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Lionel Tate
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Lionel Tate
Photo of Tate
Born
(1987-01-30) January 30, 1987 (age 30)
Broward County, Florida, United States
Criminal penalty
Life in prison without parole state prison
Criminal status
Incarcerated at the Appalachian Correctional Institution in Sneads, Florida
Conviction(s)
Second degree murder, probation violation and armed robbery
Lionel Alexander Tate (born January 30, 1987)[1] is the youngest American citizen ever sentenced to life imprisonment without possibility of parole. In January 2001, when Tate was 13, he was convicted of first-degree murder for the 1999 battering death of 6-year-old Tiffany Eunick in Broward County, Florida.
Contents
[hide]
1 Murder
1.1 Conviction
2 Sentence and the controversy
2.1 Felony murder controversy
3 Original sentence overturned
4 Probation violation
5 Armed robbery arrest and subsequent plea bargain
6 References
7 External links
Murder[edit]
On July 28, 1999 Tate was left alone with Eunick, who was being babysat by Tate's mother, Kathleen Grossett-Tate. While the children were downstairs playing, Tate's mother called to them to be quiet. Tate came up 45 minutes later to say that Eunick was not breathing. He stated that they were wrestling, he had her in a head lock and slammed the child's head into the table.
Conviction[edit]
Tate was convicted of killing Eunick by stomping on her so forcefully that her liver was lacerated.[2] Her other injuries included a fractured skull, fractured rib and swollen brain. These injuries were characterized by the prosecution as "similar to those she would have sustained by falling from a three-story building."[3] In sentencing Tate to life imprisonment, Judge Joel T. Lazarus of Broward County Circuit Court said that "The acts of Lionel Tate were not the playful acts of a child [...] The acts of Lionel Tate were cold, callous and indescribably cruel."[4]
Sentence and the controversy[edit]
The sentence was controversial because Tate was 12 years old at the time of the death, and his victim was 6. He was the youngest person in modern US history to be sentenced to life imprisonment,[citation needed] bringing broad criticism on the treatment of juvenile offenders in the justice system of the State of Florida.
Michael Eric Dyson commented in January 2004:
In this country, we would rather put Lionel Tate in prison for a mistake he made at twelve or thirteen years old, dooming him to a life of perpetual suffering in an adult situation where we're not rehabilitating him, [but instead] inculcating in him the very values we want to avoid. We're teaching him, and others like him, how to become the very thing we say we want to reform. And at the same time, we allow other people in our society, who don't have darker skin, to plea bargain when they've stolen millions and millions of dollars out of the purses of ordinary people.
Tate's mother, a Florida Highway Patrol trooper, and the defense had turned down a plea bargain arrangement which would have allowed Tate to serve a three-year term for second-degree murder in a youth facility followed by 10 years' probation but instead, his mother insisted on going to trial in hopes of an acquittal.[citation needed]
Felony murder controversy[edit]
Florida Statutes required the jury to convict Tate of first-degree murder even if the jury did not believe that he intended to kill or injure anyone—all that was required was that Tate knowingly abused another child who died as a result (wherein any intentional act that could reasonably be expected to result in physical injury to a child is child abuse per Florida statutes).[5][6][7]
The rule for such convictions is known as the felony murder rule. The sufficient conditions of the felony murder rule were listed by the judge Joel T. Lazarus during sentencing.[8]
Thus Tate was sentenced to life in prison without the prosecution having to prove that he intended to kill or injure, or realized that his acts are likely to kill or injure, or even that a typical child of his age would or should realize this.
Critics, such as the various groups listed in the Amicus Brief attached to Tate's appeal, assert that convicting preteen children of 1st-degree murder without having to prove these children intended any harm, not to mention serious injury or death, is unacceptable.[9][10] Lionel Tate's crime was documented on an episode of American Justice.
Original sentence overturned[edit]
After the conviction, the prosecution openly joined Tate's plea for leniency in sentencing, and even offered to help in his appeal. The trial judge criticized the prosecution for compromising the integrity of the adversarial system, and said that if the prosecution felt that life imprisonment was not warranted, they should not have charged him with murder in the first place.
In January 2004, a state appeals court overturned his conviction on the basis that his mental competency had not been evaluated before trial. This opened the way for Tate to accept the same plea deal he originally turned down, and he was released on one year's house arrest and 10 years probation.
Probation violation[edit]
On September 3, 2004, Tate was detained and held in prison for violating the terms of his house arrest when he was found out of his house and carrying an eight-inch knife.[11] On October 29, the Associated Press reported that Tate was placed on zero tolerance probation, for an additional five years.
On November 30, Tate was allowed to return to the home of his mother, Kathleen Grossett-Tate. The family he had been staying with asked that he be removed, because frequent visits by state probation officers were too stressful.
Armed robbery arrest and subsequent plea bargain[edit]
On May 23, 2005, Tate was charged with armed burglary with battery, armed robbery and violation of probation, the Broward County Sheriff's Office said.
Tate threatened Domino's Pizza deliveryman Walter Ernest Gallardo with a handgun outside a friend's apartment after phoning in an order. Gallardo dropped the four pizzas and fled the scene. Tate then re-entered the apartment, assaulting the occupant who did not want Tate inside.
Gallardo called 9-1-1 upon reaching the Domino's store and returned to identify Tate, the sheriff's office said in a statement. No gun was recovered.
