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Under the head of particles are included sentence adverbs (1094) and conjunctions. Many sentence adverbs remained such, some sank to mere enclitics, others became pure conjunctions, while still others fluctuated in function, being now adverbial, now conjunctional, as καί even and and, οὐδέ not even and nor, γάρ in fact and for, πρίν sooner and until or before.
Conjunctions are either coördinating or subordinating. The coördinating conjunctions with their several varieties are given in 2163. The subordinating conjunctions are
Causal: ὅτι, διότι, διόπερ, ἐπεί, ἐπειδή, ὅτε, ὁπότε, ὡς (2240).
Comparative: ὡς, ὥσπερ, καθάπερ, ὅπως, ᾗ, ὅπῃ, ᾗπερ (2463; cp. 2481).
Concessive: καὶ εἰ (κει᾽), καὶ ἐό̄ν (κἄ̄ν), εἰ καί, ἐὰ̄ν καί (2369).
Conditional: εἰ, ἐά̄ν, ἤν, ἄ̄ν (2283).
Consecutive: ὥστε, ὡς (2250).
Declarative: ὅτι, διότι, οὕνεκα, ὁθούνεκα, ὡς (2578).
Final: ἵνα, ὅπως, ὡς, μή, etc. (2193; cp. 2209, 2221).
Local: οὗ, ὅπου, οἷ, ὅποι, ἔνθα, ὅθεν, ὁπόθεν, ᾗ, ὅπῃ, etc (2498).
Temporal: ὅτε, ὁπότε, ἡνίκα, ἐπεί, ἐπειδή, ὡς, μέχρι, ἔστε, ἕως, πρίν, etc (2383).
Some conjunctions belong to more than one class.
Greek has an extraordinary number of sentence adverbs (or particles in the narrow sense) having a logical or emotional (rhetorical) value. Either alone or in combination these sentence adverbs give a distinctness to the relations between ideas which is foreign to other languages, and often resist translation by separate words, which in English are frequently over emphatic and cumbersome in comparison to the light and delicate nature of the Greek originals (e.g. ἄρα, γέ, τοί). The force of such words is frequently best rendered by pause, stress, or alterations of pitch. To catch the subtle and elusive meaning of these often apparently insignificant elements of speech challenges the utmost vigilance and skill of the student.
The particles show different degrees of independence as regards their position. Many are completely independent and may occupy any place in the sentence; some may occur only at the beginning (prepositive particles, as ἀτάρ); others find their place only after one or more words at the beginning (postpositive particles, as γάρ, δέ); and some are attached closely to a preceding word o<*> even form compounds with that word wherever it may occur (γέ, τέ).
Some verbal forms have virtually become particles, e.g. ἄγε used with the second person plural, ὁρᾷς used of several persons, parenthetic οἶμαι, δῆλο<*> ὅτι, εὖ οἶδ᾽ ὅτι, εὖ ἴσθ᾽ ὅτι (2585).
As regards their meaning, particles may be arranged in classes, e.g adversative, affirmative, asseverative, concessive, confirmative, conjunctive, infer ential, intensive, interrogative, limitative, negative, etc. These classes canno<*> always be sharply distinguished: some particles fall under two or more classes Many particles, which serve to set forth the logical relation between clauses, ha<*> originally only an intensive or confirmatory force that was confined to their ow<*> clause. The following sections deal only with the commoner uses of the most noteworthy particles.
ἀλλά , a strongly adversative conjunction (stronger than δέ) connects sentences and clauses, and corresponds pretty closely to but; at times ἀλλά need not or cannot be translated (2781 b). In form (but with changed accent) ἀλλά was originally the same wor<*> as the accusative neuter plural ἄλλα other things used adverbially = on the other hand. ἀλλά marks opposition, contrast, protest, dif<*> ference, objection, or limitation; and is thus used both where one notion entirely excludes another and where two notions are no<*> mutually exclusive. ἀλλά is often freely repeated in successive clauses.
The Antecedent Statement is Negative.—In its simplest use ἀλλ<*> introduces a positive statement after a negative clause. Thus, οὐκ ἀνδρὸς ὅρκο<*> πίστις, ἀλλ᾽ ὅρκων ἀνήρ his oath is not the warrant of a man, but the man is war rant of his oath A. fr. 394, οὐ γὰρ κραυγῇ ἀλλὰ σῑγῇ ὡς ἀνυστὸν . . . προσῇσαν fo<*> they came on, not with shouts, but with as little noise as possible X. A. 1.8.11.
a. After a question implying a negative answer or a question to be refute<*> ἀλλά may have the force of (nay) rather, on the contrary. Thus, τί δεῖ σε ἰένα . . .; ἀλλὰ ἄλλους πέμψον what's the need of your going? Nay rather send oth<*> ers X. A. 4.6.19. Here ἀλλ᾽ ου᾽ (μή) has the force of and not rather (2781 b) as τίδεῖ ἐμβαλεῖν λόγον περὶ τούτου, ἀλλ᾽ οὐχὶ προειπεῖν ὅτι οὕτω ποιήσεις; why is i<*> necessary to propose a discussion about this and not rather announce that you will have it so? X. C. 2.2.19.
After a negative clause, or a question implying a negative answer ἀλλά, or more commonly the colloquial ἀλλ᾽ ἤ, may mean except, the combination being equivalent either to ἀλλά or to ἤ. In the preceding clause a form of ἄλλο or ἕτερος is often expressed. Thus,
no one smote him except myselfἔπαισε . . . νιν οὔτις ἀλλ᾽ ἐγώ
wishing to praise nothing except wealthοὐδὲν ἐθέλοντες ἐπαινεῖν ἀλλ᾽ ἢ τὸν πλοῦτον
a. Distinguish the use of ἀλλ᾽ ἤ except (= εἰ μή) in τὸ γοῦν σημεῖον ἕτερον φαί νεται, ἀλλ᾽ ἢ οὐ καθορῶ the device at any rate appears different, unless I can't se<*> Ar. Eq. 953.
οὐδὲν ἀλλ᾽ ἤ nothing but is also used elliptically, apparently by a<*> original suppression of a form of ποιῶ or γίγνομαι; in effect, however, the phras<*> has acquired a purely adverbial sense (merely). Thus, διεφθάρμεθα . . . ὑπ᾽ ἀνδρῶ οὐδὲν ἀλλ᾽ ἢ φενᾱκίζειν δυναμένων we have been ruined by men who are able (to do nothing except deceive (i.e. able merely to deceive) I. 8.36.
a. With the above use compare οὐδὲν ἄλλο ἤ nothing else than, used without, and with, ellipse; as οἱ μύ̄ριοι ἱππεῖς οὐδὲν ἄλλο ἢ μύ̄ριοί εἰσιν ἄνθρωποι your ten thousand horse are nothing more (else) than ten thousand men X. A. 3.2.18, οὐδὲν ἄλλο ἢ πόλιν τὴν ἑαυτοῦ ἀπόλειπων ἕκαστος doing nothing else than each abandoning his own city T. 2.16. So also οὐδὲν ἄλλο . . . ἤ D. 8.27. Cp. ἄλλο οὐδὲν ἤ , as in ἄλλο οὐδὲν ἢ ἐκ γῆς ἐναυμάχουν they did nothing else than conduct ( = they practically conducted) a sea-fight from the land T. 4.14. Cp. 946, 2652.
The origin of ἀλλ᾽ ἤ is disputed, some scholars regarding ἀλλ᾽ as ἀλλά (originally ἄλλα, 2775), while others derive ἀλλ᾽ directly from ἄλλο, which is thought to have lost its force and consequently its accent. In some passages the Mss. do not distinguish between ἀλλ᾽ and ἄλλ᾽; and ἀλλ᾽ ἤ and ἄλλο ἤ differ only slightly in meaning. In some of the above cases ἀλλ᾽ has an adjectival force, in some it hovers between an adjective and a conjunction, and in others it clearly has become a conjunction.
After a comparative (μᾶλλον, τὸ πλέον) in a negative clause ἀλλά has the force of as. Thus, καὶ ἔστιν ὁ πόλεμος οὐχ ὅπλων τὸ πλέον ἀλλὰ δαπάνης and war is not so much (lit. more) a matter of arms as (but rather) of money T. 1.83. Here the clause with ἀλλά is more emphatic than if ἤ had been used. Cp. “there needed no more but to advance one step”: Steele.
The Antecedent Statement is Affirmative.—ἀλλά is sometimes found after an affirmative statement.
a. The antecedent clause often has a concessive force, and frequently takes μέν (2900). Thus,
the part where we are seems to me to be well disposed, but the wings cause me uneasinessτὰ μὲν καθ᾽ ἡμᾶς ἔμοιγε δοκεῖ καλῶς ἔχειν· ἀλλὰ τὰ πλάγια λῡπεὶ με
b. ἀλλ᾽ ου᾽ (μή) after an affirmative statement often has the force of and not, and not rather, instead of (sometimes with a touch of irony). Thus, ἐκεῖθεν ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἐνθένδε ἡρπάσθη she was carried off from there and not (or simply not) from here P. Phae. 229d, ἐμοὶ ὀργίζονται ἀλλ᾽ οὐχ αὑτοῖς they are angry with me instead of (or and not rather with) themselves P. A. 23c. In such cases καὶ οὐ (μή) would not repudiate the opposition.
ἀλλά in Apodosis.—After a concession or a condition expressed or implied, the apodosis may be emphatically introduced by ἀλλά, ἀλλὰ . . . γε, ἀλλ᾽ οὖν γε still, yet, at least. Thus, εἰ σῶμα δοῦλον, ἀλλ᾽ ὁ νοῦς ἐλεύθερος if the body is enslaved, the mind at least is free A. fr. 854, εἰ δ᾽ ἐν πᾶσι τούτοις ἡττῴμεθα, ἀλλὰ τό γέ τοι πῦρ κρεῖττον καρποῦ ἐστιν but if we should be baffled in all these points, still, as they say, fire is stronger than the fruit of the field X. A. 2.5.19. So also in clauses other than conditional; as ἀλλ᾽ ἐπεὶ . . . πατέρα τόνδ᾽ ἐμὸν οὐκ ἀνέτλᾱτ᾽, . . . ἀλλ᾽ ἐμὲ . . . οἰκτί̄ρατε but since ye did not bear with my father, pity me at least S. O. C. 241.
ἀλλά attached to Single Words.—ἀλλά, attached to a single word in an adverbial sense, may stand in the interior of the sentence (not in Hom.). Thus, ἀλλὰ νῦν now at least, as in τί δῆτ᾽ ἂν ἀλλὰ νῦν σ᾽ ἔτ᾽ ὠφελοῖμ᾽ ἐγώ, how pray, can I serve thee even now? S. Ant. 552. So with γέ, as
if therefore you still desire even nowἐὰ̄ν οὖν ἀλλὰ νῦν γ᾽ ἔτι . . . ἐθελήσητε
ἀλλά opposing Whole Sentences.—ἀλλά well, well but, nay but, however is often used, especially at the beginning of a speech, in opposition either to something said (or supposed to be meant) by another, or to a latent feeling in the mind of the writer or speaker himself. Thus, ἀλλὰ πρῶτον μὲν μνησθήσομαι . . . ὃ τελευταῖον κατ᾽ ἐμοῦ εἶπε well, I will first allude to the charge against me which he mentioned last X. H. 2.3.35, ἀλλ᾽ ὤφελε μὲν Κῦρος ζῆν· ἐπεὶ δὲ τετελεύτηκεν κτλ. well, I would that Cyrus were alive; but since he is dead, etc. X. A. 2.1.4. Often of remonstrance or protest, as ἀλλ᾽ ἀμήχανον nay, it is impossible E. El. 529. ἀλλά is also especially common when a previous train of thought or remark is impatiently interrupted, as ἀλλὰ ταῦτα μὲν τί δεῖ λέγειν; but what is the need of recounting this? S. Ph. 11. Similarly in
a. Replies (often in quick, abrupt, or decisive answers): ἤρετο ὅ τι εἴη τὸ σύνθημα· ὁ δ᾽ ἀπεκρἱ̄νατο· Ζεὺς σωτὴρ καὶ νἱ̄κη· ὁ δὲ Κῦρος ἀκούσᾱς Ἀλλὰ δέχομαί τε, ἔφη, καὶ τοῦτο ἔστω he asked what the watchword was; and he replied: “Zeus the saviour and Victory;” and Cyrus, on hearing this, said, “Well, I accept it and so let it be” X. A. 1.8.17.
b. Assent, with an adversative sense implied (cp. oh, well): ἀλλ᾽ ει᾽ δοκεῖ, χωρῶμεν well, if it pleases thee, let us be going S. Ph. 645.
c. Appeals, exhortations, proposals, and commands:
but let us goἀλλ᾽ ἴωμεν
d. Wishes and imprecations: ἀλλ᾽ εὐτυχοίης well, my blessings on thee! S. O. T. 1478.
e. Questions, to mark surprise: πῶς εἶπας; ἀλλ᾽ ἦ καὶ σοφὸς λέληθας ὤν; what dost thou mean? can it really be that thou art subtle too and without my knowing it? E. Alc. 58.
ἀλλά is often used when a speaker introduces a supposed objection (either in his own name or in that of his opponent), and immediately answers it; as ἀλλὰ νὴ τὸν Δία ἐκεῖν᾽ ἂν ἴσως εἴποι πρὸς ταῦτα κτλ. but, by Zeus, he might perhaps say in reply to this, etc. D. 20.3. ἀλλά may here put the supposed objection and also give the answer. Thus, τί γὰρ καὶ βουλόμενοι μετεπέμπεσθ᾽ ἂν αὐτοὺς ἐν τούτῳ τῷ καιρῷ; ἐπὶ τὴν εἰρήνην; ἀλλ᾽ ὑπῆρχεν ἅπᾱσιν· ἀλλ᾽ ἐπὶ τὸν πόλεμον; ἀλλ᾽ αὐτοὶ περὶ τῆς εἰρήνης ἐβουλεύεσθε for with what possible desire would you have been sending them at that juncture? With a view to peace? Why (but) peace was open to all. With a view to war? Why (but) you were yourselves deliberating about peace D. 18.24. Cp. French mais introducing a reply to a question.
a. So in rapid dialogue objections may take the form of questions, in which each ἀλλά after the first may be rendered by or. Cp. 2654.
ἀλλά with other Particles.—For example:
ἀλλὰ γάρ 2816; on ου᾽ γὰρ ἀλλά , see 2767.
ἀλλὰ . . . γε but at any rate.
ἀλλά γέ τοι ( τοί γε ) yet at least, yet be sure.
ἀλλὰ δή well then.
ἀλλ᾽ ἦ ; why how? can it really be that? what, can it be true? Here ἀλλά marks surprise, while ἦ asks the question.
ἀλλὰ μέντοι nay, but; well, however; yet truly. On ου᾽ μέντοι ἀλλά , see 2767.
ἀλλὰ μήν nay, but; but then; but surely. Often to introduce an objection, to reject an alternative, often merely to introduce a new idea or to resume an interrupted thought. On ου᾽ μὴν ἀλλά , see 2767.
ἀλλ᾽ ὅμως but still. Often without a verb, to introduce the reply to an objection.
ἀλλ᾽ οὐδέ is sometimes used elliptically, as in ὑπὲρ . . . ὧν οὗτος ἀπήγγειλε προ`ς ὑ̄μᾶς ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ μῑκρόν nay, there is not even ever so little (not only not a great deal but not even a little) concerning which he reported to you D. 19.37. ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ μὲν δή is often used to reject an alternative.
ἀλλ᾽ οὖν ( γε ) but then, well then, well at any rate; stronger than δ᾽ οὖν.
ἄρα (Epic ἄρα and enclitic ἄρ before a consonant, ῥά usually after monosyllables; all postpositive), a connective, confirmatory, and inferential particle marking the immediate connection and succession of events and thoughts; the natural, direct, and expected consequence of a previous statement of the existing situation, or of the realization of experience of some sort; and agreement of various kinds, as between assertion and reality, cause and result, premise and conclusion, explanation and what was to be explained.
a. ἄρα marks a consequence drawn from the connection of thought, and expresses impression or feeling; the stronger οὖν marks a consequence drawn from facts (a positive conclusion).
