Manages a keystore (database) of cryptographic keys, X.509 certificate chains, and trusted certificates.
keytool [ commands ]
The keytool command interface has changed in Java SE 6. See the Changes Section for a detailed description. Note that previously defined commands are still supported.
A certificate is a digitally signed statement from one entity (person, company, etc.), saying that the public key (and some other information) of some other entity has a particular value. (See Certificates.) When data is digitally signed, the signature can be verified to check the data integrity and authenticity. Integrity means that the data has not been modified or tampered with, and authenticity means the data indeed comes from whoever claims to have created and signed it.
keytool also enables users to administer secret keys used in symmetric encryption/decryption (e.g. DES).
keytool stores the keys and certificates in a keystore.
The various commands and their options are listed and described below. Note:
-v
, -rfc
, and -J
options,
which only have meaning if they appear on the command line (that
is, they don't have any "default" values other than not
existing).-keypass
option, if you do not
specify the option on the command line, keytool will first
attempt to use the keystore password to recover the private/secret
key, and if this fails, will then prompt you for the private/secret
key password.)-printcert
command:
keytool -printcert {-file cert_file} {-v}
When specifying a -printcert
command, replace
cert_file with the actual file name, as in:
keytool -printcert -file VScert.cer
-help
command is the default. Thus, the
command line
keytool
is equivalent to
keytool -help
Below are the defaults for various option values.
-alias "mykey" -keyalg "DSA" (when using -genkeypair) "DES" (when using -genseckey) -keysize 2048 (when using -genkeypair and -keyalg is "RSA") 1024 (when using -genkeypair and -keyalg is "DSA") 256 (when using -genkeypair and -keyalg is "EC") 56 (when using -genseckey and -keyalg is "DES") 168 (when using -genseckey and -keyalg is "DESede") -validity 90 -keystore the file named.keystore
in the user's home directory -storetype the value of the "keystore.type" property in the security properties file, which is returned by the staticgetDefaultType
method injava.security.KeyStore
-file stdin if reading, stdout if writing -protected false
In generating a public/private key pair, the signature algorithm (-sigalg option) is derived from the algorithm of the underlying private key:
Please consult the Java Cryptography Architecture API Specification & Reference for a full list of -keyalg and -sigalg you can choose from.
The -v
option can appear for all commands except
-help
. If it appears, it signifies "verbose" mode;
more information will be provided in the output.
There is also a -Jjavaoption
option that may
appear for any command. If it appears, the specified
javaoption string is passed through directly to the Java
interpreter. This option should not contain any spaces. It is
useful for adjusting the execution environment or memory usage. For
a list of possible interpreter options, type java -h
or java -X
at the command line.
These options may appear for all commands operating on a keystore:
-storetype storetype
This qualifier specifies the type of keystore to be instantiated.
-keystore keystore
The keystore location.
If the JKS storetype is
used and a keystore file does not yet exist, then certain
keytool commands may result in a new keystore file being
created. For example, if keytool -genkeypair
is
invoked and the -keystore
option is not specified, the
default keystore file named .keystore
in the user's
home directory will be created if it does not already exist.
Similarly, if the -keystore ks_file
option is
specified but ks_file does not exist, then it will be
created
Note that the input stream from the -keystore
option is passed to the KeyStore.load
method. If
NONE
is specified as the URL, then a null stream is
passed to the KeyStore.load
method. NONE
should be specified if the KeyStore
is not file-based
(for example, if it resides on a hardware token device).
-storepass
[:env
|:file
]
argumentThe password which is used to protect the integrity of the keystore.
If the modifier env
or file
is not
specified, then the password has the value argument, which
must be at least 6 characters long. Otherwise, the password is
retrieved as follows:
env
: Retrieve the password from the environment
variable named argumentfile
: Retrieve the password from the file named
argumentNote: All other options that require passwords,
such as -keypass
, -srckeypass
,
-destkeypass
-srcstorepass
, and
-deststorepass
, accept the env
and
file
modifiers. (Remember to separate the password
option and the modifier with a colon, (:
).)
The password must be provided to all commands that access the
keystore contents. For such commands, if a -storepass
option is not provided at the command line, the user is prompted
for it.
When retrieving information from the keystore, the password is optional; if no password is given, the integrity of the retrieved information cannot be checked and a warning is displayed.
-providerName provider_name
Used to identify a cryptographic service provider's name when listed in the security properties file.