On March 1, 2006, Tate accepted a plea bargain and was to be sentenced to 30 years' imprisonment in a sentencing hearing in April 2006. Tate admitted that he had violated probation by possessing a gun during the May 23 robbery that netted four pizzas worth $33.60, but he has refused to answer questions about where he got it and later disposed of the gun. He was allowed to withdraw his guilty plea for robbery, but was finally sentenced to 30 years in prison on May 18, 2006 for violating probation. On October 24, 2007, Florida's 4th District Court of Appeal upheld that sentence.[12]
On February 19, 2008, Tate pleaded no contest to the pizza robbery and was sentenced to 10 years in state prison. The sentence will run concurrently with his 30-year sentence for violating his probation.[13]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Inmate Population Information Detail
Jump up ^ Abby Goodnough, "Youngster Given Life Term For Killing Gets New Trial," The New York Times, December 11, 2003
Jump up ^ Dana Canedy, "Boy Convicted of Murder in Wrestling Death," The New York Times, January 5, 2001
Jump up ^ Dana Canedy, " Sentence of Life Without Parole For Boy, 13, in Murder of Girl, 6 ," The New York Times, March 10, 2001
Jump up ^ Statutes & Constitution :View Statutes : Online Sunshine
Jump up ^ Statutes & Constitution :View Statutes : Online Sunshine
Jump up ^ Statutes & Constitution :View Statutes : Online Sunshine
Jump up ^ Wrestling Death: Judge Sentences Lionel Tate, 14, to Life in Prison
Jump up ^ STATE OF FLORIDA IN THE FOURTH DISTRICT COURT OF APPEAL Case No. 4D01-1306 Archived July 2, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Rule Should Not Apply To Children
Jump up ^ Free Lionel Tate | Miami New Times
Jump up ^ Court upholds sentence for Tate Archived 2009-04-18 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ [1][dead link]
External links[edit]
Article on Tate's original sentencing
Free Lionel Tate
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lionel_Tate&oldid=817520458"
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Blood sugar regulation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Ball-and-stick model of a glucose molecule
Blood sugar regulation is the process by which the levels of blood sugar, primarily glucose, are maintained by the body within a narrow range. This tight regulation is referred to as glucose homeostasis. Insulin, which lowers blood sugar, and glucagon, which raises it, are the most well known of the hormones involved, but more recent discoveries of other glucoregulatory hormones have expanded the understanding of this process.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Mechanisms
1.1 Glucagon
1.2 Insulin
2 Hormones that influence blood glucose level
3 Food
4 References
Mechanisms[edit]
Blood sugar regulation the flatline is the level needed the sine wave the fluctuations.
Blood sugar levels are regulated by negative feedback in order to keep the body in balance. The levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by many tissues, but the cells in the pancreatic islets are among the most well understood and important.
Glucagon[edit]
If the blood glucose level falls to dangerous levels (as during very heavy exercise or lack of food for extended periods), the alpha cells of the pancreas release glucagon, a hormone whose effects on liver cells act to increase blood glucose levels. They convert glycogen into glucose (this process is called glycogenolysis). The glucose is released into the bloodstream, increasing blood sugar. Hypoglycemia, the state of having low blood sugar, is treated by restoring the blood glucose level to normal by the ingestion or administration of dextrose or carbohydrate foods. It is often self-diagnosed and self-medicated orally by the ingestion of balanced meals. In more severe circumstances, it is treated by injection or infusion of glucagon.
Insulin[edit]
When levels of blood sugar rise, whether as a result of glycogen conversion, or from digestion of a meal, a different hormone is released from beta cells found in the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. This hormone, insulin, causes the liver to convert more glucose into glycogen (this process is called glycogenesis), and to force about 2/3 of body cells (primarily muscle and fat tissue cells) to take up glucose from the blood through the GLUT4 transporter, thus decreasing blood sugar. When insulin binds to the receptors on the cell surface, vesicles containing the GLUT4 transporters come to the plasma membrane and fuse together by the process of endocytosis, thus enabling a facilitated diffusion of glucose into the cell. As soon as the glucose enters the cell, it is phosphorylated into Glucose-6-Phosphate in order to preserve the concentration gradient so glucose will continue to enter the cell.[2] Insulin also provides signals to several other body systems, and is the chief regulator of metabolic control in humans.
There are also several other causes for an increase in blood sugar levels. Among them are the 'stress' hormones such as epinephrine (also known as adrenaline), several of the steroids, infections, trauma, and of course, the ingestion of food.
Diabetes mellitus type 1 is caused by insufficient or non-existent production of insulin, while type 2 is primarily due to a decreased response to insulin in the tissues of the body (insulin resistance). Both types of diabetes, if untreated, result in too much glucose remaining in the blood (hyperglycemia) and many of the same complications. Also, too much insulin and/or exercise without enough corresponding food intake in diabetics can result in low blood sugar (hypoglycemia).
