surface, interior and atmosphere and their various interactions.

EnVision will deliver new insights into the planet’s geological history
through complementary imagery, polarimetry, radiometry and spectroscopy of the
surface coupled with subsurface sounding and gravity mapping; it will search
for thermal, morphological, and gaseous signs of volcanic and other geological
activity. Key volatile species (water, HDO, SO2, CO, COS) will be tracked from
their sources and sinks at the surface through the clouds up to the
mesosphere. Following the same approach through which our understanding of
Earth and Mars has been developed, EnVision will combine global observations
at low or moderate spatial resolution (e.g. surface emissivity and atmosphere
composition) with regionally targeted observations using higher spatial
resolutions from SAR and subsurface sounding radar profiles. EnVision’s
required science orbit is a low, quasi-polar orbit with an inclination between
87 and 89∘, an altitude of 220 to 510 km above ground, with a resulting
orbital period of $\approx$ 92 min. The choice of science orbit around Venus
is mostly driven by the radio science (RSE) gravity experiment and the
operational altitude range for the SAR and SRS instruments.

EnVision’s VenSAR radar, designed and built by NASA’s Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, will contribute to addressing some of the key science objectives
of the mission. It will image pre-selected Regions of Interest with a
resolution of 30 m/pixel and high-resolution images (10 m/pixel) for more than
2% of the surface during the nominal mission. Surface emissivity and roughness
will be derived from the imaging in HV (horizontal transmit, vertical receive)
and HH (horizontal transmit, horizontal receive) polarizations as well as
passive radiometry. Comparison to the Magellan images and with the VenSAR data
set will allow searching for surface changes due to volcanic, tectonic and
landscape-forming processes on a year-to-decade timescale. Used in passive
radiometry mode, VenSAR will map the thermal emission emanating from Venus’
surface with significantly better precision and accuracy than the Magellan
radar. Emission maps, in the form of surface brightness temperature maps, will
then be used to search for thermal anomalies or, if the surface temperature is
known, to map the emissivity of the surface which, in turn, provides insights
into its composition (through the dielectric constant) and physical properties
(roughness, density). Decadal timescale surface modifications will be assessed
by comparing EnVision images to Magellan data.

The characterization of past and/or current volcanic activity will be
conducted not only by surface changes but also by monitoring atmospheric
variabilities such as water vapor or volcanic ash plumes, over the course of
the six-Venus sidereal days nominal mission (4 Earth years). Species that have
been observed to be the most variable in the atmosphere of Venus - SO2, SO,
H2O, CO, COS, H22SO4 \- are often associated with volcanic emissions on Earth.
The goal of EnVision is to understand the intrinsic atmospheric variability on
a range of time scales ranging from hours to years, and how it can be
associated with extrinsic inputs such as complex geological terrains or
volcanotectonic features. Using its complementary suite of instruments as well
as the Radio Science Experiment, EnVision will search for water vapor
anomalies in three different altitude bands. Measurement of gaseous species
below the clouds at altitudes of 0 - 50 km will be achieved thanks to several
IR spectral transparency “windows” at around 1 $\upmu$m, at 1.17 $\upmu$m and
2.3 $\upmu$m; within the clouds, by characterizing the attenuation in the
clouds of thermal emission from the low atmosphere; and above the clouds, by
investigating variations of sulfur and water vapor species and related cloud
properties. The RSE will also, through gravimetry, provide essential data
(like the tidal Love number k2) regarding the structure of the planet’s
interior, like the size of the core, and possibly its state (liquid or solid),
which will prove invaluable as constraints for long-term geodynamic evolution
models.

Several key gases will be mapped below the cloud deck by VenSpec-H: water
vapor (H2O and HDO), sulfur compounds (SO2, COS) and carbon monoxide (CO) -
these are all potential volcanic gases. This will provide estimates regarding
the interior composition and the redox state, and it will help to improve the
modeling of outgassing processes throughout the history of Venus. In
particular, discovering spatial variability of the D/H ratio – whether
associated with volcanic plumes or other fractionating processes – would be
fundamental for understanding the history of water on Venus. EnVision, with
VenSPEC-U, will also resume the observations of trace gases in the mesosphere
conducted by previous instruments such as VEx/SPICAV-UV (Marcq et al., 2013,
2020) and HST/STIS (Jessup et al., 2015). Simultaneous and co-located IR
observations will allow simultaneous retrieval of water vapor, carbon monoxide
and further key tracer species, such as SO2, OCS, HDO or hydrogen halides
(Wilson et al., 2024). VenSpec-M micron surface emission data at $\approx$1
will constrain surface mineralogy of features like tesserae, thus allowing to
search for felsic crust and/or sedimentary rocks, while also studying cloud
microphysics and dynamics. Together, these observations will provide an
unprecedented view of transport and chemical processes at the cloud-top, and a
better understanding of volatile transport throughout the atmosphere.

