$E_{\mathrm{rec}}\approx\frac{B(R_{\mathrm{m}})^{2}}{8\pi}\times\pi
R_{\mathrm{m}}^{3}.$ (64)

Then the power is about $E_{\mathrm{rec}}/t_{\mathrm{A}}$, where
$t_{\mathrm{A}}\approx R_{\mathrm{m}}/v_{\mathrm{A}}$ and the Alfven velocity
$v_{\mathrm{A}}=B(R_{\mathrm{m}})/\sqrt{4\pi\rho}$. In Toropina et al. (2001)
Toropina et al. consider two cases: large density ($n\sim 1$ cm-3) and low
density ($v_{\mathrm{A}}\approx c$). In the first case

$\dot{E}_{\mathrm{rec}}\sim
10^{21}B_{12}^{2/3}\left(\frac{v}{200\,\mathrm{km}\,\mathrm{s}^{-1}}\right)^{7/3}\,\mathrm{erg}\,\mathrm{s}^{-1}.$
(65)

In the second, the luminosity is larger due to larger characteristic velocity:

$\dot{E}_{\mathrm{rec}}\sim 1.6\times
10^{24}B_{12}^{2/3}n^{2/3}\left(\frac{v}{200\,\mathrm{km}\,\mathrm{s}^{-1}}\right)^{4/3}\,\mathrm{erg}\,\mathrm{s}^{-1}.$
(66)

But notice the dependence on $n$ which is low.

In the case of reconnection in the tail, the energy might go into accelerating
electrons and then it can be emitted in the radio band.

Potentially, the tail can even reach the light cylinder. So, a region of
opened field lines can be formed. It is tempting to call such an object a
geoejector. However, a particle-producing cascade in the magnetosphere might
be switched off as the NS left the ejector stage long before it reached the
georotator stage. Still, elongated structures due to large spatial velocities
can accompany radio pulsar activity, see a brief discussion in Toropina et al.
(2001), sec. 6.5.

###  6.2 Pulsating magnetospheres and other exotic regimes

Two exotic transient regimes with a pulsating magnetosphere can be realized at
the propeller and the ejector stages.

It was hypothesized (see Lipunov (1992) and references therein) that for
effective cooling, a dense envelope can grow around the magnetosphere at the
propeller stage. Equilibrium at the magnetospheric boundary can be described
as:

$\frac{\mu^{2}}{8\pi R^{6}}=\frac{GM_{\mathrm{sh}}M}{4\pi R^{4}}.$ (67)

Here $M_{\mathrm{sh}}$ is the mass of the accumulating shell. As it grows, the
magnetosphere shrinks until it reaches $R_{\mathrm{co}}$. Then the whole
envelope collapses on the free-fall time scale.

A similar regime of transient accretion can be realized also in the framework
of the settling accretion model Popov et al. (2015). In this case, episodes of
accretion are due to the development of the Rayleigh-Taylor instability at the
magnetospheric boundary.

Another transient regime proposed in Lipunov and Prokhorov (1984), can be
related to the stage of ejector. It can be realized e.g., in a dense stellar
wind of the companion in a binary system. Relativistic wind produced by a
pulsar can be ‘captured’ by the stellar wind. In this case, a cavern is formed
around the NS. With time the pressure inside the cavern grows and so it is
expanding. Pressure in the surrounding medium is not uniform and is decreasing
outwards. Thus, at some point, the cavern opens. This might produce a modest
radio flare. This scenario was proposed to explain properties of the Galactic
center radio transient GCRT 1745-3009 Popov (2008). Such pulsating caverns can
be also formed around isolated NSs.

Finally, we want to mention again a regime of enhanced rotational energy
losses at the radio pulsar stage when the configuration of magnetic field
lines is modified by an accretion flow. This model was proposed by Parfrey et
al. Parfrey et al. (2016) and we described it in some detail above (Sec. 5).
This is again a hybrid stage as a relativistic wind from the compact object
and an accretion disc inside a light cylinder around coexist. It might be
possible to identify this stage (if it is realized in nature) in binary
systems.

##  7 Discussion and conclusions

Spin properties of NSs – period, period derivatives, their correlations with
other parameters e.g., flux, etc. – are often well-measured and provide a
model-independent source of information about these compact objects. Thus, it
is important to know how these properties are related to other parameters
(e.g., magnetic field, accretion rate, etc.) and how they evolve in time.

Unfortunately now, even in a clearer case of radio pulsars, we do not have a
complete understanding of how spin parameters are related to other properties.
Thus, above we provided a review of different models of spin behavior of NSs
at various stages.

Lack of understanding is related partly to complicated physical processes at
work, and partly to the absence of detailed observational data. Theoretical
questions are related to the unknown equation of state (EOS) of NS interiors
(see e.g., a review in Sumiyoshi et al. (2022) and references therein), to
poorly known topology and evolution of the magnetic field (see reviews Igoshev
et al. (2021); Gourgouliatos et al. (2022)), and to many uncertainties in
plasma-magnetic field interaction (see Wang (2016); Armitage (2022)). From the
observational side, for example, there is no final description of the radio
pulsar stage. On the other hand, there are no detected isolated accreting NSs
or NSs at the stage of georotator. This situation results in many different
approaches to describe the spin evolution of NSs.

It is tempting to say that in the near future, thanks to advances in 3D MHD
modeling of processes around NSs and with the appearance of new observational
facilities many puzzles of magneto-rotational behavior and evolution of NSs
will be solved. However, more than half a century of studies in this field of
research suggests that we have to be more realistic. It seems that many
approaches suggested already in the 1970s despite all the uncertainties and
simplifications will be used in the forthcoming years to derive properties of
NSs from spin measurements.

We conclude by stating that despite our understanding of the spin behavior of
NSs is far from being complete, there are many useful approaches suggested by
many authors, and step by step we approach a better description of the
magneto-rotational evolution of NSs.

PA made the main contribution to Sec. 5, except 5.2, AB – to Sec. 3, and SP –
to Secs. 1, 2, 4, 5.2, 6, and 7. The authors contributed equally to the final
editing and discussion of the manuscript.

SP acknowledges support from Simons Foundation. PA was supported by Simons
Foundation grant 00001470.

All data owned by the authors can be obtained on a reasonable request.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank anonymous referees for useful comments. The authors declare no
conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in
the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the
manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results. Abbreviations The
following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
AINS | Accreting isolated neutron star
---|---
AMXP | Accreting millisecond X-ray pulsar
CCO | Central compact object
EOS | Equation of state
HMXB | High mass X-ray binary
INS | Isolated neutron star
ISM | Interstellar medium
LXMB | Low mass X-ray binary
MHD | Magnetohydrodynamic
MSP | Millisecond pulsar
MTD | Magnetically threaded disc
NS | Neutron star
PIC | Particle-in-cell
RPP | Rotation powered pulsar
SDI | Spin-disc interaction
SN | Supernova
SNR | Supernova remnant
TMSP | Transitional millisecond pulsar
UV | Ultra-violet
XRP | X-ray pulsar
no References yes

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