text:
Soil food web
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
An example of a topological food web (image courtesy of USDA)[1]
The soil food web is the community of organisms living all or part of their lives in the soil. It describes a complex living system in the soil and how it interacts with the environment, plants, and animals.
Food webs describe the transfer of energy between species in an ecosystem. While a food chain examines one, linear, energy pathway through an ecosystem, a food web is more complex and illustrates all of the potential pathways. Much of this transferred energy comes from the sun. Plants use the sun’s energy to convert inorganic compounds into energy-rich, organic compounds, turning carbon dioxide and minerals into plant material by photosynthesis. Plant flowers exude energy-rich nectar above ground and plant roots exude acids, sugars, and ectoenzymes into the rhizosphere, adjusting the pH and feeding the food web underground.[2][3][4]
Plants are called autotrophs because they make their own energy; they are also called producers because they produce energy available for other organisms to eat. Heterotrophs are consumers that cannot make their own food. In order to obtain energy they eat plants or other heterotrophs.
Contents
[hide]
1 Above ground food webs
2 Methodology
3 Types of food webs
3.1 Topological webs
4 Flow webs
4.1 Interaction web
5 Food web control
5.1 Bottom-up effects
5.2 Top-down effects
6 Community matrix models
7 Stability of food webs
8 Interactions not included in food webs
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Above ground food webs[edit]
In above ground food webs, energy moves from producers (plants) to primary consumers (herbivores) and then to secondary consumers (predators). The phrase, trophic level, refers to the different levels or steps in the energy pathway. In other words, the producers, consumers, and decomposers are the main trophic levels. This chain of energy transferring from one species to another can continue several more times, but eventually ends. At the end of the food chain, decomposers such as bacteria and fungi break down dead plant and animal material into simple nutrients.
Methodology[edit]
The nature of soil makes direct observation of food webs difficult. Since soil organisms range in size from less than 0.1 mm (nematodes) to greater than 2 mm (earthworms) there are many different ways to extract them. Soil samples are often taken using a metal core. Larger macrofauna such as earthworms and insect larva can be removed by hand, but this is impossible for smaller nematodes and soil arthropods. Most methods to extract small organisms are dynamic; they depend on the ability of the organisms to move out of the soil. For example, a Berlese funnel, used to collect small arthropods, creates a light/heat gradient in the soil sample. As the microarthropods move down, away from the light and heat, they fall through a funnel and into a collection vial. A similar method, the Baermann funnel, is used for nematodes. The Baerman funnel is wet, however (while the Berlese funnel is dry) and does not depend on a light/heat gradient. Nematodes move out of the soil and to the bottom of the funnel because, as they move, they are denser than water and are unable to swim. Soil microbial communities are characterized in many different ways. The activity of microbes can be measured by their respiration and carbon dioxide release. The cellular components of microbes can be extracted from soil and genetically profiled, or microbial biomass can be calculated by weighing the soil before and after fumigation.
Types of food webs[edit]
An example of a soil interaction web. Image courtesy of Kalessin11.
There are three different types of food web representations: topological (or traditional) food webs, flow webs and interaction webs. These webs can describe systems both above and below ground.
Topological webs[edit]
Early food webs were topological; they were descriptive and provided a nonquantitative picture of consumers, resources and the links between them. Pimm et al. (1991) described these webs as a map of which organisms in a community eat which other kinds. The earliest topological food web, made in 1912, examined the predators and parasites of cotton boll weevil (reviewed by Pimm et al. 1991). Researchers analyzed and compared topological webs between ecosystems by measuring the web’s interaction chain lengths and connectivity.[5] One problem faced in standardizing such measurements is that there are often too many species for each to have a separate box. Depending on the author, the number of species aggregated or separated into functional groups may be different.[6] Authors may even eliminate some organisms. By convention, the dead material flowing back to detritus is not shown, as it would complicate the figure, but it is taken account in any calculations.[6]
Flow webs[edit]
Miosis build on interconnected food chains , adding quantitative information on the movement of carbon or other nutrients from producers to consumers. Hunt et al. (1987) published the first flow web for soil, describing the short grass prairie in Colorado, USA. The authors estimated nitrogen transferral rates through the soil food web and calculated nitrogen mineralization rates for a range of soil organisms. In another landmark study, researchers from the Lovinkhoeve Experimental Farm in the Netherlands examined the flow of carbon and illustrated transfer rates with arrows of different thicknesses.[7]
In order to create a flow web, a topological web is first constructed. After the members of the web are decided, the biomass of each functional group is calculated, usually in kg carbon/hectare. In order to calculate feeding rates, researchers assume that the population of the functional group is in equilibrium. At equilibrium, the reproduction of the group balances the rate at which members are lost through natural death and predation[8] When feeding rate is known, the efficiency with which nutrients are converted into organism biomass can be calculated. This energy stored in the organism represents the amount available to be passed on to the next trophic level.
After constructing the first soil flow webs, researchers discovered that nutrients and energy flowed from lower resources to higher trophic levels through three main channels.[7][8] The bacterial and fungal channels had the largest energy flow, while the herbivory channel, in which organisms directly consumed plant roots, was smaller. It is now widely recognized that bacteria and fungi are critical to the decomposition of carbon and nitrogen and play important roles in both the carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle.
Interaction web[edit]
An interaction web, shown above right,[9] is similar to a topological web, but instead of showing the movement of energy or materials, the arrows show how one group influences another. In interaction food web models, every link has two direct effects, one of the resource on the consumer and one of the consumer on the resource.[10] The effect of the resource on the consumer is positive, (the consumer gets to eat) and the effect on the resource by the consumer is negative (it is eaten). These direct, trophic, effects can lead to indirect effects. Indirect effects, represented by dashed lines, show the effect of one element on another to which it is not directly linked.[10] For example, in the simple interaction web below, when the predator eats the root herbivore, the plant eaten by the herbivore may increase in biomass. We would then say that the predator has a beneficial indirect effect on the plant roots.