-providerClass provider_class_name
Used to specify the name of cryptographic service provider's master class file when the service provider is not listed in the security properties file.
-providerArg provider_arg
Used in conjunction with -providerClass
. Represents
an optional string input argument for the constructor of
provider_class_name.
-protected
Either true
or false
. This value
should be specified as true
if a password must be
given via a protected authentication path such as a dedicated PIN
reader.
Note: Since there are two keystores involved in
-importkeystore
command, two options, namely,
-srcprotected
and -destprotected
are
provided for the source keystore and the destination keystore
respectively.
-ext {name{:critical}{=value}}
Denotes an X.509 certificate extension. The option can be used
in -genkeypair and -gencert to embed extensions into the
certificate generated, or in -certreq
to show what
extensions are requested in the certificate request. The option can
appear multiple times. name can be a supported extension name (see
below) or an arbitrary OID number. value, if provided, denotes the
parameter for the extension; if omitted, denotes the default value
(if defined) of the extension or the extension requires no
parameter. The :critical
modifier, if provided, means
the extension's isCritical attribute is true; otherwise, false. You
may use :c
in place of :critical
.
Currently keytool supports these named extensions (case-insensitive):
| Name | Value |
|---|---|
| BC or BasicConstraints | The full form:
"ca:{true|false}[,pathlen:<len>]"; or, <len>,
a shorthand for "ca:true,pathlen:<len>"; or omitted, means "ca:true" |
| KU or KeyUsage | usage(,usage)*, usage can be one of digitalSignature, nonRepudiation (contentCommitment), keyEncipherment, dataEncipherment, keyAgreement, keyCertSign, cRLSign, encipherOnly, decipherOnly. Usage can be abbreviated with the first few letters (say, dig for digitalSignature) or in camel-case style (say, dS for digitalSignature, cRLS for cRLSign), as long as no ambiguity is found. Usage is case-insensitive. |
| EKU or ExtendedkeyUsage | usage(,usage)*, usage can be one of anyExtendedKeyUsage, serverAuth, clientAuth, codeSigning, emailProtection, timeStamping, OCSPSigning, or any OID string. Named usage can be abbreviated with the first few letters or in camel-case style, as long as no ambiguity is found. Usage is case-insensitive. |
| SAN or SubjectAlternativeName | type:value(,type:value)*, type can be EMAIL, URI, DNS, IP, or OID, value is the string format value for the type. |
| IAN or IssuerAlternativeName | same as SubjectAlternativeName |
| SIA or SubjectInfoAccess | method:location-type:location-value (,method:location-type:location-value)*, method can be "timeStamping", "caRepository" or any OID. location-type and location-value can be any type:value supported by the SubjectAlternativeName extension. |
| AIA or AuthorityInfoAccess | same as SubjectInfoAccess. method can be "ocsp","caIssuers" or any OID. |
For name as OID, value is the HEX dumped DER encoding of the
extnValue for the extension excluding the OCTET STRING type and
length bytes. Any extra character other than standard HEX numbers
(0-9, a-f, A-F) are ignored in the HEX string. Therefore, both
"01:02:03:04"
and "01020304"
are accepted
as identical values. If there is no value, the extension has an
empty value field then.
A special name 'honored'
, used in
-gencert
only, denotes how the extensions included in
the certificate request should be honored. The value for this name
is a comma separated list of "all"
(all requested
extensions are honored),
"name{:[critical|non-critical]}"
(the named extension
is honored, but using a different isCritical attribute) and
"-name"
(used with all, denotes an exception).
Requested extensions are not honored by default.
If, besides the -ext honored option, another named or OID -ext option is provided, this extension will be added to those already honored. However, if this name (or OID) also appears in the honored value, its value and criticality overrides the one in the request.
The subjectKeyIdentifier extension is always created. For non self-signed certificates, the authorityKeyIdentifier is always created.
Note: Users should be aware that some combinations of extensions (and other certificate fields) may not conform to the Internet standard. See Warning Regarding Certificate Conformance for details.