The etymology of ἄρα, and hence its original meaning, is obscure. Some derive it from the root ἀρ, seen in ἀρ-αρ-ίσκω fit, join, ἄρτι just; and thus regard the proper sense as fittingly, accordingly. Others think the earliest meaning was truly, forsooth and connect ἄρα with a lost adj. ἀρίς, surviving in ἄρι-στος, ἀρί-γνωτος. On this interpretation ἄρα would originally assert the truth of its own clause. ἄρα is found also in ἆρα and γάρ.
ἄρα is used in Homer much more freely than in Attic, and often so as to defy exact translation. In general ἄρα in Epic marks immediate connection and succession, a natural consequence of something already said or done; gives an explanation of an antecedent statement; or is used in recapitulations and transitions. Thus,
but when they were collected, then he started to go to the assemblyαὐτὰρ ἐπεί ῤ̔ ἤγερθεν . . ., βῆ ῤ̔ ἴμεν εἰς ἀγορήν
thus then he spake and put the bow from himὣς ἄρ᾽ ἐφώνησεν καὶ ἀπὸ ἕο τόξον ἔθηκεν
on his mother's questioning him Cyrus naturally repliedἐρωτήσης δὲ αὐτὸν τῆς μητρὸς . . . ἀπεκρί̄νατο ἄρα ὁ Κῦρος
In Attic, and in part also in Homer, ἄρα marks an inference (conse- quently, so then, therefore, it seems, after all, of course, etc.). Thus, εἶπεν αὐτῷ ὅτι βασιλεὺς οὐ μαχεῖται δέκα ἡμερῶν· Κῦρος δ᾽ εἶπεν· οὐκ ἄρα ἔτι μαχεῖται, εἰ ἐν ταύταις οὐ μαχεῖται ταῖς ἡμέραις the seer said to him that the king would not fight within ten days. And Cyrus answered: “Well then if he does not fight within that time he will not fight at all” X. A. 1.7.18, οὐδεὶ<*> ποτοῦ ἐπιθῡμεῖ, ἀλλὰ χρηστοῦ ποτοῦ . . ., πάντες γὰρ ἄρα τῶν ἀγαθῶν ἐπιθῡμοῦσιν no one desires drink merely, but good drink, since of course everybody desires good things P. R. 438a.
ἄρα is often used of direct logical conclusions in conducting an argument (especially in Plato); as
what then do we say about the soul? That it is visible or invisible? Not visible. Then it is invisible? Yes. Consequently soul has a closer resemblance to the invisible than the body, and the latter to the visibleτί οὖν περὶ ψῡχῆς λέγομεν; ὁρᾱτὸν ἢ ἀόρᾱτον εἶναι; οὐχ ὁρᾱτόν. ἀιδὲς ἄρα; ναί. ὁμοιότερον ἄρα ψῡχὴ σώματός ἐστιν τῷ ἀιδεῖ, τὸ δὲ τῷ ὁρᾱτῷ
In the argument ex contrario set forth in clauses with μέν and δέ, ἄρα, usually meaning in sooth, is commonly placed with the second clause (P. Ph. 80d, R. 445 b), occasionally with the first (P. Cr. 46d, L. 840 b), or with both (P. Ph. 97a, R. 600 c).
In direct questions ἄρα adds liveliness, while at the same time it marks connection or consequence. So τίς ἄρα who then? πῶς ἄρα how then? In questions of anxiety ἄρα marks increase of feeling. Thus, τί μ᾽ ἄρα τί μ᾽ ὀλέκεις; why then, why dost thou destroy me? S. Ant. 1285.
ἄρα occurs in questions in which the admissibility of one opinion is inferred from the rejection of another. Thus, εἰπέ μοι, ἔφη, ὦ Οεοδότη, ἔστι σοι ἀγρός; οὐκ ἔμοιγ᾽, ἔφη. ἀλλ᾽ ἄρα οἰκίᾱ προσόδους ἔχουσα; ‘tell me,’ said he, ‘Theodote, have you an estate?’ ‘Not I indeed,’ said she. ‘But perhaps then you have a house that brings in an income?’ X. M. 3.11.4. Such questions are often ironical (P. A. 25a).
ἄρα is often used to indicate new perception, or surprise genuine or affected; as when the truth is just realized after a previous erroneous opinion and one finds oneself undeceived either agreeably or disagreeably. So, especially with the imperfect of εἶναι, ἄρα means after all, it seems, why then, so then, sure enough. See 1902.
ει᾽ ἄρα, ἐὰ̄ν ἄρα if really, if after all, if indeed, are commonly used of that which is improbable or undesirable; ει᾽ ( ἐὰ̄ν ) μὴ ἄρα unless perhaps (nisi forte, nisi vero) is often ironical. Thus,
if indeed it did take place as they saidεἰ ἄρα γέγονεν ὡς οὗτοι ἔλεγον
how then could such a man corrupt the young? unless perchance the study of virtue is corruptionπῶς ἂν οὖν ὁ τοιοῦτος ἀνὴρ διαφθείροι τοὺς νέους; εἰ μὴ ἄρα ἡ τῆς ἀρετῆς ἐπιμέλεια διαφθορά̄ ἐστιν
εἰ (ἐὰ̄ν) ἄρα is common after σκοπῶ, etc. See 2672.
ἄρα is often used, especially with ὡς, to introduce the statement of others which, in the view of the speaker, is (usually) to be rejected. Thus, ἀκούω αὐτὸν ἐρεῖν ὡς ἄρ᾽ ἐγὼ πάντων ὧν κατηγορῶ κοινωνὸς γέγονα I hear that he is going to say that I forsooth (or if you please) have been a partner in all that I denounced D. 19.202.
Attic has, in bimembral clauses, εἴτε ἄρα . . . εἴτε or εἴτε . . . εἴτε ἄρα , as
whether truly or after all, it may be, falselyεἴτ᾽ ἀληθὲς εἴτ᾽ ἄρ᾽ οὖν μάτην
ἆρα , a confirmative particle from ἦ ¨ ἄρα, is used in lyric and dramatic poetry in the sense of ἄρα. ἆρα is postpositive, except in New Comedy.
it shall then be called thy work, not mineσὸν ἆρα τοὔργον, οὐκ ἐμὸν κεκλήσεται
ἀτάρ (prepositive; Hom. also αὐτάρ from αὖτε ¨ ἄρ) usually poetical, but found in Xenophon and Plato, is an adversative conjunction commonly used to introduce a strong or surprising contrast (but, but yet, however); sometimes to introduce a slight contrast (and, and then), but one stronger than that marked by δέ. ἀτάρ is common as a correlative to μέν. It is often found in lively questions to introduce an objection; in rapid transitions; and sometimes it serves to introduce the apodosis of a conditional sentence. ἀτάρ was largely displaced by the stronger ἀλλά.
αὖ (postpositive), an adversative particle meaning on the other hand, on the contrary (properly again). In Hom. it serves as a correlative to μέν or ἦ τοι, and to introduce the apodosis of conditional or relative clauses.
αὖ is often used with personal pronouns, as
but do you in turn tell usἀλλὰ σὺ αὖ . . . λέγε
the Greeks came on, but the barbarians on their part did not wait to receive themοἱ Ἕλληνες ἐπῇσαν . . . οἱ δ᾽ αὖ βάρβαροι οὐκ ἐδέχοντο
γάρ (postpositive) in fact, indeed , and for, a confirmatory adverb and a causal conjunction. As a conjunction, γάρ usually stands after the first word in its clause; as an adverb, its position is freer. γάρ is especially common in sentences which offer a reason for, or an explanation of, a preceding or following statement. It may be used in successive clauses.
a. γάρ is from γέ ¨ ἄρ ( = ἄρα), γέ originally giving prominence either to the word it followed or to the whole clause, while ἄρα marked this prominence as due to something previously expressed or latent in the context. The compound γάρ originally emphasized a thought either as the result of existing circumstances or as a patent and well known fact. In most uses of the word, however, the force of its component parts cannot be distinguished nor is it clear in many cases whether γάρ is a conjunction or an adverb marking <*>ssurance.
Adverbial γάρ appears in questions, answers, and wishes; and in many other cases where recourse is had to conscious or unconscious ellipse by those scholars who hold that γάρ is always a conjunction. Ellipse is sometimes natural and easy, but often clumsy and artificial. Though we find in parallel use both incomplete and complete clauses with γάρ, it is improbable that the Greeks were conscious of the need of any supplement to explain the thought. In many uses γάρ has become formulaic, serving only to show the natural agreement with the existing situation.
In questions, γάρ asks for confirmation of a preceding statement, or expresses assent or dissent; asks whether an act before mentioned was not reasonable; asks a question prompted by some form of emotion; and serves to indicate transition, etc.
a. In questions γάρ often marks surprise or indignation, and may frequently be translated by what, why, then, really, surely. Thus, ταυτὶ̄ λέγεις σὺ στρατηγὸν πτωχὸς ὤν; ἐγὼ γάρ εἰμι πτωχός; do you, beggar that you are, address your general thus? what! I a beggar? Ar. Ach. 593, ἦ ζῇ γὰρ ἁ̄νήρ; is the man really alive? S. El. 1221, οἴει γάρ σοι μαχεῖσθαι . . . τὸν ἀδελφόν; do you really think that your brother is going to fight? X. A. <*> 7. 9. So τίς γάρ; who then, why who?
b. Brief interrogative for<*>ulae asking for confirmation of a preceding statement are:
τί γάρ ; what then, how when, how else? τί γάρ also serves as a formula of transition (now, well then, now what . . ., furthermore).
ἦ γάρ ; is it not so? surely this is so? (cp. n'est ce pas). Often of surprise.
ου᾽ γάρ ; is it not so? often in indignant questions; when not standing alone, why not?
<*>ῶς γάρ; πόθεν γάρ; imply that something is impossible (often of surprise). Cp. πῶς γὰρ οὔ; in negative rhetorical questions.
In answers γά<*> marks assent, assurance, sometimes dissent. Thus,
dread indeed is the burden of one disease. Aye dread indeed and beyond all wordsδεινόν γε τοὐπίσαγμα τοῦ νοσἡματος. δεινὸν γὰρ οὐδὲ ῥητόν
do you then confess that you have proved yourself unjust toward me? In truth I must indeedὁμολογεῖς οὖν περὶ ἐμὲ ἄδικος γεγενῆσθαι; ἦ γὰρ ἀνάγκη
nor let mothers frighten their children. No indeed, said heμηδ᾽ αἱ μητέρες τὰ παιδία ἐκδειματούντων . . . μὴ γάρ, ἔφη
a. γάρ is common in brief answers, as after οὐ, δεῖ, ἔοικε, εἰκός, λέγω, ὡμολόγηται. So in the rhetorical questions πῶς γάρ; πῶς γὰρ οὔ; used as answers.
In wishes:
would that it depended on thatεἰ γὰρ . . . ἐν τούτῳ εἴη
Explanatory (or prefatory) γάρ has the force of now, namely, that is, for example; but usually is not to be translated, and especially when the preceding sentence contains a verb of saying, showing, etc. It usually introduces, as an explanation, the details of that which was promised in an incomplete or general statement; sometimes, without any such statement, it introduces a new fact. Whether this γάρ is an adverb or a conjunction is uncertain. Thus, δοκεῖ τοίνυν μοι χαριέστερον εἶναι μῦθον ὑ̄μῖν λέγειν. ἦν γάρ ποτε κτλ. I think it will be more interesting to tell you a myth. Once upon a time there was, etc. P. Pr. 320c,
look at it in this lightοὕτω γὰρ σκοπεῖτε
Explanatory γάρ often introduces a clause in apposition to a preceding demonstrative, to such expressions as τεκμήριον δέ or μαρτύριον δέ now the proof is this, δῆλον δέ (ἐστιν) it is clear, τὸ δὲ μέγιστον but, what is of the greatest importance, or to relative clauses (995). Thus, ὡς δ᾽ ἔτι μᾶλλον θαρρῇς, καὶ τόδε κατανόησον· οἱ μὲν γὰρ (explaining τόδε) πολέμιοι πολὺ μὲν ἐλά̄ττονές εἰσι νῦν ἢ πρὶν ἡττηθῆναι ὑφ᾽ ἡμῶν and that you may be still more encouraged, consider this fact too. The enemy (namely) are much fewer now than they were before they were beaten by us X. C. 5.2.36, ἐννοήσωμεν δὲ καὶ τῇδε, ὡς πολλὴ ἐλπίς ἐστιν ἀγαθὸν αὐτὸ εἶναι. δυοῖν γὰρ θά̄τερόν ἐστιν τὸ τεθνάναι κτλ. let us consider the matter also in this way and we shall see that there is abundant reason to hope that it is a good: now death must be one of two things, etc. P. A. 40c, μαρτύριον δέ· Δήλου γὰρ καθαιρομένης κτλ. and this is a proof of it: now when Delos was being purified, etc. T. 1.8,
but the most abominable of all is this: we consider the most trustworthy guardians of the State to be those men whom we should agree were the worst citizensδ̀ δὲ πάντων σχετλιώτατον· οὓς γὰρ ὁμολογήσαιμεν ἂν πονηροτάτους εἶναι τῶν πολῑτῶν, τούτους πιστοτάτους φύλακας ἡγούμεθα τῆς πολῑτείᾱς εἶναι
Causal γάρ is a conjunction: for (nam, enim). It serves to introduce a cause of, or a reason for, an action before mentioned; to justify a preceding utterance; to confirm the truth of a previous statement. Causal γάρ often refers to a thought implied in what has preceded. Thus, λεκτέα ἃ γιγνώσκω· ἔμπειρος γάρ (causal) εἰμι καὶ τῆς χώρᾱς τῶν Παφλαγόνων καὶ τῆς δυνάμεως. ἔχει γὰρ (explanatory) ἀμφότερα, καὶ πεδία κάλλιστα καὶ ὄρη ὑψηλότατα I must tell what I know, for I am acquainted with the country of the Paphlagonians and its resources; now the country has very fertile plains and very lofly mountains X. A. 5.6.6, ἰού, δύστηνε· τοῦτο γάρ σ᾽ ἔχω μόνον προσειπεῖν alas, ill-fated one! for by this name alone can I address thee S. O. T. 1071, ἐπιστευόμην δὲ ὑπὸ τῶν Λακεδαιμονίων· οὐ γὰρ ἄν με ἔπεμπον πάλιν πρὸς ὑ̄μᾶς but I was trusted by the Lacedaemonians; for (otherwise, i.e. εἰ μὴ ἐπίστευον) they would not have sent me back to you P. A. 30c.
Anticipatory γάρ states the cause, justifies the utterance, or gives the explanation, of something set forth in the main clause which follows. The main clause usually contains an inferential word, a demonstrative pointing backward, or καί, δέ, ἀλλά; or stands without a connective. Anticipatory γάρ may often be rendered by since, but is often omitted in translation. Thus, ἔτι τοίνυν ἀκούσατε καὶ τάδε. ἐπὶ λείᾱν γὰρ ὑ̄μῶν ἐκπορεύσονταί τινες. οἶμαι νῦν βέλτιστον εἶναι κτλ. listen therefore to this proposal also. Some of you will be going out to plunder. Now it is my opinion that it is best, etc. X. A. 5.1.8, ἐσελθὼν δὲ τὴν ταχίστην, ἦν γάρ οἱ παῖς εἷς μοῦνος . . ., τοῦτον ἐκπέμπει and when he had come in straightway, he sent out his son, for he had one only son Hdt. 1.119, ὦ φίλοι, οὐ γάρ τ᾽ ἴδμεν ὅπῃ ζόφος οὐδ᾽ ὅπῃ ἠώς . . . ἀλλὰ φραζώμεθα κτλ. friends, since we do not know where is the place of darkness nor of the dawn, let us consider, etc. κ 190,
my dear fellow, since you alone have got a truce, measure me out a bit of peaceὦ φίλτατε, σπονδαὶ γάρ εἰσί σοι μόνῳ, μέτρησον εἰρήνης τί μοι
a. In this construction γάρ may be an adverb, not a conjunction. Cases of explanatory γάρ (2808) and of parenthetical γάρ (2812), especially after vocatives, may fall under 2811.
