text:
Christmas gift
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Christmas gifts underneath a Christmas tree.
"Christmas present" redirects here. For other uses, see Christmas Present and Christmas Gift.
A Christmas gift or Christmas present is a gift given in celebration of Christmas. Christmas gifts are often exchanged on December 25.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Economic impact
3 Further reading
4 See also
5 References
History[edit]
Christmas advertising mentioning gifts from c. 1900
Red Cross workers packing Christmas presents for the Fighting Forces during World War II, October 1942
The tradition of gift-giving is an old one, but it became associated with Christmas more recently. It is a relic of a pagan custom, namely, the winter solstice which in Europe occurs in December. This was celebrated in ancient Rome with gift-giving during the Saturnalia holiday, which took place that month.[1] As Christianity became increasingly widespread in the Roman lands, the custom of gift-giving continued.[2] Around the year 336 AD the date of December 25 appears to have become established as the day of Jesus's birth, and the tradition of gift-giving was reinterpreted and tied to the story of three Magi giving gifts to baby Jesus; together with another story, that of Santa Claus based on the historical figure of Saint Nicholas, a fourth-century Greek bishop and gift-giver, it slowly became a part of Christmas celebrations.[1][2]
Some early Christian rulers, however, interpreted this story as indications that it should be their subjects who should give gifts to their superiors, and insisted on tributes and tithes during that period. This changed around the turn of the millennium following the popularity of the Good King Wenceslas story based on the life of another historical person claimed to be a gift-giver, Saint Wenceslaus.[2] Christmas gift-giving to superiors became less common, and around the time of the Protestant Reformation, customs of gift-giving to children became increasingly widespread in Europe.[2] The custom spread to the United States around the 19th century. This also coincided with the desire of some elites to reduce the rowdiness of adult Christmas celebrations, which in some places were tied to begging, as "bands of young men, often rowdy, would "wassail" from home to home and demand handouts from the gentry". Another related aspect was the growing desire by parents to keep children at home, away from the "corrupting" influence of the urban streets.[3][4]
Another relatively recent change concerned the time of Christmas gift-giving. For many centuries, gift-giving took place on December 6 around Saint Nicholas Day or in early January after New Year's Eve.[2] The popularity of this custom grew after the positive reception of the 1823 poem The Night Before Christmas and the 1843 novella A Christmas Carol.[2] By the end of the 19th century, Christmas Eve replaced early December or January dates as the most common date for gift-giving in the Western culture.[2] It is custom for one to open a single gift on the evening of Christmas Eve.[citation needed]
Economic impact[edit]
Christmas decorations, often featuring Christmas gifts, abound in many shopping malls
Main article: Economics of Christmas
The tradition was also embraced by retailers, for whom the weeks and, eventually, the entire month before Christmas became a very profitable period.[2] Around the turn of the 20th century retailers started directing marketing efforts at children in the hopes that they would entice the parents to buy more goods.[3]
In the early 2000s it was estimated that shoppers in the U.S. alone spend over $4 billion each day during the Christmas shopping season, with an average individual spending over $1,000 on gifts.[2]
There are concerns that gift-giving during Christmas is too commercial. Seventy percent of respondents to an online survey of 13,576 people in 14 European countries in 2016 said that too much attention is put on spending during the Christmas period, 42% said they felt forced to spend more at Christmas, and 10% borrowed money to be able to afford the gifts.[5]
Economist Joel Waldfogel noted that because of the mismatch between what the giftee values the gift and the value paid for by the giver, the gifts lose between 10% to one-third of their value; he calls it the "deadweight loss of Christmas".[6] This leads to gifts often being returned, sold, or re-gifted. In the 2016 European online survey, 15% of respondents were unhappy about their gifts and 10% could not remember what they had received. Twenty-five percent of respondents said they had re-gifted their presents to someone else, 14% sold the items, 10% tried to return them to the store, and 5% returned the gift to the giver.[5] Seniors were more likely to send their unwanted presents to charity, while those aged 25 to 34 "simply threw them away".[5] Gifts that are least likely to be appreciated rely on personal tastes, and include items like perfumes and cosmetics, ornaments, and clothing.[5]
Further reading[edit]
William Waits (October 1994). The Modern Christmas in America: A Cultural History of Gift Giving. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-9284-1.
Joel Waldfogel, The Deadweight Loss of Christmas
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Christmas gifts.
Christmas Wrapping
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Berking, Helmuth (March 30, 1999). Sociology of Giving. SAGE Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-85702-613-2.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Collins, Ace (April 20, 2010). Stories Behind the Great Traditions of Christmas. Zondervan. pp. 96–100. Retrieved April 10, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Ringel, Paul. "Why Do Children Get Presents on Christmas Anyway?". The Atlantic. Retrieved December 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Christmas: How did gift-giving and caroling get started?". Christian Science Monitor. December 21, 2013. ISSN 0882-7729. Retrieved December 4, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d ING.com (December 1, 2016). "The truth about unwanted Christmas gifts". ING.com. Retrieved December 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ "The economic case against Christmas presents". Vox. Retrieved 2017-12-05.