-gencert
{-rfc} {-infile infile} {-outfile outfile} {-alias
alias} {-sigalg sigalg} {-dname dname}
{-startdate startdate {-ext ext}* {-validity
valDays} [-keypass keypass] {-keystore
keystore} [-storepass storepass] {-storetype
storetype} {-providername provider_name}
{-providerClass provider_class_name {-providerArg
provider_arg}} {-v} {-protected}
{-Jjavaoption}
Generates a certificate as a response to a certificate request
file (which can be created by the keytool -certreq
command). The command reads the request from infile (if
omitted, from the standard input), signs it using alias's private
key, and output the X.509 certificate into outfile (if
omitted, to the standard output). If -rfc
is
specified, output format is BASE64-encoded PEM; otherwise, a binary
DER is created.
sigalg specifies the algorithm that should be used to sign the certificate. startdate is the start time/date that the certificate is valid. valDays tells the number of days for which the certificate should be considered valid.
If dname is provided, it's used as the subject of the generated certificate. Otherwise, the one from the certificate request is used.
ext shows what X.509 extensions will be embedded in the
certificate. Read Common Options for the grammar of
-ext
.
The -gencert
command enables you to create
certificate chains. The following example creates a certificate,
e1
, that contains three certificates in its
certificate chain.
The following commands creates four key pairs named
ca
, ca1
, ca2
, and
e1
:
keytool -alias ca -dname CN=CA -genkeypair keytool -alias ca1 -dname CN=CA -genkeypair keytool -alias ca2 -dname CN=CA -genkeypair keytool -alias e1 -dname CN=E1 -genkeypair
The following two commands create a chain of signed
certificates; ca
signs ca1 and ca1 signs
ca2
, all of which are self-issued:
keytool -alias ca1 -certreq | keytool -alias ca -gencert -ext san=dns:ca1 | keytool -alias ca1 -importcert keytool -alias ca2 -certreq | $KT -alias ca1 -gencert -ext san=dns:ca2 | $KT -alias ca2 -importcert
The following command creates the certificate e1
and stores it in the file e1.cert
, which is signed by
ca2
. As a result, e1
should contain
ca
, ca1
, and ca2
in its
certificate chain:
keytool -alias e1 -certreq | keytool -alias ca2 -gencert > e1.cert
-genkeypair {-alias alias} {-keyalg
keyalg} {-keysize keysize} {-sigalg sigalg}
[-dname dname] [-keypass keypass] {-startdate
value} {-ext ext}* {-validity valDays}
{-storetype storetype} {-keystore keystore}
[-storepass storepass] {-providerClass
provider_class_name {-providerArg provider_arg}} {-v}
{-protected} {-Jjavaoption}
Generates a key pair (a public key and associated private key). Wraps the public key into an X.509 v3 self-signed certificate, which is stored as a single-element certificate chain. This certificate chain and the private key are stored in a new keystore entry identified by alias.
keyalg specifies the algorithm to be used to generate the key pair, and keysize specifies the size of each key to be generated. sigalg specifies the algorithm that should be used to sign the self-signed certificate; this algorithm must be compatible with keyalg.
dname specifies the X.500
Distinguished Name to be associated with alias, and is
used as the issuer
and subject
fields in
the self-signed certificate. If no distinguished name is provided
at the command line, the user will be prompted for one.
keypass is a password used to protect the private key of the generated key pair. If no password is provided, the user is prompted for it. If you press RETURN at the prompt, the key password is set to the same password as that used for the keystore. keypass must be at least 6 characters long.
startdate specifies the issue time of the certificate, also known as the "Not Before" value of the X.509 certificate's Validity field.
The option value can be set in one of these two forms:
With the first form, the issue time is shifted by the specified
value from the current time. The value is a concatenation of a
sequence of sub values. Inside each sub value, the plus sign ("+")
means shifting forward, and the minus sign ("-") means shifting
backward. The time to be shifted is nnn units of years,
months, days, hours, minutes, or seconds (denoted by a single
character of "y", "m", "d", "H", "M", or "S" respectively). The
exact value of the issue time is calculated using the
java.util.GregorianCalendar.add(int field, int amount)
method on each sub value, from left to right. For example, by
specifying "-startdate -1y+1m-1d"
, the issue time will
be:
Calendar c = new GregorianCalendar(); c.add(Calendar.YEAR, -1); c.add(Calendar.MONTH, 1); c.add(Calendar.DATE, -1); return c.getTime()
With the second form, the user sets the exact issue time in two parts, year/month/day and hour:minute:second (using the local time zone). The user may provide only one part, which means the other part is the same as the current date (or time). User must provide the exact number of digits as shown in the format definition (padding with 0 if shorter). When both the date and time are provided, there is one (and only one) space character between the two parts. The hour should always be provided in 24 hour format.