The clause with γάρ since is often inserted parenthetically in the clause which it is intended to explain; as ὁ δὲ (κρἱ̄νουσι γὰρ βοῇ καὶ οὐ ψήφῳ) οὐκ ἔφη διαγιγνώσκειν τὴν βοὴν ποτέρᾱ μείζων but, since they decide by shouts and not by ballot, he said he could not decide which side shouted the louder T. 1.87.
καὶ γάρ has in general two distinct meanings according as γάρ is an adverb or a conjunction. As καὶ γάρ has become a formula, it is often uncertain which of the two words is the adverb, which the conjunction.
(I) καὶ γάρ and in fact, and indeed, καί being a conjunction, and γάρ an adverb. Here the clause in which καὶ γάρ stands is added as a new and important thought; where γάρ alone would state the reason or the explanation with less independence and with slighter emphasis. The negative is οὐδὲ γάρ. Thus Κῦρος δ᾽ ὁρῶν τοὺς Ἕλληνας νῑκῶντας τὸ καθ᾽ αὑτοὺς . . . ἐπεμελεῖτο ὅ τι ποιήσει βασιλεύς. καὶ γὰρ ᾔδει αὐτὸν ὅτι μέσον ἔχοι τοῦ Περσικοῦ στρατεύματος on seeing the Greeks victorious over the troops opposed to them, Cyrus watched to see what the king would do; and in fact he knew that he commanded the centre of the Persian force X. A. 1.8.21 (cp. 1. 1. 6, 2. 5. 5, 2. 6. 2). So often in affirmative responses: ἢ οὐκ ἀγαπήσεις τούτων τυγχάνων; ἐγὼ μὲν γὰρ ἂν ἀγαπῴην. καὶ γὰρ ἐγώ, ἔφη or will you not be content if you obtain this? For my part I shall be. And so shall I, he said P. R. 473b.
a. καὶ γὰρ καί and even is καὶ γάρ and in fact reënforced by καί. Thus, καὶ γὰρ καὶ ἄδεια ἐφαίνετο αὐτοῖς and in fact it looked to them as if there was perfect safety in so doing T. 4.108. The negative is οὐδὲ γὰρ οὐδέ (2938).
(II) καὶ γάρ for even, for also. Here καί is an adverb affecting a single word, several words, or the whole sentence, and γάρ is a conjunction. The negative is οὐδὲ γάρ. Thus,
for these tooκαὶ γὰρ οὗτοι
for even wronged as I am I'll keep silentκαὶ γὰρ ἠδικημένοι σῑγησόμεσθα
a. καὶ γὰρ . . . καί for both . . . and: here καί is correlated with a second καί; as
for those who keep their bodies in good condition are both healthy and strongκαὶ γὰρ ὑγιαίνουσιν οἱ τὰ σώματα εὖ ἔχοντες καὶ ἰσχύ̄ουσι
ἀλλὰ γάρ occurs both in conjunction and separated by one or several words, which are generally emphatic.
First Form (often but since, since however): here there are two predicates. In prose separation is the rule. Thus,
but since he could not persuade her, he gave her the mantleἀλλ᾽, οὐ γὰρ ἔπειθε, διδοῖ τὸ φᾶρος
Second Form (usually but indeed, but in fact, but the truth is, but be that as it may). Here there is a single predicate. Thus,
and I do not speak in disparagement; but the truth is I have nothing to do with these mattersκαὶ οὐχ ὡς ἀτῑμάζων λέγω . . . ἀλλὰ γὰρ ἐμοὶ τούτων . . . οὐδὲν μέτεστι
but indeed I see Pylades yonder coming at full speedἀλλ᾽ εἰσορῶ γὰρ τόνδε . . . Πυλάδην δρόμῳ στείχοντα
but indeed it is impossible to hide what lies openἀλλ᾽ ου᾽ γὰρ ἔστι τἀ̄μφανῆ κρύπτειν
a. In this use γάρ may have preserved, or regained, its primitive adverbial (confirmatory) force. Many scholars, however, claim that there was a conscious or unconscious ellipse, after ἀλλά, of an idea pertinent to the situation; and thus regard this form as logically equivalent to the form in which γάρ is a causal conjunction. In actual use ἀλλὰ γάρ was clearly a formula used without any consciousness of an omitted idea.
ἀλλὰ γάρ has a great variety of uses, most of which may be classed as follows:
a. In statements of direct opposition: καὶ ταῦτά σε πολλοῦ δεῖ λεληθέναι, ἀλλὰ γὰρ οἶμαι δ̀ ἄρτι οὐκ ἔφησθα ποιεῖν, τοῦτο ποιεῖς and you are far from forgetting this, but in fact I think you are doing that which you just denied you were doing P. Charm. 166c.
N. This use is post-Homeric, rare in the drama, common in the orators and Plato. It is especially frequent in putting and setting aside an objection supposed to be raised by an opponent (hypophora). Cp. b.
b. In real and assumed objections (cp. at enim): καὶ ἀληθῆ γε ἔλεγον, ὦ Σώκρατες. ἴσως. ἀλλὰ γάρ, ὦ Εὐθύφρων, καὶ ἀλλὰ πολλὰ φῂς εἶναι ὅσια yes, and I said what was true, Socrates. Perhaps, but in fact, Euthyphron, you say that many other things too are holy P. Euth. 6d, ἀλλὰ γάρ, φήσει τις, οὐ ῥᾴδιον ἀεὶ λανθάνειν κακὸν ὄντα yes, but some one will say that it is not easy always to conceal the fact that one is wicked P. R. 365c.
c. In transitions.—(1) At the close of the discussion of an argument, where the force of ἀλλά is like that of and yet or emphatic but. Thus, ἀλλὰ γάρ, ὦ βουλή, ταῦτα μὲν ἐνθάδε οὐκ οἶδ᾽ ὅ τι δεῖ λέγειν but, Senators, I do not know why I should discuss these matters here L. 7.42,
but it is already time to departἀλλὰ γὰρ ἤδη ὥρᾱ ἀπιέναι
(2) To restrain the expression of emotion; as ἀλλ᾽ ἄναξ γάρ ἐστ᾽ ἐμός, σῑγῶ but no, I am silent for he is my king E. El. 1245.
(3) When the approach of a new actor is announced. Cp. 2817, 2818.
Other Combinations.— γὰρ ἄρα for sure enough.
γὰρ δή for of course, for indeed, for you must know, as φαμὲν γὰρ δή for of course we say so.
γὰρ δή που for I presume, for doubtless.
γὰρ οὖν often of frank assent, as οὐ γὰρ οὖν certainly not, λέγω γὰρ οὖν certainly, I do say so; less often to explain (for certainly); καὶ γὰρ οὖν (not very common) is stronger than καὶ γάρ.
γάρ που for I suppose.
γάρ τοι for surely, for mark you; sometimes καὶ γάρ τοι.
γέ (postpositive and enclitic) is an intensive and restrictive particle with the force of at least, at any rate, even, certainly, indeed; but often to be rendered by intonation. γέ may indicate assent, concession, banter, scorn, deprecation, irony, etc. γέ emphasizes single words or whole phrases or clauses.
a. Single words. So often with pronouns, as ἔγωγε I at least (excluding others), ἐμέ γε cp. mi-ch, ὅ γε even he (Hom.), οὗτός γε, and with a repeated pronoun (S. Ph. 117). Other words, as ὅ τι βούλει γε whatever you like Ar. Ran. 3,
in numbers at least we should not surpass the enemyπλήθει γε οὐχ ὑπερβαλοίμεθ᾽ ἂν τοὺς πολεμίους
b. With phrases or clauses. Thus,
that he may not thus send me away in dishonour—who am the suppliant of the godὡς μή μ᾽ ἄτῑμον, τοῦ θεοῦ γε προστάτην, οὕτως ἀφῇ με
γέ may be used twice in the same sentence. Thus,
since indeed that which suffices their wants is enough for the wiseἐπεί γ᾽ ἀρκοῦνθ᾽ ἱκανὰ τοῖς γε σώφροσιν
γέ stands between article and noun, as οἵ γ᾽ ἄνθρωποι (after a preposition, as ἔν γε τῷ φανερῷ); between noun and adjective, or after the adjective, as ἀνήρ γε σοφός, or ἀνὴρ σοφός γε; after a possessive pronoun, as ἐμός γε θῡμός; after μέν, δέ, τέ, as ὅτι δέ γε ἀληθῆ λέγω. When γέ influences a whole clause it stands as near as possible to the introductory conjunction; as εἴ γε, ἆρά γε.
γέ in contrasts and alternatives; as σὺ δ᾽ ου᾽ λέγεις γε (αἰσχρά),
thou dost not indeed say, but do shameful things to meδρᾷς δέ με
either secretly or openlyἤτοι κρύφα γε ἢ φανερῶς
or wise or held in honour aye or oldἢ σοφοὶ ἢ τί̄μιοι ἢ γέροντές γε
γέ in replies and comments (yes, well). Thus, δοκεῖ παρεικαθεῖν; ὅσον γ᾽, ἄναξ, τάχιστα does it seem best to you that I should give way? Aye, my lord, and with all speed S. Ant. 1102. Here καὶ . . . γε is common, as καὶ οὐδέν γε ἀτόπως yes, and no wonder P. Th. 142b.
ὅς γε (rarely ὅστις γε ) has a causal force, much like qui quidem, quippe qui. Thus,
you are talking absurdly in bidding me who am the younger take precedenceἄτοπα λέγεις . . . ὅς γε κελεύεις ἐμὲ νεώτερον ὄντα καθηγεῖσθαι
γέ sometimes marks an ellipse (S. Ph. 1409). When the verb of the apodosis is omitted, the protasis often has γέ (so usually in Aristophanes, e.g. Nub. 267).
When γέ is followed by other particles, it belongs with the emphasized word, and the other particles retain their original force; as
yet the brave at leastτούς γε μέντοι ἀγαθούς
After other Particles.—For example:
δέ γε : here γέ usually does not emphasize δέ but either a single word or the whole clause; as ἡμῖν δέ γε οἶμαι πάντα ποιητέα but we at least, in my opinion, should adopt every means X. A. 3.1.35. δὲ . . . γε is often used when two things are compared, in order to show that one is more important than the other.
καὶ . . . γε sometimes means yes, and and sometimes γέ emphasizes the intervening word. Thus, κοὐδέν γε θαῦμα yes, and no wonder S. O. T. 1132,
and of footsteps there is no soundκαὶ στίβου γε οὐδεὶς κτύπος
μέν γε lends force to a contrast (P. S. 180d); sometimes it has the force of that is to say, for example (T. 6.86).
 Its meaning varies according to the prominence of the γέ or οὖν; often certainly, at any rate (at all events, at least). γοῦν commonly confirms a previous general assertion by giving a special instance of its truth (the special instance may be a seeming exception). γοῦν is thus used in bringing forward a reason, which, while not absolutely conclusive, is the most probable explanation of a previous statement.
for they are even more cowardly than those who were beaten by us. At any rate they deserted us and sought refuge with themἔτι γὰρ οὗτοι κακί̄ονές εἰσι τῶν ὑφ᾽ ἡμῶν ἡττημένων· ἔφευγον γοῦν πρὸς ἐκείνους καταλιπόντες ἡμᾶς
γοῦν may emphasize a pronoun; as πρὸς γοῦν ἐμοῦ S. Aj. 527, τὰ γοῦν σά S. El. 1499.
In answers γοῦν means well, at least; yes certainly; as εἰκὸς γοῦν X. C. 5.3.14.
γοῦν finds the proof of an assertion in one of several possible facts or occurrences; γάρ gives the reason in general, but gives no particular instance; δ᾽ οὖν has an adversative force: ‘be that as it may, yet at any rate.’
δέ (postpositive) was originally an adverb with a force not unlike that of on the other hand, on the contrary; later it became a conjunction commonly represented by but or and, which are, however, mere makeshifts of translation. δέ serves to mark that something is different from what precedes, but only to offset it, not to exclude or contradict it; it denotes only a slight contrast, and is therefore weaker than ἀλλά, but stronger than καί. δέ is adversative and copulative; but the two uses are not always clearly to be distinguished.
Adversative δέ often marks a silent contrast, as at the beginning of speeches (ἐγὼ δὲ οὕτω γιγνώσκω X. A. 4.6.10); in questions which imply opposition to something just said (S. O. C. 57); in answers (S. O. T. 379); in objections or corrections (S. Ant. 517); in τὸ δέ, τὰ δέ on the contrary, whereas really, where a true opinion is opposed to a false one; similarly in νῦν δέ but in fact, but as the case stands. When δέ is balanced by μέν (2904) it is antithetical rather than adversative.
a. δέ after a pronoun following a vocative produces a pause; as Νιόβᾱ σὲ δ᾽ ἔγωγε νέμω θεόν ah Niobe, thee I regard as divine S. El. 150.
b. δέ instead of ἀλλά is rare except in the poets and Thucydides. Thus, προμηνύ̄σῃς γε τοῦτο μηδενὶ τοὖργον, κρυφῆ δὲ κεῦθε make known this plan to no one, but hide it in secret S. Ant. 85,
I have come, not to harm, but to liberate, the Greeksοὐκ ἐπὶ κακῷ, ἐπ᾽ ἐλευθερώσει δὲ τῶν Ἑλλήνων παρελήλυθα
c. But not is ἀλλ᾽ ου᾽ or οὐ μέντοι, not οὐ δέ, in order to avoid confusion with οὐδέ nor, not even. But οὐ and δέ may be separated, as
but since they did not wish to surrenderοὐ βουλομένων δέ . . . προσχωρεῖν
Copulative δέ marks transition, and is the ordinary particle used in connecting successive clauses or sentences which add something new or different, but not opposed, to what precedes, and are not joined by other particles, such as γάρ or οὖν.
Copulative δέ is common in marking continuation, especially when something subordinate is added. Thus, when a new phase of a narrative is developed (X. A. 1.2.7-8); where attention is called to a new point or person (as in τί δ᾽ ἔστιν;); when an interrupted speech or narrative is resumed (X. C. 1.6.41, S. Tr. 281); where a second relationship is added (μήτηρ βασιλέως, βασίλεια δ᾽ ἐμή the mother of the King, and my Queen A. Pers. 151, Ἠιόνα . . . Μενδαίων ἀποικίᾱν, πολεμίᾱν δὲ οὖσαν he seized Eïon, a colony of Mende, and which had been hostile T. 4.7); when δέ has a force like that of γάρ (X. C. 6.3.16); and in καὶ . . . δέ and also (Epic καὶ δέ), 2891.
Apodotic δέ.—The beginning of the principal clause (apodosis) of conditional and concessive sentences is often marked by δέ. Apodotic δέ is found also in the principal clause of causal, temporal, comparative, and relative sentences; and regularly gives greater emphasis to the main clause, which is thus distinctly set off against the subordinate clause. Apodotic δέ is very common in Homer and Herodotus, not rare in Attic poetry, but infrequent in Attic prose, where it is used especially after an emphatic personal or demonstrative pronoun or when a participle represents the antecedent clause. Thus, εἷος ὁ ταῦθ᾽ ὥρμαινε . . ., ἦλθε δ᾽ Ἀθήνη while he was revolving these things, then came Athene A 193,
accordingly if I have no knowledge either of what is holy or what is just, do you then instruct meεἰ οὖν ἐγὼ μὴ γιγνώσκω μήτε τὰ ὅσια μήτε τὰ δίκαια, ὑ̄μεῖς δὲ διδάξετέ με
since therefore I am not able to persuade you not to expose it, do you then do as followsἐπεὶ τοίνυν οὐ δύναμαί σε πείθειν μὴ ἐκθεῖναι, σὺ δὲ ὧδε ποίησον
as the hoplites so also the peltasts sleepἐκάθευδον . . . ὥσπερ οἱ ὁπλῖται οὕτω δὲ καὶ οἱ πελτασταί
but when on their arrival they had conquered in battle, not even then did they appear to have made use of their entire forceἐπειδὴ δὲ ἀφικόμενοι μάχῃ ἐκράτησαν . . ., φαίνονται δ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ἐνταῦθα πά̄σῃ τῇ δυνάμει χρησάμενοι
and once when there was a frost he went out in the midst of thisκαί ποτε ὄντος πάγου . . . οὗτος δ᾽ ἐν τούτοις ἐξῄει
a. Apodotic δέ often resumes a δέ in the subordinate clause and carries on the opposition expressed by that clause; as εἰ δὲ βούλεσθε . . . ἐκλεξάμενοι ὅποι ἂν βούλησθε κατασχεῖν . . ., πλοῖα δ᾽ ὑ̄μῖν πάρεστιν but if you wish to select some place wherever you please and take possession of it, you have ships at command X. A. 5.6.20, ἃ δ᾽ αἰσχύ̄νην ἡμῖν φέρει . . ., ταῦτα δὲ κατὰ χώρᾱν μένει but the terms which cause us shame, these remain in force I. 4.176.
b. The use of apodotic δέ should not be regarded as a survival of original coördination.
