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Impeachment of Andrew Johnson
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Theodore R. Davis's illustration of President Johnson's impeachment trial in the Senate, published in Harper's Weekly.
The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson occurred in 1868, when the United States House of Representatives resolved to impeach President Andrew Johnson, adopting eleven articles of impeachment detailing his "high crimes and misdemeanors," in accordance with Article Two of the United States Constitution. The House's primary charge against Johnson was violation of the Tenure of Office Act, passed by the U.S. Congress in March 1867, over the president's veto. Specifically, he had removed from office Edwin M. Stanton, the Secretary of War—whom the Act was largely designed to protect—and attempted to replace him with Brevet Major General Lorenzo Thomas (Earlier, while Congress was not in session, Johnson had suspended Stanton and appointed General Ulysses S. Grant as secretary of war ad interim).
The House approved the articles of impeachment on March 2–3, 1868, and forwarded them to the Senate. The trial in the Senate began three days later, with Chief Justice of the United States Salmon P. Chase presiding. On May 16, the Senate failed to convict Johnson on one of the articles, with the 35–19 vote in favor of conviction falling short of the necessary two-thirds majority by a single vote. A ten-day recess was called before attempting to convict him on additional articles. The delay did not change the outcome, however, as on May 26, it failed to convict the President on two articles, both by the same margin; after which the trial was adjourned.
This was the first impeachment of a President since creation of the office in 1789. The culmination of a lengthy political battle between Johnson, a lifelong Democrat and the Republican majority in Congress over how best to deal with the defeated Southern states following the conclusion of the American Civil War, the impeachment, and the subsequent trial (and acquittal) of Johnson were among the most dramatic events in the political life of the nation during the Reconstruction Era. Together, they have gained a historical reputation as an act of political expedience, rather than necessity, which was based on Johnson's defiance of an unconstitutional piece of legislation, and which was conducted with little regard for the will of a general public which, despite the unpopularity of Johnson, opposed the impeachment.
Johnson is one of only three presidents against whom articles of impeachment have been reported to the full House for consideration. In 1974, during the Watergate scandal, the House Judiciary Committee approved articles of impeachment against Richard Nixon, who resigned from office, rather than face certain impeachment and the prospect of being convicted at trial and removed from office. In 1999, Bill Clinton was impeached; He, like Johnson, was acquitted from all charges following a Senate trial.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
1.1 Tenure of Office Act
2 Impeachment
3 Trial
3.1 Acquittal
3.2 Senate votes
3.3 Proposed abolition of the Presidency
4 Later review of Johnson's impeachment
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Background[edit]
President Andrew Johnson.
Tension between the executive and legislative branches had been high prior to Johnson's ascension to the presidency. Following Union Army victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg in July 1863, President Lincoln began contemplating the issue how to bring the South back into the Union. He wished to offer an olive branch to the rebel states by pursuing a lenient plan for their reintegration. The forgiving tone of the president’s plan, plus the fact that he implemented it by presidential directive without consulting Congress, enraged Radical Republicans. They countered with their own more stringent plan, which Lincoln pocket vetoed.[1][2]
The assassination of Abraham Lincoln on April 14, 1865, just days after the Army of Northern Virginia's surrender at Appomattox briefly lessened the tension over who would set the terms of peace. The radicals were convinced that the new president, Andrew Johnson would defer, or at least acquiesce to their hardline proposals. Though a Democrat from Tennessee, Johnson had been a fierce critic of the Southern secession. Then after several states left the Union, including his own, he chose to stay in Washington, and later, when Union troops occupied Tennessee, Johnson was appointed military governor. He exercised his powers with vigor, frequently stating that "treason must be made odious and traitors punished."[2] Instead, Johnson unexpectedly switched course, rejecting the Radicals. During the first few months of his presidency, Johnson issued proclamations of general amnesty for most former Confederates, both government and military officers, and oversaw creation of new governments in states that had, until recently, been in rebellion. Later, Johnson also vetoed legislation that extended civil rights and financial support for the former slaves. Congress was able to override only a few of his vetoes, setting the stage for a showdown between Congress and the president.[3]
At an impasse with Congress, Johnson offered himself directly to the American public as a "tribune of the people." In the late-summer of 1866, the president embarked on a national "Swing Around the Circle" speaking tour, where he asked his audiences for their support in his battle against the Congress and urged voters to elect representatives to Congress in the upcoming midterm election who supported his policies. The tour backfired on Johnson, however, when reports of his undisciplined, vitriolic speeches and ill-advised confrontations with hecklers swept the nation. Contrary to his hopes, the 1866 elections led to veto-proof Republican majorities in both houses of Congress. As a result, Radicals were able to pass a series of Reconstruction Acts—each one over the President's veto—addressing requirement for southern states to be restored to the Union. The first of these acts divided those states (excluding Johnson's home state of Tennessee) into five military districts subject to martial law.[2][4][5]
Tenure of Office Act[edit]
Congress's control of the military Reconstruction policy was mitigated by Johnson's command of the military as president; however, Johnson had inherited, as Secretary of War, Lincoln's appointee Edwin M. Stanton, a staunch Radical Republican, who as long as he remained in office would comply with Congressional Reconstruction policies.[6] To ensure that Stanton would not be replaced, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act in 1867 over Johnson's veto. The act required the President to seek the Senate's advice and consent before relieving or dismissing any member of his Cabinet (an indirect reference to Stanton) or, indeed, any federal official whose initial appointment had previously required its advice and consent.[7][8]
"The Situation", a Harper's Weekly editorial cartoon shows Secretary of War Stanton aiming a cannon labeled "Congress" to defeat Johnson. The rammer is "Tenure of Office Bill" and cannonballs on the floor are "Justice".
Because the Tenure of Office Act did permit the President to suspend such officials when Congress was out of session, when Johnson failed to obtain Stanton's resignation, he instead suspended Stanton on August 5, 1867, which gave him the opportunity to appoint General Ulysses S. Grant, then serving as Commanding General of the Army, interim Secretary of War.[9] When the Senate adopted a resolution of non-concurrence with Stanton's dismissal in December 1867, Grant told Johnson he was going to resign, fearing punitive legal action. Johnson, assured Grant that he would assume all responsibility in the matter, and asked him to delay his resignation until a suitable replacement could be found.[8] Contrary to Johnson's belief that Grant had agreed to remain in office,[10] when the Senate voted and reinstated Stanton in January 1868, Grant immediately resigned, before the president had an opportunity to appoint a replacement.[11] Johnson was furious at Grant, accusing him of lying during a stormy cabinet meeting. The publication of angry messages between Grant and Johnson led to a complete break between the two. As a result of these letters, Grant solidified his standing as the frontrunner for the 1868 Republican presidential nomination.[12][9]
Believing the Tenure of Office Act unconstitutional, Johnson ignored the Senate's reinstatement of Stanton until, on January 28, he offered the post to Lorenzo Thomas, a brevet major general in the Army, who first turned it down, saying that he would like to stay in office as Adjutant General until his retirement. (The President originally wanted the position for General William Tecumseh Sherman, who was an enemy of Stanton's, but Sherman turned the President down, saying he hated politics.) Johnson later convinced Thomas to help him make a test case, however, and on February 21, 1868, the President appointed Lorenzo Thomas Secretary of War and ordered the removal of Stanton from office. Thomas personally delivered the President's dismissal notice to Stanton, but the Secretary refused either to accept its legitimacy or to vacate the premises. Instead, Stanton had barricaded himself in his office and ordered Thomas arrested for violating the Tenure of Office Act.[13]
Thomas asked if he could be brought to the White House to let the President know that he had been placed under arrest. When Stanton realized, however, that the arrest would allow the courts to review the law, he had the charges dropped. Stanton then claimed that Johnson had broken the recently instituted Tenure of Office Act by removing a Cabinet member without Senate approval.
