 ICS only have been included, and Pearson's correlation coefficients r have been used. The results confirm those presented in the previous study.[47]
UNICRI also investigated the relationship between gun ownership levels and other forms of homicide or suicide to determine whether high gun ownership added to or merely displaced other forms of homicide or suicide. They reported that "widespread gun ownership has not been found to reduce the likelihood of fatal events committed with other means. Thus, people do not turn to knives and other potentially lethal instruments less often when more guns are available, but more guns usually means more victims of suicide and homicide." Speculating on possible causes the researchers concluded that "all we know is that guns do not reduce fatal events due to other means, but that they go along with more shootings. Although we do not know why exactly this is so, we have a good reason to suspect guns to play a—fatal—role in this".[48]
The research reporter found that guns were the major cause of homicides in 3 of the 14 countries it studied; Northern Ireland, Italy, and the United States. Although the data seem to indicate that reducing the availability of one significant type of arms—firearms—leads to reductions both in gun crimes and gun suicides and in overall crimes and overall suicides, the author did caution that "reducing the number of guns in the hands of the private citizen may become a hopeless task beyond a certain point", citing the American example.[48]
In contrast to the 1993 study however, a more recent study by UNICRI researchers from 2001 examined the link between household gun ownership and overall homicide, overall suicide, as well as gun homicide and gun suicide rates amongst 21 countries. Significant correlations between household gun ownership and rates of gun suicides for both genders, and gun homicide rates involving female victims were found. There were no significant correlations detected for total homicide and suicide rates, as well as gun homicide rates involving male victims.[49]
See also[edit]
Index of gun politics articles
Overview of gun laws by nation
Right of self-defense
Knife legislation
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ Halbrook, Stephen P. (1994). That Every Man Be Armed: The Evolution of a Constitutional Right (Independent Studies in Political Economy). Oakland, CA: The Independent Institute. p. 8. ISBN 0-945999-38-0. OCLC 30659789.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Ginsburg, Tom; Elkins, Zachary; Melton, James (7 March 2013). "U.S. Gun Rights Are Truly American Exceptionalism". Bloomberg. Retrieved 25 March 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Elkins, Zachary (4 April 2013). "Rewrite the Second Amendment". New York Times. Retrieved 29 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Ginsburg, Tom; Elkins, Zachary; Melton, James (2016). "Data Visualizations – Right to Bear Arms". CCP: Comparative Constitutions Project. Retrieved 2016. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ "1688 c.2 1 Will. and Mar. Sess. 2". The National Archives (UK). Retrieved July 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ "BBC: Bill of Rights Act, 1689 – The Glorious Revolution". bbc.co.uk. BBC. 2002. Retrieved July 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England". Avalon.law.yale.edu. Retrieved 2012-05-22.
Jump up ^ "Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition". Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Harper, Douglas Harper. "arm (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "Arm". Thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "Bear (v.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Marshall, Michael. "Timeline: Weapons technology". New Scientist. Retrieved 11 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Spitzer, Robert J. (2012). "Policy Definition and Gun Control". The Politics of Gun Control. Boulder, Colorado: Paradigm. ISBN 978-1-59451-987-1.
Jump up ^ Hessbruegge, Jan Arno (2017). "Human rights standards for self-defense between private persons". Human Rights and Personal Self-Defense in International Law. Oxford University Press. pp. 235–292. ISBN 978-0-19-065502-0.
Jump up ^ http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2013-03-07/u-s-gun-rights-truly-are-american-exceptionalism
Jump up ^ Guatemala's Constitution of 1985 with Amendments through 1993 (PDF). constituteproject.org. 6 June 2017. p. 20.
Jump up ^ "Mexican Constitution (As amended)" (PDF). pp. Article 10. Retrieved 2009-07-30.
Jump up ^ McAffee, Thomas B.; Quinlan, Michael J. (1997). "Bringing Forward The Right To Keep And Bear Arms: Do Text, History, or Precedent Stand In The Way?". Scholarly Works. Paper 512.
Jump up ^ Volokh, Eugene (2008). "State Constitutional Right to Keep and Bear Arms Provisions". law.ucla.edu.
Jump up ^ Wills, Garry (September 21, 1995). "To Keep and Bear Arms". The New York Review of Books (Book review). NYREV. Retrieved 3 July 2014.
Jump up ^ US Constitution at Cornell Law School Legal Information Institute
Jump up ^ Lammi, Glenn G.; Chang, James (December 17, 2004). "Michigan High Court Ruling Offers Positive Guidance on Challenges to Tort Reform Laws" (PDF). Legal Backgrounder. Washington Legal Foundation. 19 (46). Unknown ID:10563059.
Jump up ^ Milestones! 200 Years of American Law: Milestones in Our Legal History. By Jethro Koller Lieberman. Published by West, 1976. Original from the University of California. Digitized June 11, 2008. ISBN 0-19-519881-6, ISBN 978-0-19-519881-2, p. 16 [1]
^ Jump up to: a b Alpers, Philip, Marcus Wilson, Amélie Rossetti and Daniel Salinas (2015-04-29). "United Kingdom – Gun Facts, Figures and the Law – Gun regulation, Right to Possess Firearms". Sydney School of Public Health, The University of Sydney. Retrieved 2015-05-13. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/518193/Guidance_on_Firearms_Licensing_Law_April_2016_v20.pdf
Jump up ^ Kopel, David (1995). "It isn't about duck hunting: The British origins of the right to arms". Michigan Law Review. Michigan Law Review Association (93): 1333–62. Retrieved 7 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "Britain's unwritten constitution". British Library. Retrieved October 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ John Pate (1903-08-11). "Dunblane Massacre Resource Page – Pistols Act, 1903". Dvc.org.uk. Retrieved 2012-05-22.