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Autopsy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Post-mortem" redirects here. For other uses, see Post-mortem (disambiguation).
This article is about the medical procedure. For other uses, see Autopsy (disambiguation).
Autopsy
The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, by Rembrandt, depicts an autopsy.
ICD-9-CM
89.8
MeSH
D001344
[edit on Wikidata]
An autopsy (post-mortem examination, obduction, necropsy, or autopsia cadaverum) is a highly specialized surgical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a corpse by dissection to determine the cause and manner of death or to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present for research or educational purposes. It is usually performed by a specialized medical doctor called a pathologist. In most cases, a medical examiner or coroner can determine cause of death and only a small portion of deaths require an autopsy.
Autopsies are performed for either legal or medical purposes. For example, a forensic autopsy is carried out when the cause of death may be a criminal matter, while a clinical or academic autopsy is performed to find the medical cause of death and is used in cases of unknown or uncertain death, or for research purposes. Autopsies can be further classified into cases where external examination suffices, and those where the body is dissected and internal examination is conducted. Permission from next of kin may be required for internal autopsy in some cases. Once an internal autopsy is complete the body is reconstituted by sewing it back together.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology of the word 'Autopsy'
2 Purpose
3 Types
3.1 Forensic autopsy
3.1.1 United States
3.1.2 England and Wales
3.1.3 Other jurisdictions
3.2 Clinical autopsy
4 Prevalence
5 Process
5.1 External examination
5.2 Internal examination
5.3 Reconstitution of the body
6 History
7 Other animals
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Etymology of the word 'Autopsy'[edit]
The term "autopsy" derives from the Ancient Greek αὐτοψία autopsia, "to see for oneself", derived from αὐτός (autos, "oneself") and ὄψις (opsis, "sight, view").[1] The word “autopsy” has been used since around the 17th century, it refers to the examination of inside the dead human body to discover diseases and cause of death.[2]
Purpose[edit]
The principal aims of an autopsy is to determine the cause of death, the state of health of the person before he or she died, and whether any medical diagnosis and treatment before death was appropriate.
In most Western countries the number of autopsies performed in hospitals has been decreasing every year since 1955. Critics, including pathologist and former JAMA editor George D. Lundberg, have charged that the reduction in autopsies is negatively affecting the care delivered in hospitals, because when mistakes result in death, they are often not investigated and lessons therefore remain unlearned.
When a person has given permission in advance of their death, autopsies may also be carried out for the purposes of teaching or medical research.
An autopsy is frequently performed in cases of sudden death, where a doctor is not able to write a death certificate, or when death is believed to result from an unnatural cause. These examinations are performed under a legal authority (Medical Examiner or Coroner or Procurator Fiscal) and do not require the consent of relatives of the deceased. The most extreme example is the examination of murder victims, especially when medical examiners are looking for signs of death or the murder method, such as bullet wounds and exit points, signs of strangulation, or traces of poison. Some religions including Judaism and Islam usually discourage the performing of autopsies on their adherents.[3] Organizations such as ZAKA in Israel and Misaskim in the United States generally guide families how to ensure that an unnecessary autopsy is not made.
Autopsies are used in clinical medicine to identify medical error, or a previously unnoticed condition that may endanger the living, such as infectious diseases or exposure to hazardous materials[4].
A study that focused on myocardial infarction (heart attack) as a cause of death found significant errors of omission and commission,[5] i.e. a sizable number cases ascribed to myocardial infarctions (MIs) were not MIs and a significant number of non-MIs were actually MIs.
A systematic review of studies of the autopsy calculated that in about 25% of autopsies a major diagnostic error will be revealed.[6] However, this rate has decreased over time and the study projects that in a contemporary US institution, 8.4% to 24.4% of autopsies will detect major diagnostic errors.
A large meta-analysis suggested that approximately one-third of death certificates are incorrect and that half of the autopsies performed produced findings that were not suspected before the person died.[7] Also, it is thought that over one fifth of unexpected findings can only be diagnosed histologically, i.e., by biopsy or autopsy, and that approximately one quarter of unexpected findings, or 5% of all findings, are major and can similarly only be diagnosed from tissue.