When the option is not provided, the start date is the current time. The option can be provided at most once.
valDays specifies the number of days (starting at the
date specified by -startdate
, or the current date if
-startdate
is not specified) for which the certificate
should be considered valid.
This command was named -genkey in previous releases. This old name is still supported in this release and will be supported in future releases, but for clarity the new name, -genkeypair, is preferred going forward.
-genseckey {-alias alias} {-keyalg
keyalg} {-keysize keysize} [-keypass keypass]
{-storetype storetype} {-keystore keystore}
[-storepass storepass] {-providerClass
provider_class_name {-providerArg provider_arg}} {-v}
{-protected} {-Jjavaoption}
Generates a secret key and stores it in a new
KeyStore.SecretKeyEntry
identified by
alias.
keyalg specifies the algorithm to be used to generate the secret key, and keysize specifies the size of the key to be generated. keypass is a password used to protect the secret key. If no password is provided, the user is prompted for it. If you press RETURN at the prompt, the key password is set to the same password as that used for the keystore. keypass must be at least 6 characters long.
-importcert {-alias alias} {-file
cert_file} [-keypass keypass] {-noprompt}
{-trustcacerts} {-storetype storetype} {-keystore
keystore} [-storepass storepass] {-providerName
provider_name} {-providerClass provider_class_name
{-providerArg provider_arg}} {-v} {-protected}
{-Jjavaoption}
Reads the certificate or certificate chain (where the latter is supplied in a PKCS#7 formatted reply or a sequence of X.509 certificates) from the file cert_file, and stores it in the keystore entry identified by alias. If no file is given, the certificate or certificate chain is read from stdin.
keytool can import X.509 v1, v2, and v3 certificates, and PKCS#7 formatted certificate chains consisting of certificates of that type. The data to be imported must be provided either in binary encoding format, or in printable encoding format (also known as Base64 encoding) as defined by the Internet RFC 1421 standard. In the latter case, the encoding must be bounded at the beginning by a string that starts with "-----BEGIN", and bounded at the end by a string that starts with "-----END".
You import a certificate for two reasons:
Which type of import is intended is indicated by the value of
the -alias
option:
Before adding the certificate to the keystore, keytool tries to verify it by attempting to construct a chain of trust from that certificate to a self-signed certificate (belonging to a root CA), using trusted certificates that are already available in the keystore.
If the -trustcacerts
option has been specified,
additional certificates are considered for the chain of trust,
namely the certificates in a file named
"cacerts".
If keytool fails to establish a trust path from the
certificate to be imported up to a self-signed certificate (either
from the keystore or the "cacerts" file), the certificate
information is printed out, and the user is prompted to verify it,
e.g., by comparing the displayed certificate fingerprints with the
fingerprints obtained from some other (trusted) source of
information, which might be the certificate owner himself/herself.
Be very careful to ensure the certificate is valid prior to
importing it as a "trusted" certificate! -- see WARNING Regarding Importing Trusted
Certificates. The user then has the option of aborting the
import operation. If the -noprompt
option is given,
however, there will be no interaction with the user.
When importing a certificate reply, the certificate reply is
validated using trusted certificates from the keystore, and
optionally using the certificates configured in the "cacerts" keystore file (if the
-trustcacerts
option was specified).
The methods of determining whether the certificate reply is trusted are described in the following:
-trustcacerts
option was specified, keytool
will attempt to match it with any of the trusted certificates in
the keystore or the "cacerts" keystore file. If the chain does not
end with a self-signed root CA certificate and the
-trustcacerts
option was specified, keytool
will try to find one from the trusted certificates in the keystore
or the "cacerts" keystore file and add it to the end of the chain.
If the certificate is not found and -noprompt
option
is not specified, the information of the last certificate in the
chain is printed out, and the user is prompted to verify it.If the public key in the certificate reply matches the user's public key already stored with under alias, the old certificate chain is replaced with the new certificate chain in the reply. The old chain can only be replaced if a valid keypass, the password used to protect the private key of the entry, is supplied. If no password is provided, and the private key password is different from the keystore password, the user is prompted for it.
This command was named -import in previous releases. This old name is still supported in this release and will be supported in future releases, but for clarify the new name, -importcert, is preferred going forward.