Johnson's opponents in Congress were outraged by his actions; the president's challenge to congressional authority—with regard to both the Tenure of Office Act and post-war reconstruction—had, in their estimation, been tolerated for long enough.[2] In swift response, an impeachment resolution was introduced in the House by representatives Thaddeus Stevens and John Bingham. Expressing widespread sentiment among House Republicans, Representative William D. Kelley (on February 22, 1868) declared:
Sir, the bloody and untilled fields of the ten unreconstructed states, the unsheeted ghosts of the two thousand murdered negroes in Texas, cry, if the dead ever evoke vengeance, for the punishment of Andrew Johnson.[14][15]
Impeachment[edit]
The impeachment resolution against Andrew Johnson, approved by the House of Representatives on February 24, 1868.
On February 24, 1868 three days after Johnson's dismissal of Stanton, the House of Representatives voted 126 to 47 (with 17 members not voting) in favor of a resolution to impeach the President for high crimes and misdemeanors. Thaddeus Stevens addressed the House prior to the vote. "This is not to be the temporary triumph of a political party," he said, "but is to endure in its consequence until this whole continent shall be filled with a free and untrammeled people or shall be a nest of shrinking, cowardly slaves."[14]
One week later, the House adopted eleven articles of impeachment against the President. The articles charged Johnson with:
Dismissing Edwin Stanton from office after the Senate had voted not to concur with his dismissal and had ordered him reinstated.
Appointing Thomas Secretary of War ad interim despite the lack of vacancy in the office, since the dismissal of Stanton had been invalid.
Appointing Thomas without the required advice and consent of the Senate.
Conspiring, with Thomas and "other persons to the House of Representatives unknown," to unlawfully prevent Stanton from continuing in office.
Conspiring to unlawfully curtail faithful execution of the Tenure of Office Act.
Conspiring to "seize, take, and possess the property of the United States in the Department of War."
Conspiring to "seize, take, and possess the property of the United States in the Department of War" with specific intent to violate the Tenure of Office Act.
Issuing to Thomas the authority of the office of Secretary of War with unlawful intent to "control the disbursements of the moneys appropriated for the military service and for the Department of War."
Issuing to Major General William H. Emory orders with unlawful intent to violate the Tenure of Office Act.
Making three speeches with intent to show [or "sow"?] disrespect for the Congress among the citizens of the United States.
Bringing disgrace and ridicule to the presidency by his aforementioned words and actions.
Trial[edit]
John A. Bingham and Thaddeus Stevens before the Senate addressing the vote on the president's impeachment by the House.
Johnson Impeachment Committee from a photograph by Mathew Brady in the Signal Corps, War Department, Washington. Left to right, Seated: Benjamin F. Butler, Thaddeus Stevens, Thomas Williams, John A. Bingham. Standing: James F. Wilson, George S. Boutwell, John A. Logan.
A trial started in the Senate, presided by Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase, and committees were organized to represent the prosecution and defense. The impeachment committee was made up of Thaddeus Stevens, Benjamin F. Butler, John A. Bingham, John A. Logan, George S. Boutwell, Thomas Williams and James F. Wilson. Johnson's defense team was made up of Alexander Morgan, Henry Stanbery, William M. Evarts, Benjamin R. Curtis, Thomas A. R. Nelson and Jeremiah S. Black (who resigned before the trial began). The trial began on March 13, 1868.[16]
As there was no contitutional provision at the time for filling an intra-term vacancy in the vice presidency (accomplished a century later by the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the office had been vacant since Johnson succeeded to the presidency. Due to this, the President pro tempore of the Senate, Benjamin Wade, who was among the Radical Republican leaders, would, under the Presidential succession act then in force and effect, become president if Johnson were removed from office. Indiana Senator Thomas Hendricks questioned Wade's impartiality and suggested that Wade abstain from voting. But Hendricks was persuaded to withdraw his objection a day later and leave the matter to Wade's own conscience. Subsequently, Wade voted for conviction.[17]
Chief Justice Chase, who was himself a Radical Republican, ruled that Johnson should be permitted to present evidence that Thomas's appointment to replace Secretary of War Edwin Stanton was intended to provide a test case to challenge the constitutionality of the Tenure of Office Act. The Senate, however, overruled Chase by a simple majority vote.[18]
Before the trial started Senator Benjamin Wade of Ohio made a surprise attempt on 28 February to add two reliably Radical members to the senate by gaining the admission of Colorado, over Johnson's anticipated veto, as a state. But Wade could not corral the necessary two-thirds majority to override Johnson's expected veto. The attempt, therefore, failed. A separate attempt was made just before the scheduled verdict vote in May to admit senators from selected Reconstruction states in order to add more reliably Radical members to the vote, but it was also unsuccessful.[19]
On the first day, Johnson's defense committee asked for forty days to collect evidence and witnesses since the prosecution had had a longer amount of time to do so, but only ten days were granted. The proceedings began on March 23. Senator Garrett Davis argued that because not all states were represented in the Senate the trial could not be held and that it should therefore be adjourned. The motion was voted down. After the charges against the president were made, Henry Stanbery asked for another thirty days to assemble evidence and summon witnesses, saying that in the ten days previously granted there had only been enough time to prepare the president's reply. John A. Logan argued that the trial should begin immediately and that Stanberry was only trying to stall for time. The request was turned down in a vote 41 to 12. However, the Senate voted the next day to give the defense six more days to prepare evidence, which was accepted.[20]
The trial commenced again on March 30. Benjamin F. Butler opened for the prosecution with a three-hour speech reviewing historical impeachment trials, dating from King John of England. For days Butler spoke out against Johnson's violations of the Tenure of Office Act and further charged that the president had issued orders directly to Army officers without sending them through General Grant. The defense argued that Johnson had not violated the Tenure of Office Act because President Lincoln did not reappoint Stanton as Secretary of War at the beginning of his second term in 1865 and that he was therefore a leftover appointment from the 1860 cabinet, which removed his protection by the Tenure of Office Act. The prosecution called several witnesses in the course of the proceedings until April 9, when they rested their case.[21]
Benjamin R. Curtis called attention to the fact that after the House passed the Tenure of Office Act, the Senate had amended it, meaning that it had to return it to a Senate–House conference committee to resolve the differences. He followed up by quoting the minutes of those meetings, which revealed that while the House members made no notes about the fact, their sole purpose was to keep Stanton in office, and the Senate had disagreed. The defense then called their first witness, Adjutant General Lorenzo Thomas. He did not provide adequate information in the defense's cause and Butler made attempts to use his information to the prosecution's advantage. The next witness was General William T. Sherman, who testified that President Johnson had offered to appoint Sherman to succeed Stanton as Secretary of War in order to ensure that the department was effectively administered. This testimony damaged the prosecution, which expected Sherman to testify that Johnson offered to appoint Sherman for the purpose of obstructing the operation, or overthrow, of the government. Sherman essentially affirmed that Johnson only wanted him to manage the department and not to execute directions to the military that would be contrary to the will of Congress.[22]
Acquittal[edit]
The Senate then had fifty-four members representing the twenty-seven states whose legislatures could then elect Senators; of these, thirty-six "guilty" votes were required to remove Johnson from office. On all three occasions, 35 Senators voted "guilty" and 19 "not guilty." As the Constitution requires a two-thirds majority for conviction in impeachment trials, Johnson was acquitted.
Seven Republican senators were concerned that the proceedings had been manipulated to give a one-sided presentation of the evidence. Senators William Pitt Fessenden (Maine), Joseph S. Fowler (Tennessee), James W. Grimes (Iowa), John B. Henderson (Missouri), Lyman Trumbull (Illinois), Peter G. Van Winkle (West Virginia),[23] and Edmund G. Ross (Kansas), who provided the decisive vote,[24] defied their party by voting against conviction. In addition to the above seven, three more Republicans James Dixon (Connecticut), James Doolittle (Wisconsin), and Daniel Norton (Minnesota) and all nine Democratic Senators voted not guilty.