δέ without μέν.—A clause with δέ often has no correlative particle in the clause with which it is contrasted. Here μέν is not used because the opposition in the first clause was too weak, or because the speaker did not intend to announce a following contrast or did not think he was going to use a contrasted δέ clause. Sometimes the entire first clause may have to be supplied in thought from the general connection or from what has gone before. δέ without μέν in such cases is common in poetry, but not rare in prose, even in brief antitheses, as ἃ πάντες ἀεὶ γλίχονται λέγειν, ἀξίως δ᾽ οὐδεὶς εἰπεῖν δεδύνηται exploits which everybody continually desires to recount, but which no one has been able to set forth adequately D. 6.11. See also 2835.
a. When a relative construction passes over into a construction with a personal or demonstrative pronoun, the relative clause usually has no μέν. Cp. Soph. Aj. 457, quoted in 2517.
b. οἱ δέ, when opposed to a larger number of persons or things, is often used without οἱ μέν, as προεληλυθότες ἐπὶ χῑλόν, οἱ δ᾽ ἐπὶ ξύλα having gone for fodder, and some for fuel X. C. 6.3.9.
δέ with other Particles.—For example:
δ᾽ ἄρα , which sometimes follows μέν.
δ᾽ αὖ and ὅμως δέ mark stronger opposition than δέ alone.
δὲ δή but then, but now, well but is often used in passing to a new point. In Aristophanes this collocation is used almost always in questions.
δή (postpositive except in Hom. δὴ γάρ and poetic δὴ τότε) marks something as immediately present and clear to the mind, and gives greater precision, positiveness, and exactness. It sets forth what is obvious, acknowledged, and natural, and often corresponds to voilà. δή is used with single words (especially adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, and conjunctions) or, as a sentence adverb, with whole clauses. δή usually stands after the word it emphasizes, though it may be separated from it by one or more other words.
δή of what is Obvious and Natural.—Thus, ἴστε δή you know of course, δεῖ δή it is manifestly necessary. So
is not this so? Of course it isοὐχ οἵτως ἔχει; ἔχει δή
but now you certainly seeνῦν δ᾽ ὁρᾶτε δή
Ironical δή.—Thus,
Socrates the wise forsoothΣωκράτης ὁ σοφὸς δή
that you forsooth should be the lord and master of the Argives!ὡς δὴ σύ μοι τύραννος Ἁργείων ἔσῃ
Intensive δή emphasizes, and makes definite, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, and other words. Thus, ἅπαντες δή absolutely all, κράτιστοι δή the very best, μόνος δή quite alone, ὀλίγοι δή very few; οὕτω δή just so, ὥσπερ δή exactly as, πολλάκις δή very often, δῆλα δή quite plain, νῦν δή just now, now at once; ἐκεῖνος δή this (and no other), δ̀ς δή who indeed. With indefinite pronouns δή increases the indefiniteness (339 e); as ὅστις δή whoever at all. With other words: εἰ δή if indeed, οὐ δή no indeed, ἵνα δή that in truth.
a. With imperatives and in questions δή adds urgency; as ἄκουε δή pray listen! τί δή; why, pray?
δή may introduce emphatically the conclusion of a temporal sentence or of a narrative on passing to a new topic; as ἐνταῦθα δή, τότε δή then indeed, then and not till then, then it was that. Cp. X. A. 1.10.1.
Temporal δή often, especially with καί, approximates in meaning to ἤδη already. Thus,
but he is dead and already is hidden beneath the earthὁ δὲ θανὼν κεύθει κάτω δὴ γῆς
Consecutive and Resumptive δή is used to set forth an inference, draw a conclusion, denote a consequence, and mark a transition (μὲν δὴ . . . δέ). Here δή is a sentence adverb: accordingly, then, of course, clearly, you see, I say. Thus,
they said that they had seen many fires visible in the night; accordingly it seemed to the generals to be unsafe to encamp apartἔλεγον ὅτι κατίδοιεν νύκτωρ πολλὰ πυρὰ φαίνοντα. ἐδόκει δὴ τοῖς στρατηγοῖς οὐκ ἀσφαλὲς εἶναι διασκηνοῦν
Pherauias then spake thus; and many others also rose to speakφεραύλᾱς μὲν δὴ οὕτως εἶπεν· ἀνί̄σταντο δὲ καὶ ἄλλοι πολλοί
δαί is used in colloquial Attic after interrogative words to express wonder, indignation, etc. Thus, τί δαί; πῶς δαί; what then? how so?
δῆθεν truly, forsooth, is commonly used of apparent or pretended truth, and mostly with an ironical tone. Thus,
thou hast mocked me forsooth as though I were a childἐκερτόμησας δῆθεν ὡς παῖδ᾽ ὄντα με
δήπου probably, I presume, I should hope, doubtless, you will admit, is stronger than πού perhaps, I suppose. δήπου often has a touch of irony or doubt in stating a case that would seem to be certain; as ἴστε δήπου ὅθεν ἥλιος ἀνίσχει you know, I presume, where the sun rises X. A. 5.7.6. In questions δήπου expects the answer yes. οὐ δήπου certainly not and is it not so? (with irony).
δῆτα assuredly, really, in truth, is rare outside of Attic. It occurs: (a) In answers, often when a word is repeated with assent; as
do you know who this woman is?
a. With the subjunctive we find ἐά̄ν τε (ἤν τε, ἄ̄ν τε). Hom. has εἴτε . . . εἴτε, but not ἤν τε . . . ἤν τε, with the subjunctive. In the same sense Hom. has ἢ . . . ἤ and ἤτε . . . ἤτε with the subjunctive.
There are various forms of εἴτε clauses:
a. Both εἴτε clauses may have the same finite verb in common, which verb is used only once; as
whether you wish to wage war upon us or to be our friendsεἴτε βούλεσθε πολεμεῖν ἡμῖν εἴτε φίλοι εἶναι
b. Each εἴτε clause has its own verb and its own main clause; as ἐκέλευσέ σε, εἴτε πάντας αἰτιᾷ, κρί̄ναντα σὲ αὐτὸν χρῆσθαι ὅ τι ἂν βούλῃ, εἴτε ἕνα τινὰ ἢ δύο . . . αἰτιᾷ, τούτους ἀξιοῦσι παρασχεῖν σοι ἑαυτοὺς εἰς κρίσιν the army requests that, if you accuse all, you pass sentence on them and treat them as you may think best; or, if you accuse one or two, they think it right that these men should surrender themselves to you for judgment X. A. 6.6.20.
c. One main clause refers to both εἴτε clauses; as
the good man is happy whether he is large and strong or small and weakὁ ἀγαθὸς ἀνὴρ . . . εὐδαίμων ἐστὶ . . . ἐά̄ν τε μέγας καὶ ἰσχῡρός, ἐά̄ν τε σμῑκρὸς καὶ ἀσθενὴς ᾖ
d. Neither εἴτε clause has a verb, which is to be supplied from the main clause; as λέγοντες, εἴτ᾽ ἀληθὲς εἴτ᾽ ἄρ᾽ οὖν μάτην (ἔλεγον) saying, whether truly or after all, it may be, falsely S. Ph. 345.
e. One εἴτε clause has its own verb, while the other gets its verb from the main clause (rare); as ἐμοὶ σὺ . . . φαίνῃ . . . χρησμῳδεῖν, εἴτε παρ᾽ Εὐθύφρονος ἐπίπνους γενόμενος (χρησμῳδεῖς),
you seem to me to utter prophecies, whether you were inspired by Euthyphron or whether some other muse has long been present in you without your knowing itεἴτε καὶ ἄλλη τις μοῦσα πάλαι σε ἐνοῦσα ἐλελήθει
Variations: εἴτε . . . ἤ (common): εἴτε Λῡσίᾱς ἤ τις ἄλλος πώποτε ἔγραψεν ἢ γράψει κτλ. whether Lysias or anybody else whoever wrote or will write, etc. P. Phae. 277d. ἢ . . . εἴτε : only in poetry (S. Aj. 175). εἴτε . . . εἰ δέ : when the second member is more important (P. L. 952c). On ει᾽ . . . εἴτε see 2675 d. On εἴτε for εἴτε . . . εἴτε see 2675 b, N. 2.
εἴτε may be strengthened by ἄρα, δή, καί, or οὖν. οὖν is usually placed after the first εἴτε; like καί, it may stand after the second also. When καί stands only after the second εἴτε, its clause is weaker than the first (D. 18.57).
Disjunctive ἤ (Epic ἠέ) or (uel, aut); and repeated: ἢ . . . ἤ either . . . or (uel . . . uel, aut . . . aut) to connect the two members more closely.
good or badἀγαθὸν ἢ κακόν
little or nothingἤ τι ἢ οὐδέν
Between ascending numbers ἤ has the force of Eng. to, as
in six to seven daysἐν ἓξ ἢ ἑπτὰ ἡμέραις
ἤτοι may be used instead of the first ἤ when the first member, as is commonly the case, contains the more probable choice. In English the order is often inverted. Thus,
she comes either by chance or because she has heard about her sonἤτοι κλύουσα παιδὸς ἢ τύχῃ πάρα
either secretly or openlyἤτοι κρύφα γε ἢ φανερῶς
ἤ often indicates that a given result will follow in case the action of the previous clause is not realized: or else (cp. εἰ δὲ μή, 2346 d). Thus,
it shall be my concern that you commend me; or else my name is no longer Cyrusὅπως . . . ὑ̄μεῖς ἐμὲ ἐπαινέσετε, ἐμοὶ μελήσει· ἢ μηκέτι με Κῦρον νομίζετε
ἤ often does not introduce an alternative to a previous question, but substitutes instead another question which is more specific and intended to anticipate the answer to the first (or rather, or precisely). Thus, λέγε ἡμῖν πῶς με φῂς διαφθείρειν τοὺς νεωτέρους; ἢ δῆλον δὴ ὅτι . . . θεοὺς διδάσκειν μὴ νομίζειν οὓς ἡ πόλις νομίζει; tell us how you mean that I corrupt the young? Or rather clearly you mean that (I corrupt them) by teaching them not to acknowledge the gods which the State acknowledges? P. A. 26b.
ἤ often introduces an argument ex contrario (D. 31.14).
ἢ καί is often used where ἤ would suffice (cp. 2888 a); as ἢ ξένος ἢ καί τις πο<*>`ί̄της either an alien or a citizen if you will (or as well) D. 20.123.
Comparative ἤ than is used to mark difference. It stands after comparatives where the genitive or a preposition (1069 ff.) is not used, and after words indicating difference or diversity or having a comparative force, e.g., ἄλλος or ἕτερος other, ἄλλως otherwise, διάφορος different, διαφέρειν to be different, ἐναντίος contrary, διπλάσιος twice as much, πρίν sooner.
things different from what occurredἄλλα ἢ τὰ γενόμενα
half as much corn as beforeτὸν ἥμισυν σῖτον ἢ πρόσθεν
a. After τί or a negative, ἤ may be used without ἄλλος, as τί ποιῶν ἢ εὐωχούμενος; doing what else except feasting? P. Cr. 53e,
he said that they should let no one pass except his friendsεἶπε μηδένα παριέναι ἢ τοὺς φίλους
b. Often after verbs of willing, choosing, etc.; as
preferring death with freedom rather than life with servitudeθάνατον μετ᾽ ἐλευθερίᾱς αἱρούμενοι ἢ βίον μετὰ δουλείᾱς
c. If two clauses connected by ἤ have the same verb it may be omitted in the clause following ἤ; as ἔπρᾱττες ἀλλοῖον ἢ οἱ πολλοί (πρά̄ττουσι) you behaved differently from the rest P. A. 20c.
d. On ἢ ὥστε (ὡς), or ἤ alone, than so as to, see 2264.
Asseverative ἦ (prepositive) in truth, in sooth, verily, upon my honour, etc.; as ἦ καλῶς λέγεις P. G. 447c.
ἦ is usually associated with other particles.
ἦ γάρ when used alone in dialogue = is it not so? Cp. n'est ce pas, nicht wahr? Elsewhere it often has the force of am I to understand that asked with surprise. Thus, ἦ γὰρ νοεῖς θάπτειν σφ᾽, ἀπόρρητον πόλει; what, dost thou in truth intend to bury him, when it is forbidden to the citizens? S. Ant. 44.
ἦ δή expresses lively surprise.
ἦ καί is found in animated questions. Here καί goes closely with ἦ.
ἦ μήν (Hom. ἦ μέν, ἦ μά̄ν) prefaces strong asseverations, threats, and oaths, in direct and indirect discourse. Thus,
in truth this was my experienceἦ μὴν ἐγὼ ἔπαθόν τι τοιοῦτον
I swear by the gods upon my honour neither did Xenophon nor any one else among you bid me rescue the manὄμνῡμι θεοὺς . . . ἦ μὴν μήτε με Ξενοφῶντα κελεῦσαι ἀφελέσθαι τὸν ἄνδρα μήτε ἄλλον ὑ̄μῶν μηδένα
ἦ που indeed, methinks, in poetry I ween. Here the shade of doubt indicated by πού is not real.
Interrogative ἦ (2650) is probably the same as asseverative ἦ.
ἠδέ and (Epic, lyric, tragic); also in conjunction with τε καί, or δέ. ἠμέν . . . ἠδέ (Epic) is used like τὲ . . . τέ, καὶ . . . καί.
ἰδέ and (Epic, rare in tragedy) is used where ἠδέ does not suit the metre.
καί is both a copulative conjunction (and) connecting words, clauses, or sentences; and an adverb meaning also, even.
Copulative καί often has an intensive or heightening force; as where it joins a part and the whole, the universal and the particular. Thus, ἐν Ἀθηναίοις καὶ τοῖς Ἕλλησι Ar. Nub. 413, ὦ Ζεῦ καὶ θεοί Ar. Pl. 1 (θεοὶ καὶ Ζεύς the gods and above all Zeus), ἐνταῦθα ἔμειναν ἡμέρᾱς τρεῖς καὶ ἧκε Μένων X. A. 1.2.6. On καὶ ταῦτα , see 947, 2083.
a. Here καί often = namely, for example, and so where an antecedent statement is explained either by another word or by an example. Cp. X. A. 1.9.14, 4. 1. 19, 5. 2. 9, 5. 6. 8.
The heightening force is also seen where καί with corrective force may be rendered by or; often to set forth a climax and not an alternative. Thus,
wisdom worth little or nothingσοφίᾱ ὀλίγου τινὸς ἀξίᾱ καὶ οὐδενός
sword-cutlers worth five or six minas eachμαχαιροποιοὶ . . . ἀνὰ πέντε μνᾶς καὶ ἕξ
but war if we advance or retireπροιοῦσι δὲ καὶ ἀπιοῦσι πόλεμος
right or wrongκαὶ δίκαια κἄ̄δικα
thy son, or if not thineκει᾽ μὴ σός
καί often has an adversative force; as where it joins a negative to an affirmative clause. Here καὶ οὐ (μή) is almost = but not, as in ἐμ᾽ ἐχειροτόνησαν καὶ οὐχ ὑ̄μᾶς they elected me and (= but) not you D. 18.288. So also where καί is like καίτοι and yet; as
fare thee well; and yet I leave thee unwillinglyχαίρων ἄπιθι· καί σ᾽ ἄ̄κων ἐγὼ λείπω
In questions, καί before an interrogative expression marks an objection occasioned by surprise or indignation; as καὶ τίς θανόντων ἦλθεν ἐξ Ἅιδου πάλιν; and, pray, who of the dead has come back from Hades? E. H. F. 297. So καὶ πῶς; pray, how comes it that? Cp. Eng. and when a speaker is stopped by an abrupt question.
a. After an interrogative expression adverbial καί asks for further information concerning a statement assumed to be true. Thus, ποίου χρόνου δὲ καὶ πεπόρθηται πόλις; but when was the city captured? A. Ag. 278. Cp. 2884.