One study found that (out of 694 diagnoses) "Autopsies revealed 171 missed diagnoses, including 21 cancers, 12 strokes, 11 myocardial infarctions, 10 pulmonary emboli, and 9 endocarditis, among others".[8]
Focusing on intubated patients, one study found "abdominal pathologic conditions — abscesses, bowel perforations, or infarction — were as frequent as pulmonary emboli as a cause of class I errors. While patients with abdominal pathologic conditions generally complained of abdominal pain, results of examination of the abdomen were considered unremarkable in most patients, and the symptom was not pursued".[9]
Types[edit]
There are four main types of autopsies:[10]
Medico-Legal Autopsy or Forensic or coroner's autopsies seek to find the cause and manner of death and to identify the decedent.[10] They are generally performed, as prescribed by applicable law, in cases of violent, suspicious or sudden deaths, deaths without medical assistance or during surgical procedures.[10]
Clinical or Pathological autopsies are performed to diagnose a particular disease or for research purposes. They aim to determine, clarify, or confirm medical diagnoses that remained unknown or unclear prior to the patient's death.[10]
Anatomical or academic autopsies are performed by students of anatomy for study purpose only.
Virtual or medical imaging autopsies are performed utilizing imaging technology only, primarily magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT).[11]
Forensic autopsy[edit]
Autopsy room of the Charité Berlin
A forensic autopsy is used to determine the cause and manner of death. Forensic science involves the application of the sciences to answer questions of interest to the legal system.
Medical examiners attempt to determine the time of death, the exact cause of death, and what, if anything, preceded the death, such as a struggle. A forensic autopsy may include obtaining biological specimens from the deceased for toxicological testing, including stomach contents. Toxicology tests may reveal the presence of one or more chemical "poisons" (all chemicals, in sufficient quantities, can be classified as a poison) and their quantity. Because post-mortem deterioration of the body, together with the gravitational pooling of bodily fluids, will necessarily alter the bodily environment, toxicology tests may overestimate, rather than underestimate, the quantity of the suspected chemical.[12]
Following an in-depth examination of all the evidence, a medical examiner or coroner will assign one of the manners of death provided for in the fact-finder's jurisdiction and will detail the evidence on the mechanism of the death.
United States[edit]
In most[which?] United States jurisdictions[citation needed], each death is categorized as taking place in one of five "manners of death":
Natural
Accident, including both a) deaths resulting from a risk that is either reasonable or neither deliberately assumed nor intentionally created by another person and b) deaths resulting from deliberate assumption of unreasonable risk. (Contrast the definition of "accident" used in England and Wales)
Homicide
Suicide
Undetermined
Most states require the state medical examiner to complete an autopsy report, and many mandate that the autopsy be videotaped.[citation needed]
England and Wales[edit]
Although England and Wales use the "accident" designation, in those jurisdictions the term applies to deaths resulting from a risk that is either a) reasonable (whether assumed deliberately or not) or b) neither i) voluntarily assumed nor ii) intentionally created by another party. For deaths resulting from deliberate assumption of unreasonable risk, England and Wales use the category "misadventure."
Other jurisdictions[edit]
Some jurisdictions[which?] place deaths in absentia, such as deaths at sea and missing persons declared dead in a court of law, in the "Undetermined" category on the grounds that due to the fact-finder's lack of ability to examine the body, the examiner has no personal knowledge of the manner of (assumed) death; others[which?] classify such deaths in an additional category "Other," reserving "Undetermined" for deaths in which the fact-finder has access to the body, but the information provided by the body and examination of it is insufficient to provide sufficient grounds for a determination.
Clinical autopsy[edit]
Pathologist performing a human dissection of the abdominal and thoracic organs in an autopsy room.
Clinical autopsies serve two major purposes. They are performed to gain more insight into pathological processes and determine what factors contributed to a patient's death. Autopsies are also performed to ensure the standard of care at hospitals. Autopsies can yield insight into how patient deaths can be prevented in the future.
Within the United Kingdom, clinical autopsies can be carried out only with the consent of the family of the deceased person, as opposed to a medico-legal autopsy instructed by a Coroner (England & Wales) or Procurator Fiscal (Scotland) to which the family cannot object.[citation needed]
Over time, autopsies have not only been able to determine the cause of death, but also lead to discoveries of various diseases such as fetal alcohol syndrome, Legionnaire's disease, and even viral hepatitis.[13]
Prevalence[edit]
In 2004 in England and Wales, there were 514,000 deaths of which 225,500 were referred to the coroner. Of those, 115,800 (22.5% of all deaths) resulted in post-mortem examinations and there were 28,300 inquests, 570 with a jury.[14]
The rate of consented (hospital) autopsy in the UK and worldwide has declined rapidly over the past 50 years. Turnbull and colleagues from Imperial College London showed that in the UK in 2013 only 0.7% of inpatient adult deaths were followed by consented autopsy.[15]
In the United States, autopsy rates fell from 17% in 1980[16] to 14% in 1985[16] and 11.5% in 1989,[17] although the figures vary notably from county to county.[18]
Process[edit]
Cadaver dissection table. Similar to those used in medical or forensic autopsies.