Hormones that influence blood glucose level[edit]
Hormone
Tissue of Origin
Metabolic Effect
Effect on Blood Glucose
Insulin Pancreatic β Cells 1) Enhances entry of glucose into cells; 2) Enhances storage of glucose as glycogen, or conversion to fatty acids; 3) Enhances synthesis of fatty acids and proteins; 4) Suppresses breakdown of proteins into amino acids, of adipose tissue into free fatty acids. Lowers
Amylin[1] Pancreatic β Cells 1) Suppresses glucagon secretion after eating; 2) Slows gastric emptying; 3) Reduces food intake. Lowers
GLP-1[1] Intestinal L cells 1) Enhances glucose-dependent insulin secretion; 2) Suppresses glucagon secretion after eating; 3) Slows gastric emptying; 4) Reduces food intake. (Only works while food is in the gut) Lowers
Glucagon Pancreatic α Cells 1) Enhances release of glucose from glycogen (glycogenolysis); 2) Enhances synthesis of glucose (gluconeogenesis) from amino acids or fats. Raises
Asprosin[3] White adipose tissue 1) Enhances release of liver glucose during fasting. Raises
Somatostatin Pancreatic δ Cells 1) Suppresses glucagon release from α cells (acts locally); 2) Suppresses release of Insulin, Pituitary tropic hormones, gastrin and secretin. Lowers
Epinephrine Adrenal medulla 1) Enhances release of glucose from glycogen; 2) Enhances release of fatty acids from adipose tissue. Raises
Cortisol Adrenal cortex 1) Enhances gluconeogenesis; 2) Antagonizes Insulin. Raises
ACTH Anterior pituitary 1) Enhances release of cortisol; 2) Enhances release of fatty acids from adipose tissue. Raises
Growth Hormone Anterior pituitary Antagonizes Insulin Raises
Thyroxine Thyroid 1) Enhances release of glucose from glycogen; 2) Enhances absorption of sugars from intestine Raises
Food[edit]
Some edible mushrooms are noted for the ability to lower blood sugar levels including reishi,[4][5] maitake[6][7][8][9][10][11] Agaricus blazei[12][13][14][15] as well as some others.
Some minerals play roles in glucose regulation: see Chromium in glucose metabolism for example.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Aronoff SL, Berkowitz K, Shreiner B, Want L (2004). "Glucose metabolism and regulation: Beyond insulin and glucagon". Diabetes Spectrum. 17 (3): 183–90. doi:10.2337/diaspect.17.3.183.
Jump up ^ Ebey Soman, Scienceray, Regulation of Glucose by Insulin Archived July 16, 2011, at the Wayback Machine., May 4, 2009. Retrieved November 1, 2009.
Jump up ^ Romere C, Duerrschmid C, Bournat J, Constable P, Jain M, Xia F, Saha PK, Del Solar M, Zhu B, York B, Sarkar P, Rendon DA, Gaber MW, LeMaire SA, Coselli JS, Milewicz DM, Sutton VR, Butte NF, Moore DD, Chopra AR (April 2016). "Asprosin, a Fasting-Induced Glucogenic Protein Hormone". Cell. 165 (3): 566–79. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2016.02.063. PMID 27087445.
Jump up ^ Zhang HN, Lin ZB (February 2004), "Hypoglycemic effect of Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides", Acta Pharmacol. Sin., 25 (2): 191–95, PMID 14769208
Jump up ^ Yang BK, Jung YS, Song CH (November 2007), "Hypoglycemic effects of Ganoderma applanatum and Collybia confluens exo-polymers in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats", Phytother Res, 21 (11): 1066–69, doi:10.1002/ptr.2214, PMID 17600864
Jump up ^ Konno S, Tortorelis DG, Fullerton SA, Samadi AA, Hettiarachchi J, Tazaki H (Dec 2001), "A possible hypoglycaemic effect of maitake mushroom on Type 2 diabetic patients.", Diabet Med., 18 (12): 1010, doi:10.1046/j.1464-5491.2001.00532-5.x, PMID 11903406
Jump up ^ Hong L, Xun M, Wutong W (Apr 2007), "Anti-diabetic effect of an alpha-glucan from fruit body of maitake (Grifola frondosa) on KK-Ay mice.", J Pharm Pharmacol, 59 (4): 575–82, doi:10.1211/jpp.59.4.0013, PMID 17430642
Jump up ^ Kubo K, Aoki H, Nanba H (Aug 1994), "Anti-diabetic activity present in the fruit body of Grifola frondosa (Maitake). I.", Biol Pharm Bull., 17 (8): 1106–10, doi:10.1248/bpb.17.1106, PMID 7820117
Jump up ^ Lo HC, Hsu TH, Chen CY (2008), "Submerged culture mycelium and broth of Grifola frondosa improve glycemic responses in diabetic rats.", Am J Chin Med., 36 (2): 265–85, doi:10.1142/S0192415X0800576X, PMID 18457360
Jump up ^ Manohar V, Talpur NA, Echard BW, Lieberman S, Preuss HG (Jan 2002), "Effects of a water-soluble extract of maitake mushroom on circulating glucose/insulin concentrations in KK mice.", Diabetes Obes Metab., 4 (1): 43–48, doi:10.1046/j.1463-1326.2002.00180.x, PMID 11874441
Jump up ^ Horio H, Ohtsuru M (Feb 2001), "Maitake (Grifola frondosa) improve glucose tolerance of experimental diabetic rats.", J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo)., 47 (1): 57–63, doi:10.3177/jnsv.47.57, PMID 11349892
Jump up ^ Liu Y, Fukuwatari Y, Okumura K, et al. (June 2008), "Immunomodulating Activity of Agaricus brasiliensis KA21 in Mice and in Human Volunteers", Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 5 (2): 205–19, doi:10.1093/ecam/nem016, PMC 2396466  , PMID 18604247.