###  6.4 Other advanced missions

Other missions are being prepared at this time. VENERA-D (Roskosmos) is
designed as an ambitious successor of the VENERA and Vega missions and aims at
providing surface in-situ measurements and extending the duration of the
presence of instruments at the surface of Venus. It is currently in phase A
development stage. The preferred targeted area, for now, is the regional
plains. VENERA-D features a very wide set of scientific objectives. It should
include an orbiter focused on the thermal structure and composition of the
atmosphere, that will also cover its dynamics, the magnetosphere, atmospheric
escape, isotopic measurements, and study of the clouds. A lander is also
included for descent measurements and geophysical experiments at the surface
(Venera-D Joint Science Definition Team, 2019). This lander part of the
proposed mission, in particular, would be able to bring unique in-situ
measurements related to the local subsurface composition and properties or the
surface mineralogy, including, for example, radiogenic elements abundances,
useful as constraints on Venus crustal production evolution, and detection of
water in surface minerals and their redox state (for surface-atmosphere
interaction). It would also provide valuable observation of the still poorly
understood near-surface atmosphere (vertical profiles of the composition,
including isotopes and trace elements, and of the thermal structure of the
atmosphere).

Another mission with a clear set of objectives and payload, at the moment, is
the Venus Orbiter Mission, also known as Shukrayaan-1. The mission will
leverage the expertise of ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation) to map the
surface of Venus with a polarymetric SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar). The list
of other instruments is not yet finalized, but the goals should include a
variety of geodynamical and geological topics. The signature aim of the
mission is to look at the structure of the subsurface of Venus, and possibly
detect buried lava flows and craters. Shukrayaan-1 aims at identifying
volcanically-active areas, by IR and SAR imaging, to constrain present-day
volcanic production. It would also look at the past of Venus, first by
characterizing impact craters at a high resolution to estimate how much they
are altered (Herrick et al., 2023), which affects our understanding of the age
of the surface and past volcanic activity. It will also image tesserae, as a
unique feature of Venus. Shukrayaan-1 should also include an atmospheric
component, first looking at the atmosphere composition, signatures of
volcanism (like SO2 and its cycle) and atmosphere/clouds dynamics (super-
rotation, structure, albedo). The final component of the mission will address
plasma physics to characterize the escape from the upper atmosphere of Venus.

The Venus Life Finder mission is a series of probes sponsored by the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (i.e. Seager et al., 2022) that would
target the atmosphere of Venus with the specific goal of assessing the
presence of life or signs of life. It has a more specific astrobiology goal,
than the more general calling of the other missions discussed above. The first
small probe is proposed to launch in 2025 and is set for short-duration
atmospheric entry. It will make in-situ measurements, searching for organic
compounds at the cloud level and their composition and shape. It will also
retrieve additional data on the pressure, altitude and temperature of the
atmosphere. A second later stage of the mission will involve the deployment of
a balloon in the cloud layer to make in-situ measurements (in particular, pH,
O2, NH3, PH3, H2, and non-volatile elements) and estimate its habitability. A
third probe could then include a sample return mission.

Finally, Japan and China have also announced orbiters proposed for launch
before the end of this decade along the same scientific guidelines as
discussed above (Antonita et al., 2022; Widemann et al., 2022).