In imperative sentences καί often means and now, just. Thus,
and now read me the billκαί μοι ἀνάγνωθι τὸ ψήφισμα
just answer meκαί μοι ἀπόκρῑναι
καί may mark a result (P. Th. 154c, quoted in 2288).
After expressions of sameness and likeness καί has the force of as (Lat. ac). Thus,
your expedition is the same as oursὁ αὐτὸς ὑ̄μῖν στόλος ἐστὶ καὶ ἡμῖν
not the same as beforeοὐχ ὁμοίως καὶ πρίν
the same asταὐτὰ καί
In expressions denoting coincidence of time καί often has the force of when. So ἅμα . . . καί (2169), ἤδη . . . καί X. A. 2.1.7, οὔπω . . . καί P. Eu. 277b, οὐκ ἔφθην . . . καί ( εὐθύς ) I had not got the start . . . when I. 19.22, D. 43.69.  Thus, καὶ τότε καὶ νῦν not only then but also now. So
honours must be paid him both when living and after deathτῑμὰ̄ς δοτέον καὶ ζῶντι καὶ τελευτήσαντι
as I was sent for this purpose so I will tell thee allκἀ̄πεμπόμην πρὸς ταῦτα καὶ τὸ πᾶν φράσω
I must dare whether I succeed or failτολμᾶν ἀνάγκη, κἂ̄ν τύχω κἂ̄ν μὴ τύχω
In a series of more than two ideas καί is used before each, where English would use and only before the last. Thus,
they fell upon him and seized him, his wife, his children, his horses, and all his possessionsσυντυγχάνουσιν αὐτῷ καὶ λαμβάνουσιν αὐτὸν καὶ γυναῖκα καὶ παῖδας καὶ τοὺς ἵππους καὶ πάντα τὰ ὄντα
Adjectives of quantity, as πολύς and ὀλίγος in the plural, are usually joined to an adjective in the same construction by καί or τὲ καί (also by τέ or τὲ . . . τέ in poetry). Thus, πολλὰ καὶ δεινά D. 37.57 (δεινὰ καὶ πολλά 37. 57), πολλά τε καὶ δεινά X. A. 5.5.8. In πολλὰ καὶ μεγάλα ἀγαθά (X. C. 1.5.9), the substantive is qualified by two adjectives; whereas in English the second adjec tive is taken with the substantive and treated as a unit modified by the first adjective (many good-things).
a. πολλοὶ καὶ ἄλλοι means many others also (with καί adverbial). For many others we find ἄλλοι πολλοί (very common) or πολλοὶ ἄλλοι.
Some combinations of conjunctional καί are:
καὶ . . . μέντοι and however, and of course (in καὶ μέντοι καί the first καί may be adverbial: yes indeed and).
καὶ . . . τοίνυν and . . . further, in connecting a thought with the preceding.
Adverbial καί also, even (Lat. etiam) influences single words or whole clauses. Adverbial καί stresses an important idea; usually the idea set forth in the word that follows, but sometimes also a preceding word when that word stands first in its clause. καί often serves to increase or diminish the force of particular words; sometimes it gives a tone of modesty.
With single words: a. κᾆτα then too, καὶ ἐγώ I on my part,
offspring from thee or me eitherσὸν ἢ κἀ̄μὸν γένος
desirous of himself too doing something illustriousβουλόμενος δὲ καὶ αὐτὸς λαμπρόν τι ποιῆσαι
b. καὶ πρίν even before, καὶ ὀψέ late though it be, καὶ οὕτως even so, καὶ ἔτι καὶ νῦν and now too, and still even now, ὀκνῶ καὶ λέγειν I fear even to say it,
the very attempt is utter follyπολλὴ μωρίᾱ καὶ τοῦ ἐπιχειρήματος
c. Often with adverbs of intensity, as καὶ μάλα exceedingly, certainly, καὶ κάρτα very greatly, καὶ πάνυ absolutely. With comparatives and superlatives: καὶ μᾶλλον yet more,
altogether the most foolish thingκαὶ μωρότατον
With a whole phrase or clause; as ἄμφω γὰρ αὐτὼ καὶ κατακτανεῖν νοεῖς; what, dost thou indeed intend to put them both to death? S. Ant. 770. Other examples in 2885-2887.
When καί stresses a verb in interrogative and conditional sentences it is often to be rendered by an emphatic auxiliary, often by at all. Thus, πολλάκις ἐσκεψάμην τί καὶ βούλεσθε I have often asked myself the question what you can want T. 6.38, τί καὶ χρὴ προσδοκᾶν; what on earth is one to expect? D. 4.46, τί γὰρ ἄν τις καὶ ποιοῖ ἄλλο; for what else could one do? P. Ph. 61e,
if it is well to tell a fable at allεἰ δεῖ καὶ μῦθον λέγειν καλόν
a. In affirmative independent clauses or sentences καί often has an emphasis which is difficult to render; as
the danger must now indeed seem to be dreadfulὁ κίνδῡνος νῦν δὴ καὶ δόξειεν ἂν δεινὸς εἶναι
Καί of Balanced Contrast.—In order to mark the connection of thought between antecedent and consequent, καί also, too, is often placed in the subordinate clause or in the main clause or in both.
a. Greek has thus the following modes of expression where a comparison is instituted between the parts of such bimembral sentences: “What I do, that you also do” (as in English) or “What I also ( = I on my part) do, that you do” or “What I also do, that you also do.” In the subordinate clause καί seems superfluous to English idiom.
Καί of balanced contrast occurs frequently when the subordinate clause sets forth something corresponding to, or deducible from, the main clause; and when an antithesis is to be emphasized. It is found especially in relative, causal, and final clauses, and has the effect of putting such subordinate clauses on a plane with the main clause. A relative word often adds -περ or is followed by δή. Thus,
they devoted themselves to those affairs of state on account of which they had in fact associated with Socratesτὰ δὲ τῆς πόλεως ἔπρᾱττον, ὧνπερ ἕνεκεν καὶ Σωκράτει προσῆλθον
we hold exactly the same views as the kingκαὶ ἡμῖν ταὐτὰ δοκεῖ ἅπερ καὶ βασιλεῖ
since the city has been saved I beg that safety be granted to me as wellἐπειδὴ καὶ ἡ πόλις ἐσώθη . . . ἀξιῶ κἀ̄μοὶ σωτηρίᾱν γενέσθαι
for vengeance is not successful in accordance with justice, because it is taken upon a wrongτῑμωρίᾱ γὰρ οὐκ εὐτυχεῖ δικαίως ὅτι καὶ ἀδικεῖται
In final clauses ἵνα καί is common, and sometimes, like Eng. just, serves to show that the fact answers to the expectation, or the effect to the cause (or vice versa). Thus, βούλει οὖν ἕπεσθαι ἵνα καὶ ἴδῃς τοὺς ὄντας αὐτόθι; do you wish to go along then just to see those who are there? P. Lys. 204a,
I will begin my speech with medicine in order that we may do honour to our artἄρξομαι δὲ ἀπὸ τῆς ἰ̄ᾱτρικῆς λέγων ἵνα καὶ πρεσβεύωμεν τὴν τέχνην
Καί of balanced contrast appears also in coördinate clauses; as
for I have ere now heard Philolaus . . . and ere now certain others besides himἤδη γὰρ ἔγωγε καὶ Φιλολά̄ου ἤκουσα . . . ἤδη δὲ καὶ ἄλλων τινῶν
by those who had promised to manage things there before and are now also doing themὑπὸ τῶν τἀ̄νταῦθα διοικήσειν . . . καὶ πρὶν ὑπεσχημένων καὶ νῦν δὲ πρᾱττόντων
a. So in disjunctive phrases or clauses. Thus,
either because of the exclamation or also because some other thought occurred to himεἴτε διὰ τὸ ἐπιβόημα εἴτε καὶ αὐτῷ ἄλλο τι . . . δόξαν
Similarly the καί of εἴ τις καὶ ἄλλος is superfluous; as
if any other thing is learnable, this is tooεἴπερ τι καὶ ἄλλο καὶ τοῦτο μαθητόν
he knows as well as anybody elseἐπίσταται δ᾽ εἴ τις καὶ ἄλλος
as also any otherὥς τις καὶ ἄλλος
καὶ δὴ καί and especially, and in particular, and what is more, lays stress on a particular instance or application of a general statement. Here the second καί emphasizes the following word. καὶ δὴ καί is usually attached to a preceding τέ or καί. Thus, καὶ δὴ καὶ τότε πρῳαίτερον συνελέγημεν and on that especial occasion we came together somewhat earlier than usual P. Ph. 59d,
in the case of many others and particularly in that of the sickἐν ἄλλοις τε πολλοῖς καὶ δὴ καὶ ἐν τοῖς κάμνουσιν
καὶ . . . δέ and . . . also, and . . . moreover. Here καί empha sizes the important intervening word or words, while δέ connects. Thus,
and I count thee also among theseκαὶ σὲ δ᾽ ἐν τούτοις λέγω
και<*>περ although is common with participles (2083). As a conjunction (cp. quanquam) without a main clause it is very rare (P. S. 219c).
καίτοι (καὶ ¨ τοι<*>), not in Homer, means and yet, although, rarely and so then. Here τοί marks something worthy of note, which is commonly opposed to what precedes. καίτοι is used in making a correction (sometimes in the form of a question), in passing to a new idea, and in the statement of a conclusion. The common καίτοι . . . γε is stronger than καίτοι.
and yet there is nothing untrue in what I said beforeκαίτοι οὐδὲν ὅτι οὐκ ἀληθὲς εἴρηκα ὧν προεῖπον
a. A sentence preceding καίτοι is often restated by a clause introduced by ἀλλά (ἀλλ᾽ ὅμως), δέ, or νῦν δέ. Cp. P. Ph. 77a, Charm. 175 c, A. 40 b, G. 499 c.
b. καίτοι is rarely, if ever, used with the participle in classical Greek. It is best attested in P. R. 511d; emendation is resorted to in L. 31.34, Ar. Eccl. 159.
μά asseverative (cp. μήν, μέν asseverative) with the accusative of the divinity or thing by which one swears. In negative sentences we have οὐ μά or μά alone with the accusative; in affirmative sentences, ναὶ μά, but more commonly νή. The omission of the accusative may sometimes be due to indecision or to indifference and not always to scrupulousness (1596 c). μά means properly in truth, verily; but apparently governs the accusative after the ellipse of such verbs as I call to witness.
μέν was originally an asseverative, emphatic particle (surely, certainly, indeed) and a weaker form of μήν. Cp. Epic ἦ μέν, καὶ μέν, οὐ μέν in asseverations and protestations. Asseverative μέν survived as μέν solitarium and in combination with other particles. Antithetical (concessive) μέν owes its origin to the fact that, as emphasis. may indicate a contrast, the clause in which μέν stood was felt as preliminary to an adversative member of the sentence. Through association with this adversative member μέν gradually lost its primitive asseverative force.
μέν solitarium occurs when a clause with μέν is not followed by a clause with δέ. This is especially common when the antithetical clause is to be supplied in thought, as when μέν emphasizes a statement made by a person with reference to himself as opposed to others (often with a tone of arrogance or of credulity). Here any possible opposition or difference of opinion, however justifiable, is left unexpressed. Thus, ἐγὼ μὲν οὐκ οἶδα I for my part do not know (though others may) X. C. 1.4.12,
they sailed away since they were jealous as it seemed to the majority at leastἀπέπλευσαν, ὡς μὲν τοῖς πλείστοις ἐδόκουν, φιλοτῑμηθέντες
Sometimes μέν solitarium merely emphasizes a word in its clause and does not imply a contrast. Thus,
this must be borne by me on my partἐμοὶ μὲν οἰστέα τάδε
μέν solitarium is commonest after personal pronouns; but occurs also after demonstrative pronouns (L. 25.16), after relatives (Aes. 3.209), after substantives without the article (D. 9.15), or after the article and before its substantive (L. 29.1), after adjectives (L. 1.27), after adverbs (L. 12.91), after verbs (D. 19.231). In questions μέν alone is rare (P. Men. 82b).
In combination with other particles, especially δή and οὖν, asseverative μέν either has a simple confirmatory force or is used adversatively. The following cases must be distinguished from those in which μέν is correlative to δέ.
μὲν δή expresses positive certainty, especially in conclusions. It is common in summing up and in transitions, and is used either alone or with other particles (sometimes it is followed by ἀλλά or δέ). Thus,
so much for thatταῦτα μὲν δὴ τοιαῦτα
μὲν οὖν lit. certainly in fact, μέν being a weaker form of μήν. μὲν οὖν has two common uses, according as the particles have a compound force, or each has its own force.
a. The compound force of μὲν οὖν is seen in affirmations; as in replies: πάνυ (μάλιστα) μὲν οὖν yes, by all means; certainly, by all means; aye truly, εὖ μὲν οὖν οἶδα nay, I am sure of it, οὐ μὲν οὖν indeed not,
isn't this the tree to which you were bringing us? To be sure this is itἆρ᾽ ου᾽ τόδε ἦν τὸ δένδρον ἐφ᾽ ὅπερ ἦγες ἡμᾶς; τοῦτο μὲν οὖν αὐτό
b. The compound force appears also when μὲν οὖν indicates a correction; nay rather (imo vero); as λέγε σύ· σὺ μὲν οὖν μοι λέγε do you say. Nay, rather you Ar. Eq. 13, ἄτοπον τὸ ἐνύπνιον, ὦ Σώκρατες. ἐναργὲς μὲν οὖν the dream is strange, Socrates. Nay rather, it was distinct P. Cr. 44b.
c. Each particle has its own force especially where μὲν οὖν indicates a transition to a new subject. Here μέν points forward to an antithesis to follow and indicated by δέ, ἀλλά, μέντοι, while οὖν (inferential) connects with what precedes. Here so then, therefore may be used in translation. Thus,
such then were the words of Clearthus; and on the other hand Tissaphernes answered as followsΚλέαρχος μὲν οὖν τοσαῦτα εἶπε. Τισσαφέρνης δὲ ὧδε ἀπημείφθη
Common collocations are ἀλλὰ μέν (ἀλλὰ . . . μέν) but for a fact, γὲ μέν, ἦ μέν, καὶ μέν.
Antithetical (concessive) μέν distinguishes the word or clause in which it stands from a following word or clause marked usually by δέ or by other particles denoting contrast, such as ἀλλά, ἀτάρ, μέντοι, μήν; and even by copulative τέ, καί (Hom. ἠδέ). μέν never connects words, clauses, or sentences.
μὲν . . . δέ serves to mark stronger or weaker contrasts of various kinds, and is sometimes to be rendered by on the one hand . . . on the other hand, indeed . . . but; but is often to be left untranslated. The μέν clause has a concessive force when it is logically subordinate (while, though, whereas, cp. 2170). Thus,
the soul lasts for a long time, the body is weaker and lasts for a shorter timeἡ μὲν ψῡχὴ πολυχρόνιόν ἐστι, τὸ δὲ σῶμα ἀσθενέστερον καὶ ὀλιγοχρονιώτερον
and whereas in fact many of us hitherto commanded no one, but were subject to the command of others, now however all of you who are present are so placed that you have command, some over more, others over fewerκαὶ πρόσθεν μὲν δὴ πολλοὶ ἡμῶν ἦρχον μὲν οὐδενός, ἤρχοντο δέ· νῦν δὲ κατεσκεύασθε οὕτω πάντες οἱ παρόντες ὥστε ἄρχετε οἱ μὲν πλειόνων, οἱ δὲ μειόνων
a.  On ὁ μὲν . . . ὁ δέ see 1107. Instead of ὁ (οἱ) δέ we find e.g. ἄλλος δέ, ἔνιοι δέ, ἔστι δ᾽ οἵ. So τοῦτο μὲν . . . τοῦτ᾽ ἄλλο (or αὖθις).—μέν may stand with a participle, δέ with a finite verb, in an antithetical sentence. Example in 2147 c.
b. εἰ, οὐ (μή) standing before μὲν . . . δέ exercise their force on both opposed clauses.