Jump up ^ "How U.S. gun deaths compare to other countries". CBS. October 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ https://www.loc.gov/law/help/firearms-control/switzerland.php#f3
Jump up ^ http://www.poa-iss.org/CASACountryProfile/NationalLegislation/1@Swiss-Weapons-Act-.fr.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.gunpolicy.org/firearms/citation/quotes/1535
Jump up ^ The Swiss Army at Europeforvisitors.com.
Jump up ^ Lott, John R. (October 2, 2003). "Swiss Miss". National Review. Retrieved March 17, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Hinterlegung der persönlichen Waffe". Logistikbasis der Armee, Eidgenössisches Departement für Verteidigung, Bevölkerungsschutz und Sport. Retrieved 4 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "Soldiers can keep guns at home but not ammo". Swissinfo. 27 September 2007.
Jump up ^ "Estimating Civilian Owned Firearms" (Press release). Small Arms Survey. September 2011. Retrieved January 27, 2013.
Jump up ^ "De-Quilling the Porcupine: Swiss Mull Tighter Gun Laws". Retrieved 2008-01-22.
Jump up ^ http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=UNODC&f=tableCode%3a1%3bCountryUNNumCode%3a756&c=2,3,5,6,8,10&s=countryName:asc,yr:desc&v=1
Jump up ^ http://www.gunpolicy.org/firearms/compare/178/rate_of_gun_homicide/11,49,50,18,65,69,71,232,86,66,88,125,136,177,172,149,192
Jump up ^ "Switzerland – Gun Facts, Figures and the Law". International Firearms Injury Prevention & Policy. 27 June 2012. Retrieved 15 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Bundesgesetz vom 20. Juni 1997 über Waffen, Waffenzubehör und Munition (Waffengesetz, WG)". Swissinfo. 20 June 1997. Retrieved 17 March 2010.
Jump up ^ "Switzerland rejects tighter gun controls". BBC News Online. 13 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Wright, David (April 22, 2007). "U.K. Response to School Massacre: Ban Handguns". ABC News.
Jump up ^ "EU legislators push tougher gun controls". International Herald Tribune. November 29, 2007. Archived from the original on November 29, 2007.
Jump up ^ "President Clinton Calls Brady Law a Success and Backs More Limits". New York Times. December 1, 1999.
Jump up ^ Killias, Martin (1993). "Gun Ownership, Suicide and Homicide: An International Perspective" (PDF). In Alvazzi del Frate, Anna; Zvekic, Ugljesa; van Dijk, Jan J. M. Understanding Crime, Experiences of Crime and Crime Control - Acts of the International Conference, Rome, 18–20 Nov 1992. Rome: United Nations International Crime & Justice Research Institute (UNICRI). pp. 289–306. ISBN 92-9078-023-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-01-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Killias, Martin (1993). "Gun Ownership, Suicide and Homicide: An International Perspective" (PDF). In Alvazzi del Frate, Anna; Zvekic, Ugljesa; van Dijk, Jan J. M. Understanding Crime, Experiences of Crime and Crime Control - Acts of the International Conference, Rome, 18–20 Nov 1992. Rome: United Nations International Crime & Justice Research Institute (UNICRI). pp. 289–306. ISBN 92-9078-023-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-01-07. During the 1989 and 1992 International Crime Surveys data on gun ownership in eighteen countries have been collected on which WHO data on suicide and homicide committed with guns and other means are also available. The results ... based on the fourteen countries surveyed during the first ICS and on rank correlations...suggested that gun ownership may increase suicides and homicides using firearms, while it may not reduce suicides and homicides with other means.
Jump up ^ Killias, M.; van Kesteren, J.; Rindlisbacher, M. (2001). "Guns, Violent Crime, and Suicide in 21 Countries" (PDF). Canadian Journal of Criminology. 43 (4): 429–448.
Further reading[edit]
Baker, Dennis (2009). Collective Criminalization and the Constitutional Right to Endanger Others. Criminal Justice Ethics.
Cramer, Clayton E. (1994). For the Defense of Themselves and the State: The Original Intent and Judicial Interpretation of the Right to Keep and Bear Arms. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 0-275-94913-3.
Dizard, Jan E.; Muth, Robert Merrill; Andrews, Stephen P., Jr. (1999). Guns in America: A Reader. New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-1878-7.
Halbrook, Stephan P. (1989). A Right to Bear Arms: State and Federal Bills of Rights and Constitutional Guarantees. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-26539-9.
Malcolm, Joyce (1996). To Keep and Bear Arms: The Origins of an Anglo-American Right. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674893078.
Malcolm, Joyce (2004). Guns and Violence: The English Experience. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674016088.
Spitzer, Robert J. (1998). The Politics of Gun Control. Chatham House Publishers. ISBN 1-56643-021-6.
Uviller, H. Richard; William G. Merkel (2002). The Militia and the Right to Arms. Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-3017-2.
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