-importkeystore -srckeystore
srckeystore -destkeystore destkeystore {-srcstoretype
srcstoretype} {-deststoretype deststoretype}
[-srcstorepass srcstorepass] [-deststorepass
deststorepass] {-srcprotected} {-destprotected} {-srcalias
srcalias {-destalias destalias} [-srckeypass
srckeypass] [-destkeypass destkeypass] } {-noprompt}
{-srcProviderName src_provider_name} {-destProviderName
dest_provider_name} {-providerClass
provider_class_name {-providerArg provider_arg}} {-v}
{-protected} {-Jjavaoption}
Imports a single entry or all entries from a source keystore to a destination keystore.
When the srcalias option is provided, the command imports the single entry identified by the alias to the destination keystore. If a destination alias is not provided with destalias, then srcalias is used as the destination alias. If the source entry is protected by a password, srckeypass will be used to recover the entry. If srckeypass is not provided, then keytool will attempt to use srcstorepass to recover the entry. If srcstorepass is either not provided or is incorrect, the user will be prompted for a password. The destination entry will be protected using destkeypass. If destkeypass is not provided, the destination entry will be protected with the source entry password.
If the srcalias option is not provided, then all entries in the source keystore are imported into the destination keystore. Each destination entry will be stored under the alias from the source entry. If the source entry is protected by a password, srcstorepass will be used to recover the entry. If srcstorepass is either not provided or is incorrect, the user will be prompted for a password. If a source keystore entry type is not supported in the destination keystore, or if an error occurs while storing an entry into the destination keystore, the user will be prompted whether to skip the entry and continue, or to quit. The destination entry will be protected with the source entry password.
If the destination alias already exists in the destination keystore, the user is prompted to either overwrite the entry, or to create a new entry under a different alias name.
Note that if -noprompt
is provided, the user will
not be prompted for a new destination alias. Existing entries will
automatically be overwritten with the destination alias name.
Finally, entries that can not be imported are automatically skipped
and a warning is output.
-printcertreq {-file
file}
Prints the content of a PKCS #10 format certificate request, which can be generated by the keytool -certreq command. The command reads the request from file; if omitted, from the standard input.
-certreq
{-alias alias} {-dname dname} {-sigalg sigalg}
{-file certreq_file} [-keypass keypass] {-storetype
storetype} {-keystore keystore} [-storepass
storepass] {-providerName provider_name}
{-providerClass provider_class_name {-providerArg
provider_arg}} {-v} {-protected}
{-Jjavaoption}
Generates a Certificate Signing Request (CSR), using the PKCS#10 format.
A CSR is intended to be sent to a certificate authority (CA). The CA will authenticate the certificate requestor (usually off-line) and will return a certificate or certificate chain, used to replace the existing certificate chain (which initially consists of a self-signed certificate) in the keystore.
The private key associated with alias is used to create the PKCS#10 certificate request. In order to access the private key, the appropriate password must be provided, since private keys are protected in the keystore with a password. If keypass is not provided at the command line, and is different from the password used to protect the integrity of the keystore, the user is prompted for it. If dname is provided, it's used as the subject in the CSR. Otherwise, the X.500 Distinguished Name associated with alias is used.
sigalg specifies the algorithm that should be used to sign the CSR.
The CSR is stored in the file certreq_file. If no file is given, the CSR is output to stdout.
Use the importcert command to import the response from the CA.
-exportcert {-alias alias} {-file
cert_file} {-storetype storetype} {-keystore
keystore} [-storepass storepass] {-providerName
provider_name} {-providerClass provider_class_name
{-providerArg provider_arg}} {-rfc} {-v} {-protected}
{-Jjavaoption}
Reads (from the keystore) the certificate associated with alias, and stores it in the file cert_file.
If no file is given, the certificate is output to stdout.
The certificate is by default output in binary encoding, but
will instead be output in the printable encoding format, as defined
by the Internet RFC 1421 standard,
if the -rfc
option is specified.
If alias refers to a trusted certificate, that certificate is output. Otherwise, alias refers to a key entry with an associated certificate chain. In that case, the first certificate in the chain is returned. This certificate authenticates the public key of the entity addressed by alias.
This command was named -export in previous releases. This old name is still supported in this release and will be supported in future releases, but for clarify the new name, -exportcert, is preferred going forward.
-list {-alias
alias} {-storetype storetype} {-keystore
keystore} [-storepass storepass] {-providerName
provider_name} {-providerClass provider_class_name
{-providerArg provider_arg}} {-v | -rfc} {-protected}
{-Jjavaoption}
Prints (to stdout) the contents of the keystore entry identified by alias. If no alias is specified, the contents of the entire keystore are printed.