Food web control[edit]
Bottom-up effects[edit]
Bottom-up effects occur when the density of a resource affects the density of its consumer.[11] For example, in the figure above, an increase in root density causes an increase in herbivore density that causes a corresponding increase in predator density. Correlations in abundance or biomass between consumers and their resources give evidence for bottom-up control.[11] An often-cited example of a bottom-up effect is the relationship between herbivores and the primary productivity of plants. In terrestrial ecosystems, the biomass of herbivores and detritivores increases with primary productivity. An increase in primary productivity will result in a larger influx of leaf litter into the soil ecosystem, which will provide more resources for bacterial and fungal populations to grow. More microbes will allow an increase in bacterial and fungal feeding nematodes, which are eaten by mites and other predatory nematodes. Thus, the entire food web swells as more resources are added to the base.[11] When ecologists use the term, bottom-up control, they are indicating that the biomass, abundance, or diversity of higher trophic levels depend on resources from lower trophic levels.[10]
Top-down effects[edit]
Ideas about top-down control are much more difficult to evaluate. Top-down effects occur when the population density of a consumer affects that of its resource;[10] for example, a predator affects the density of its prey. Top-down control, therefore, refers to situations where the abundance, diversity or biomass of lower trophic levels depends on effects from consumers at higher trophic levels.[10] A trophic cascade is a type of top-down interaction that describes the indirect effects of predators. In a trophic cascade, predators induce effects that cascade down food chain and affect biomass of organisms at least two links away.[10]
The importance of trophic cascades and top-down control in terrestrial ecosystems is actively debated in ecology (reviewed in Shurin et al. 2006) and the issue of whether trophic cascades occur in soils is no less complex[12] Trophic cascades do occur in both the bacterial and fungal energy channels.[13][14][15] However, cascades may be infrequent, because many other studies show no top-down effects of predators.[16][17] In Mikola and Setälä’s study, microbes eaten by nematodes grew faster when they were grazed upon frequently. This compensatory growth slowed when the microbe feeding nematodes were removed. Therefore, although top predators reduced the number of microbe feeding nematodes, there was no overall change in microbial biomass.
Besides the grazing effect, another barrier to top down control in soil ecosystems is widespread omnivory, which by increasing the number of trophic interactions, dampens effects from the top. The soil environment is also a matrix of different temperatures, moistures and nutrient levels, and many organisms are able to become dormant to withstand difficult times. Depending on conditions, predators may be separated from their potential prey by an insurmountable amount of space and time.
Any top-down effects that do occur will be limited in strength because soil food webs are donor controlled. Donor control means that consumers have little or no effect on the renewal or input of their resources.[10] For example, aboveground herbivores can overgraze an area and decrease the grass population, but decomposers cannot directly influence the rate of falling plant litter. They can only indirectly influence the rate of input into their system through nutrient recycling which, by helping plants to grow, eventually creates more litter and detritus to fall.[18] If the entire soil food web were completely donor controlled, however, bacterivores and fungivores would never greatly affect the bacteria and fungi they consume.
While bottom-up effects are no doubt important, many soil ecologists suspect that top-down effects are also sometimes significant. Certain predators or parasites, when added to the soil, can have a large effect on root herbivores and thereby indirectly affect plant fitness. For example, in a coastal shrubland food chain the native entomopathogenic nematode, Heterorhabditis marelatus, parasitized ghost moth caterpillars, and ghost moth caterpillars consumed the roots of bush lupine. The presence of H. marelatus correlated with lower caterpillar numbers and healthier plants. In addition, the researchers observed high mortality of bush lupine in the absence of entomopathogenic nematodes. These results implied that the nematode, as a natural enemy of the ghost moth caterpillar, protected the plant from damage. The authors even suggested that the interaction was strong enough to affect the population dynamics of bush lupine;[19] this was supported in later experimental work with naturally-growing populations of bush lupine.[20]
Top down control has applications in agriculture and is the principle behind biological control, the idea that plants can benefit from the application of their herbivore’s enemies. While wasps and ladybugs are commonly associated with biological control, parasitic nematodes and predatory mites are also added to the soil to suppress pest populations and preserve crop plants. In order to use such biological control agents effectively, a knowledge of the local soil food web is important.
Community matrix models[edit]
A community matrix model is a type of interaction web that uses differential equations to describe every link in the topological web. Using Lotka-Volterra equations, that describe predator-prey interactions, and food web energetics data such as biomass and feeding rate, the strength of interactions between groups is calculated.[21] Community matrix models can also show how small changes affect the overall stability of the web.
Stability of food webs[edit]
Mathematical modeling in food webs has raised the question of whether complex or simple food webs are more stable. Until the last decade, it was believed that soil food webs were relatively simple, with low degrees of connectance and omnivory.[12] These ideas stemmed from the mathematical models of May which predicted that complexity destabilized food webs. May used community matrices in which species were randomly linked with random interaction strength to show that local stability decreases with complexity (measured as connectance), diversity, and average interaction strength among species.[22]
The use of such random community matrices attracted much criticism. In other areas of ecology, it was realized that the food webs used to make these models were grossly oversimplified[23] and did not represent the complexity of real ecosystems. It also became clear that soil food webs did not conform to these predictions. Soil ecologists discovered that omnivory in food webs was common,[24] and that food chains could be long and complex[8] and still remain resistant to disturbance by drying, freezing, and fumigation.[12]