The body is received at a medical examiner's office, municipal mortuary, or hospital in a body bag or evidence sheet. A new body bag is used for each body to ensure that only evidence from that body is contained within the bag. Evidence sheets are an alternative way to transport the body. An evidence sheet is a sterile sheet that covers the body when it is moved. If it is believed there may be any significant evidence on the hands, for example, gunshot residue or skin under the fingernails, a separate paper sack is put around each hand and taped shut around the wrist.
There are two parts to the physical examination of the body: the external and internal examination. Toxicology, biochemical tests or genetic testing/molecular autopsy often supplement these and frequently assist the pathologist in assigning the cause or causes of death.
External examination[edit]
At many institutions the person responsible for handling, cleaning, and moving the body is called a diener, the German word for servant. In the UK this role is performed by an Anatomical Pathology Technician (APT), who will also assist the pathologist in eviscerating the body and reconstruction after the autopsy. After the body is received, it is first photographed. The examiner then notes the kind of clothes and their position on the body before they are removed. Next, any evidence such as residue, flakes of paint or other material is collected from the external surfaces of the body. Ultraviolet light may also be used to search body surfaces for any evidence not easily visible to the naked eye. Samples of hair, nails and the like are taken, and the body may also be radiographically imaged. Once the external evidence is collected, the body is removed from the bag, undressed, and any wounds present are examined. The body is then cleaned, weighed, and measured in preparation for the internal examination. The scale used to weigh the body is often designed to accommodate the cart that the body is transported on; its weight is then deducted from the total weight shown to give the weight of the body.
If not already within an autopsy room at the city, county or state morgue, the body is transported to one and placed on a table. A general description of the body as regards ethnic group, sex, age, hair colour and length, eye colour and other distinguishing features (birthmarks, old scar tissue, moles, tattoos, etc.) is then made. A voice recorder or a standard examination form is normally used to record this information.
In some countries, e.g., Scotland, France, Germany, and Canada, an autopsy may comprise an external examination only. This concept is sometimes termed a "view and grant". The principle behind this is that the medical records, history of the deceased and circumstances of death have all indicated as to the cause and manner of death without the need for an internal examination.[citation needed]
Internal examination[edit]
If not already in place, a plastic or rubber brick called a "head block" is placed under the shoulders of the deceased, hyperflexing the neck making the spine arch backward while stretching and pushing the chest upward to make it easier to incise. This gives the APT, or pathologist, maximum exposure to the trunk. After this is done, the internal examination begins. The internal examination consists of inspecting the internal organs of the body by dissection for evidence of trauma or other indications of the cause of death. For the internal examination there are a number of different approaches available:
a large and deep Y-shaped incision can be made starting at the top of each shoulder and running down the front of the chest, meeting at the lower point of the sternum (breastbone).
a curved incision made from the tips of each shoulder, in a semi-circular line across the chest/decolletage, to approximately the level of the second rib, curving back up to the opposite shoulder.
a single vertical incision is made from the sternal notch at the base of the neck.
a U-shaped incision is made at the tip of both shoulders, down along the side of the chest to the bottom of the rib cage, following along it. This is typically used on women and during chest-only autopsies.
There is no need for any incision to be made, which will be visible after completion of the examination when the deceased is dressed in a shroud. In all of the above cases the incision then extends all the way down to the pubic bone (making a deviation to either side of the navel) and avoiding, where possible; transsecting any scars which may be present.
Bleeding from the cuts is minimal, or non-existent, because the pull of gravity is producing the only blood pressure at this point, related directly to the complete lack of cardiac functionality. However, in certain cases there is anecdotal evidence that bleeding can be quite profuse, especially in cases of drowning.
At this point, shears are used to open the chest cavity. It is also possible to utilise a simple scalpel blade. The prosector uses the tool to cut through the ribs on the costal cartilage, to allow the sternum to be removed; this is done so that the heart and lungs can be seen in situ and that the heart, in particular the pericardial sac is not damaged or disturbed from opening. A PM 40 knife is used to remove the sternum from the soft tissue which attaches it to the mediastinum. Now the lungs and the heart are exposed. The sternum is set aside and will be eventually replaced at the end of the autopsy.
At this stage the organs are exposed. Usually, the organs are removed in a systematic fashion. Making a decision as to what order the organs are to be removed will depend highly on the case in question. Organs can be removed in several ways: The first is the en masse technique of Letulle whereby all the organs are removed as one large mass. The second is the en bloc method of Ghon. The most popular in the UK is a modified version of this method, which is divided into four groups of organs. Although these are the two predominant evisceration techniques, in the UK variations on these are widespread.