On decision day, before the first vote was taken, Samuel Pomeroy, who was the senior senator from Kansas, told the junior Kansas Senator Ross that if Ross voted for acquittal that Ross would become the subject of an investigation for bribery.[25]
The first 35-to-19 vote was taken on 16 May for the eleventh article. In hopes of persuading at least one of the seven Republican acquittal senators to change his vote, the Senate adjourned for ten days to take a second vote on 26 May on the other articles. During the hiatus, under Butler's leadership, the House put through a resolution to investigate alleged "improper or corrupt means used to influence the determination of the Senate". But the pressure did not change any of the acquittal votes, with the result that the vote on 26 May was the same. After the trial, Ben Butler conducted hearings on the widespread reports that Republican senators had been bribed to vote for Johnson's acquittal. In Butler's hearings, and in subsequent inquiries, there was increasing evidence that some acquittal votes were acquired by promises of patronage jobs and cash cards. Nonetheless, the investigations never resulted in charges, much less convictions, against anyone.[26]
Moreover, there is evidence that the prosecution attempted to bribe the senators voting for acquittal to switch their votes to conviction. Maine Senator Fessenden was offered the Ministership to Great Britain. Prosecutor Butler said, "Tell [Kansas Senator Ross] that if he wants money there is a bushel of it here to be had."[27] Butler's investigation also boomeranged when it was discovered that Kansas Senator Pomeroy, who voted for conviction, had written a letter to Johnson's Postmaster General seeking a $40,000 bribe for Pomeroy's acquittal vote along with three or four others in his caucus.[28] Benjamin Butler was himself told by Ben Wade that Wade would appoint Butler as Secretary of State when Wade assumed the Presidency after a Johnson conviction.[29] An opinion that Senator Ross was mercilessly persecuted for his courageous vote to sustain the independence of the Presidency as a branch of the Federal Government is the subject of an entire chapter in President John F. Kennedy's book, Profiles in Courage.[30] That opinion has been rejected by some scholars, such as Ralph Roske, and endorsed by others, such as Avery Craven.[31][32]
Not one of the Republican senators who voted for acquittal ever again served in an elective office.[33] Although they were under intense pressure to change their votes to conviction during the trial, afterward public opinion rapidly shifted around to their viewpoint. Some senators who voted for conviction, such as John Sherman and even Charles Sumner, later changed their minds .[34][35][36]
Senate votes[edit]
State
Senator
Party
Article XI
May 16, 1868
Article II
May 26, 1868
Article III
May 26, 1868
Rhode Island Anthony R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Delaware Bayard D Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Pennsylvania Buckalew D Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Pennsylvania Cameron R Guilty Guilty Guilty
New Jersey Cattell R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Michigan Chandler R Guilty Guilty Guilty
California Cole R Guilty Guilty Guilty
New York Conkling R Guilty Guilty Guilty
California Conness R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Oregon Corbett R Guilty Guilty Guilty
New Hampshire Cragin R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Kentucky Davis D Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Connecticut Dixon R Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Wisconsin Doolittle R Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Missouri Drake R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Vermont Edmunds R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Connecticut Ferry R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Maine Fessenden R Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Tennessee Fowler R Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
New Jersey Frelinghuysen R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Iowa Grimes R Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Iowa Harlan R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Missouri Henderson R Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Indiana Hendricks D Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Michigan Howard R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Wisconsin Howe R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Maryland Johnson D Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Kentucky McCreery D Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
New York Morgan R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Vermont Morrill, J R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Maine Morrill, L R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Indiana Morton R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Minnesota Norton R Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Nevada Nye R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Tennessee Patterson, D D Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
New Hampshire Patterson, J R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Kansas Pomeroy R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Minnesota Ramsey R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Kansas Ross R Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Delaware Saulsbury D Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Ohio Sherman R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Rhode Island Sprague R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Nevada Stewart R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Massachusetts Sumner R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Nebraska Thayer R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Nebraska Tipton R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Illinois Trumbull R Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
West Virginia Van Winkle R Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Maryland Vickers D Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Ohio Wade R Guilty Guilty Guilty
West Virginia Willey R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Oregon Williams R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Massachusetts Wilson R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Illinois Yates R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Total Votes: Not Guilty: 19; Guilty: 35 Not Guilty: 19; Guilty: 35 Not Guilty: 19; Guilty: 35
Proposed abolition of the Presidency[edit]
Johnson's acquittal impelled some citizens of Boston and Roxbury, Massachusetts to submit a petition to Congress calling for the complete abolition of the Presidency. In it, the petitioners argued that only two forms of government exist: absolute monarchy and absolute democracy. They claimed that President Johnson had abused the powers of the Presidency, to which impeachment was the only corrective; the failure of impeachment in Johnson's case proved to the petitioners that the Presidency had grown too powerful and the only remaining solution was the abolition of the office. The petitioners proposed an amendment to the U.S. Constitution that abolished the Presidency and transferred the powers of the executive office to a body composed of members of Congress or "other competent citizens," chosen by Congress and supervised by a standing committee.[37]
Later review of Johnson's impeachment[edit]
Impeachment of Andrew Johnson.
In 1887, the Tenure of Office Act was repealed by Congress, and subsequent rulings by the United States Supreme Court seemed to support Johnson's position that he was entitled to fire Stanton without Congressional approval. The Supreme Court's ruling on a similar piece of later legislation in the 1926 Myers v. United States affirmed the ability of the president to remove a postmaster without Congressional approval, and stated in its majority opinion "that the Tenure of Office Act of 1867...was invalid."[38]
Lyman Trumbull of Illinois, one of the seven Republican Senators whose refusal to vote for conviction prevented Johnson's removal from office, noted, in the speech he gave explaining his vote for acquittal, that had Johnson been convicted, the main source of the President's political power—the freedom not to agree with the Congress without consequences—would have been destroyed, and the Constitution's system of checks and balances along with it:
Once set the example of impeaching a President for what, when the excitement of the hour shall have subsided, will be regarded as insufficient causes, as several of those now alleged against the President were decided to be by the House of Representatives only a few months since, and no future President will be safe who happens to differ with a majority of the House and two thirds of the Senate on any measure deemed by them important, particularly if of a political character. Blinded by partisan zeal, with such an example before them, they will not scruple to remove out of the way any obstacle to the accomplishment of their purposes, and what then becomes of the checks and balances of the Constitution, so carefully devised and so vital to its perpetuity? They are all gone.
See also[edit]
Impeachment of Bill Clinton
Impeachment process against Richard Nixon
List of federal political scandals in the United States
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Burlingame, Michael. "Abraham Lincoln: Domestic Affairs". Charlottesville, Virginia: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Retrieved April 14, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Whittington, Keith E. (March 2000). "Bill Clinton Was No Andrew Johnson: Comparing Two Impeachments" (PDF). Journal of Constitutional Law. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania. 2 (2): 422–465. Retrieved April 14, 2018.
Jump up ^ Trefousse, Hans L. (1989). Andrew Johnson: A Biography. New York City: W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 193–213. ISBN 978-0-393-31742-8.
Jump up ^ Trefousse, Hans L. (1989). Andrew Johnson: A Biography. New York City: W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 234–254. ISBN 978-0-393-31742-8.
Jump up ^ Varon, Elizabeth R. "Andrew Johnson: Domestic Affairs". Charlottesville, Virginia: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Retrieved April 14, 2018.
Jump up ^ Chernow, Ron (2017). Grant. New York: Penguin Press. p. 594. ISBN 978-1-5942-0487-6.
Jump up ^ Trefousse, Hans L. (1989). Andrew Johnson: A Biography. New York City: W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 275–299. ISBN 978-0-393-31742-8.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson (1868) President of the United States". Washington, D.C.: Historical Office, United States Senate. Retrieved April 13, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Burg, Robert (2012). Manweller, Mathew, ed. Chronology of the U.S. Presidency [4 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 545. ISBN 978-1-59884-645-4.
Jump up ^ White, Ronald C. (2016). American Ulysses: A Life of Ulysses S. Grant. Random House Publishing Group. p. 453. ISBN 978-1-5883-6992-5.
Jump up ^ Chernow, Ron (2017). Grant. New York: Penguin Press. p. 603. ISBN 978-1-5942-0487-6.
Jump up ^ White, Ronald C. (2016). American Ulysses: A Life of Ulysses S. Grant. Random House Publishing Group. pp. 454–455. ISBN 978-1-5883-6992-5.