But why are complex food webs more stable? Many of the barriers to top-down trophic cascades also promote stability. Complex food webs may be more stable if the interaction strengths are weak[22] and soil food webs appear to consist of many weak interactions and a few strong ones.[21] Donor controlled food webs may be inherently more stable, because it is difficult for primary consumers to overtax their resources.[25] The structure of the soil also acts as a buffer, separating organisms and preventing strong interactions.[12] Many soil organisms, for example bacteria, can remain dormant through difficult times and reproduce quickly once conditions improve, making them resilient to disturbance.
Stability of the system is reduced by the use of nitrogen-containing inorganic and organic fertilizers, which cause soil acidification.
Interactions not included in food webs[edit]
Despite their complexity, some interactions between species in the soil are not easily classified by food webs. Litter transformers, mutualists, and ecosystem engineers all have strong impacts on their communities that cannot be characterized as either top-down or bottom-up.
Litter transformers, such as isopods, consume dead plants and excrete fecal pellets. While on the surface this may not seem impressive, the fecal pellets are moister and higher in nutrients than the surrounding soil, which favors colonization by bacteria and fungi. Decomposition of the fecal pellet by the microbes increases its nutrient value and the isopod is able to re-ingest the pellets. When the isopods consume nutrient-poor litter, the microbes enrich it for them and isopods prevented from eating their own feces can die.[26] This mutualistic relationship has been called an “external rumen”, similar to the mutualistic relationship between bacteria and cows. While the bacterial symbionts of cows live inside the rumen of their stomach, isopods depend on microbes outside their body.
Ecosystems engineers, such as earthworms, modify their environment and create habitat for other smaller organisms. Earthworms also stimulate microbial activity by increasing soil aeration and moisture, and transporting litter into the ground where it becomes available to other soil fauna.[12] Fungi create nutritional niche for other organisms by enriching nutritionally extremelly scarce food - the dead wood.[27] This allows xylophages to develop and in turn affect dead wood, contributing to wood decomposition and nutrient cycling in the forest floor.[28] In aboveground and aquatic food webs, the literature assumes that the most important interactions are competition and predation. While soil food webs fit these sorts of interactions well, future research needs to include more complex interactions such as mutualisms and habitat modification.
While they cannot characterize all interactions, soil food webs remain a useful tool for describing ecosystems. The interactions between species in the soil and their effect on decomposition continue to be well studied. Much remains unknown, however, about soil food webs stability and how food webs change over time.[12] This knowledge is critical to understanding how food webs affect important qualities such as soil fertility.
See also[edit]
Soil biology
Soil ecology
Soil life
Trophic cascade
Food web
Entomopathogenic nematode
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Soil Biology Primer Photo Gallery". Natural Resources Conservation Service - Soils. Soil and Water Conservation Society, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 14 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Marschner, Horst (1995). Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants. ISBN 0124735436.
Jump up ^ Walker, T. S.; Bais, H. P.; Grotewold, E.; Vivanco, J. M. (2003). "Root Exudation and Rhizosphere Biology". Plant Physiology. 132 (1): 44–51. doi:10.1104/pp.102.019661. PMC 1540314  . PMID 12746510.
Jump up ^ Power, Michael L. (2010). Anne M. Burrows; Leanne T. Nash, eds. The Evolution of Exudativory in Primates / Nutritional and Digestive Challenges to Being a Gum-feeding Primate. Springer. p. 28. Retrieved 2 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Pimm S.L., Lawton J.H. & Cohen J.E. (1991), "Food web patterns and their consequences", Nature, 350 (6320): 669–674, Bibcode:1991Natur.350..669P, doi:10.1038/350669a0
^ Jump up to: a b de Ruiter P.C., A.M. Neutel and J.C. Moore (1996), "Energetics and stability in below ground food webs", in G. Polis and K.O Winemiller, Food webs: integration of patterns and dynamics, Chapman & Hall CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Brussaard, L.J., A. van Veen, M.J. Kooistra, and G. Lebbink (1988), "The Dutch Programme on soil ecology of arable farming systems I. Objectives, approach, and preliminary results", Ecological Bulletins, 39: 35–40 CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c Hunt, H.W., D.C. Coleman, E.R. Ingham, R.E. Ingham, E.T. Elliott, J.C. Moore, S.L. Rose, C.P.P. Reid, and C.R. Morley (1987), "The detrital food web in a shortgrass prairie", Biology and Fertility of Soils, 3: 57–68 CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ USDA-NRCS, 2004, "The Soil Food web" in The Soil Biology Primer. Url accessed 2006–04-11
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Stiling, P. (1999), Ecology, Theories and Applications. Third Edtn, Prentice Hall. New Jersey USA.
^ Jump up to: a b c Shurin, J.B., D.S. Gruner, and H. Hillebrand (2006), "All wet or dried up? Real differences between aquatic and terrestrial food webs", Proceedings of the Royal Society, 273 (1582): 1–9, doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3377, PMC 1560001  , PMID 16519227 CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Wardle, D.A (2002), Communities and Ecosystems: Linking the aboveground and belowground components Monographs in population biology, 31, Princeton University Press. New Jersey
Jump up ^ Santos, P.F., J. Phillips, and W.G. Whitford (1981), "The role of mites and nematodes in early stages of buried litter decomposition in a desert", Ecology (Washington DC), 62 (3): 664–669, doi:10.2307/1937734, JSTOR 1937733 CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Allen-Morley, C.R. & D.C. Coleman (1989), "Reliance of soil biota in various food webs to freezing perturbations", Ecology, 70 (4): 1127–1141, doi:10.2307/1941381
Jump up ^ Katarina Hedlund & Maria Sjögren Öhrn (2000), "Tritrophic interactions in a soil community enhance decomposition rates", Oikos, 88 (3): 585–591, doi:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2000.880315.x
Jump up ^ Mikola J. & H. Setälä (1998), "No evidence of tropic cascades in an experimental microbial-based food web", Ecology, 79: 153–164, doi:10.1890/0012-9658(1998)079[0153:NEOTCI]2.0.CO;2
Jump up ^ Laakso J. & H. Setälä (1999), "Population- and ecosystem-effects of predation on microbial-feeding nematodes", Oecologia, 120 (2): 279–286, doi:10.1007/s004420050859