One method is described here: The pericardial sac is opened to view the heart. Blood for chemical analysis may be removed from the inferior vena cava or the pulmonary veins. Before removing the heart, the pulmonary artery is opened in order to search for a blood clot. The heart can then be removed by cutting the inferior vena cava, the pulmonary veins, the aorta and pulmonary artery, and the superior vena cava. This method leaves the aortic arch intact, which will make things easier for the embalmer. The left lung is then easily accessible and can be removed by cutting the bronchus, artery, and vein at the hilum. The right lung can then be similarly removed. The abdominal organs can be removed one by one after first examining their relationships and vessels.
Most pathologists, however, prefer the organs to be removed all in one "block". Using dissection of the fascia, blunt dissection; using the fingers or hands and traction; the organs are dissected out in one piece for further inspection and sampling. During autopsies of infants, this method is used almost all of the time. The various organs are examined, weighed and tissue samples in the form of slices are taken. Even major blood vessels are cut open and inspected at this stage. Next the stomach and intestinal contents are examined and weighed. This could be useful to find the cause and time of death, due to the natural passage of food through the bowel during digestion. The more area empty, the longer the deceased had gone without a meal before death.
A brain autopsy demonstrating signs of meningitis. The forceps (center) are retracting the dura mater (white). Underneath the dura mater are the leptomeninges, which appear to be edematous and have multiple small hemorrhagic foci.
The body block that was used earlier to elevate the chest cavity is now used to elevate the head. To examine the brain, an incision is made from behind one ear, over the crown of the head, to a point behind the other ear. When the autopsy is completed, the incision can be neatly sewn up and is not noticed when the head is resting on a pillow in an open casket funeral. The scalp is pulled away from the skull in two flaps with the front flap going over the face and the rear flap over the back of the neck. The skull is then cut with a circular (or semicircular) bladed reciprocating saw to create a "cap" that can be pulled off, exposing the brain. The brain is then observed in situ. Then the brain's connection to the cranial nerves and spinal cord are severed, and the brain is lifted out of the skull for further examination. If the brain needs to be preserved before being inspected, it is contained in a large container of formalin (15 percent solution of formaldehyde gas in buffered water) for at least two, but preferably four weeks. This not only preserves the brain, but also makes it firmer, allowing easier handling without corrupting the tissue.
Reconstitution of the body[edit]
An important component of the autopsy is the reconstitution of the body such that it can be viewed, if desired, by relatives of the deceased following the procedure. After the examination, the body has an open and empty thoracic cavity with chest flaps open on both sides, the top of the skull is missing, and the skull flaps are pulled over the face and neck. It is unusual to examine the face, arms, hands or legs internally.
In the UK, following the Human Tissue Act 2004 all organs and tissue must be returned to the body unless permission is given by the family to retain any tissue for further investigation. Normally the internal body cavity is lined with cotton, wool, or a similar material, and the organs are then placed into a plastic bag to prevent leakage and are returned to the body cavity. The chest flaps are then closed and sewn back together and the skull cap is sewed back in place. Then the body may be wrapped in a shroud, and it is common for relatives to not be able to tell the procedure has been done when the body is viewed in a funeral parlor after embalming.
History[edit]
See also: History of dissection
Autopsy (1890) by Enrique Simonet.
Dissection, 19th century US.
Around 3000 BC ancient Egyptians were one of the first civilizations to practice the removal and examination of the internal organs of humans in the religious practice of mummification.[1][19]
Autopsies that opened the body to determine the cause of death were attested at least in the early third millennium BC, although they were opposed in many ancient societies where it was believed that the outward disfigurement of dead persons prevented them from entering the afterlife[20] (as with the Egyptians, who removed the organs through tiny slits in the body).[1] Notable Greek autopsists were Galen (AD 129- c. 200/ 216),[21] Erasistratus and Herophilus of Chalcedon, who lived in 3rd century BC Alexandria, but in general, autopsies were rare in ancient Greece.[20] In 44 BC, Julius Caesar was the subject of an official autopsy after his murder by rival senators, the physician's report noting that the second stab wound Caesar received was the fatal one.[20] Julius Caesar had been stabbed a total of 23 times.[22] By around 150 BC, ancient Roman legal practice had established clear parameters for autopsies.[1]
The dissection of human remains for medical or scientific reasons continued to be practiced irregularly after the Romans, for instance by the Arab physicians Avenzoar and Ibn al-Nafis. In Europe they were done with enough regularity to become skilled, as early as 1200, and successful efforts to preserve the body, by filling the veins with wax and metals.[21] Until recently,[when?][21] it was thought that the modern autopsy process derived from the anatomists of the Renaissance. Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682–1771), celebrated as the father of anatomical pathology,[23] wrote the first exhaustive work on pathology, De Sedibus et Causis Morborum per Anatomen Indagatis (The Seats and Causes of Diseases Investigated by Anatomy, 1769).[1]
In the mid-1800s, Carl von Rokitansky and colleagues at the Second Vienna Medical School began to undertake dissections as a means to improve diagnostic medicine, for the first time applying scientific techniques.[verification needed][22]
In 1543 Andreas Vesalius conducted a public dissection of the body of a former criminal. He asserted and articulated the bones, this became the worlds oldest surviving anatomical preparation. It is still displayed at the Anatomical museum at the University of Basel.[24]
The 19th-century medical researcher Rudolf Virchow, in response to a lack of standardization of autopsy procedures, established and published specific autopsy protocols (one such protocol still bears his name). He also developed the concept of pathological processes.