Jump up ^ Trefousse, Hans L. (1989). Andrew Johnson: A Biography. New York City: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 306. ISBN 978-0-393-31742-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Glass, Andrew (February 24, 2015). "House votes to impeach Andrew Johnson, February 24, 1868". www.politico.com. Retrieved April 24, 2018.
Jump up ^ Brockett, L. P. (1872). Men of our day; or, Biographical sketches of patriots, orators, statesmen, generals, reformers, financiers and merchants, now on the stage of action: including those who in military, political, business and social life, are the prominent leaders of the time in this country. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Zeigler, McCurdy. p. 502 – via Internet Archive, 2009.
Jump up ^ "President Andrew Johnson impeached - Feb 24, 1868 - HISTORY.com". Retrieved 2016-06-23.
Jump up ^ Gene Davis "High Crimes and Misdemeanors" (New York: Morrow, 1977), 242; Curt Anders "Powerlust: Radicalism in the Civil War Era" p. 494; Eric Foner "Reconstruction,"p. 336
Jump up ^ Neal Q. Herrick (2009). After Patrick Henry: A Second American Revolution. p. 207.
Jump up ^ Elmer Ellis, "Colorado's First Fight for Statehood, 1865–1868," The Colorado Magazine, 8 (January, 1931), 23–30
Jump up ^ Committee on the Judiciary; House of Representatives; Ninety-third Congress; Second Session (1974). Impeachment: Selected Materials on Procedure. U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 104–5.
Jump up ^ David O. Stewart (2009). Impeached: The Trial of President Andrew Johnson and the Fight for Lincoln's Legacy. Simon and Schuster. pp. 207–12.
Jump up ^ Stewart. Impeached: The Trial of President Andrew Johnson and the Fight for Lincoln's Legacy. p. 231.
Jump up ^ "Andrew Johnson Trial: The Consciences of Seven Republicans Save Johnson."
Jump up ^ "The Trial of Andrew Johnson, 1868."
Jump up ^ Curt Anders "Powerlust: Radicalism in the Civil War Era" p. 531
Jump up ^ Stewart, Impeached (2009), pp. 240–249, 284–299.
Jump up ^ Gene Davis High Crimes and Misdemeanors (New York: William Morrow & Company, 1977), 266–7, 290–1
Jump up ^ Curt Anders "Powerlust: Radicalism in the Civil War Era," p. 532-3
Jump up ^ Eric McKitrick "Andrew Johnson" (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 507–8
Jump up ^ John F. Kennedy "Profiles in Courage" (New York: Harper Brothers, 1961), 115–39
Jump up ^ Avery Craven "Reconstruction" (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969), 221
Jump up ^ Ralph J. Roske, "The Seven Martyrs?." American Historical Review 64.2 (1959): 323–330. in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Hodding Carter "The Angry Scar" (New York: Doubleday, 1959), 143
Jump up ^ Kenneth Stampp "Reconstruction" (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1965), 153
Jump up ^ Chester Hearn "The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson" (Jefferson, N. C.: McFarland, 2000), 202
Jump up ^ Avery Craven "Reconstruction" (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969), 221
Jump up ^ "Memorial Regarding the Abolition of the Presidency". National Archives Catalog. Center for Legislative Archives, National Archives and Records Administration.
Jump up ^ MYERS v. UNITED STATES, Findlaw | Cases and Codes
Further reading[edit]
Benedict, Michael Les. "A New Look at the Impeachment of Andrew Johnson," Political Science Quarterly, Sep 1973, Vol. 88 Issue 3, pp 349–367 in JSTOR
Benedict, Michael Les. The impeachment and trial of Andrew Johnson (1973), 212pp; the standard scholarly history online edition
DeWitt, David M. The impeachment and trial of Andrew Johnson (1903), old monograph online edition
McKitrick, Eric L. Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction (1960) influential analysis
Rable, George C. "Forces of Darkness, Forces of Light: The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson and the Paranoid Style," Southern Studies 1978, Vol. 17 Issue 2, pp 151–173
Sefton, James E. "The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson: A Century of Writing," Civil War History, June 1968, Vol. 14 Issue 2, pp 120–147
Sigelman, Lee, Christopher J. Deering, and Burdett A. Loomis. "Wading Knee Deep in Words, Words, Words": Senatorial Rhetoric in the Johnson and Clinton Impeachment Trials." Congress & the Presidency 28#2 (2001) pp 119–139.
Stathis, Stephen W. "Impeachment and Trial of President Andrew Johnson: A View from the Iowa Congressional Delegation," Presidential Studies Quarterly Vol. 24, No. 1, (Winter, 1994), pp. 29–47 in JSTOR
Stewart, David O. Impeached: The Trial of President Andrew Johnson and the Fight for Lincoln's Legacy (2009)
Trefousse, Hans L. "The Acquittal of Andrew Johnson and the Decline of the Radicals," Civil War History, June 1968, Vol. 14 Issue 2, pp 148–161
Trefousse, Hans L. Andrew Johnson: A Biography (1989) major scholarly biography excerpt and text search
Trefousse, Hans L. Impeachment of a President: Andrew Johnson, the Blacks, and Reconstruction (1999)
External links[edit]
The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson, exerpts from 1865–1869 Harper's Weekly articles along with other information (a HarpWeek website)
Andrew Johnson Impeachment Trial (1868), essay and other resources, www.famous-trials.com, University of Missouri-Kansas City Law School
Interview with William Rehnquist on Grand Inquests: The Historic Impeachments of Justice Samuel Chase and President Andrew Johnson, 1992, Booknotes, C-SPAN
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Impeachment_of_Andrew_Johnson&oldid=838431302"
Categories:
1868 in the United States
United States presidential history
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St. Pauli Girl
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This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (December 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
St Pauli Girl
Location
Bremen, Germany
Owned by
Constellation Brands
Active beers
Name
Type
St Pauli Girl Lager Pilsner
St Pauli Girl Special Dark Dark lager
St Pauli Girl NA Non-Alcoholic
St. Pauli Girl beers are brewed and bottled by the St. Pauli Brauerei, which is located within the Beck's brewery in Bremen, Germany.
The brand derives its name from the fact that the original brewery, which was established in 1857 by Lüder Rutenberg, was located next to the former St. Paul's Friary (de) in Bremen. There are currently three brands of beer brewed: St. Pauli Girl Lager, St. Pauli Girl Special Dark and St. Pauli Non-Alcoholic Malt Beverage. The beer is only produced for export and is not sold in Germany.
St Pauli Girl, like many German breweries, advertises that they brew all of their beers according to the Reinheitsgebot (German purity law) of 1516, even though they use culture yeast as an ingredient, which is not allowed by the 1516 law. The distinctive label depicting a woman wearing traditional outfits was introduced in the 19th century with the advent of the bottled beer. The local artist commissioned for the label drew his inspiration from the waitresses at the time.
St Pauli Girl's Beers were first introduced into select US markets in 1965. National Distribution began in 1975. St. Pauli Non-Alcoholic was first sold in the United States in 1991. The St Pauli Girl website claims that their beer is the number two selling German beer in the United States.[1]
St Pauli Girl spokesmodels[edit]
St. Pauli Girl beer bottle
Since 1982, St. Pauli Girl Beer has chosen a model to represent the beer brand nationally each year and appear on the popular St. Pauli Girl poster.
1977 The first year of St Pauli Girls Spokesmodel campaign
1984 Gail Star Smith
1988 Jennifer Fabello
1989 Jennifer Fabello
1990 Felice Schachter
1991 Katie Vogt
1998 Teresa Politi
1999 Playboy magazine's Playmate of the month January 1999 Jaime Bergman[2]
2000 Playboy magazine's Playmate of the month August 1998 Angela Little
2001 Playboy magazine's Playmate of the month March 1994 Neriah Davis[2]
2002 Playboy magazine's Playmate of the month January 1998 Heather Kozar[2]
2003 Playboy magazine's Playmate of the month July 1998 Lisa Dergan[2]
2004 Icelandic model and actress Berglind Icey
2005 Playboy magazine's Playmate of the month February 1999 Stacy Fuson
2006 model Brittany Evans
2007 model and actress Bobbi Sue Luther
2008 Playboy magazine's Playmate of the month January 2001 Irina Voronina
2009 Slovak model Katarina Van Derham[3][4]
2010 Katarina Van Derham
2011 American Model/Actress Jen England
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "St. Pauli Girl: Breaking News". St. Pauli Girl Official Website.