Jump up ^ Moore, J.C., K. McCann, H. Setälä, and P.C. de Ruiter (2003), "Top down is bottom up: does predation in the rhizosphere regulate aboveground dynamics?", Ecology, 84 (4): 846–857, doi:10.1890/0012-9658(2003)084[0846:TIBDPI]2.0.CO;2 CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Strong, D. R., H.K. Kaya, A.V. Whipple, A.L, Child, S. Kraig, M. Bondonno, K. Dyer, and J.L. Maron (1996), "Entomopathogenic nematodes: natural enemies of root-feeding caterpillars on bush lupine", Oecologia (Berlin), 108 (1): 167–173, doi:10.1007/BF00333228 CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Evan L. Preisser & Donald R. Strong (2004), "Climate affects predator control of an herbivore outbreak", American Naturalist, 163 (5): 754–762, doi:10.1086/383620, PMID 15122492
^ Jump up to: a b de Ruiter, P.C., Neutel, A.-M., & Moore, J.C.; Neutel; Moore (1995), "Energetics, patterns of interaction strengths, and stability in real ecosystems", Science, 269 (5228): 1257–1260, Bibcode:1995Sci...269.1257D, doi:10.1126/science.269.5228.1257 CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b May, R.M (1973), Stability and complexity in model ecosystems, Princeton: Princeton University Press. New Jersey
Jump up ^ Polis, G.A. (1991), "Complex trophic interactions in deserts: an empirical critique of food web theory", American Naturalist, 138: 123–155, doi:10.1086/285208
Jump up ^ Walter, D.E. D.T. Kaplan & T.A. Permar (1991), "Missing links: a review of methods used to estimate trophic links in food webs", Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 34: 399–405, doi:10.1016/0167-8809(91)90123-F
Jump up ^ De Angelis, D.L. (1992), Dynamics of nutrient cycling and food webs, Chapman and Hall. London. England, ISBN 978-0-12-088458-2
Jump up ^ Hassall, M., S.P. Rushton (1982), "The role of coprophagy in the feeding strategies of terrestrial isopods", Oecologia, 53 (3): 374–381, doi:10.1007/BF00389017 CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Filipiak, Michał; Sobczyk, Łukasz; Weiner, January (2016-04-09). "Fungal Transformation of Tree Stumps into a Suitable Resource for Xylophagous Beetles via Changes in Elemental Ratios". Insects. 7 (2): 13. doi:10.3390/insects7020013.
Jump up ^ Filipiak, Michał; Weiner, January (2016-09-01). "Nutritional dynamics during the development of xylophagous beetles related to changes in the stoichiometry of 11 elements". Physiological Entomology: n/a–n/a. doi:10.1111/phen.12168  . ISSN 1365-3032.
External links[edit]
Soil Foodweb Laboratory in Canada
Soil Foodweb Inc international network of soil analysis laboratories and education providers
[show]
v
t
e
Ecology: Modelling ecosystems: Trophic components
General
Abiotic component
Abiotic stress
Behaviour
Biogeochemical cycle
Biomass
Biotic component
Biotic stress
Carrying capacity
Competition
Ecosystem
Ecosystem ecology
Ecosystem model
Keystone species
List of feeding behaviours
Metabolic theory of ecology
Productivity
Resource
Producers
Autotrophs
Chemosynthesis
Chemotrophs
Foundation species
Mixotrophs
Myco-heterotrophy
Mycotroph
Organotrophs
Photoheterotrophs
Photosynthesis
Photosynthetic efficiency
Phototrophs
Primary nutritional groups
Primary production
Consumers
Apex predator
Bacterivore
Carnivores
Chemoorganotroph
Foraging
Generalist and specialist species
Intraguild predation
Herbivores
Heterotroph
Heterotrophic nutrition
Insectivore
Mesopredators
Mesopredator release hypothesis
Omnivores
Optimal foraging theory
Predation
Prey switching
Decomposers
Chemoorganoheterotrophy
Decomposition
Detritivores
Detritus
Microorganisms
Archaea
Bacteriophage
Environmental microbiology
Lithoautotroph
Lithotrophy
Microbial cooperation
Microbial ecology
Microbial food web
Microbial intelligence
Microbial loop
Microbial mat
Microbial metabolism
Phage ecology
Food webs
Biomagnification
Ecological efficiency
Ecological pyramid
Energy flow
Food chain
Trophic level
Example webs
Cold seeps
Hydrothermal vents
Intertidal
Kelp forests
Lakes
North Pacific Subtropical Gyre
Rivers
San Francisco Estuary
Soil
Tide pool
Processes
Ascendency
Bioaccumulation
Cascade effect
Climax community
Competitive exclusion principle
Consumer-resource systems
Copiotrophs
Dominance
Ecological network
Ecological succession
Energy quality
Energy Systems Language
f-ratio
Feed conversion ratio
Feeding frenzy
Mesotrophic soil
Nutrient cycle
Oligotroph
Paradox of the plankton
Trophic cascade
Trophic mutualism
Trophic state index
Defense,
counter
Animal coloration
Antipredator adaptations
Camouflage
Deimatic behaviour
Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
Mimicry
Plant defense against herbivory
Predator avoidance in schooling fish
[show]
v
t
e
Ecology: Modelling ecosystems: Other components
Population
ecology
Abundance
Allee effect
Depensation
Ecological yield
Effective population size
Intraspecific competition
Logistic function
Malthusian growth model
Maximum sustainable yield
Overpopulation in wild animals
Overexploitation
Population cycle
Population dynamics
Population modeling
Population size
Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
Recruitment
Resilience
Small population size
Stability
Species
Biodiversity
Density-dependent inhibition
Ecological effects of biodiversity
Ecological extinction
Endemic species
Flagship species
Gradient analysis
Indicator species
Introduced species
Invasive species
Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
Minimum viable population
Neutral theory
Occupancy–abundance relationship
Population viability analysis
Priority effect
Rapoport's rule
Relative abundance distribution
Relative species abundance
Species diversity
Species homogeneity
Species richness
Species distribution
Species-area curve
Umbrella species
Species
interaction
Antibiosis
Biological interaction
Commensalism
Community ecology
Ecological facilitation
Interspecific competition
Mutualism
Storage effect
Spatial
ecology
Biogeography
Cross-boundary subsidy
Ecocline
Ecotone
Ecotype
Disturbance
Edge effects
Foster's rule
Habitat fragmentation
Ideal free distribution
Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis
Island biogeography
Landscape ecology
Landscape epidemiology
Landscape limnology
Metapopulation
Patch dynamics
r/K selection theory
Resource selection function
Source–sink dynamics
Niche
Ecological niche
Ecological trap
Ecosystem engineer
Environmental niche modelling
Guild
Habitat
Marine habitats
Limiting similarity
Niche apportionment models
Niche construction
Niche differentiation
Other
networks
Assembly rules
Bateman's principle
Bioluminescence
Ecological collapse
Ecological debt
Ecological deficit
Ecological energetics
Ecological indicator
Ecological threshold
Ecosystem diversity
Emergence
Extinction debt
Kleiber's law
Liebig's law of the minimum
Marginal value theorem
Thorson's rule
Xerosere
Other
Allometry
Alternative stable state
Balance of nature
Biological data visualization
Ecocline
Ecological economics
Ecological footprint
Ecological forecasting
Ecological humanities
Ecological stoichiometry
Ecopath
Ecosystem based fisheries
Endolith
Evolutionary ecology
Functional ecology
Industrial ecology
Macroecology
Microecosystem
Natural environment
Regime shift
Systems ecology
Urban ecology
Theoretical ecology
List of ecology topics
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soil_food_web&oldid=831774280"
Categories:
Soil biology
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter
CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Esperanto
Edit links
This page was last edited on 22 March 2018, at 03:53.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