Jump up ^ Kim YW, Kim KH, Choi HJ, Lee DS (April 2005), "Anti-diabetic activity of beta-glucans and their enzymatically hydrolyzed oligosaccharides from Agaricus blazei", Biotechnol. Lett., 27 (7): 483–87, doi:10.1007/s10529-005-2225-8, PMID 15928854.
Jump up ^ Hsu CH, Liao YL, Lin SC, Hwang KC, Chou P (January–February 2007), "The mushroom Agaricus Blazei Murill in combination with metformin and gliclazide improves insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes: a randomized, double-blinded, and placebo-controlled clinical trial.", J Altern Complement Med., 13 (1): 97–102, doi:10.1089/acm.2006.6054, PMID 17309383 (Primary result, not review)
Jump up ^ Fortes RC, Novaes MR, Recôva VL, Melo AL (January 2009), "Immunological, hematological, and glycemia effects of dietary supplementation with Agaricus sylvaticus on patients' colorectal cancer.", Exp Biol Med (Maywood)., 234 (1): 53–62, doi:10.3181/0806-RM-193, PMID 18997106
[hide]
v
t
e
Physiology of the endocrine system
Regulatory systems
Hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis
Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis
Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis
Hypothalamic–pituitary–somatotropic axis
Hypothalamic–pituitary–prolactin axis
Hypothalamic–neurohypophyseal system
Renin–angiotensin system
Metabolism
Blood sugar regulation
Calcium metabolism
Fields
Neuroendocrinology
Pediatric endocrinology
Psychoneuroendocrinology
Reproductive endocrinology and infertility
Other
Wolff–Chaikoff effect/Jod-Basedow effect
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Scholasticism
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Not to be confused with Scholarism.
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Scholasticism is a method of critical thought which dominated teaching by the academics ("scholastics," or "schoolmen") of medieval universities in Europe from about 1100 to 1700, and a program of employing that method in articulating and defending dogma in an increasingly pluralistic context. It originated as an outgrowth of and a departure from Christian monastic schools at the earliest European universities.[1] The first institutions in the West to be considered universities were established in Italy, France, Spain, and England in the late 11th and 12th centuries for the study of arts, law, medicine, and theology,[2] such as Schola Medica Salernitana, the University of Bologna, and the University of Paris. It is difficult to define the date at which they became true universities, although the lists of studia generalia for higher education in Europe are a useful guide, held by the Catholic Church and its various religious orders.
Scholasticism is not so much a philosophy or a theology as a method of learning, as it places a strong emphasis on dialectical reasoning to extend knowledge by inference and to resolve contradictions. The scholastic thought is also known for rigorous conceptual analysis and the careful drawing of distinctions. In the classroom and in writing, it often takes the form of explicit disputation; a topic drawn from the tradition is broached in the form of a question, opponents' responses are given, a counterproposal is argued and opponents' arguments rebutted. Because of its emphasis on rigorous dialectical method, scholasticism was eventually applied to many other fields of study.
As a program, scholasticism began as an attempt at harmonization on the part of medieval Christian thinkers, to harmonize the various authorities of their own tradition, and to reconcile Christian theology with classical and late antiquity philosophy, especially that of Aristotle but also of Neoplatonism.[3] (See also Christian apologetics.)
Some of the main figures of scholasticism include Anselm of Canterbury, Peter Abelard, Alexander of Hales, Albertus Magnus, Duns Scotus, William of Ockham, Bonaventure, and Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas's masterwork Summa Theologica is considered to be the pinnacle of scholastic, medieval, and Christian philosophy;[4] it began while Aquinas was regent master at the studium provinciale of Santa Sabina in Rome, the forerunner of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum. Important work in the scholastic tradition has been carried on well past Aquinas's time, for instance by Francisco Suárez and Luis de Molina, and also among Lutheran and Reformed thinkers.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Early Scholasticism
2.2 High Scholasticism
2.3 Spanish Scholasticism
2.4 Late Scholasticism
2.5 Lutheran Scholasticism
2.6 Reformed Scholasticism
2.7 Neo-Scholasticism
2.8 Thomistic Scholasticism
2.9 Analytical Scholasticism
3 Scholastic method
4 Scholastic instruction
5 See also
6 References
7 Primary sources
8 Secondary sources
9 Further reading
10 External links
Etymology[edit]
The terms "scholastic" and "scholasticism" derive from the Latin word scholasticus and the latter from the Greek σχολαστικός,[5] which means "that [which] belongs to the school". The "scholastics" were, roughly, "schoolmen".
History[edit]
Forerunners (and later companions) of Christian scholasticism were Islamic Ilm al-Kalām, literally "science of discourse",[6] and Jewish philosophy, especially Jewish Kalam.[7]
Early Scholasticism[edit]
The first significant renewal of learning in the West came with the Carolingian Renaissance of the Early Middle Ages. Charlemagne, advised by Peter of Pisa and Alcuin of York, attracted the scholars of England and Ireland. By decree in AD 787, he established schools in every abbey in his empire. These schools, from which the name scholasticism is derived, became centers of medieval learning.