^ Jump up to: a b c d ABC News. "Mascots Vie to Be No. 1 Ad Icon". Retrieved 12 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "Model Katarina Van Derham Takes Oath as 2009 St. Pauli Girl". Crown Imports. PR Newswire. 13 January 2009. Retrieved 15 January 2009.
Jump up ^ Hein, Kenneth (14 January 2009). "Important breaking news: A new St. Pauli Girl has been chosen!". BrandFreak.com. Retrieved 15 January 2009.
External links[edit]
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Papaya ringspot virus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Papaya ringspot virus (PRSV)
Symptoms of PRSV on Papaya tree (a) and fruit (b)
Virus classification
Group: Group IV ((+)ssRNA)
Order: Unassigned
Family: Potyviridae
Genus: Potyvirus
Species: Papaya ringspot virus
Synonyms
Papaya ringspot potyvirus
Papaya distortion mosaic virus
Papaya leaf distortion virus
Papaw distortion ringspot virus
Papaw mosaic virus
Watermelon mosaic virus 1
Papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) is a pathogenic plant virus[1] in the genus Potyvirus and the virus family Potyviridae which primarily infects the papaya tree.
The virus is a non-enveloped, flexous rod-shaped particle that is between 760–800 nm long and 12 nm in diameter. It is transmitted between plants by mechanical activities like pruning and by numerous aphid species such as Myzus persicae. No seed transmission has been detected.[2]
There are two major types of this virus that are serologically indistinguishable and are so closely genetically related that they are now considered the same virus species. The type that gave the virus its name are the Type P isolates (PRSV-P). This type infects papaya and several members of the melon family (Cucurbitaceae). The other type, Type W isolates (PRSV-W), does not infect papaya. Isolates of PRSV-W do infect cucurbits such as watermelon, cucumber, and squash and were originally known as Watermelon mosaic virus 1.[3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Distribution and origin
3 PRSV-P
4 PRSV-W
5 Vectors
6 Control
6.1 Cross protection
6.2 Transgenics
6.3 Deregulation
6.4 Durability of resistance
7 Economic impact
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
Hawaiian papaya production has been severely affected twice by PRSV. The virus was introduced to Oahu as early as 1937.[5] The disease was mild for a number of years until it either mutated or a more aggressive strain was introduced around 1950. Within 12 years, the amount of land under papaya production dropped 94%. Production was then moved from Oahu to the Puna region of Hawaii island (the "Big Island") under strict quarantine. In 1971 PRSV was found in home gardens but efforts were taken to prevent its spread. The virus emerged in commercial farms in 1992 and by 1995 production in Puna was impossible. Commercial growers again relocated to the Hamakua coast but with only limited success. Hawaiian papaya production was halved by the end of the decade. Transgenic papaya varieties that are resistant to PRSV entered production in 1998 and resuscitated the industry.[6]
Distribution and origin[edit]
Both pathotypes are distributed worldwide. PRSV-P, for example, is known to be present in the Middle East, Africa, South and Central American. It has also been found in China, France, Germany, India, Italy, Mexico, Taiwan, and the United States. PRSV-W isolates have been found in the United States, the Caribbean, Mexico, Italy, Germany, Australia, France, India, the Middle East, and South America.
Using genetic phylogeny studies, researchers suspect the virus originated in Asia, likely India, about 2,250 years ago. From there it slowly spread through the continent reaching China about 600 years ago. It was also introduced directly from India to Australia and the Americas within the last 300 years. Papayas were introduced to India only 500 years ago, at which point the virus made the jump from cucurbits. However, the virus has switched back and forth between pathotypes many times in its evolution.[7]
PRSV-P[edit]
Symptoms are typical of viral diseases. Papaya exhibits yellowing, leaf distortion, and severe mosaic. Oily or water-soaked spots and streaks appear on the trunk and petioles. The fruit will exhibit bumps and the classic "ringspot". A severe isolate of PRSV has also been shown to cause tissue necrosis.[8] Cucurbit symptoms tend to be similar to papaya symptoms including blisters, mosaic, yellowing, and leaf distortions.[9]
This virus produces two types of inclusion bodies visible under a light microscope with proper staining of epidemal strips.[10] One inclusion is the typical cylidrical inclusion (CI) which is considered diagnostic for the potyvirus group, and the other is called the amorphous inclusion (AI). The presence of both inclusions can be diagnostic for this virus.[11]
PRSV-W[edit]
In squash, watermelon and other cucurbits, PRSV-W causes mottling and distortion of leaves and fruit.[12] PRSV-W is considered to be one of the limiting factors in the growing of cucurbits in Florida.[13]
PRSV-W should not be confused with Watermelon mosaic virus 2, another potyvirus that infects cucurbits around the world, including Florida, and which is now known simply as Watermelon mosaic virus (WMV). PRSV has a different host range, different serological properties, and no nucleotide sequence homology with WMV.[14] WMV also has different cytoplasmic inclusion bodies that can differentiate it from PRSV-W.[15]
Polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies have been made for both of the CI and AI proteins as well as for the capsid protein of PRSV-W.[16]
Vectors[edit]
Aphids are the predominant means by which PRSV is transmitted. PRSV is a non-persistent virus, meaning it does not enter beyond the feeding mouthparts of the aphid, and does not circulate or multiply within its insect host. Non-persistent viruses are transmitted quickly and easily between plants. Many species of aphid can transmit PRSV, particularly the Peach Aphid and Melon Aphid.[17]
Seed transmission has been observed at rates of 2 infected second generation plants out of 1355.[18] This method of transmission is marginal compared to transmission through aphid vectors.[19] However, if infected seed survives, it could then function as a source on inoculum, which then could be spread by insect vectors.
Disease transmission can also occur by planting infected seedlings in fields where the virus is not present. Using "clean", virus-free seedlings for planting is of very high importance.
Control[edit]
There is no known resistance to PRSV, although certain varieties are more symptomatic than others.[20] There are four main methods of control for PRSV: quarantine and geographic displacement, roguing and netting, cross-protection, and genetic modification of the host plant. Because PRSV is a non-persistent virus and is consequently transmitted to healthy plants by aphids within a very short time period, insecticidal control is difficult and impractical. Once symptoms have been observed, it is already too late to spray for aphids – the disease has most likely already been transmitted to nearby healthy plants. In order to implement successful vector control, frequent preventative sprays are required, which is rarely done.
Prevention through quarantine and geographic displacement of cropland is common and has occurred in Hawaii, the Philippines and Brazil.[19][20] When fields become infected, such as the case of Oahu papaya growers, attempts to relocate growing areas to virus-free fields are made. This is usually just a temporary avoidance of the disease, which eventually spreads to the new fields.
Roguing, or the removal and destruction of infected plants, is a way to control the spread of PRSV. This method was employed unsuccessfully when PRSV began to invade the Puna region of Hawaii. It is difficult to suppress the spread of PRSV through rouging because it is spread very quickly and effectively by aphids.