###  6.5 Future missions and concepts

Future mission concepts (Limaye and Garvin, 2023) aim at closing the gaps that
are still left after the current missions have reached Venus. As discussed
before, the structure of the interior of Venus is still poorly constrained.
They will also have to mitigate the harsh environment of Venus’ surface and
lower atmosphere. This is why balloons have long been suggested as a valid
approach while staying at a relatively safe altitude (i.e. Ainsworth, 1970,
for atmosphere studies), for extended missions (Bugga et al., 2022; Arredondo
et al., 2022). Balloons allow direct access to areas of interest, such as the
clouds themselves (i.e. Agrawal et al., 2022; Seager et al., 2023, for
habitability studies). Indeed, atmospheric studies (dynamics, chemistry,
radiative balance) would obviously benefit from aerial platforms, and other
prime targets for study include the detection of volcanic gases (Wilson et
al., 2024) and isotopic measurements of volatile elements including noble
gases (Avice et al., 2022). Balloons could also be an interesting platform for
the solid planet, in particular, for airborne seismometers (Krishnamoorthy and
Bowman, 2023) that could last long enough to measure Venus-quakes. This would
constitute an alternative to the surface seismometer missions (i.e. Kremic et
al., 2020) that require high-temperature electronics to reach a goal of 120
days of operation. Airborne seismometers have been successfully tested on
Earth (for example Garcia et al., 2022) and should benefit from the high
density of Venus’ atmosphere (Lognonné et al., 2015). Such measurements would
finally provide constraints on the structure and tectonics of the planet (core
radius, mantle thickness, global level of seismic activity), which we are
still sorely lacking even though they may prove critical for internal
modeling. Balloons could also be a platform for magnetometers (Arredondo et
al., 2022), in a bid to detect possible ancient remanent magnetic fields in
old crustal material (i.e. O’Rourke et al., 2018), which could help constrain
the thermal history and structure of Venus.

However, it is likely that some questions could remain unanswered until in-
situ measurements are made at the surface of Venus, with mineralogical sensors
and instruments like drills. This would require a considerable investment in
new technology in terms of high-temperature electronics (Wilson et al., 2016)
and improved cooling systems, considering the high-pressure, high-temperature
Venusian environment. Notably, surface probes in the past (and including
proposed missions) targeted Venus’ plains for security. Presumably,
contrasting those measurements with in-situ data from tesserae terrains would
greatly improve our understanding of the relevance of these landforms in the
context of Venus’ history. Other uses of surface probes include the
measurement of the surface heat flux, despite probable spatial variations,
that informs the lithosphere thickness and constrains interior models of the
structure, dynamics and composition of Venus (Rolf et al., 2022; Gillmann et
al., 2022). Finally, in-situ measurements could bring a trove of measurements
on the thermal properties, structure and dynamics of the lower and near-
surface atmosphere, which is still poorly understood at present-day. Another
type of mission could be a sample return mission, with the collection of
samples of gases contained in the Venus atmosphere and their return to Earth.
This type of mission presents important challenges, notably because the
atmospheric samples would be collected during a hypervelocity entry ($>$10 km
s-1, see Rabinovitch et al. (2019)), involving partial ionization of the gas
in the plasma in front of the probe and potential elemental and/or isotopic
fractionation of the sampled gas. However, the potential scientific
discoveries allowed by the precise measurements of Venus gases with state-of-
the-art techniques installed in Earth-based laboratories represent an
important motivation to explore the feasibility of such mission concepts
(Widemann et al., 2022).

##  7 Conclusion

Our understanding of Venus has advanced in leaps over the last decades despite
the relatively low number of missions targeting this planet compared to Mars,
for example. The scientific community now has access to a wide range of
measurements pertaining to most aspects of the planet, and many key
discoveries have been made. Notable recent developments include a better grasp
of the atmosphere dynamics and the origin of its super-rotation, but also a
growing realisation that Venus is very likely still an active world, from an
internal point of view, albeit a very different one compared to Earth.
Unfortunately, observations have been complicated by a relatively young
surface and hellish atmospheric conditions. For these reasons, it is the
atmosphere that received most of the attention lately. Comparatively, we still
know very little for sure about the solid planet: interior properties remain
mostly unknown and are generally assumed to be comparable to Earth’s, while
even the surface characteristics of Venus are poorly understood. Thankfully,
we have finally reached a point where we have a good idea of what we do not
know and how to get there. Additionally, the importance of Venus is now being
recognized in the solar system and exoplanet studies. New selected, and
proposed missions are set to close the gaps in the data. While the upcoming
missions to Venus will not bring all the answers we need, they go after one of
the biggest identified mysteries - the past evolution of Venus - with a
multidisciplinary approach designed to use as many available constraints as
possible.

## Acknowledgements

The authors thank the anonymous reviewer for his constructive comments that
helped to improve the manuscript. CG acknowledges that this work has been
carried out within the framework of the NCCR PlanetS supported by the Swiss
National Science Foundation under grants 51NF40$\\_182901$ and
51NF40$\\_205606$. ML acknowledges support by a postdoctoral grant from
France’s Centre National d’Études Spatiales (CNES). ML acknowledges funding
from the European Union’s Horizon Europe research and innovation program under
the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement 101110489/MuSICA-V. GA acknowledges
France’s Centre National d’Études Spatiales (CNES) for funding support of
Venus related studies.

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