During this period, knowledge of Ancient Greek had vanished in the West except in Ireland, where its teaching and use was widely dispersed in the monastic schools.[8] Irish scholars had a considerable presence in the Frankish court, where they were renowned for their learning.[9] Among them was Johannes Scotus Eriugena, (815–877) one of the founders of scholasticism.[10] Eriugena was the most significant Irish intellectual of the early monastic period and an outstanding philosopher in terms of originality.[9] He had considerable familiarity with the Greek language and translated many works into Latin, affording access to the Cappadocian Fathers and the Greek theological tradition.[9]
The other three founders of scholasticism were the 11th-century scholars Peter Abelard, Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury and Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury.[10]
This period saw the beginning of the 'rediscovery' of many Greek works which had been lost to the Latin West. As early as the 10th century, scholars in Spain had begun to gather translated texts and, in the latter half of that century, began transmitting them to the rest of Europe.[11] After a successful burst of Reconquista in the 12th century, Spain opened even further for Christian scholars, who were now able to work in 'friendly' religious territory.[12][full citation needed] As these Europeans encountered Islamic philosophy, they opened a wealth of Arab knowledge of mathematics and astronomy.[13][full citation needed] Scholars such as Adelard of Bath traveled to Spain and Sicily, translating works on astronomy and mathematics, including the first complete translation of Euclid's Elements into Latin.[14]
At the same time, Anselm of Laon systematized the production of the gloss on Scripture, followed by the rise to prominence of dialectic (the middle subject of the medieval trivium) in the work of Abelard. Peter Lombard produced a collection of Sentences, or opinions of the Church Fathers and other authorities [15]
High Scholasticism[edit]
The 13th and early 14th centuries are generally seen as the high period of scholasticism. The early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the recovery of Greek philosophy. Schools of translation grew up in Italy and Sicily, and eventually in the rest of Europe. Powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige.[16] William of Moerbeke's translations and editions of Greek philosophical texts in the middle half of the thirteenth century helped form a clearer picture of Greek philosophy, particularly of Aristotle, than was given by the Arabic versions on which they had previously relied, and which had distorted or obscured the relation between Platonic and Aristotelian systems of philosophy.[17][full citation needed] His work formed the basis of the major commentaries that followed.
Universities developed in the large cities of Europe during this period, and rival clerical orders within the church began to battle for political and intellectual control over these centers of educational life. The two main orders founded in this period were the Franciscans and the Dominicans. The Franciscans were founded by Francis of Assisi in 1209. Their leader in the middle of the century was Bonaventure, a traditionalist who defended the theology of Augustine and the philosophy of Plato, incorporating only a little of Aristotle in with the more neoplatonist elements. Following Anselm, Bonaventure supposed that reason can only discover truth when philosophy is illuminated by religious faith.[citation needed] Other important Franciscan scholastics were Duns Scotus, Peter Auriol and William of Ockham.
By contrast, the Dominican order, a teaching order founded by St Dominic in 1215, to propagate and defend Christian doctrine, placed more emphasis on the use of reason and made extensive use of the new Aristotelian sources derived from the East and Moorish Spain. The great representatives of Dominican thinking in this period were Albertus Magnus and (especially) Thomas Aquinas, whose artful synthesis of Greek rationalism and Christian doctrine eventually came to define Catholic philosophy. Aquinas placed more emphasis on reason and argumentation, and was one of the first to use the new translation of Aristotle's metaphysical and epistemological writing. This was a significant departure from the Neoplatonic and Augustinian thinking that had dominated much of early scholasticism. Aquinas showed how it was possible to incorporate much of the philosophy of Aristotle without falling into the errors of the Commentator, Averroes.[citation needed]
Spanish Scholasticism[edit]
Main article: School of Salamanca
Late Scholasticism[edit]
Main article: Second scholasticism
Lutheran Scholasticism[edit]
Main article: Lutheran scholasticism
Reformed Scholasticism[edit]
Main article: Reformed scholasticism
Following the Reformation, Calvinists largely adopted the scholastic method of theology, while differing regarding sources of authority and content of theology.
Neo-Scholasticism[edit]
Main article: Neo-scholasticism
The revival and development from the second half of the 19th century of medieval scholastic philosophy is sometimes called neo-Thomism.
Thomistic Scholasticism[edit]
As J. A. Weisheipl O.P. emphasizes, within the Dominican Order Thomistic scholasticism has been continuous since the time of Aquinas: "Thomism was always alive in the Dominican Order, small as it was after the ravages of the Reformation, the French Revolution, and the Napoleonic occupation. Repeated legislation of the General Chapters, beginning after the death of St. Thomas, as well as the Constitutions of the Order, required all Dominicans to teach the doctrine of St. Thomas both in philosophy and in theology."[18]
Thomistic scholasticism or scholastic Thomism identifies with the philosophical and theological tradition stretching back to the time of St. Thomas. It focuses not only on exegesis of the historical Aquinas but also on the articulation of a rigorous system of orthodox Thomism to be used as an instrument of critique of contemporary thought. Due to its suspicion of attempts to harmonize Aquinas with non-Thomistic categories and assumptions, Scholastic Thomism has sometimes been called "Strict Observance Thomism."[19] A discussion of recent and current Thomistic scholasticism can be found in La Metafisica di san Tommaso d'Aquino e i suoi interpreti (2002) by Battista Mondin,[20] which includes such figures as Sofia Vanni Rovighi (1908-1990),[21] Cornelio Fabro (1911-1995), Carlo Giacon (1900-1984),[22] Tomas Tyn O.P. (1950-1990), Abelardo Lobato O.P. (1925-2012), Leo Elders[23] (1926- ) and Giovanni Ventimiglia (1964- ) among others. Fabro in particular emphasizes Aquinas' originality, especially with respect to the actus essendi or act of existence of finite beings by participating in being itself. Other scholars such as those involved with the "Progetto Tommaso"[24] seek to establish an objective and universal reading of Aquinas' texts.[25]
Thomistic scholasticism in the English speaking world went into decline in the 1970s when the Thomistic revival that had been spearheaded by Jacques Maritain, Étienne Gilson, and others, diminished in influence. Partly, this was because this branch of Thomism had become a quest to understand the historical Aquinas after the Second Vatican Council. Still, those who had learned Scholastic philosophy continued to have unresolved questions about how the insights of the medieval synthesis could be applied to contemporary problems. This conversation departed from the academic environment and entered internet discussion groups such as Aquinas,[26] Christian Philosophy,[27] and Thomism,[28] and websites such as Open Philosophy,[29] where it continues today.