Other animals[edit]
A field post-mortem exam of a ewe.
Post-mortem examination, or necropsy, is far more common in veterinary medicine than in human medicine. For many species that exhibit few external symptoms (sheep), or that are not suited to detailed clinical examination (poultry, cage birds, zoo animals), it is a common method used by veterinary physicians to come to a diagnosis. A necropsy is mostly used like an autopsy to determine cause of death. The entire body is examined at the gross visual level, and samples are collected for additional analyses.[25]
See also[edit]
Body identification
Forensic anthropology
Forensic facial reconstruction
Forensic identification
Murder book
Virtopsy
Vivisection
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Rothenberg, Kelly (2008). "The Autopsy Through History". In Ayn Embar-seddon, Allan D. Pass (eds.). Forensic Science. Salem Press. p. 100. ISBN 978-1-58765-423-7. CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link)
Jump up ^ Clark MJ (2005). "Historical Keyword "autopsy"". Lancet. 366 (9499): 1767. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67715-X.
Jump up ^ Elizabeth C Burton, Kim A Collins. Religions and the Autopsy, EMedicine. Retrieved 2012-09-12.
Jump up ^ Michael Tsokos, "Die Klaviatur des Todes", Knaur, Munich, 2013, pp. 179-189
Jump up ^ Ravakhah K (2006). "Death certificates are not reliable: revivification of the autopsy". South. Med. J. 99 (7): 728–33. doi:10.1097/01.smj.0000224337.77074.57. PMID 16866055.
Jump up ^ Shojania KG, Burton EC, McDonald KM, Goldman L (2003). "Changes in rates of autopsy-detected diagnostic errors over time: a systematic review". JAMA. 289 (21): 2849–56. doi:10.1001/jama.289.21.2849. PMID 12783916.
Jump up ^ Roulson J, Benbow EW, Hasleton PS (2005). "Discrepancies between clinical and autopsy diagnosis and the value of post mortem histology; a meta-analysis and review". Histopathology. 47 (6): 551–9. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2559.2005.02243.x. PMID 16324191.
Jump up ^ Combes A, Mokhtari M, Couvelard A, Trouillet JL, Baudot J, Hénin D, Gibert C, Chastre J (2004). "Clinical and autopsy diagnoses in the intensive care unit: a prospective study". Arch. Intern. Med. 164 (4): 389–92. doi:10.1001/archinte.164.4.389. PMID 14980989.
Jump up ^ Papadakis MA, Mangione CM, Lee KK, Kristof M (1991). "Treatable abdominal pathologic conditions and unsuspected malignant neoplasms at autopsy in veterans who received mechanical ventilation". JAMA. 265 (7): 885–7. doi:10.1001/jama.265.7.885. PMID 1992186.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Strasser, Russell S. (2008). "Autopsies". In Ayn Embar-seddon, Allan D. Pass (eds.). Forensic Science. Salem Press. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-58765-423-7. CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link)
Jump up ^ Roberts IS, Benamore RE, Benbow EW, Lee SH, Harris JN, Jackson A, Mallett S, Patankar T, Peebles C, Roobottom C, Traill ZC (2012). "Post-mortem imaging as an alternative to autopsy in the diagnosis of adult deaths: A validation study". The Lancet. 379 (9811): 136–142. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61483-9. PMC 3262166  . PMID 22112684.
Jump up ^ Mahoney Criminal Defense Group
Jump up ^ Society, New England Anti-Vivisection. "In Research | Alternatives to Animals in Science". Retrieved 2017-02-06.
Jump up ^ UK Department for Constitutional Affairs (2006), Coroners Service Reform Briefing Note, p. 6
Jump up ^ Turnbull A.J.; Osborn M.; Nicholas N. (June 2015). "Hospital Autopsy: endangered or extinct?". ClinPath. 68 (8): 601–4. doi:10.1136/jclinpath-2014-202700. PMC 4518760  . PMID 26076965.
^ Jump up to: a b Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1988) , Current Trends Autopsy Frequency — United States, 1980–1985, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 37(12);191-4
Jump up ^ Pollock DA, O'Neil JM, Parrish RG, Combs DL, Annest JL (1993). "Temporal and geographic trends in the autopsy frequency of blunt and penetrating trauma deaths in the United States". JAMA: the Journal of the American Medical Association. 269 (12): 1525–31. doi:10.1001/jama.1993.03500120063027. PMID 8445815.