When several verbs referring to the same person or thing are contrasted, or when several attributes are contrasted, the first has μέν, the others δέ. Cp. Lyc. 5, X. A. 3.1.19. But μέν is sometimes omitted.
μέν . . . δέ is used in successive clauses which contain either the same word (anaphora) or a synonymous word; as ἐγὼ δὲ σύνειμι μὲν θεοῖς, σύνειμι δὲ ἀνθρώποις τοῖς ἀγαθοῖς quoted in 1159,
news came from the district of Erythrae itself and arrived also from all quartersἦλθε μὲν καὶ ἀπὸ τῆς Ἐρυθραίᾱς ἀγγελίᾱ, ἀφῑκνεῖτο δὲ καὶ πανταχόθεν
I will bring thee and stablish thee, and I will stablish myselfστήσω σ᾽ ἄγων, στήσω δ᾽ ἐμαυτόν
If more than two clauses are contrasted, only the first clause has μέν, while each of the following clauses has δέ (X. A. 1.3.14, X. C. 4.2.28).
A contrast indicated by μέν and δέ may stand inside another contrast indicated in the same manner, as ὁ μὲν ἀνὴρ τοιαῦτα μὲν πεποίηκε, τοιαῦτα δὲ λέγει· ὑ̄μῶν δὲ σὺ πρῶτος, ὦ Κλέαρχε, ἀπόφηναι γνώμην ὅ τι σοι δοκεῖ the man has acted thus, and speaks thus; but do you, Clearchus, be the first to make known what you think best X. A. 1.6.9.
Two relative (or conditional) clauses each with μέν may be followed by two demonstrative clauses each with δέ; but the second δέ is usually omitted, and there are other variations.
A clause with μέν is often followed by a contrasted clause without δέ but with a particle containing an element of opposition, as πρῶτον μὲν . . . ἔπειτα . . . εἶτα.
A shift in the construction may cause δέ to be omitted (S. Ant. 1199).
μέν after an emphatic demonstrative may resume μέν of the antecedent clause (D. 2.18).
μὲν . . . τε (and even καί) is used where the second clause is merely added instead of being coördinated by means of δέ. Thus,
we have quickly reached the places to which we had to go, and by following our leader in a compact body we have been invincibleταχὺ μὲν ὅποι ἔδει περιγιγνόμεθα ἀθρόοι τε τῷ ἄρχοντι ἑπόμενοι ἀνυπόστατοι ἦμεν
Position of μέν (and δέ).—μέν and δέ are commonly placed next to the words they contrast, and take precedence over other postpositive particles. But when two words belong closely together, μέν and δέ are placed between. Thus, when nouns with the article are contrasted, μέν and δέ stand after the article; if the nouns depend on prepositions μέν and δέ stand after the preposition and before the article.
a. But this rule may be neglected in order to emphasize the preceding word, as τὰ μὲν ἀνθρώπινα παρέντες, τὰ δαιμόνια δὲ σκοποῦντες neglecting human affairs, but speculating on things divine X. M. 1.1.12,
in the darknessἀνὰ τὸ σκοτεινὸν μέν
b. If the noun has no article and is governed by a preposition, δέ usually takes the third place.
c. Postponement of δέ (and some other postpositive particles) to the fourth place is only apparent after an introductory vocative, which is not regarded as forming an integral part of the sentence.
μέν and δέ are sometimes referred to the entire clause or to the predicate and not to the words that are opposed to each other. This arrangement is often adopted to preserve the symmetry of the juxtaposed clause. μέν and δέ are thus often placed after personal or demonstrative pronouns. Thus, ἔλεγε μὲν ὡς τὸ πολύ, τοῖς δὲ βουλομένοις ἐξῆν ἀκούειν Socrates for the most part was wont to talk, while any who chose could listen X. M. 1.1.10, πῶς ἂν πολλοὶ μὲν ἐπεθύ̄μουν τυραννεῖν . . . ; πῶς δὲ πάντες ἐζήλουν ἂν τοὺς τυράννους; why should many desire to possess despotic power? why should everybody envy despotic rulers? X. Hi. 1.9 (for πάντες δὲ πῶς ἐζήλουν ἄν). Cp. ἐν μὲν τούτοις . . . ἐν ἐκείνοις δέ Lyc. 140, περὶ αὑτῶν μὲν . . . περὶ δὲ τῶν δεσποτῶν L. 7.35, etc.
a. The transposition is often designed to produce a chiastic (3020) order, as
he suffered no loss, but thought that he had done a great deal of damageἔπαθε μὲν οὐδέν, πολλὰ δὲ κακὰ ἐνόμιζε ποιῆσαι
In poetry μέν and δέ often have a freer position than in prose. δέ may often come third when an emphatic word is placed before it, and even fourth.
μέντοι (postpositive) from μέν (= μήν, 2895) + τοί, is an asseverative and adversative particle.
Asseverative μέντοι certainly, surely, of course, in truth is very common in replies, where it expresses positive, eager, or reflective assent. Often with νὴ (μὰ) Δία. Thus, ἐγώ; σὺ μέντοι I? certainly, you Ar. Eq. 168, τί γάρ, ἔφη, . . . μέμνησαι ἐκεῖνα . . . ; ναὶ μὰ Δία . . . μέμνημαι μέντοι τοιαῦτα ἀκούσᾱς σου well then, said he, do you recall those matters; Yes, by Zeus, certainly I do recall that I heard things to that effect from you X. C. 1.6.6, ἀληθέστατα μέντοι λέγεις well, certainly you say what is very true P. Soph. 245b.
μέντοι may strengthen asseverations or emphasize questions; as
in truth we must speak thusοὕτω μέντοι χρὴ λέγειν
a. Asseverative μέντοι in combinations, e.g.:
ἀλλὰ μέντοι but surely, but in fact (in ἀλλὰ . . . μέντοι, μέντοι refers to the preceding word).
καὶ . . . μέντοι and . . . indeed, and . . . in fact, and . . . moreover, as
he was very fond of hunting and moreover exceedingly fond of dangerφιλοθηρότατος ἦν καὶ πρὸς τὰ θηρία μέντοι φιλοκινδῡνότατος
ου᾽ μέντοι no indeed (also adversative: yet not).
 The forms μήν (Hom., Att.), μά̄ν (Hom., Lesb., Dor., lyric parts of tragedy), μέν truly (Hom., Att.) and μά in oaths are all connected. μήν emphasizes either a whole statement or a single word.
for thus I will declare, and verily it shall be accomplishedὧδε γὰρ ἐξερέω, καὶ μὴν τετελεσμένον ἔσται
truth is a fine thing, yet it does not seem an easy thing to persuadeκαλὸν μὲν ἡ ἀλήθεια . . ., ἔοικε μὴν οὐ ῥᾴδιον πείθειν
but nothing hindersοὐδὲν μὴν κωλύ̄ει
Combinations of μήν:
ἀλλὰ μήν ( . . . γε ) but surely; but yet; nay, indeed; well, in truth. Often used to add something of greater importance, or in transitions when a new idea is opposed to the foregoing. ἀλλὰ μήν is often separated by a negative.
ἦ μήν verily, verily. Often to introduce an oath or a threat.
καὶ μήν and verily or and yet according to the context. καὶ μήν frequently introduces a new fact or thought and hence often denotes transition, sometimes opposition (further, however, and yet). In tragedy this formula is used to mark the beginning of a new scene, as when the arrival of a newcomer is thus signalized (but here comes); as
and lo! here is the kingκαὶ μὴν ἄναξ ὅδε
και μὴν . . . γε in transitions or enumerations marks something of still greater importance; but it is not so strong as καὶ μὲν δή. Here γέ emphasizes the word or words with which it is immediately connected. In replies, and indeed, and yet or oh, but; as
and yet I will do itκαὶ μὴν ποιήσω γε
καὶ μὴν καί (neg. καὶ μὴν οὐδέ) and in truth also.
ου᾽ μήν surely not, ου᾽ μὴν ἀλλά nevertheless (2767), ου᾽ μὴν οὐδέ nor again (2768), οὐδὲ μήν and certainly not.
τί μήν ; lit. what indeed (quid uero), as ἀλλὰ τί μὴν δοκεῖς; but what in truth is your opinion? P. Th. 162b. τί μήν; standing alone, has the force of naturally, of course. Thus, λέγουσιν ἡμᾶς ὡς ὀλωλότας, τί μήν; they speak of us as dead, and why should they not? A. Ag. 672. Often in Plato to indicate assent. τί μὴν οὔ ; (why indeed not=) of course I do.
ναί (cp. Lat. nae) asseverative (truly, yea), with the accusative in oaths where it is usually followed by μά (1596 b). ναί yes, in answers, is found only in Attic.
νή (cp. Lat. neē) asseverative (truly, yea), with the accusative in oaths, and only in an affirmative sense. νή is found only in Attic. See 1596 b.
νῦν now, at present often has a causal sense, as νῦν δέ but as the case stands, as it is; often to mark reality in contrast to an assumed case.
νῡνί̄ (νῦν + deictic ῑ, 333 g) is stronger than νῦν: even now, at this moment; rarely in a causal sense.
νύ̆ν (enclitic; lyric, tragic, Herodotus, rare and suspected in Homer), a weakened form of νῦν, is rarely temporal, usually inferential, as now is used for then, therefore. νύν thus marks the connection of the speaker's thought with the situation in which he is placed. It is commonly used after imperatives, prohibitive and hortatory subjunctives. Thus,
seat me, thenκάθιζε νύν με
νύ̄ν (enclitic) is adopted by some scholars in Attic tragedy where a long syllable is required (S. O. T. 644). Others write νῦν (with the force of νύ̆ν).
νύ̆ (enclitic; Epic and Cyprian), a still weaker form of νῦν, and less emphatic than δή. It is common in questions and appeals; less frequent in statements; as τίς νυ; who now? Also after other particles, as καί νύ κε, ἦ ῥά νυ.
ὅπως , originally a relative adverb meaning how, is derived from the relative particle σϝοδ (with which Eng. so is connected), to which the indefinite πώς has been added. Hom. ὅππως from σϝοδ-πως, as ὅττι from σϝοδ-τι (81 D 2).
a. The adverbial meaning of ὅπως is still seen in its use as an indefinite relative and as an indirect interrogative; and by the fact that in its place ὅπῃ, ὅτῳ τρόπῳ, ἐξ ὅτου τρόπου are sometimes used. By association with the subjunctive ὅπως became a conjunction (cp. μή πως) used with or without ἄν in final clauses (see 2196, 2201). On the use as a conjunction in object clauses after verbs of effort and of fear, see 2211, 2228. So in dependent statements ὅπως passed from how into that (2578 d).
οὐδέ ( μηδέ ) is an adverb and a conjunction, and is to be broken up into the negative οὐ (μή) and δέ meaning and, even, also , or but.
Adverbial οὐδέ (μηδέ) not even, not . . . either, also . . . not, nor yet (ne . . quidem). Cp. the use of καί even, also in affirmative sentences; as οὐδ᾽ ὥς not even in that case (καὶ ὥς even in that case).
but no; even of these shall they be deprivedἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ τούτων στερήσονται
when besides it was not so easyὅτ᾽ οὐδ᾽ οὕτω ῥᾴδιον ἦν
even if they wished, they could not easily become wickedοὐδ᾽ ἂν εἰ βούλοιντο, ῥᾳδίως πονηροὶ γένοιντο
I do not admit that this man is my enemy even though I have been ill-usedοὐδὲ πεπονθὼς κακῶς ἐχθρὸν εἶναί μοι τοῦτον ὁμολογῶ
οὐδέ (μηδέ) as a conjunction (and not, nor) connects two or more whole clauses.
In Attic prose οὐδέ is used only to join a negative clause to another clause itself negative; as
there was no hope of assistance nor did any chance of safety appearοὐδεμία ἐλπὶς ἦν τῑμωρίᾱς οὐδὲ ἄλλη σωτηρίᾱ ἐφαίνετο
a. A negative clause is joined to an affirmative clause by καὶ οὐ (μή). Thus,
I will abide by the alliance and I will not violate itἐμμενῶ τῇ ξυμμαχίᾳ . . . καὶ οὐ παραβήσομαι
N.—But in poetry and Ionic prose οὐδέ may continue an affirmative clause; as
dread indeed and not to be utteredδεινὸν γὰρ οὐδὲ ῥητόν
οὐδέ is used by the poets for but not, where Attic prose writers have ἀλλ᾽ ου᾽ or καὶ οὐ. Thus, ἔνθ᾽ ἄλλοις μὲν πᾶσιν ἑήνδανεν, οὐδέ ποθ᾽ Ἥρῃ οὐδὲ Ποσει-
then it was pleasing to all the others, but not to Hera or to Poseidonδάωνι
by my folly but not by thineἐμαῖσι οὐδὲ σαῖσι δυσβουλίαις
this is not my part, but thineοὐκ ἐμὸν τόδ᾽ ἀλλὰ σόν
you probably heard this from yourself and not from meσοῦ τάδε κινδῡνεύεις, ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἐμοῦ ἀκηκοέναι
οὐδέ may stand in an apodosis corresponding to apodotic δέ (2837). Cp. S. O. C. 590.
οὐδέ may negative a preceding word also; as
the Phoenician ships had not arrived nor had Tissaphernesαἱ Φοίνισσαι νῆες οὐδὲ ὁ Τισσαφέρνης . . . ἧκον
he could say nothing straightforward nor justἁπλοῦν μὲν οὐδὲ δίκαιον οὐδὲν ἂν εἰπεῖν ἔχοι
οὐδὲ . . . οὐδέ commonly means not even . . . nor yet (or no, nor), the first οὐδέ being adverbial, the second conjunctive. οὐδὲ . . . οὐδέ is not correlative, like οὔτε . . . οὔτε, and hence never means neither . . . nor. Thus, οὐδὲ ἥλιον οὐδὲ σελήνην ἄρα νομίζω θεοὺς εἶναι; do I then hold that not even the sun nor yet the moon are gods? P. A. 26c,
you do not even understand though you see, nor yet do you remember though you hearσύ γε οὐδὲ ὁρῶν γιγνώσκεις οὐδὲ ἀκούων μέμνησαι
a. So in both members of comparative sentences (cp. καί 2885); as
as there is no good in an idle tiller of the soil, so there is no good in an idle generalὥσπερ οὐδὲ γεωργοῦ ἀ̄ργοῦ οὐδὲν ὄφελος, οὕτως οὐδὲ στρατηγοῦ ἀ̄ργοῦντος οὐδὲν ὄφελος
οὐδὲ γὰρ οὐδέ (negative of καὶ γὰρ καί); as
for neither did he deceive me even in thisοὐδὲ γὰρ οὐδὲ τοῦτο ἐψεύσατο
ου᾽ . . . οὐδέ : οὐδέ not even as well as nor (2933) may resume a preceding οὐ. Thus, ὕβριν γὰρ οὐ στέργουσιν οὐδὲ δαίμονες lit. not even the gods do not love insolence S. Tr. 280,
he said however that he did not think that, even if Dexippus was a downright rascal, he ought to suffer by an act of violenceοὐ μέντοι ἔφη νομίζειν οὐδ᾽ ει᾽ παμπόνηρος ἦν Δέξιππος βίᾳ χρῆναι πάσχειν αὐτόν
we must not let such an opportunity go by nor suffer the same as you have sufferedοὐ δεῖ δὴ τοιοῦτον . . . καιρὸν ἀφεῖναι οὐδὲ παθεῖν ταὐτὸν ὅπερ . . . πεπόνθατε
ου᾽ μέντοι οὐδέ not by any means however. On ου᾽ μὴν οὐδέ see 2768.