Analytical Scholasticism[edit]
A renewed interest in the "scholastic" way of doing philosophy has recently awoken in the confines of the analytic philosophy. Attempts emerged to combine elements of scholastic and analytic methodology in pursuit of a contemporary philosophical synthesis. Proponents of various incarnations of this approach include Anthony Kenny, Peter King, Thomas Williams or David Oderberg. Analytical Thomism can be seen as a pioneer part of this movement.
Scholastic method[edit]
Cornelius O'Boyle explained that Scholasticism focuses on how to acquire knowledge, and then how to communicate effectively so it can be acquired by others. It was thought that the best way to achieve this was by replicating the discovery process (modus inveniendi).[30]
The scholasticists would choose a book by a renowned scholar, auctor (author), as a subject for investigation. By reading it thoroughly and critically, the disciples learned to appreciate the theories of the author. Other documents related to the book would be referenced, such as Church councils, papal letters and anything else written on the subject, be it ancient or contemporary. The points of disagreement and contention between multiple sources would be written down in individual sentences or snippets of text, known as sententiae.
Once the sources and points of disagreement had been laid out through a series of dialectics, the two sides of an argument would be made whole so that they would be found to be in agreement and not contradictory. (Of course, sometimes opinions would be totally rejected, or new positions proposed.) This was done in two ways.
The first was through philological analysis. Words were examined and argued to have multiple meanings. It was also considered that the auctor might have intended a certain word to mean something different. Ambiguity could be used to find common ground between two otherwise contradictory statements.
The second was through logical analysis, which relied on the rules of formal logic — as they were known at the time — to show that contradictions did not exist but were subjective to the reader.
Scholastic instruction[edit]
Scholastic instruction consisted of several elements. The first was the lectio: a teacher would read an authoritative text followed by a commentary, but no questions were permitted. This was followed by the meditatio (meditation or reflection) in which students reflected on and appropriated the text. Finally, in the quaestio students could ask questions (quaestiones) that might have occurred to them during meditatio. Eventually the discussion of questiones became a method of inquiry apart from the lectio and independent of authoritative texts. Disputationes were arranged to resolve controversial quaestiones.[31]
Questions to be disputed were ordinarily announced beforehand,[citation needed] but students could propose a question to the teacher unannounced – disputationes de quodlibet. In this case, the teacher responded and the students rebutted;[32] on the following day the teacher, having used notes taken during the disputation, summarised all arguments and presented his final position, riposting all rebuttals.[citation needed]
The quaestio method of reasoning was initially used especially when two authoritative texts seemed to contradict one another. Two contradictory propositions would be considered in the form of an either/or question, and each part of the question would have to be approved (sic) or denied (non). Arguments for the position taken would be presented in turn, followed by arguments against the position, and finally the arguments against would be refuted. This method forced scholars to consider opposing viewpoints and defend their own arguments against them.[33]
See also[edit]
Actus primus
Allegory in the Middle Ages
Aristotelianism
History of science in the Middle Ages
List of scholastic philosophers
Medieval philosophy
Nominalism
Pardes (Jewish exegesis)
Renaissance of the 12th century
Scotism
References[edit]
Jump up ^ See Steven P. Marone, "Medieval philosophy in context" in A. S. McGrade, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). On the difference between scholastic and medieval monastic postures towards learning, see Jean Leclercq, The Love of Learning and the Desire for God (New York: Fordham University Press, 1970) esp. 89; 238ff.
Jump up ^ de Ridder-Symoens 1992, pp. 47–55
Jump up ^ Particularly through Pseudo-Dionysius, Augustine, and Boethius, and through the influence of Plotinus and Proclus on Muslim philosophers. In the case of Aquinas, for instance, see Jan Aertsen, "Aquinas' philosophy in its historical setting" in The Cambridge Companion to Aquinas, ed. Norman Kretzmann and Eleonore Stump (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Jean Leclerq, The Love of Learning and the Desire for God (New York: Fordham University Press, 1970).
Jump up ^ Gilson, Etienne (1991). The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy (Gifford Lectures 1933-35). Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. p. 490. ISBN 978-0-268-01740-8.
Jump up ^ The word Scholasticism is derived from the Latin word scholasticus, the Latinized form of the Greek σχολαστικός (scholastikos), an adjective derived from σχολή (scholē), "school". "school". "scholastic". Online Etymology Dictionary. σχολή, σχολαστικός. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
Jump up ^ Winter, Tim J. "Introduction." Introduction. The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2008. 4-5. Print.
Jump up ^ Madeleine Pelner Cosman, Linda Gale Jones, Handbook to Life in the Medieval World, p 391. ISBN 1438109075
Jump up ^ MacManus, p 215
^ Jump up to: a b c "John Scottus Eriugena". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. 2004-10-17. Retrieved 2008-07-21.