Netting can also be used to prevent insect vectors from spreading the virus. Production under netting is prohibitively expensive for subsistence and small-scale producers,[20] but was used effectively in Taiwan because geographical displacement was not possible on such a small island.[21]
Cross protection[edit]
Cross protection is similar in practice, although not in mode of action, to viral vaccinations in humans. A mild strain of PRSV is introduced into the host plant, which then develops resistance to virulent strains of the virus. Development of cross-protection in papaya was researched in Hawaii starting in 1979. A delay in the onset of symptoms was achieved, as well as a reduction in the severity of symptoms. However, inoculation of the mild strain also caused pathogenesis on the papaya plants.[19]
Transgenics[edit]
There are two transgenic varieties of papaya, both of which were created by Dennis Gonsalves[22] and his team and were introduced for production in May 1, 1998.[23] Rainbow (created by Dennis Gonsalves[22]) is an F1 hybrid, which is a cross between the yellow fleshed Kapoho and the red-fleshed SunUp.[24] Rainbow is produced on 76% of Hawaiian papaya acreage, while SunUp is hardly grown commercially. SunUp is thought to be more resistant to exotic strains of PRSV, while Rainbow has shown susceptibility to such exotic strains of the virus.[20] Transgenic varieties have been shown to be extremely effective against Hawaiian strains of PRSV, showing complete resistance to the virus compared to 100% infection of susceptible strains in some trials.[25]
Pathogen-derived resistance (PDR) is the technique of inserting a gene fragment from the pathogen into the transgenic crop, which then affords the crop plant resistance against the pathogen. This method was employed in the development of transgenic papaya. PRSV's coat protein gene was inserted into highly embryogenic plant tissue by using the newly invented gene gun, which led to the development of the transgenic line 55-1, which was proven to be effective at controlling Hawaiian strains of PRSV.
Deregulation[edit]
The evaluation of whether or not to release transgenic papaya in the United States was undertaken by APHIS, the EPA and the FDA. This incident was unique in that transgenic crops are usually developed and promoted by commercial operations, while transgenic papaya and the case for deregulation was adopted by University of Hawaii researchers. The university was highly motivated to help save the Hawaiian papaya industry, and consequently took a leading role in pushing for commercialization of the fruit.[19]
Japan is 20% of Hawaii's export market. Japan had been resistant to approve GMO papaya since its introduction in 1998. As of 2011, the Rainbow transgenic papaya has been approved for export to Japan.[24]
Durability of resistance[edit]
So far in Hawaii, there has been no breakdown of the coat protein resistance encoded in transgenic strains of papaya. Exposure to foreign strains of the virus is a serious risk, as Rainbow papayas have been shown to be susceptible to PRSV from Guam, Taiwan and Thailand.[20][26]
Economic impact[edit]
In Hawaii, PRSV has had dramatic effects. Between 1992 and 1997, nearly all fields in the Puna region had been affected.[19] This is a local industry worth $11 million annually.[27]
Papaya is grown for personal consumption by small subsistence farmers in parts of Southeast Asia, with small surpluses sold at market. PRSV is the biggest constraint to papaya production in the Philippines. In 1994, PRSV damage had destroyed 60 million pesos worth of papaya production in the Southern Tagalog area, and had reduced production levels by 80%.[20]
Brazil accounts for nearly half of global output, with India second and Nigeria third in worldwide production.[28] Dramatic geographical shifts of production to avoid PRSV have been common. For example, between 1973 and 1984, papaya production moved substantially in Brazil away from Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo to the northern states of Espirito Santo and Bahia.[19] As with the case of Hawaii, PRSV generally catches up to the industry’s movements over time. The total economic costs of such redistributive costs are unknown, but likely significant.
Backlash against GMO papaya has resulted in surreptitious destruction of papaya plantations under the cover of darkness. In some cases, farmers have lost up to $15,000 worth of papaya trees.[27]
See also[edit]
Viruses portal
List of papaya diseases
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "About Plant Viruses".
Jump up ^ "Description of Plant Viruses: Papaya ringspot virus".
Jump up ^ Webb; Scott (1965). "Isolation and identification of watermelon on mosaic viruses 1 and 2". Phytopathology. 55: 895–900.
Jump up ^ Purcifull, D.E.; Hiebert, E. (1979). "Serological Distinction of Watermelon Mosaic Virus Isolates" (PDF). Phytopathology. American Phytopathological Society. 69 (2): 112–116. doi:10.1094/phyto-69-112.
Jump up ^ Parris, G.K. (1938) A new disease of papaya in Hawaii. Proc. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 36, 263–265.
Jump up ^ Tripathi, S.; Suzuki, J. N. Y.; Ferreira, S. A.; Gonsalves, D. (2008). "Papaya ringspot virus-P: Characteristics, pathogenicity, sequence variability and control". Molecular Plant Pathology. 9 (3): 269–280. doi:10.1111/j.1364-3703.2008.00467.x. PMID 18705869.
Jump up ^ Olarte Castillo, X. A.; Fermin, G.; Tabima, J.; Rojas, Y.; Tennant, P. F.; Fuchs, M.; Sierra, R.; Bernal, A. J.; Restrepo, S. (2011). "Phylogeography and molecular epidemiology of Papaya ringspot virus". Virus Research. 159 (2): 132–140. doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2011.04.011. PMID 21549774.
Jump up ^ Gonsalves, D.; Tripathi, S.; Carr, J.B.; Suzuki, J.Y. (2010). "Papaya Ringspot virus". The Plant Health Instructor. American Phytopathological Society. doi:10.1094/PHI-I-2010-1004-01.
Jump up ^ Dahal, G.; Lecoq, H.; Albrechtsen, S. E. (1997). "Occurrence of papaya ringspot potyvirus and cucurbit viruses in Nepal". Annals of Applied Biology. 130 (3): 491. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7348.1997.tb07677.x.
Jump up ^ "The Plant Viruses of Florida and their Inclusions".
Jump up ^ "Inclusions of PRSV".
Jump up ^ "Papaya Ringspot virus in Squash".
Jump up ^ Webb, S.; Hiebert, E.; Kucharek, T.A. (2003). "Identity and distribution of viruses infecting cucurbits in Florida". 93 (S1). American Phytopathological Society: 89. doi:10.1094/PHYTO.2003.93.6.S1.
Jump up ^ "Description of Plant Viruses: Watermelon mosaic virus 2".
Jump up ^ "Cylindrical Inclusions of Watermelon Mosaic virus".
Jump up ^ Baker, C.A.; Lecoq, H.; Purcifull, D.E. (1991). "Serological and Biological Variability Among Papaya Ringspot Virus Type-W Isolated in Florida" (PDF). Phytopathology. 81 (7): 722–728. doi:10.1094/phyto-81-722.
Jump up ^ Heu R.A.; Nagata N.M.; Fukada M.T.; Yonahara B.Y. (May 2002). Papaya Ringspot Virus Established on Maui (PDF) (Report). Hawaii Department of Agriculture.
Jump up ^ Bayot, R. G., Villegas, V. N., Magdalita, P. M., Jovellana, M. D., Espino, T. M., & Exconde, S. B. (1990). Seed transmissibility of papaya ringspot virus. Philippine Journal of Crop Science, 15(2), 107–111.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Gonsalves, D. (1998). "CONTROL OF PAPAYA RINGSPOT VIRUS IN PAPAYA: A Case Study". Annual Review of Phytopathology. 36: 415–437. doi:10.1146/annurev.phyto.36.1.415. PMID 15012507.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Papaya Ringspot Virus-Resistant (PRVR) Papaya "Why genetically engineer virus resistance into papaya?" Fact Sheet (PDF) (Report). USAID, ABSP & Cornell University. September 10, 2004.
Jump up ^ Fuller G.B. (2005). Use and Regulation of Genetically Modified Organisms (PDF) (Report). Asian Productivity Organization. pp. 31–21. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-11-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "The man behind the Rainbow - Biology Fortified, Inc". Biology Fortified, Inc. 2012-06-21. Retrieved 2017-08-07.
Jump up ^ sss253 (2015-11-02). "Dennis Gonsalves: Public Sector Hero". Cornell Alliance for Science. Retrieved 2017-08-07.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hawaii Grown Papayas".
Jump up ^ Ferreira, S. A.; Pitz, K. Y.; Manshardt, R.; Zee, F.; Fitch, M.; Gonsalves, D. (2002). "Virus Coat Protein Transgenic Papaya Provides Practical Control ofPapaya ringspot virusin Hawaii". Plant Disease. 86 (2): 101. doi:10.1094/PDIS.2002.86.2.101.
Jump up ^ Tennant, P. F. (1994). "Differential Protection Against Papaya Ringspot Virus Isolates in Coat Protein Gene Transgenic Papaya and Classically Cross-Protected Papaya". Phytopathology. 84 (11): 1359–1366. doi:10.1094/Phyto-84-1359.