Jump up ^ "Products - Data Briefs - Number 67 - August 2011". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2017-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Medicine". Archived from the original on 9 March 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c Schafer, Elizabeth D. (2008). "Ancient science and forensics". In Ayn Embar-seddon, Allan D. Pass (eds.). Forensic Science. Salem Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-1-58765-423-7. CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c Pappas, Stephanie (2013-03-05). "Gnarly Mummy Head Reveals Medieval Science". Discovery News. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
^ Jump up to: a b Bryant, Clifton. Handbook of Death and Dying. California: Sage Publications, Inc, 2003. Print. ISBN 0-7619-2514-7
Jump up ^ Battista Morgagni -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia
Jump up ^ "The Fabric of the human body". stanford.edu. Retrieved 6 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "Necropsy | University Animal Care". uac.arizona.edu. Retrieved 2017-02-06.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Autopsies.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Autopsy.
Autopsy — a detailed description by a pathologist complete with cartoon figures.
The Virtual Autopsy — a site from the University of Leicester where one examines the patient, looks at the (medical) history and gets a try at the diagnosis.
How Stuff Works — Autopsies
Autopsy of a Murder — An interactive exploration of a murder scene and the science involved in a criminalistic investigation: autopsy and laboratory expertise. Produced by the Montreal Science Centre for its namesake exhibition.
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Recitative
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Recitative (/ˌrɛsɪtəˈtiːv/, also known by its Italian name "recitativo" ([retʃitaˈtiːvo])) is a style of delivery (much used in operas, oratorios, and cantatas) in which a singer is allowed to adopt the rhythms of ordinary speech. Recitative does not repeat lines as formally composed songs do. It resembles sung ordinary speech more than a formal musical composition.
Recitative can be distinguished on a continuum from more speech-like to more musical, with more sustained melodic lines. The mostly syllabic recitativo secco ("dry", accompanied only by continuo) is at one end of a spectrum through recitativo accompagnato (using orchestra), the more melismatic arioso, and finally the full-blown aria or ensemble, where the pulse is entirely governed by the music.
The term recitative (or occasionally liturgical recitative) is also applied to the simpler formulas of Gregorian chant, such as the tones used for the Epistle, Gospel, preface and collects; see accentus.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
2 Secco
3 Accompagnato (or obbligato)
4 Post-Wagner uses
5 Instrumental recitative
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Origins[edit]
The first use of recitative in opera was preceded by the monodies of the Florentine Camerata in which Vincenzo Galilei, father of the astronomer Galileo Galilei, played an important role. The elder Galilei, influenced by his correspondence with Girolamo Mei on the writings of the ancient Greeks and with Erycius Puteanus on the writings of Hucbald[1] and wishing to recreate the old manner of storytelling and drama, pioneered the use of a single melodic line to tell the story, accompanied by simple chords from a harpsichord or lute.
In the baroque era, recitatives were commonly rehearsed on their own by the stage director, the singers frequently supplying their own favourite baggage arias which might be by a different composer (some of Mozart's so-called concert arias fall into this category). This division of labour persisted in some of Rossini's works; the secco recitatives for The Barber of Seville and La Cenerentola were composed by assistants.[2]
Secco[edit]
Secco recitatives, popularized in Florence though the proto-opera music dramas of Jacopo Peri and Giulio Caccini during the late 16th century, formed the substance of Claudio Monteverdi's operas during the 17th century, and continued to be used into the 19th century Romantic era by such composers as Gaetano Donizetti, reappearing in Stravinsky's The Rake's Progress. They also influenced areas of music outside opera from the outset; the recitatives of Johann Sebastian Bach, found in his passions and cantatas, are especially notable.
In the early operas and cantatas of the Florentine school, secco recitatives were accompanied by a variety of instruments, mostly plucked fretted strings including the chitarrone, often with a pipe organ to provide sustained tone. Later, in the operas of Vivaldi and Händel, the accompaniment was standardised as a harpsichord and a bass viol or violoncello. When the harpsichord was gradually phased out over the late 18th century, and mostly disappeared in the early 19th century, many opera-houses did not replace it with the fortepiano, a hammered-string keyboard invented in 1700.
Instead the violoncello was left to carry on alone or with reinforcement from a double bass. A 1919 recording of Rossini's Barber of Seville, issued by Italian HMV, gives a unique glimpse of this technique in action, as do cello methods of the period and some scores of Meyerbeer. There are examples of the revival of the harpsichord for this purpose as early as the 1890s (e.g. by Hans Richter for a production of Mozart's Don Giovanni at the London Royal Opera House, the instrument being supplied by Arnold Dolmetsch), but it was not until the 1950s that the 18th-century method was consistently observed once more. In the 2010s, the early music revival movement has led to the re-introduction of harpsichord in some Baroque performances.