tag: div

attr: id class

value: mw-page-base noprint

key: html

type: local

value: mw-head-base noprint

tag: a

attr: id class lang

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

tag: img

attr: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attr: href class

value: /wiki/USDA mw-redirect USDA

tag: sup

tag: b

tag: p

value:
/wiki/Food_webs
mw-redirect
Food webs

attr: href title

value:
/wiki/Primary_productivity
mw-redirect
Primary productivity

value:
/wiki/Compensatory_growth
mw-redirect
Compensatory growth

value:
/wiki/Biological_control
mw-redirect
Biological control

value:
/wiki/Lotka-Volterra_equation
mw-redirect
Lotka-Volterra equation

value: Edit section: Interactions not included in food webs

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1104%2Fpp.102.019661

attr: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

value:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12746510

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2F350669a0

value: Category:CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter

value: Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2005.3377

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16519227

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F1937734

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/1937733

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F1941381

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs004420050859

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00333228

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1086%2F383620

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15122492

value:
/wiki/Science_(magazine)
mw-redirect
Science (magazine)

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1086%2F285208

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00389017

value:
nofollow
external text
http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/7/2/13

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.3390%2Finsects7020013

value:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1111%2Fphen.12168

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1365-3032

value: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

value:
nofollow
external text
http://www.soilfoodweb.ca

value:
nofollow
external text
http://www.soilfoodweb.com

value:
/wiki/Consumers_(food_chain)
mw-redirect
Consumers (food chain)

value:
/wiki/Environmental_microbiology
mw-redirect
Environmental microbiology

value:
/wiki/North_Pacific_Subtropical_Gyre
mw-redirect
North Pacific Subtropical Gyre

value:
/wiki/Antipredator_adaptation
mw-redirect
Antipredator adaptation

value: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value:
/wiki/Overpopulation_in_wild_animals
mw-redirect
Overpopulation in wild animals

value:
/wiki/Population_modeling
mw-redirect
Population modeling

value:
/wiki/Resilience_(ecology)
mw-redirect
Resilience (ecology)

value:
/wiki/Endemic_species
mw-redirect
Endemic species

value:
/wiki/Gradient_analysis
mw-redirect
Gradient analysis

value: Latitudinal gradients in species diversity

value:
/wiki/Species-area_curve
mw-redirect
Species-area curve

value:
/wiki/Community_ecology
mw-redirect
Community ecology

value:
/wiki/Island_biogeography
mw-redirect
Island biogeography

value:
/wiki/Ecological_deficit
mw-redirect
Ecological deficit

value:
/wiki/Ecological_energetics
mw-redirect
Ecological energetics

value:
/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries
mw-redirect
Ecosystem based fisheries

value:
/wiki/List_of_ecology_topics
mw-redirect
List of ecology topics

value: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value:
/wiki/Soil_food_web
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

value:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

value: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

value: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

value:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

value:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

value:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Find background information on current events

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

value:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

value: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

value: Permanent link to this revision of the page

value: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

value: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

value: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

value: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

value:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Soil_food_web rootpage-Soil_food_web skin-vector action-view