^ Jump up to: a b Kelleher J.S. (August 21, 2011). "Hawaii's geneticially modified papayas attacked". The Maui News. Archived from the original on March 6, 2012.
Jump up ^ Sarris, Alexander (2003). Medium-term prospects for agricultural commodities: projections to the year 2010 (Vol. 1). Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). p. 118. ISBN 92-5-105077-5.
External links[edit]
Description of Plant Viruses: Papaya ringspot virus
Plant Viruses Online:Papaya ringspot virus
Plant viruses Online:Watermelon mosaic virus 1
ICTVdB - The Universal Virus Database:Papaya ringspot potyvirus
ICTVdB - The Universal Virus Database: Watermelon mosaic virus 1
Family Groups - The Baltimore Method
Crop Knowledge Master: Papaya ringspot virus (P strain)
American Phytopathological Society: Papaya Ringspot Virus
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q7132538
EoL: 540306
EPPO: PRSV00
NCBI: 12205
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Papaya_ringspot_virus&oldid=832026488"
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Viral plant pathogens and diseases
Potyviruses
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Luke Cage (season 2)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Luke Cage (season 2)
Starring
Mike Colter
Simone Missick
Rosario Dawson
Alfre Woodard
Theo Rossi
Mustafa Shakir
Gabrielle Dennis
Country of origin
United States
Release
Original network
Netflix
Season chronology
← Previous
Season 1
List of Luke Cage episodes
The second season of the American web television series Luke Cage, which is based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name, sees Cage become a hero and celebrity in Harlem after clearing his name, only to face a new threat. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the films and other television series of the franchise. The season was produced by Marvel Television in association with ABC Studios, with Cheo Hodari Coker serving as showrunner.
Mike Colter stars as Cage, alongside returning principal cast members Simone Missick, Rosario Dawson, Alfre Woodard, and Theo Rossi. They are joined by Mustafa Shakir and Gabrielle Dennis. The second season was ordered in December 2016, and filmed in New York City from June to November, 2017.
The season is set to premiere June 22, 2018.
Contents
[hide]
1 Episodes
2 Cast and characters
2.1 Main
2.2 Notable guests
3 Production
3.1 Development
3.2 Writing
3.3 Casting
3.4 Filming
3.5 Music
4 Release
5 References
6 External links
Episodes[edit]
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title [a]
Directed by
Written by
Original release date [2]
14
1 "Soul Brother #1"[3] Lucy Liu Cheo Hodari Coker June 22, 2018 (2018-06-22)
15
2 "Straighten It Out"[4] Steph Green Akela Cooper June 22, 2018 (2018-06-22)
16
3 "Wig Out"[5] Marc Jobst Matt Owens June 22, 2018 (2018-06-22)
17
4 "I Get Physical"[6] Salli Richardson-Whitfield Matthew Lopes June 22, 2018 (2018-06-22)
18
5 "All Souled Out"[7] Kasi Lemmons Ian Stokes June 22, 2018 (2018-06-22)
19
6 "The Basement"[8] Millicent Shelton Aïda Mashaka Croal June 22, 2018 (2018-06-22)
Jump up ^ Each episode is named after a Pete Rock & CL Smooth song[1]
Neema Barnette directed an episode in the season.[9]
Cast and characters[edit]
Main article: List of Luke Cage characters
Main[edit]
Mike Colter as Luke Cage[10]
Simone Missick as Mercedes "Misty" Knight[10]
Rosario Dawson as Claire Temple[10]
Alfre Woodard as Mariah Dillard[10]
Theo Rossi as Hernan "Shades" Alvarez[10]
Mustafa Shakir as John McIver[10]
Gabrielle Dennis as Tilda Johnson[10]
Notable guests[edit]
Thomas Q. Jones as Comanche[11]
Finn Jones as Danny Rand / Iron Fist[12]
Reg E. Cathey as James Lucas[13]
Danny Johnson as Benjamin Donovan[14][15]
Production[edit]
Development[edit]
In January 2015, Netflix CCO Ted Sarandos stated the series was "eligible to go into multiple seasons for sure" and Netflix would look at "how well [they] are addressing both the Marvel fanbase but also the broader fanbase" in terms of determining if additional seasons would be appropriate.[16] In July 2015, Sarandos said some of the Defenders series would "selectively have multiple seasons as they come out of the gate."[17] Regarding a second season, showrunner Cheo Hodari Coker stated he had "a few ideas", including possibly exploring the "Hero for Hire" aspect of Luke Cage, though noted he was not taking "any of this for granted" in terms of feeling a second season renewal from Netflix was guaranteed.[18] Actor Mike Colter also felt "Heroes for Hire" could be explored in future seasons, as well as further exploring Cage's lifestyle change regarding his relationship with Jessica Jones and introducing the couple's daughter.[19] In December 2016, Netflix renewed the series for a second season,[20] of 13 episodes.[21]
Coker compared the season to A Tribe Called Quest's second album The Low End Theory saying, their first album People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm "was great, but then Low End Theory was the record that everyone says ... when they think of A Tribe Called Quest taking it to the next level. That’s my hope for season 2, is that we have some of the similar sounds, but we go in a deeper direction." Coker also noted that music would continue to be an important element for the season and that Harlem would still be "at the heart and its center" for the series.[22]
Writing[edit]
In July 2017, Colter said the writing for the season was different from the first, because "we know the show now. We know the world that we’re in and we know sort of what works and what doesn’t work and we’re just gonna double down on that stuff, so look forward to a very exciting and very relevant and pop culture-heavy show."[23] He added that after the first season and the crossover miniseries The Defenders, Cage would have "a whole new outlook on life" and would not be dealing with the judicial system anymore.[24] Coker explained that the storyline for the season did not come from any particular iteration of the comics, and instead was based on the characters that appear: "who is Luke Cage and getting much deeper into that, but also finding out different things about Mariah Dillard, also finding out things about Misty Knight," including getting her mechanical arm "and what that entails from an emotional standpoint." In particular, the new villains introduced for the season and their abilities impacted the story in terms of "what that represents against Luke".[25] Each episode of the season is named after a Pete Rock & CL Smooth song,[1] just as Coker named each episode of the first season after a Gang Starr song.[26]
Casting[edit]
Colter returns to star as Cage,[27] along with Simone Missick as Misty Knight,[10] Rosario Dawson as Claire Temple,[28] Alfre Woodard as Mariah Dillard,[10] and Theo Rossi as Hernan "Shades" Alvarez.[29] In July 2017, Marvel announced the casting of Mustafa Shakir as John McIver, and Gabrielle Dennis as Tilda Johnson.[10]
Thomas Q. Jones and Danny Johnson also reprise their roles as Comanche and Benjamin Donovan in the season.[11][14] In October 2017, it was revealed that Finn Jones would be reprising his role as Danny Rand / Iron Fist in the season.[12] Colter explained that there had been interest from fans to see more of the previously established relationship between Cage and Jessica Jones, but for this season they "went out on a limb" and decided to give to the fans of the "Heroes for Hire" instead by having Cage and Rand team up for part of the season. He added that Finn Jones "will bring some fresh blood in the new season".[30] Following the death of Reg E. Cathey in February 2018, Marvel revealed that his final performance was as Luke Cage's father James Lucas in this season.[13] The character appeared briefly in the first season portrayed by an unnamed actor.[31]
In March 2018, Annabella Sciorra was announced to have been cast in the "key role" of Rosalie Carbone.[32] The next month, Antonique Smith joined the cast as Detective Nandi Tyler, a longtime rival of Misty Knight.[14]
Filming[edit]
Principal photography began by June 10, 2017,[28][27] under the series' working title Tiara.[27] Production wrapped that November.[33]
Music[edit]
Coker wanted to have live musical performances in the season again after the first, and hoped that some musicians who had turned him down for the first season would be happy to join the second after getting to see the series.[34] In July 2017, Colter said that the second season would have "another feel to it" in terms of the music, praising the season's musical guests and explaining that he and Coker had chosen a "certain type" of music for the season after listening to it at a birthday party and agreeing that there had "not been one bad song" played.[24] Coker later explained that the season would explore the roots of hip-hop with blues and reggae, after the first season introduced hip-hop to the MCU. He added that the season would explore "the entire diaspora of black music" along with different cultures.[25]
Release[edit]
The second season of Luke Cage is set to be released on June 22, 2018,[2] on the streaming service Netflix worldwide,[20] in Ultra HD 4K and high dynamic range.[35]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Gracie, Bianca (March 7, 2018). "Luke Cage Season 2 Episodes Are Named After Pete Rock & CL Smooth Songs". Complex. Archived from the original on March 28, 2018. Retrieved March 28, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Brockington, Ariana (March 6, 2018). "Marvel's 'Luke Cage' Season 2 Gets Premiere Date, Teaser Trailer (Watch)". Variety. Archived from the original on March 6, 2018. Retrieved March 6, 2018.