Accompagnato (or obbligato)[edit]
Accompanied recitative, known as accompagnato or stromentato, employs the orchestra as an accompanying body. As a result, it is less improvisational and declamatory than recitativo secco, and more song-like. This form is often employed where the orchestra can underscore a particularly dramatic text, as in Thus saith the Lord from Händel's Messiah; Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart were also fond of it. A more inward intensification calls for an arioso; the opening of Comfort ye from the same work is a famous example, while the ending of it ("The voice of him that crieth in the wilderness") is secco.
Sometimes a distinction is made between the more dramatic, expressive, or interjecting 'orchestral recitative' (recitativo obbligato or stromentato) and a more passive and sustained 'accompanied recitative' (recitativo accompagnato).[3]
Post-Wagner uses[edit]
Later operas, under the influence of Richard Wagner, favored through-composition, where recitatives, arias, choruses and other elements were seamlessly interwoven into a whole. Many of Wagner's operas employ sections which are analogous to accompanied recitative.
Recitative is also occasionally used in musicals, being put to ironic use in the finale of Kurt Weill's The Threepenny Opera. It also appears in Carousel and Of Thee I Sing.
George Gershwin used it in his opera Porgy and Bess, though sometimes the recitative in that work is changed to spoken dialogue. Porgy and Bess has also been staged as a musical rather than as an opera.
Instrumental recitative[edit]
Recitative has also sometimes been used to refer to parts of purely instrumental works which resemble vocal recitatives. One of the earliest examples is found in the slow movement of Vivaldi's violin concerto in D, RV 208 which is marked 'Recitative', although it is perhaps more virtuosic and flashy than most operatic recitative. C. P. E. Bach included instrumental recitative in his "Prussian" piano sonatas of 1742, composed at Frederick the Great's court in Berlin. In 1761, Joseph Haydn took his post at Esterhazy Palace and soon after composed his Symphony No. 7 ("Le Midi") in concertante style (i.e. with soloists). In the second movement of that work, the violinist is the soloist in an instrumental recitative.
Ludwig van Beethoven used the instrumental recitative in at least three works, including Piano Sonata No. 17 (The Tempest), Piano Sonata No. 31, and perhaps most famously in the opening section of the Finale of his Ninth Symphony. Here, Beethoven inscribed on the score (in French) "In the manner of a recitative, but in tempo." Leon Plantinga argues that the second movement of Beethoven's Fourth Piano Concerto is also an instrumental recitative,[4] although Owen Jander interprets it as a dialogue.[5]
Other Romantic composers to employ instrumental recitative include Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov (who composed a lyrical, virtuosic recitative for solo violin with harp accompaniment to represent the title character in his orchestral Scheherazade) and Hector Berlioz (whose choral symphony Roméo et Juliette contains a trombone recitative as part of its Introduction).
Arnold Schoenberg labeled the last of his Five Pieces for Orchestra, Op. 16, as "Das obligate Rezitativ" (English: "The obbligato recitative"), and also composed a piece for organ, Variations on a Recitative, Op. 40. Other examples of instrumental recitative in twentieth century music include the third movement of Douglas Moore's Quintet for Clarinet and Strings (1946), the first of Richard Rodney Bennett's Five Impromptus for guitar (1968), the opening section of the last movement of Benjamin Britten's String Quartet No. 3 (1975), and the second of William Bolcom's 12 New Etudes for Piano (1977–86).
See also[edit]
Melodrama
"Recitatif", a short story formatted after a recitative
Spoken word
Sprechgesang
Vocalese
References[edit]
Citations
Jump up ^ Hope 1894, p. ??
Jump up ^ Gossett 2006, p. 249
Jump up ^ "Orchestral recitative". In L. Root, Deane. Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
Jump up ^ Plantinga 1996, p. 186
Jump up ^ Jander 1985, pp. 195–212
Bibliography
Gossett, Philip (2006), Divas and Scholars: Performing Italian Opera, Chicago: University of Chicagho Press. ISBN 9780226304885
Hope, Robert C. (1894), Mediaeval Music: An Historical Sketch, Elliott Stock, 1894; Pranava Books, 2013. ISBN 978-1-40868-650-8
Jander, Owen (1985), "Beethoven's 'Orpheus in Hades': The Andante con moto of the Fourth Piano Concerto", in 19th-Century Music Vol. 8, No. 3 (Spring 1985)
Plantinga, Leon (1999), Beethoven's Concertos: History, Style, Performance, New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. ISBN 0-393-04691-5
External links[edit]
Hirt, Aindrias (Andy),"The Connection Between Fenian Lays, Liturgical Chant, Recitative, and Dán Díreach: a Pre-Medieval Narrative Song Tradition" on otago.academia.edu
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