^ Jump up to: a b Toman 2007, p. 10: Abelard himself was ... together with John Scotus Erigena (9th century), and Lanfranc and Anselm of Canterbury (both 11th century), one of the founders of scholasticism."
Jump up ^ Lindberg 1978, pp. 60–61.
Jump up ^ Lindberg 1978; Palencia.
Jump up ^ Watt
Jump up ^ Clagett 1982, p. 356.
Jump up ^ "Peter Lombard, Master of the Sentences". http://www.ligonier.org. External link in |journal= (help)
Jump up ^ Lindberg 1978, pp. 70-72.
Jump up ^ Fryde
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-09-27. Retrieved 2013-08-21. "The Revival of Thomism: An Historical Survey, " James Weisheipl, 1962.
Jump up ^ http://edwardfeser.blogspot.com/2009/10/thomistic-tradition-part-i.html Accessed 5 September 2013
Jump up ^ it:Battista Mondin Accessed 12 April 2013[better source needed]
Jump up ^ http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/sofia-vanni-rovighi_(Dizionario-di-filosofia)/ Accessed 17 August 2013
Jump up ^ http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/carlo-giacon_(Dizionario-Biografico)/ Accessed 9 April 2013
Jump up ^ Leo Elders Accessed 30 August 2013
Jump up ^ http://www.istitutotomistico.it/risorse/testi_arca.htm Accessed 5 Sept. 2013
Jump up ^ See Raffaele Rizzello's "Il Progetto Tommaso," in Vita quaerens intellectum, eds. Giacomo Grasso, O.P. and Stefano Serafini, Millennium Romae, Rome 1999, pp. 157-161. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-09-28. Retrieved 2013-09-25. Accessed 5 Sept. 2013
Jump up ^ https://groups.yahoo.com/group/aquinas/
Jump up ^ https://groups.yahoo.com/group/xianphil/
Jump up ^ https://groups.yahoo.com/group/thomism/
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-09-26. Retrieved 2009-07-10.
Jump up ^ Cornelius., O'Boyle, (1998). The art of medicine : medical teaching at the University of Paris, 1250-1400. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004111240. OCLC 39655867.
Jump up ^ van Asselt 2011, p. 59.
Jump up ^ van Asselt 2011, p. 60.
Jump up ^ van Asselt 2011, pp. 61-62.
Primary sources[edit]
Hyman, J.; Walsh, J. J., eds. (1973). Philosophy in the Middle Ages. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. ISBN 0-915144-05-0.
Schoedinger, Andrew B., ed. (1996). Readings in Medieval Philosophy. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509293-7.
Secondary sources[edit]
van Asselt, Willem J. (2011). Inleiding in de Gereformeerde Scholastiek [Introduction to Reformed Scholasticism] (in Dutch). With contributions by T. Theo J. Pleizier, Pieter L. Rouwendal, and Maarten Wisse; Translated by Albert Gootjes. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Reformation Heritage Books. ISBN 978-1-60178-121-5.
Clagett, Marshall (1982). "William of Moerbeke: Translator of Archimedes". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 126, No. 5. 126 (5): 356–366. JSTOR 986212.
Fryde, E., The Early Palaeologan Renaissance, Brill 2000.
Gallatin, Harlie Kay (2001). "Medieval Intellectual Life and Christianity". Archived from the original on 2009-02-01.
Gracia, J. G. and Noone, T. B., eds., (2003) A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages. London: Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-21672-3
McGrade, A. S., ed., (2003) The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lindberg, David C. (1978). Science in the Middle Ages. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-48232-4.
Maurer, Armand A. (1982). Medieval Philosophy (2nd ed.). Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies. ISBN 0-88844-704-3.
Toman, Rolf (2007). The Art of Gothic: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting. photography by Achim Bednorz. Tandem Verlag GmbH. ISBN 978-3-8331-4676-3.
Further reading[edit]
Trueman, Carl R. and R. Scott Clark, jt. eds. (1999). Protestant Scholasticism: Essays in Reassessment. Carlisle, Eng.: Paternoster Press. ISBN 0-85364-853-0
External links[edit]
Scholasticon by Jacob Schmutz
Medieval Philosophy Electronic Resources
"Scholasticism". In Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Scholasticism Joseph Rickaby, (1908), 121 pp. (also at googlebooks)
Scholasticism in The Catholic Encyclopedia
Yahoo! directory category: Scholasticism
The genius of the scholastics and the orbit of Aristotle, article by James Franklin on the influence of scholasticism on later thought
Medieval Philosophy, Universities and the Church by James Hannam
(in German) ALCUIN - Regensburger Infothek der Scholastik - Huge database with information on biography, text chronology, editions.
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Great Scott
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the exclamation. For other uses, see Great Scott (disambiguation).
Look up great Scott in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Great Scott! is an interjection of surprise, amazement, or dismay. As a distinctive but inoffensive exclamation, popular in the second half of the nineteenth century and the early twentieth century, and now considered dated.
It originates as a minced oath, historically associated with two specific "Scotts", notably Scottish author Sir Walter Scott and somewhat later in the United States, US general Winfield Scott.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
1.1 Sir Walter Scott
1.2 Winfield Scott
2 Later usage
3 References
Origins[edit]
It is frequently assumed that Great Scott! is a minced oath of some sort, Scott replacing God. The 2010 edition of the Oxford Dictionary of English labels the expression as "dated" and simply identifies it as an "arbitrary euphemism for Great God!".