Jump up ^ Coker, Cheo Hodari [@cheo_coker] (March 26, 2018). ""Soul Brother #1" Written by Cheo Hodari Coker. Directed by @LucyLiu . 13 weeks out from Season Two dropping, so every coming week I'll reveal the Pete Rock & CL Smooth song title, the writer, and the director. We good?" (Tweet). Retrieved March 28, 2018 – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ Coker, Cheo Hodari [@cheo_coker] (April 2, 2018). "Episode 2 : "Straighten It Out" Written by @AkelaCooper. Directed by Steph Green" (Tweet). Retrieved April 3, 2018 – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ Coker, Cheo Hodari [@cheo_coker] (April 6, 2018). "Episode 3: "Wig Out" Written by Matt Owens. Directed by Marc Jobst" (Tweet). Retrieved April 6, 2018 – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ Coker, Cheo Hodari [@cheo_coker] (April 13, 2018). "Episode 4 : I Get Physical. Written by Matthew Lopes. Directed by Salli Richardson Whitfield" (Tweet). Retrieved April 14, 2018 – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ Coker, Cheo Hodari [@cheo_coker] (April 19, 2018). "Episode 5: All Souled Out. Written by Ian Stokes. Directed by Kasi Lemmons" (Tweet). Retrieved April 20, 2018 – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ Coker, Cheo Hodari [@cheo_coker] (April 19, 2018). "Episode 6: The Basement. Written by Aida Mashaka Croal. Directed by Milicent Shelton" (Tweet). Retrieved April 20, 2018 – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ Rivera, Brittany (April 8, 2018). "Luke Cage Season 2 Adds More Female Directors". Screen Rant. Archived from the original on April 8, 2018. Retrieved April 8, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Strom, Marc (July 5, 2017). "Mustafa Shakir & Gabrielle Dennis Join Netflix Original Series 'Marvel's Luke Cage'". Marvel.com. Archived from the original on July 6, 2017. Retrieved July 5, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Morales, Wilson (August 31, 2017). "Thomas Q. Jones To Reprise Comanche Role In Luke Cage Season 2". Black Film. Archived from the original on August 31, 2017. Retrieved August 31, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Li, Shirley (October 4, 2017). "Marvel's Luke Cage first look: Iron Fist joins Luke in season 2". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on October 4, 2017. Retrieved October 4, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Goldman, Eric (February 10, 2018). "Marvel Mourns the Loss of Reg E. Cathey". Marvel.com. Archived from the original on February 11, 2018. Retrieved February 11, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c Morales, Wilson (April 12, 2018). "Actress/ Singer Antonique Smith To Play New Character On Marvel's Luke Cage Season 2". Blackfilm. Archived from the original on April 12, 2018. Retrieved April 12, 2018.
Jump up ^ Nguyen, Hanh (October 4, 2016). "'Luke Cage' Easter Eggs: Stan Lee, Iron Man and More". IndieWire. Archived from the original on November 16, 2016. Retrieved November 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ Schwartz, Terri (January 7, 2015). "Netflix announces 'Daredevil,' 'Bloodline,' 'Kimmy Schmidt' premiere dates". Zap2It. Archived from the original on January 10, 2015. Retrieved January 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ Goldman, Eric (July 28, 2015). "Netflix On Marvel Series Release Plan And If Punisher Could Get A Spinoff". IGN. Archived from the original on July 28, 2015. Retrieved July 28, 2015.
Jump up ^ O'Keefe, Meghan (September 15, 2016). "'Luke Cage' Showrunner Cheo Hodari Coker On Mike Colter, "Heroes For Hire," And Making An "Inclusively Black" Superhero Show". Decider. Archived from the original on September 25, 2016. Retrieved September 25, 2016.
Jump up ^ Krupa, Daniel (September 30, 2016). "Luke Cage Talks Future Marvel Netflix Storylines". IGN. Archived from the original on October 2, 2016. Retrieved October 2, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Stedman, Alex (December 4, 2016). "'Luke Cage' Renewed for Season 2 on Netflix". Variety. Archived from the original on December 4, 2016. Retrieved December 4, 2016.
Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (July 31, 2017). "Marvel TV-Netflix New York Projects Will Count 135 Episodes By Year's End; Record Production Commitment In State's History". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on July 31, 2017. Retrieved July 31, 2017.
Jump up ^ Huver, Scott (May 19, 2017). "'Luke Cage' Season 2 aims for 'bulletproof dopeness,' says showrunner". Mashable. Archived from the original on May 22, 2017. Retrieved May 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mohamed, Jasmine (July 21, 2017). "Luke Cage Season 2 Will Be Exciting, Relevant & Pop Culture-Heavy". Screen Rant. Archived from the original on July 22, 2017. Retrieved July 22, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Jackson, Dallas (July 22, 2017). "Mike Colter Excited For Luke Cage Season 2 Soundtrack, Storyline". ComicBook.com. Archived from the original on August 14, 2017. Retrieved August 14, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Huver, Scott (February 9, 2018). "Interview: 'Luke Cage' Showrunner Cheo Hodari Coker Talks Season Two, Villains, and Music". Comicbook.com. Archived from the original on February 10, 2018. Retrieved February 10, 2018.
Jump up ^ Marston, George (July 21, 2016). "SDCC 2016: Marvel & Netflix's LUKE CAGE Panel". Newsarama. Archived from the original on July 22, 2016. Retrieved July 22, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Lovett, Jamie (April 23, 2017). "Luke Cage Season 2 Starts Production In June, Wraps In March". ComicBook.com. Archived from the original on April 24, 2017. Retrieved April 24, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Erao, Matthew (June 10, 2017). "Luke Cage & Claire Temple Share A Moment in Season 2 Set Photos". Screen Rant. Archived from the original on June 12, 2017. Retrieved June 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ Coley, Sam (May 11, 2017). "Sons of Anarchy's Theo Rossi on New Movie, Lowriders: 'Roles Like This Make Me a Better Father'". Parade. Archived from the original on May 12, 2017. Retrieved May 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ Morales, Wilson (October 16, 2017). "Exclusive: Mike Colter Talks Girls Trip Blu-ray & Luke Cage Season 2". BlackFilm.com. Archived from the original on November 21, 2017. Retrieved October 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mino (October 18, 2016). "James Leonard Lucas". Comicbook Movies: Who's Who. WordPress. Archived from the original on February 12, 2018. Retrieved February 12, 2018. [better source needed]
Jump up ^ Hibberd, James (March 15, 2018). "Marvel casts Annabella Sciorra as Luke Cage season 2 villain". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on March 16, 2018. Retrieved March 16, 2018.
Jump up ^ Cohen, Jason (November 20, 2017). "Marvel's Luke Cage Season 2 Wraps Filming". Comic Book Resources. Archived from the original on November 21, 2017. Retrieved November 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ Duff, Seamus (September 28, 2016). "Netflix's Luke Cage show creator says: 'We are the best music show on television'". Metro.co.uk. Archived from the original on August 14, 2017. Retrieved August 14, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Marvel's Luke Cage". Netflix. Archived from the original on September 7, 2016. Retrieved September 7, 2016.
External links[edit]
[show]
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This page was last edited on 22 April 2018, at 13:08.
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