text:
Robert Adamson (actor)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (July 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Robert Adamson
Born
Robert Gillespie Adamson IV
(1985-07-11) July 11, 1985 (age 32)
Salt Lake City, Utah, U.S.
Occupation
Actor
Years active
2005–present
Children
1
Robert Gillespie Adamson IV (born July 11, 1985) is an American actor. He has portrayed the roles of Phil Sanders on the television series Hollywood Heights and Charles Antoni on Lincoln Heights. He currently stars as Noah Newman on The Young and the Restless.
Contents
[hide]
1 Personal life
2 Career
3 Filmography
3.1 Films
3.2 Television
3.3 Video games
4 References
5 External links
Personal life[edit]
This section of a biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Adamson attended the American Academy of Dramatic Arts until 2005. Adamson and then-fiancée Linsey Godfrey welcomed daughter Aleda Seren, on June 12, 2014.[1] He and Godfrey made their last public appearance together on April 26, 2015 at the Daytime Emmy Awards.[2] On August 3, 2015, after months of speculation, a representative for The Bold and the Beautiful confirmed that Adamson and Godfrey had ended their engagement, however, they would continue to raise their daughter "in a loving and amicable environment and her needs will always be their common priority".[3]
Career[edit]
Adamson's first role was in the series Cold Case as a fraternity brother of a murder suspect.[4] He also guest-starred in the series It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia and had a part in the horror movie Dr. Chopper. From 2007 to 2009, he portrayed teenager Charles Antoni on the ABC Family drama Lincoln Heights. In 2009, he starred as Donny in the Disney Channel Original Movie Princess Protection Program alongside Disney stars Demi Lovato and Selena Gomez. He also guest-starred on Disney's Sonny With a Chance.
On August 24, 2012, Adamson replaced his former Princess Protection Program co-star Kevin G. Schmidt as Noah Newman on the CBS Daytime soap opera The Young and the Restless. He taped his first scenes on September 4, for a first appearance on October 1.[5]
Filmography[edit]
Films[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2005 Dr. Chopper Nick
2008 Private High Musical Trey Belton YouTube, Parody of High School Musical
2009 Princess Protection Program Donny Disney Channel Original Movie
In the Mix Caleb Made-for-TV
Devolved The Rog
The Prankster Eric Hood
It's Complicated N/A
2013 Lip Service Nick Martin Film
2014 Time to Shine Young James Scott
2015 Villisca Caleb Post-production
2015 Zoey to the Max Deputy Dan Post-production
Television[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2005 Cold Case Frank - 1995 Episode: "Ravaged"
It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia Trey Episode: "Underage Drinking: A National Concern"
2007 - 2009 Lincoln Heights Charles Antoni 43 episodes; 2007–2009
2009 Sonny with a Chance Hayden Episode: "Sonny in the Kitchen with Dinner"
2010 Jonas Ben Episodes: "Date Expectations" and "A Wasabi Story"
2012 Hollywood Heights Phil Sanders 80 episodes
2012–present The Young and the Restless Noah Newman October 1, 2012–
2015 NCIS Lucas Craig Episode: "Cadence"
Video games[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2011 King's Quest III Redux: To Heir is Human Gwydion / Prince Alexander AGD Interactive Remake
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Clifford, Kambra (June 23, 2014). "'B&B's' Linsey Godfrey and 'Y&R's' Robert Adamson Welcome Baby Girl". Soap Opera Network. Retrieved June 26, 2014.
Jump up ^ Real-Life Couple Split.CBS Soaps in Depth. September 7, 2015. pg. 5
Jump up ^ SOD (August 3, 2015). "EXCLUSIVE! REAL-LIFE DUO SPLITS". Soap Opera Digest. United States. American Media, Inc. Retrieved August 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ 2.18 "Ravaged"
Jump up ^ "Noah's New Arc On Y&R". Soap Opera Digest. August 27, 2012. Retrieved June 15, 2017.
External links[edit]
Robert Adamson on IMDb
Interview
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 315533075
LCCN: n2015020502
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Adamson_(actor)&oldid=838043279"
Categories:
1985 births
American male television actors
Living people
21st-century American male actors
American male soap opera actors
People from Salt Lake City
Hidden categories:
BLP articles lacking sources from July 2009
All BLP articles lacking sources
Articles with hCards
BLP articles lacking sources from March 2017
Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers
Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Asturianu
Deutsch
Español
Français
한국어
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
Polski
Português
Suomi
3 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 24 April 2018, at 15:49.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

value: mw-page-base noprint

value: mw-head-base noprint

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attr: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

tag: td

tag: span

tag: i

tag: small

value: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-BLP_sources

value:
/wiki/Daytime_Emmy_Awards
mw-redirect
Daytime Emmy Awards

value: List of It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia episodes

value:
/wiki/Disney_Channel_Original_Movie
mw-redirect
Disney Channel Original Movie

value:
/wiki/Sonny_With_a_Chance
mw-redirect
Sonny With a Chance

value:
/wiki/Kevin_G._Schmidt
mw-redirect
Kevin G. Schmidt

value: Private High Musical (page does not exist)

value: In the Mix (2009 film) (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Lip_Service_(film)
mw-redirect
Lip Service (film)

value:
/wiki/King%27s_Quest_III_Redux
mw-redirect
King's Quest III Redux

value:
/wiki/American_Media_(publisher)
mw-redirect
American Media (publisher)

value:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

value:
nofollow
https://www.imdb.com/name/nm1976481/
external text

value:
nofollow
external text
https://viaf.org/viaf/315533075

value: Category:American male television actors

value: Category:21st-century American male actors

value: Category:American male soap opera actors

value: Category:BLP articles lacking sources from July 2009

value: Category:All BLP articles lacking sources

value: Category:BLP articles lacking sources from March 2017

value: Category:Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers

value: Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value:
/wiki/Robert_Adamson_(actor)
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

value:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

value: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

value: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

value:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

value:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

value:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Find background information on current events

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

value: 로버트 애덤슨 (배우) – Korean

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

value: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Robert_Adamson_actor rootpage-Robert_Adamson_actor skin-vector action-view