Alternatively, but similarly, it has been suggested that it may be a corruption of the Austrian greeting Grüss Gott.[1]
In keeping with the Victorian-era origin of the phrase, it is sometimes anecdotally associated with Albert, Prince Consort.[citation needed]
Sir Walter Scott[edit]
An early reference to Sir Walter Scott as the "great Scott" is found in a poem entitled "The Wars of Bathurst 1830" published in The Sydney Monitor on 27 October 1830 (i.e. still during Scott's lifetime); the pertinent line reading "Unlike great Scott, who fell at Waterloo", in reference to Scott's poorly-received The Field of Waterloo[2]
An explicit connection of Sir Walter Scott's name with the by-then familiar exclamation is found in a poem published 15 August 1871, on the centenary anniversary of Scott's birth:
Whose wild free charms,
he chanted forth Great Scott!
When shall we see
thy like again? Great Scott! [3]
Mark Twain also uses the phrase to reference Sir Walter Scott and his writing. Twain's disdain for Scott is evident in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1889), in which the main character repeatedly utters "great Scott" as an oath, and in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884), where he names a sinking boat the Walter Scott.
Winfield Scott[edit]
John William De Forest, in Miss Ravenel's Conversion From Secession to Loyalty (1867) reports the exclamation as referring to Winfield Scott, general‑in‑chief of the U.S. Army from 1841 to 1861:
"I follow General Scott. No Virginian need be ashamed to follow old Fuss and Feathers. We used to swear by him in the army. Great Scott! the fellows said."[4]
The general, known to his troops as Old Fuss and Feathers, weighed 300 pounds (21 stone or 136 kg) in his later years and was too fat to ride a horse.[5] A May 1861 edition of The New York Times included the sentence:
These gathering hosts of loyal freemen, under the command of the great SCOTT.
The phrase also appears in a 3 May 1864 diary entry by Private Robert Knox Sneden (later published as Eye of the Storm: a Civil War Odyssey):
‘Great Scott,’ who would have thought that this would be the destiny of the Union Volunteer in 1861–2 while marching down Broadway to the tune of ‘John Brown's Body’.[5]
In the July 1871 issue of The Galaxy, in the story "Overland", the expression is again used by author by J. W. DeForest:
"Great—Scott!" he gasped in his stupefaction, using the name of the then commander-in-chief for an oath, as officers sometimes did in those days.[6]
Later usage[edit]
The phrase has the ring of being somewhat "dated," suggestive of the nineteenth century or generally an old-fashioned minced oath. Twentieth-century publications frequently use it to suggest such a context, as, for example, in the Rathbone–Bruce Sherlock Holmes films (said by Dr. Watson), Silver Age comics (especially Superman), the television series Dennis the Menace (said by Mr. Wilson), The Rocky Horror Picture Show, The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe (end of chapter six), and the Back to the Future films (Dr. Emmett Brown). It was also said in A Christmas Story as Ralphie is in line to see Santa Claus, and in the episode "When The Rat's Away, The Mice Will Play" from the Batman TV show, said by Adam West (Batman). Scrooge McDuck uses it in DuckTales Remastered. It is also used in "The Laughing Fish", an episode of Batman: The Animated Series, by a one-time character voiced by George Dzundza when The Joker enters his office. The Joker, voiced by Mark Hamill, quips, "Actually I'm Irish."
In Half-Life 2, Dr. Kleiner says it when he first sees Gordon Freeman in the game. In The Office episode "Valentine's Day", Michael Scott uses the phrase "Great Scott!" at the end of his home-made "The Faces of Scranton" video. "Great Scott Film Industries" is the name of his imaginary film company, and the logo includes a lightning bolt and a headshot of Steve Martin and Robin Williams. The phrase is said by Doc Spencer at the end of Danny the Champion of the World, by Aunt Sponge in James and the Giant Peach and by Miss Trunchbull in Matilda.
It was also used in Legends of Tomorrow by Dr. Martin Stein (in the episode "Marooned"), in Peter Pan 2 by Captain Hook, and in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets by Gilderoy Lockhart.
A large basalt rock collected by astronaut David Scott on the Apollo 15 mission to the moon in 1971 is informally known as Great Scott.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ The suggestion dates to at least the 1950s. "Great Scott (Punch Alm. 1930, S. 43), in Bayern USA-seitig 1954 f. identifiziert mit Grüß Gott, ist literarisch selten." Wiener Beiträge zur englischen Philologie 64-65 (1956), p. 204.
Jump up ^ "The Wars of Bathurst 1830". The Sydney Monitor. National Library of Australia. 27 October 1830. p. 3 Edition: Afternoon. Retrieved 5 April 2014. The poem is mock-heroic, and casts the "meeting between S****r and Sons and some bushrangers" in terms of a great battle, about which the fame of a poet might be based, unlike Scott's poem, which was considered one of his weakest works.
Jump up ^ ""Scott's Centenary", 15 August, 1871". The Sydney Morning Herald. National Library of Australia. 15 August 1871. p. 5. Retrieved 5 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Miss Ravenel's Conversion from Secession to Loyalty, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1867, p.40
^ Jump up to: a b "World Wide Words: Great Scott". World Wide Words. Michael Quinion. 21 December 2002. Retrieved 2009-01-28.
Jump up ^ The Galaxy, vol.12, July 1871, p.53
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Scott&oldid=836166840"
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