οὐδὲ . . . οὐ : οὐδέ may be resumed by οὐ; as
nor can the man who is bad in his private life prove himself good in a public capacityοὐδέ γε ὁ ἰδίᾳ πονηρὸς οὐκ ἂν γένοιτο δημοσίᾳ χρηστός
οὐδὲ . . . οὔτε is rare (P. Charm. 171b).
οὔτε (μήτε) is usually repeated: οὔτε . . . οὔτε ( μήτε . . . μήτε ) neither . . . nor (nec . . . nec). οὔτε . . . οὔτε is the negative of τὲ . . . τέ, and unites single words or clauses.
neither is nor ever shall beοὔτε ἔστιν οὔτε ποτὲ ἔσται
neither had Chirisophus come nor were there enough boats nor was it possible any longer to secure provisionsοὔτε Χειρίσοφος ἧκεν οὔτε πλοῖα ἱκανὰ ἦν οὔτε τὰ ἐπιτήδεια ἦν λαμβάνειν ἔτι
After a negative clause:
he could not persuade either the generals or the soldiersοὐκ ἔπειθεν οὔτε τοὺς στρατηγοὺς οὔτε τοὺς στρατιώτᾱς
a. οὔτε . . . μήτε is found when each negative is determined by a different construction, as
neither am I nor may I become shamelessἀναιδὴς οὔτ᾽ εἰμὶ μήτε γενοίμην
b. When οὔτε . . . οὔτε stands between οὐδὲ . . . οὐδέ the members thus correlated are subordinate to those expressed by οὐδὲ . . . οὐδέ. Cp. Aes. 1.19.
Sometimes the first οὔτε is omitted in poetry: νόσοι δ᾽ οὔτε γῆρας disease nor old age Pindar, Pyth. 10. 41,
willingly nor unwillinglyἑκόντα μήτ᾽ ἄ̄κοντα
For the first οὔτε the poets sometimes have οὐ, as
not snow nor stormοὐ νιφετὸς οὔτ᾽ ἂρ χειμών
οὔτε . . . τε´ on the one hand not . . . but, not only not . . . but (cp. neque . . . et). The τέ clause often denotes the contrary of that set forth in the οὔτε clause (so far from). Thus, οὔτε διενοήθην πώποτε ἀποστερῆσαι ἀποδώσω τε so far from ever thinking to deprive them of their pay I will give it to them X. A. 7.7.48, ὤμοσαν . . . μήτε προδώσειν ἀλλήλους σύμμαχοί τε ἔσεσθαι they swore that they would not betray one another and that they would be allies 2. 2. 8.  Sometimes the negative may be added in the τέ clause:
neither did he stop to consider and the oracle would not make it plainοὔτε ἐκεῖνος ἔτι κατενόησε τό τε μαντεῖον οὐκ ἐδήλου
οὔτε . . . τε οὐ S. Ant. 763. οὔτε . . . τε . . . οὔτε E. H. F. 1341.
οὔτε . . . δέ is used when the second clause is opposed to the first; as
we have no vessels by which we can sail away; on the other hand, if we stay here, we haven't provisions even for a single dayοὔτε πλοῖά ἐστιν οἷς ἀποπλευσόμεθα, μένουσι δὲ αὐτοῦ οὐδὲ μιᾶς ἡμέρᾱς ἔστι τὰ ἐπιτήδεια
οὔτε . . . οὐ is rare in prose; as
neither rain nor snowοὔτε νιφετός, οὐκ ὄμβρος
οὔτε . . . οὐδέ corresponds to the sequence of τὲ . . . δέ in affirmative clauses. The emphatic οὐδέ here adds a new negative idea as after any other preceding negative; and is most common after οὔτε . . . οὔτε: neither . . . nor . . . no, nor yet (nor . . . either). οὐδέ is often followed by an emphasizing particle, as αὖ, γέ, μήν. Thus,
neither a State nor a constitution nor yet an individualοὔτε πόλις οὔτε πολῑτείᾱ οὐδέ γ᾽ ἀνήρ
neither education nor courts of justice nor laws, no nor yet restraintμήτε παιδείᾱ . . . μήτε δικαστήρια μήτε νόμοι μηδὲ ἀνάγκη μηδεμία
A subordinate clause with οὐδέ may come between οὔτε . . . οὔτε. Thus,
for neither did he show that my father left me in debt, nor yet has he adduced witnesses, nor did he put into the account the sumοὔτε γὰρ ὡς ὀφείλοντά με κατέλειπεν ὁ πατὴρ . . . ἀπέφηνεν οὐδὲ . . . παρέσχηται μάρτυρας οὔτ᾽ αὖ τὸν ἀριθμὸν . . . ἐπανέφερεν
οὐκοῦν interrogative: not therefore? not then? (nonne, igitur? nonne ergo?). Here the stress lies on the inferential οὖν and an affirmative answer is expected as a matter of course. οὐκοῦν stands at the beginning of its clause.
οὐκοῦν . . . εὖ σοι δοκοῦσι βουλεύεσθαι; πρός γε ἃ ὁρῶσι do you not then think that they lay their plans well? Yes, with regard to what they see X. C. 7.1.8.
a. When a negative answer is expected we have οὐκοῦν οὐ (P. Phil. 43d).
b. οὐκοῦν and οὖν stand in parallel questions in X. A. 1.6.7-8.
c. Some scholars write οὔκουν or οὐκ οὖν for οὐκοῦν interrogative (and inferential).
οὐκοῦν inferential: then, well then, therefore, accordingly (ergo, igitur). Inferential οὐκοῦν was developed, probably in colloquial speech, from the interrogative use, the speaker anticipating the affirmative answer to his question and emphasizing only the inference. From the negative question all that was left was an expression of his own opinion on the part of the speaker. οὐκοῦν has become so completely equivalent to οὖν that a negative has to be added if one is required.
οὐκοῦν, ὅταν δὴ μὴ σθένω, πεπαύσομαι well then, when my strength fails, I shall cease S. Ant. 91,
or shall we say that those who bid us defend ourselves make war? Then it is left for us to be slavesἢ . . . τοὺς ἀμύ̄νεσθαι κελεύοντας πόλεμον ποιεῖν φήσομεν; οὐκοῦν ὑπόλοιπον δουλεύειν
accordingly let it sufficeοὐκοῦν . . . ἱκανῶς ἐχέτω
a. Editors often differ whether, in certain cases, οὐκοῦν is interrogative or inferential.
οὔκουν not then, therefore not, so not, at any rate . . . not, surely not (non igitur, non ergo). Here οὐ is strongly emphasized, and οὖν is either confirmative or inferential. οὔκουν is usually placed at the beginning of its clause.
a. In emphatic negative answers; as
certainly not, in my opinion at leastοὔκουν ἔμοιγε δοκεῖ
b. In continuous discourse (P. L. 807a).
c. οὔκουν . . . γε returns a negative answer with qualified acquiescence in a preceding statement. Thus, τούτων ἄρα Ζεύς ἐστιν ἀσθενέστερος; οὔκουν ἂν ἐκφύγοι
is Zeus then weaker than these? Fate at least he surely cannot escapeγε τὴν πεπρωμένην
d. In impatient or excited questions (non? non igitur?). Thus, οὔκουν ἐρεῖς ποτ᾽, εἶτ᾽ ἀπαλλαχθεὶς ἄπει; wilt thou not speak and so depart and be gone? S. Ant. 244.
οὐκ ( μὴ ) οὖν is to be distinguished from οὐκοῦν or οὔκουν. Thus,
whenever they were foiled in any attempt they did not for this reason think it right to deprive their city of their valourὁπότε καὶ πείρᾳ του σφαλεῖεν, οὐκ οὖν καὶ τὴν πόλιν γε τῆς σφετέρᾱς ἀρετῆς ἀξιοῦντες στερίσκειν
a. Hdt. has οὐκ ὦν (sometimes written οὔκων) to emphasize an idea opposed to what goes before (non tamen). Thus, ταῦτα λέγοντες τοὺς Κροτωνιήτᾱς οὐκ ὦν ἔπειθον by these words they did not however persuade the men of Croton 3. 137.
οὖν (Ionic, Lesbic, Doric ὦν), a postpositive particle, is either confirmatory or inferential. οὖν points to something already mentioned or known or to the present situation.
Confirmatory οὖν in fact, at all events, in truth belongs properly to the entire clause, but usually, for purposes of emphasis, attaches itself to some other particle, to a relative pronoun, or at times to other words (P. A. 22b). On γοῦν, see 2830; on μὲν οὖν, 2901; on τοιγαροῦν, 2987. In some of its combinations with other particles οὖν may be inferential or transitional.
ἀλλ᾽ οὖν or ἀλλ᾽ οὖν . . . γε (stronger than δ᾽ οὖν) well, at all events; well, certainly, for that matter; as ἀλλ᾽ οὖν πονηροί γε φαινόμενοι well, at all events they look like sorry fellows, that they are X. C. 1.4.19, ἀλλ᾽ οὖν τοσοῦτόν γ᾽ ἴσθι well, at any rate you know this at least S. Ph. 1305. ἀλλ᾽ οὖν may stand in the apodosis to an hypothetical proposition (P. Ph. 91b).
γὰρ οὖν (and καὶ γὰρ οὖν ) for in fact (indeed, in any case); as
for indeed thou sayest wellεὖ γὰρ οὖν γέγεις
you will profit by listening; for I am certainly going to tell you some other thingsὀνήσεσθε ἀκούοντες· μέλλω γὰρ οὖν ἄττα ὑ̄μῖν ἐρεῖν καὶ ἄλλα
Also to mark a consequence (X. A. 1.9.11), and in replies, as οὐ γὰρ οὖν P. Phae. 277e, and also when the speaker repeats an important word of his interlocutor, as φημὶ γὰρ οὖν P. G. 466e.
δ᾽ οὖν but certainly, at all events, anyhow, be that as it may with or without μέν in the preceding clause. Here οὖν shows that an unquestionable fact is to be set forth in its own clause; while the adversative δέ marks opposition to what has preceded and implies that the foregoing statement is uncertain and liable to dispute: ‘be that true or not, at any rate what follows is certainly true.’ δ᾽ οὖν is used (a) to set aside conjecture, surmise, or hearsay; (b) to resume the main argument after long digression, and to cut short further discussion and come to the point; (c), with imperatives, to denote assent marked by unwillingness, impatience, or indifference. Thus, (a) εἰ μὲν δὴ δίκαια ποιήσω, οὐκ οἶδα· αἱρήσομαι δ᾽ οὖν ὑ̄μᾶς whether I shall do what is right (or not), I do not know; be that as it may, I will choose you X. A. 1.3.5, καὶ ἐλέγετο Κύ̄ρω δοῦναι πολλὰ χρήματα. τῇ δ᾽ οὖν στρατιᾷ τότε ἀπέδωκε Κῦρος μισθὸν τεττάρων μηνῶν and she is said to have given Cyrus a large sum; at any rate Cyrus then gave the army four months' pay 1. 2. 12; (b) cp. T. 1.3, 6. 15, 8. 81. Resumptive δ᾽ οὖν may also set aside doubtful statements. (c)
well speak on then, if thou hast delight in speakingσὺ δ᾽ οὖν λέγε, εἴ σοι τῷ λόγῳ τις ἡδονή
ει᾽ δ᾽ οὖν = but if indeed, but if in point of fact; as εἰ δ᾽ οὖν τι κἀ̄κτρέποιτο τοῦ πρόσθεν λόγου but if he should deviate at all from his former statement S. O. T. 851.
δὴ οὖν certainly then; cp. οὖν δή . Thus, τί δὴ οὖν; or τί οὖν δή; well then pray? πῶς δὴ οὖν; how then pray? οὖν δῆτα really then.
εἴτε οὖν, οὔτε οὖν: in alternative clauses οὖν (indeed) is added to one or both clauses as emphasis may be desired: εἴτε οὖν . . . εἴτε whether indeed . . . or, εἴτε . . . εἴτε οὖν whether . . . or indeed, or εἴτε οὖν . . . εἴτε οὖν whether indeed . . . or indeed. So also in exclusive clauses: οὔτε ( μήτε ) . . . οὔτε ( μήτε ) οὖν neither . . . nor yet, οὔτε ( μήτε ) οὖν . . . οὔτε ( μήτε ) neither indeed . . . nor.
οὖν often follows interrogative pronouns and adverbs (in dialogue); as τίς οὖν ; who pray? τί οὖν , generally with the aorist, in impatient questions asks why that which is desired has not been done (2197 c).
οὖν affixed to a relative pronoun has a generalizing force and makes it indefinite (339 e). Such indefinite relative pronouns are construed like the indefinite τὶς or demonstratives; and do not introduce relative clauses (unlike whosoever, etc., which are both indefinite and relative).
So with adverbs (346 c), as ὁπωσοῦν in any way, no matter how (= utique not = utcunque). Thus, οὐδ᾽ ὁπωσοῦν not even in the slightest degree.
a. Simply placed after relatives οὖν has a strengthening force; as ὥσπερ οὖν as in fact (often in parentheses), οἷός περ οὖν just as in fact.
Inferential οὖν therefore, accordingly (igitur, ergo), usually classed as a conjunction, signifies that something follows from what precedes. Inferential οὖν marks a transition to a new thought and continues a narrative (often after ἐπεί, ἐπειδή, ὅτε), resumes an interrupted narration (T. 3.42, X. C. 3.3.9), and in general states a conclusion or inference. It stands alone or in conjunction with other particles. Thus, ἀναρχίᾳ ἂν καὶ ἀταξίᾳ ἐνόμιζον ἡμᾶς ἀπολέσθαι. δεῖ οὖν πολὺ μὲν τοὺς ἄρχοντας ἐπιμελεστέρους γενέσθαι τοὺς νῦν τῶν πρόσθεν they were of the opinion that we would be overcome through our lack of leaders and discipline. It is imperative therefore that the leaders we have now should be much more watchful than those we had before X. A. 3.2.29.
a. The inferential and transitional use is derived from the confirmative meaning, and is scarcely marked until Herodotus and the Attic poets. Cp. μὲν οὖν. ἐπεὶ οὖν in Hom. is sometimes used in transitions.
πέρ (postpositive and enclitic) very, just, even. Cp. Epic πέρι very much, and περί in composition. In Attic prose πέρ is common only with relatives (338 c) and conjunctions.
ὅσπερ the very one who (i.e. none other), οἷός περ just such, ἔνθα περ just where, ὥσπερ just as, in the very way in which, (sometimes not very different from ὡς, to which it is related as ὅσπερ to ὅς), εἴπερ if really. καίπερ (Hom. καὶ . . . περ) however much, though, Epic ἠέ περ just as.
a. After other words especially in Epic and Lyric and in Aeschylus; as
the divine power remains in the mind though it be enslavedμένει τὸ θεῖον δουλίᾳ περ έν φρενί
πλήν an adverb, is used (a) as a preposition with the genitive (1700) meaning except, save, when that which is excepted is a single substantival idea; (b) as a conjunction, except, except that, save that, unless, only, but (often almost = ἀλλά).
ἀφειστήκεσαν . . . πᾶσαι πλὴν Μῑλήτου all the Ionic cities had revolted except Miletus X. A. 1.1.6; οὐδεὶς ἀπῄει πρὸς βασιλέᾱ, πλὴν Ὀρόντᾱς ἐπεχείρησε no one went off to the king save that Orontas made the attempt 1. 9. 29,
but there is one thing and only one that I fearπλὴν ἓν μόνον δέδοικα
all assembled except the men under Neonσυνῆλθον πάντες πλὴν οἱ Νέωνος
a. πλὴν οὐ only not, except (2753); πλὴν ἤ except, as οὐ γὰρ ἄλλῳ γ᾽ ὑπακούσαιμεν . . . πλὴν ἢ Προδίκῳ we would not listen to any one (else) except Prodicus Ar. Nub. 361; πλὴν ὅτι except that; πλὴν εἰ except if, cp. εἰ μή (nisi si), after a negative πλὴν εἰ μή; often with the verb omitted, as
no one knows except perhaps some birdοὐδεὶς οἶδεν . . . πλὴν εἴ τις ἄρ᾽ ὄρνις
b. πλήν may be followed by the infinitive, as τί σοι πέπρᾱκται πρᾶγμα πλὴν τεύχειν κακά; what hast thou accomplished save to work mischief? A. Eum. 125.