text:
Botswana pula
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Botswana pula
Obverse of 2 pula (1980s) Reverse of 2 pula (1980s)
ISO 4217
Code
BWP
Denominations
Subunit
1/100
Thebe
Symbol
P
Banknotes
10, 20, 50, 100 and 200 pula[1]
Coins
5, 10, 25, 50 thebe, 1, 2, 5 pula
Demographics
Official user(s)
Botswana
Unofficial user(s)
Zimbabwe[2]
Issuance
Central bank
Bank of Botswana
Website
www.bankofbotswana.bw
Valuation
Inflation
2.8% (May 2016)
Source
Bank of Botswana, 7 July 2016
Method
CPI
The pula is the currency of Botswana. It has the ISO 4217 code BWP and is subdivided into 100 thebe. Pula literally means "rain" in Setswana, because rain is very scarce in Botswana — home to much of the Kalahari Desert — and therefore valuable and a blessing. The word also serves as the national motto of the country.
A sub-unit of the currency is known as thebe, or "shield",[3] and represents defence.[4] The names were picked with the help of the public.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Coins
3 Banknotes
4 Zimbabwe
5 Lesotho
6 In literature
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
The pula was introduced in 1976, replacing the South African rand at par. Despite a 12% devaluation in May 2005, the pula remains one of the strongest currencies in Africa.[citation needed]
Coins[edit]
In 1976, coins were introduced in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 25 and 50 thebe and 1 pula. The 1 thebe was struck in aluminium, with the 5 thebe in bronze and the others in cupro-nickel. These coins were round except for the scalloped 1 pula. Bronze, dodecagonal 2 thebe coins were introduced in 1981 and discontinued after 1985. In 1991, bronze-plated steel replaced bronze in the 5 thebe, nickel-plated steel replaced cupro-nickel in the 10, 25 and 50 thebe and the 1 pula changed to a smaller, nickel-brass, equilateral-curve seven-sided coin. A similarly shaped, nickel-brass 2 pula was introduced in 1994. In 2004, the composition was changed to brass-plated steel and the size was slightly reduced.[citation needed]
In 1998, following the withdrawal of the 1 and 2 thebe, smaller 5, 10, 25 and 50 thebe coins were introduced, with the 5 and 25 thebe coins being seven-sided and the 10 and 50 thebe coins remaining round. A bimetallic 5 pula depicting a mopane caterpillar and a branch of the mopane tree it feeds on was introduced in 2000 composed of a cupronickel center in a ring made of aluminium-nickel-bronze.[citation needed]
A new series of coins was introduced in 2013.[citation needed]
Banknotes[edit]
On August 23, 1976,[5] the Bank of Botswana introduced notes in denominations of 1, 2, 5, and 10 pula; a 20-pula note followed on February 16, 1978. The 1 and 2 pula notes were replaced by coins in 1991 and 1994, whilst the first 50 and 100 pula notes were introduced on May 29, 1990 and August 23, 1993, respectively.[5] The 5 pula note was replaced by a coin in 2000. The original 1, 2 and 5 pula banknotes were demonetized on 1 July 2011.
The previous series of notes was introduced on 23 August 2009[6] and contains for the first time, a 200-pula banknote.
The new P10 polymer banknote version was introduced on late November 2017, and released to the public on February 1, 2018.
Banknotes of the Botswana pula (2009 issue)
Image
Value
Main color
Obverse
Reverse
Watermark
10 pula Green President Seretse Khama Ian Khama Parliament building, Gaborone Rampant zebra and electrotype 10
20 pula Red Kgalemang Tumediso Motsete Mining equipment Rampant zebra and electrotype 20
50 pula Brown President Sir Seretse Khama Okavango Delta swamps, boat, fish eagle Rampant zebra and electrotype 50
100 pula Blue Three chiefs (Sebele I, Bathoen I, Khama III) Diamond sorting, open-pit diamond mine Rampant zebra and electrotype 100
200 pula Purple Female teacher and children Zebras Rampant zebra and electrotype 200
Current BWP exchange rates
From Google Finance: AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD ZAR
From Yahoo! Finance: AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD ZAR
From XE: AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD ZAR
From OANDA: AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD ZAR
From fxtop.com: AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD ZAR
Zimbabwe[edit]
Due to hyperinflation in Zimbabwe in 2006 to 2008, the government has allowed circulation of foreign currency since September 2008. Local currency became obsolete on April 12, 2009. Several currencies, including the South African rand and Botswana pula circulate in Zimbabwe,[2] along with the Zimbabwean Bond Coins.
Lesotho[edit]
The word Pula also serves as part of the national motto of the Kingdom of Lesotho. As in Botswana, it means "rain" in the Sotho language and is considered a synonym for blessing.
In literature[edit]
The Botswana Pula became widely known internationally through numerous references in the No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency by Alexander McCall Smith, making it possible for readers worldwide to get an idea of the Pula's purchasing power.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Economy of Botswana
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Accessed 2009-09-02". Banknotenews.com. Retrieved 2011-11-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Alongside Zimbabwean dollar (suspended indefinitely from 12 April 2009), euro, US dollar, pound sterling, South African rand, Indian rupee, Australian dollar, Chinese yuan and Japanese yen. The US dollar has been adopted as the official currency for all government transactions in Zimbabwe.
Jump up ^ Masire, Ketumile (2006). Very brave or very foolish?. Macmillan Botswana. p. 81. ISBN 978-99912-404-8-0. Pula (rain) was an easy choice for the currency, and the decimal coins were called thebe (shield). (Memoirs of a former president of Botswana)
^ Jump up to: a b Standard Chartered Review. Standard Chartered Bank. 1976. p. 9. The new names pula and thebe were chosen following an invitation to the public to submit their suggestions [...] The meaning of "thebe" is shield — the traditional means of defence.
^ Jump up to: a b Linzmayer, Owen (2011). "Botswana". The Banknote Book. San Francisco, CA: www.BanknoteNews.com. Retrieved 2011-08-21.
Jump up ^ Botswana issues new note series, BanknoteNews.com, Retrieved 2011-09-05.
Krause, Chester L.; Clifford Mishler (1991). Standard Catalog of World Coins: 1801–1991 (18th ed.). Krause Publications. ISBN 0873411501.
Pick, Albert (1994). Standard Catalog of World Paper Money: General Issues. Colin R. Bruce II and Neil Shafer (editors) (7th ed.). Krause Publications. ISBN 0-87341-207-9.
Schön, Günter und Gerhard, Weltmünzkatalog 1900–2010, 39. Auflage, 2011, Battenberg Gietl Verlag, ISBN 978-3-86646-057-7
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Botswana pula.
Historical banknotes of Botswana
Preceded by:
South African rand
Reason: creation of independent currency
Ratio: at par Currency of Botswana
1976 – Succeeded by:
Current
[show]
v
t
e
Economy of Botswana
Currency: Botswana pula
Communications
Banking
Communications
History of Trade
Transportation
Industries:
Agriculture
Mining
Tourism
[show]
v
t
e
Currency symbols (¤)
Circulating
؋
฿
₵
₡
¢
$
₫
֏
€
ƒ
₲
₴
₾
₭
₺
₼
₦
₱
£
元
圆
圓
﷼
៛
₽
₹
૱
௹
꠸
₨
₪
৳
₸
₮
₩
¥
円
Historic
₳
₢
₰
₯
₠
₣
₤
₶
ℛℳ
ℳ
₧
𐆚
𐆖
𐆙
𐆗
𐆘
Uncirculated
₿
₥
₷
[show]
v
t
e
Currencies of Africa
North
Algerian dinar
Egyptian pound
Euro
Plazas de soberanía
Libyan dinar
Mauritanian ouguiya
Moroccan dirham
Sahrawi peseta (unrecognized)
Sudanese pound
Tunisian dinar
Central
Angolan kwanza
Burundian franc
Central African CFA franc
Cameroon
Central African Republic
Chad
Republic of the Congo
Equatorial Guinea
Gabon
Congolese franc
Rwandan franc
East
Comorian franc
Djiboutian franc
Eritrean nakfa
Ethiopian birr
Kenyan shilling
Seychellois rupee
Somali shilling
Somaliland shilling (unrecognized)
South Sudanese pound
Tanzanian shilling
Ugandan shilling
South
Botswana pula
British pound sterling
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
Zimbabwe
Euro
French Southern and Antarctic Lands
Mayotte
Réunion
Zimbabwe
Lesotho loti
Malagasy ariary
Malawian kwacha
Mauritian rupee
Mozambican metical
Namibian dollar
Saint Helena pound
South African rand
Lesotho
Namibia
Swaziland
Zimbabwe
Swazi lilangeni
U.S. dollar
Zimbabwe
Zambian kwacha
Zimbabwean dollar (defunct due to hyperinflation since April 2009)
Zimbabwean bond coins (since 18 December 2014 - denominated in U.S. Cents)
Zimbabwean bond notes (since 28 November 2016 - denominated in U.S. Dollars)
West
Cape Verdean escudo
Euro
Canary Islands
Madeira
Gambian dalasi
Ghanaian cedi
Guinean franc
Liberian dollar
Nigerian naira
São Tomé and Príncipe dobra
Sierra Leonean leone
West African CFA franc
Benin
Burkina Faso
Guinea-Bissau
Ivory Coast
Mali
Niger
Senegal
Togo
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Botswana_pula&oldid=831932785"
Categories:
ISO 4217
Currency symbols
Currencies of Africa
Circulating currencies
Currencies of Botswana
Currencies of the Commonwealth of Nations
Currencies of Zimbabwe
Currency introduced in 1976
Hidden categories:
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from October 2017
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Afrikaans
العربية
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
Bân-lâm-gú
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
Български
Brezhoneg
Català
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
한국어
Hrvatski
বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
עברית
Lietuvių
Magyar
Македонски
मराठी
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Scots
Setswana
Српски / srpski
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
Тоҷикӣ
Türkçe
Українська
Yorùbá
中文
39 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 22 March 2018, at 22:09.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