τέ and (postpositive, and enclitic as -que) is generally used with a correlative conjunction.
τέ alone sometimes in prose links whole clauses or sentences which serve to explain, amplify, supplement, or to denote a consequence of, what precedes (and thus, and therefore, and as a result). Thus, ὁ δ᾽ ἐχαλέπαινεν . . ., ἐκέλευσέ τ᾽ αὐτὸν ἐκ τοῦ μέσου ἐξίστασθαι but he was angry and (therefore) ordered him to get out of the way X. A. 1.5.14. Cp. 2978.
a. This use of τέ (τέ consequential) is quite common in Herodotus and Thucydides, rather rare in Xenophon, and infrequent in other prose writers. It occurs also in poetry.
N.—In poetry τέ alone (cp. -que) often connects single parallel nouns and pronouns so that the two connected ideas form a whole; as
sceptre and prerogativesσκῆπτρον τῑμά̄ς τε
being fairer and dressed more becominglyκαθαρωτέρᾱ οὖσα πρεπόντως τε μᾶλλον ἠμφιεσμένη
τέ (or καί) meaning both may be followed by asyndeton (S. Ant. 296).
Homer often, and Herodotus sometimes, adds τέ to relative pronouns and conjunctions introducing subordinate clauses, which are usually postpositive. So after ὅς, ὅσος, οἷος, ὡς, ὅτε, ἐπεί, ἔνθα, ὅθι, etc. Thus, φίληθεν ἐκ Διός, ὅς τε θεοῖσι . . . ἀνάσσει they were loved by Zeus, who rules over the gods B 669. This untranslatable τέ is probably connective (not indefinite), and belongs to the whole clause. It has the effect of showing that its clause corresponds in some way to the preceding clause. ὅς τε is found in lyric poetry and in the lyric parts of tragedy (rarely in dialogue parts). ὥστε, οἷός τε became common.
This connective force is also seen when τέ stands in the principal clause, sometimes both in the principal and in the subordinate clause, e.g. ὅς κε θεοῖς ἐπιπείθηται, μάλα τ᾽ ἔκλυον αὐτοῦ whosoever obeys the gods, him especially they hear A 218, ὅππῃ τ᾽ ἰ̄θύ̄σῃ, τῇ τ᾽ εἴκουσι στίχες ἀνδρῶν wheresoever he rushes, there the ranks of men give way M 48.
Homer has τέ after the coördinating conjunctions καί, δέ, οὐδέ, ἀλλά, ἤ; after ἦ, μέν, πέρ, γάρ, and before ἄρα in questions.
τὲ . . . τέ usually serves to connect clauses, less frequently single words. In English and often suffices, but as . . . so is often in place. τὲ . . . τέ is more common in poetry than in prose, but in prose more common than τέ standing alone. Thus, πατὴρ ἀνδρῶν τε θεῶν τε father of men and gods A 544,
for the Assyrians are enemies to me, and they are now more hostile to you than to meἐμοί τε γὰρ πολέμιοι Ἀσσύριοι, σοί τε νῦν ἐχθί̄ονές εἰσιν ἢ ἐμοί
knowledge of which is most excellent and ignorance most disgracefulπερὶ ὧν εἰδέναι τε κάλλιστον μὴ εἰδέναι τε αἴσχιστον
a. One clause may be negative, the other affirmative (T. 2.22); but we usually have οὔτε instead of τὲ οὐ.
τὲ καί or τὲ . . . καί often serves to unite complements, both similars and opposites. τὲ . . . καί is not used when one clause is subordinate to another. The two words or clauses thus united may show a contrast, or the second may be stronger than the first. τέ is commonly separated from καί by one or more words. τὲ . . . καί is weaker than καὶ . . . καί, and will not easily bear the translation both . . . and. It is rare in colloquial Attic. Thus,
to rule and be ruledἄρχειν τε καὶ ἄρχεσθαι
to rule and to be a slaveτό τ᾽ ἄρχειν καὶ τὸ δουλεύειν
by force and not willinglyβίᾳ τε κοὐχ ἑκών
to exercise himself and his horsesγυμνάσαι . . . ἑαυτόν τε καὶ τοὺς ἵππους
he answered briefly and only the questions put to himἀπεκρί̄νατο διὰ βραχέων τε καὶ αὐτὰ τὰ ἐρωτώμενα
τὲ . . . καί is often used of actions coincident in time, or of actions standing in a causal relation to each other; as ἡμέρᾱ τε σχεδὸν ὑπέφαινε καὶ εἰς τὸ μέσον ἧκον οἱ ἄρχοντες day was just breaking and (= when) the officers came into the centre of the camp X. A. 3.3.1 (temporal parataxis; cp. 2169).
τὲ . . . καί is sometimes used of alternatives (for εἴτε . . . εἴτε).  But in prose τέ before and after καί is rare.
When τέ follows τὲ . . . καί, τέ does not point back to καί, but denotes an addition to the preceding member (and besides). Thus,
both destroying their walls and surrendering their ships and besides assessing tribute on themselvesτείχη τε περιελόντες καὶ ναῦς παραδόντες φόρον τε ταξάμενοι
καί τε is Epic; elsewhere the καί of καὶ . . . τε belongs to the whole clause (A. Ch. 252).
ἄλλως τε καί both in other ways and especially, on other grounds and particularly, or simply especially. This combination usually stands before conditional clauses (or clauses with a conditional participle), causal, and temporal clauses. Thus,
I think it hard to cross, especially when the enemy faces us in full forceχαλεπὸν οἶμαι διαβαίνειν ἄλλως τε καὶ πολεμίων πολλῶν ἔμπροσθεν ὄντων
it is grievous to be deprived of anything, especially if this happens to any one at the hands of a personal enemyπάντων . . . ἀποστερεῖσθαι λῡπηρόν ἐστι . . . , ἄλλως τε κἂ̄ν ὑπ᾽ ἐχθροῦ τῳ τοῦτο συμβαίνῃ
he both honoured me in other ways and gave me ten thousand daricsτά τ᾽ ἄλλα ἐτἱ̄μησε καὶ μῡρίους ἔδωκε δᾱρεικούς
τὲ . . . δέ is used when a writer begins as if he were going simply to add the second member (both . . . and), but instead contrasts it with the first. This combination of copulative and adversative particles is often rendered less harsh by the form of the δέ clause and by other reasons. (a) The δέ clause contains a καί; as ἅμα (ἔπειτα, ἔτι, πολλαχοῦ, ὡσαύτως) δὲ καί; e.g. ἔν τε τῇ τῶν ἐπῶν ποιήσει πολλαχοῦ δὲ καὶ ἄλλοθι, lit. both in the construction of epic poetry but also in many other cases P. R. 394c. (b) The second clause contains a formula with δέ but not with καί; as ἔτι δέ, τί δέ, τὸ δὲ κεφάλαιον, μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα. Thus, πρότερόν τε . . . νῦν δέ (both) formerly . . . but now X. H. 7.1.24. Cp. P. L. 664b, 947 a, 967 d. (c) After a considerable interval occasioned by the extension of the τέ clause, it is natural to resume with δέ. So T. 6.83. 1, X. A. 7.8.11, X. C. 2.1.22, L. 2.17.
Rare combinations are, e.g.:
ἢ . . . τέ instead of ἢ . . . ἤ. Thus, ἢ παῖδες νεαροὶ χῆραί τε γυναῖκες either young children and (= or) widowed women B 289. τὲ . . . ἤ is often emended in X. O. 20.12, P. Men. 95b.
τὲ . . . οὐδέ ( μηδέ ) with τέ instead of οὔτε (μήτε); as E. I. T. 697, P. Pol. 271e. τέ is not followed by οὔτε (μήτε).
Position of τέ.—τέ usually follows the word with which the sentence or sentence-part to be connected is most concerned. Apart from many irregularities there are certain exceptions to this rule which are commonly observed.
a. τέ may come between two words which go closely together, as between article (preposition, attributive genitive) and its noun. Thus,
the barbarian and the Greek forceτό τε βαρβαρικὸν καὶ τὸ Ἑλληνικόν
I will go to the bathing places and the meadowsεἶμι πρός τε λουτρὰ καὶ λειμῶνας
the State and we the lawsἡ πόλις. τε καὶ ἡμεῖς οἱ νόμοι
b. τέ connecting an entire clause stands as near as possible to the beginning. Cp. X. A. 1.8.3.
c. τέ may stand after a word or expression which, though common to two members of a clause, is placed either at the beginning (especially after a preposition) or in the second member. Thus, ἅ τε δεῖ φίλια καὶ (ἃ δεῖ)
what we must consider as belonging to our friends and what to our enemiesπολέμια ἡμᾶς νομίζειν
in the hotter and colderἔν τε τῷ θερμοτέρῳ καὶ ψῡχροτέρῳ
a man dear to all and most wiseἅπᾱσι φίλον ἄνδρα τε σοφώτατον
d. The freer position of τέ is often due to the fact that several words are taken as forming a single notion. Thus,
the very noblest constitution and the noblest manἡ καλλίστη δὴ πολῑτείᾱ τε καὶ ὁ κάλλιστος ἀνήρ
τοί (postpositive and enclitic) in truth, surely, doubtless, mark you, be assured, you (must) know, was originally the dative of feeling (1486) of σύ.
a. This τοί (Sanskrit tē), found in all dialects, is to be distinguished from Doric τοί ( = σοί) from τνοι (Skt. tvē´). τοί may thus occur in the same sentence with σοί; as τοιαῦτά τοί σοι . . . λέγω S. fr. 25.
τοί is often used in statements of a general truth and in expressions of personal conviction (sometimes with a tone of hesitation); in remarks of a confidential nature; to introduce an explanation; and in general where the special attention of the person addressed is desired. τοί often gives an easy and familiar tone to a reply. Thus,
true it is that of men's vain conceits their tongue is the true accuserτῶν τοι ματαίων ἀνδράσιν φρονημάτων ἡ γλῶσσ᾽ ἀληθὴς γίγνεται κατήγορος
a. τοί may emphasize particular words, as ἐγώ τοι, ἐμοί τοι, σέ τοι; and other words not pronouns.
τοί is frequently used after other particles, as ἀλλά, γάρ, γέ, δή (and γέ τοι δή, cp. δή τοι . . . γε), ἐπεί because, μή, οὐ (οὔτοι). On ἤτοι, see 2858; on καίτοι, 2893; on μέντοι, 2917.
The inferential conjunctions τοιγάρ, τοιγαροῦν, τοιγάρτοι, τοίνυν contain τοί, the locative of the demonstrative τό, which case had the meaning of τῷ (τῶ) therefore, on this account, so lit. by that, therein. (This τῷ is chiefly Epic, and stands at the beginning of the verse. Cp.
thereforeτό
τοιγάρ (prepositive; Ionic and poetic) therefore, wherefore, so then, that is surely the reason why (often to announce a purpose).
τοιγαροῦν, τοιγάρτοι (both prepositive) are more emphatic than τοιγάρ. The final syllable of τοιγάρτοι is the τοί of 2984.
τοίνυν (postpositive and post-Homeric; -νυν 2927) is transitional (now then, further) or inferential (therefore, accordingly; less emphatic than τοιγάρ). τοι<*>νυν is common when a speaker refers to something present in his mind, when he continues or resumes what he has been saying, and when he passes to a new aspect of a subject. It is often found with imperatives (σκόπει τοίνυν P. Cr. 51c).
Demonstrative ὥς (also accented ὡς, ὧς) thus, so is originally an ablative from the demonstrative stem ὁ- (from σο-), from which come the article and ὅς he in καὶ ὅς, ἦ δ᾽ ὅς (1113). For the -ς, see 341. Cp. also ὧ-δε thus.
So καὶ ὥς even so, nevertheless, οὐδ᾽ (μηδ᾽) ὥς not even thus, in no wise, ὡς αὔτως (ὡσαύτως) in the same way, just so (ablative of ὁ αὐτός). ὡς ἑτέρως (lit. thus otherwise, in that other way) quite otherwise and ὡς ἀληθῶς (lit. thus truly) in very truth also probably belong here.
a. In some cases it is uncertain whether ὡς is demonstrative or relative; e.g. ὡς in exclamatory clauses. Cp. 2998, 3001.
Relative ὡς as, how is originally an ablative (in which way) from the relative stem [ιγλιδε]ο-, whence come also ὅς, ἥ, ὅ. For the -ς, see 341. Relative ὡς has various uses as an adverb or a conjunction, all of which represent the primitive meaning.
In comparative clauses, often correlated with οὕτως. Thus,
I was faithful, as you knowπιστὸς ἦν, ὡς ὑ̄μεῖς ἐπίστασθε
ὡς is rarely used for ἤ after comparatives; as
care not for me further than I wishμή μου προκήδου μᾶσσον ὡς ἐμοὶ γλυκύ
In adverbial clauses ὡς is often used parenthetically; as ὡς ἐμοὶ δοκεῖ as it seems to me. Instead of ὡς δοκεῖ, ὡς ἔοικε the personal construction is often preferred; as
they sailed away out of jealousy, as it seemed to most peopleἀπέπλευσαν, ὡς μὲν τοῖς πλείστοις ἐδόκουν, φιλοτῑμηθέντες
ὡς restrictive for (cp. ut), involving the judgment of the observer, occurs often in elliptical phrases; as (Βρᾱσίδᾱς) ἦν οὐδὲ ἀδύνατος, ὡς Λακεδαιμόνιος, εἰπεῖν Brasidas was, for a Lacedaemonian, not a bad speaker either T. 4.84, ταῦτα ἀκούσᾱς Ξέρξης ὡς ἐκ κακῶν ἐχάρη on hearing this Xerxes rejoiced as much <*> could be expected considering his misfortunes Hdt. 8.101. On ὡς restrictive with the dative, cp. 1495 a, 1497; with the absolute infinitive, 2012.
ὡς is often used to heighten a superlative (1086).
With numerals and words indicating degree ὡς means about, nearly, not far from; as
having about five hundred hoplitesὁπλί̄τᾱς ἔχων ὡς πεντακοσίους
for the most partὡς ἐπὶ πολύ
ὡς often indicates the thought or the assertion of the subject of the principal verb or of some other person prominent in the sentence. Here ὡς expresses a real intention or an avowed plea. So often with participles (2086); and also with the prepositions εἰς, ἐπί, πρός; as
they sailed away from Sicily as though bound for Athensἀπέπλεον . . . ἐκ τῆς Σικελίᾱς ὡς ἐς τὰ̄ς Ἀθήνᾱς
ὡς ἕκαστος means each for himself; as ἀπέπλευσαν ἐξ Ἑλλησπόντου ὡς ἕκαστοι (ἀπέπλευσαν)
they sailed away from the Hellespont each to his own Stateκατὰ πόλεις
ὡς exclamatory (2682) may be the relative adverb ὡς how, the relative clause originally being used in explanation of an exclamation. Exclamatory ὡς has also been explained as ὡς demonstrative (so).
On ὡς in wishes, see 1815.
ὡς conjunctive is found in dependent clauses.
Declarative: that, like ὅτι. Cp. 2577 ff., 2614 ff.
Final: that, in order that; like ἵνα, but not used in standard Attic prose. Cp. 2193.
Object clauses after verbs of effort: that, like ὅπως; cp. 2209. Rarely after verbs of fearing: that. Cp. 2235.
Causal: as, inasmuch as, since, seeing that, like ὅτι, ἐπεί, etc. Cp. 2240.
Consecutive: so that, like ὥστε. Usually with the infinitive, sometimes with the indicative. Cp. 2260.
Temporal: after, like ἐπεί; sometimes when, whenever. Cp. 2383.
ὡς is often found before sentences apparently independent, where it is sometimes explained as a conjunction with the verb suppressed.  Some scholars regard this ὡς as causal, others regard it as demonstrative, others as comparative.
ὥς as, like (postpositive) in Hom., as ὄρνῑθες ὥς Γ 2, stands for ϝως, which is of uncertain origin.
ὡς to, a preposition with persons (once in Hom., ρ 218) is obscure in origin.