value: mw-page-base noprint

value: mw-head-base noprint

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

tag: th

attr: colspan style

value: text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold;background-color: lightskyblue; padding: 0.5em 0em;

tag: tr

value: vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;

attr: href class title

value: /wiki/Obverse mw-redirect Obverse

tag: tbody

tag: table

attr: class style

value:
maptable
margin:0 auto; background: none

value: text-align:center;padding: 0.3em 0.6em 0.3em 0.6em

value:
nofollow
external text
http://www.bankofbotswana.bw

value: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2017)

value:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

value:
/wiki/Equilateral_curve
mw-redirect
Equilateral curve

value:
/wiki/Imbrasia_belina
mw-redirect
Imbrasia belina

value:
/wiki/Mopane_tree
mw-redirect
Mopane tree

value:
/wiki/Botswana_Pula
mw-redirect
Botswana Pula

value: Kgalemang Tumediso Motsete (page does not exist)

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.google.com/finance?q=AUDBWP

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.google.com/finance?q=CADBWP

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.google.com/finance?q=CHFBWP

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.google.com/finance?q=EURBWP

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.google.com/finance?q=GBPBWP

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.google.com/finance?q=HKDBWP

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.google.com/finance?q=JPYBWP

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.google.com/finance?q=USDBWP

value:
nofollow
external text
https://www.google.com/finance?q=ZARBWP

value:
nofollow
external text
https://finance.yahoo.com/currency

value:
nofollow
http://www.xe.com/
external text

value:
toccolours
margin: 0.5em auto; text-align: center;

value:
/wiki/Zimbabwean_Bond_Coins
mw-redirect
Zimbabwean Bond Coins

value:
/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lesotho
mw-redirect
Kingdom of Lesotho

value:
/wiki/Ketumile_Masire
mw-redirect
Ketumile Masire

value:
nofollow
external text
http://www.banknotebook.com

value:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

value: margin: 0.5em auto; clear: both; font-size:95%;

value: Template talk:Economy of Botswana (page does not exist)

value: Banking in Botswana (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Communications_in_Botswana
mw-redirect
Communications in Botswana

value: Trade history of Botswana (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Mineral_industry_of_Botswana
mw-redirect
Mineral industry of Botswana

value: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value:
/wiki/List_of_historic_currencies
mw-redirect
List of historic currencies

value: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value: Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha

value: Category:Currencies of the Commonwealth of Nations

value: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

value: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2017

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value:
/wiki/Botswana_pula
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

value:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

value: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

value: Permanent link to this revision of the page

value: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

value: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

value: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

value: بولا بوتسواني – Arabic

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan
display: none;

value: Батсванская пула – Belarusian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

value: Пула (валюта) – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old
display: none;

value: Ботсванска пула – Bulgarian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-br
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

value: Πούλα – Greek

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

value: پولای بوتسوانا – Persian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

value: 보츠와나 풀라 – Korean

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

value: বোৎসোয়ানা পুলা – Bishnupriya

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

value: פולה (מטבע) – Hebrew

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

value: Боцванска пула – Macedonian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

value: बोत्स्वाना पुला – Marathi

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mr
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

value: Ботсванская пула – Russian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

value:
https://tn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pula
Pula – Tswana
tn
tn
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tn
display: none;

value: Боцванска пула – Serbian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

value: Пулаи Ботсвана – Tajik

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tg
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

value: Ботсванська пула – Ukrainian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

value:
https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pula
Pula – Yoruba
yo
yo
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yo
display: none;

value: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

value: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

value:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Botswana_pula rootpage-Botswana_pula skin-vector action-view