This command by default prints the SHA1 fingerprint of a
certificate. If the -v
option is specified, the
certificate is printed in human-readable format, with additional
information such as the owner, issuer, serial number, and any
extensions. If the -rfc
option is specified,
certificate contents are printed using the printable encoding
format, as defined by the Internet RFC
1421 standard
You cannot specify both -v
and
-rfc
.
-printcert {-file cert_file |
-sslserver host[:port]} {-jarfile JAR_file {-rfc} {-v}
{-Jjavaoption}
Reads the certificate from the file cert_file, the SSL
server located at host:port, or the signed JAR file
JAR_file (with the option -jarfile
and prints
its contents in a human-readable format. When no port is specified,
the standard HTTPS port 443 is assumed. Note that
-sslserver
and -file
options cannot be
provided at the same time. Otherwise, an error is reported. If
neither option is given, the certificate is read from stdin.
If -rfc
is specified, keytool prints the
certificate in PEM mode as defined by the Internet RFC 1421
standard.
If the certificate is read from a file or stdin, it may be either binary encoded or in printable encoding format, as defined by the Internet RFC 1421 standard
If the SSL server is behind a firewall,
-J-Dhttps.proxyHost=proxyhost
and
-J-Dhttps.proxyPort=proxyport
can be specified on the
command line for proxy tunneling. See the JSSE Reference
Guide for more information.
Note: This option can be used independently of a keystore.
-printcrl -file crl_ {-v}
Reads the certificate revocation list (CRL) from the file crl_file.
A Certificate Revocation List (CRL) is a list of digital certificates which have been revoked by the Certificate Authority (CA) that issued them. The CA generates crl_file.
Note: This option can be used independently of a keystore.
-storepasswd [-new new_storepass]
{-storetype storetype} {-keystore keystore}
[-storepass storepass] {-providerName provider_name}
{-providerClass provider_class_name {-providerArg
provider_arg}} {-v} {-Jjavaoption}
Changes the password used to protect the integrity of the keystore contents. The new password is new_storepass, which must be at least 6 characters long.
-keypasswd {-alias alias} [-keypass
old_keypass] [-new new_keypass] {-storetype
storetype} {-keystore keystore} [-storepass
storepass] {-providerName provider_name}
{-providerClass provider_class_name {-providerArg
provider_arg}} {-v} {-Jjavaoption}
Changes the password under which the private/secret key identified by alias is protected, from old_keypass to new_keypass, which must be at least 6 characters long.
If the -keypass
option is not provided at the
command line, and the key password is different from the keystore
password, the user is prompted for it.
If the -new
option is not provided at the command
line, the user is prompted for it.
-delete
[-alias alias] {-storetype storetype} {-keystore
keystore} [-storepass storepass] {-providerName
provider_name} {-providerClass provider_class_name
{-providerArg provider_arg}} {-v} {-protected}
{-Jjavaoption}
Deletes from the keystore the entry identified by alias. The user is prompted for the alias, if no alias is provided at the command line.
-changealias {-alias alias}
[-destalias destalias] [-keypass keypass] {-storetype
storetype} {-keystore keystore} [-storepass
storepass] {-providerName provider_name}
{-providerClass provider_class_name {-providerArg
provider_arg}} {-v} {-protected}
{-Jjavaoption}
Move an existing keystore entry from the specified alias to a new alias, destalias. If no destination alias is provided, the command will prompt for one. If the original entry is protected with an entry password, the password can be supplied via the "-keypass" option. If no key password is provided, the storepass (if given) will be attempted first. If that attempt fails, the user will be prompted for a password.
-help
Lists the basic commands and their options.
For more information about a specific command, enter the
following, where command_name
is the name of
the command:
keytool -command_name -help
Suppose you want to create a keystore for managing your public/private key pair and certificates from entities you trust.
The first thing you need to do is create a keystore and generate the key pair. You could use a command such as the following:
keytool -genkeypair -dname "cn=Mark Jones, ou=Java, o=Oracle, c=US" -alias business -keypass <new password for private key> -keystore /working/mykeystore -storepass <new password for keystore> -validity 180
(Please note: This must be typed as a single line. Multiple lines are used in the examples just for legibility purposes.)
This command creates the keystore named "mykeystore" in the "working" directory (assuming it doesn't already exist), and assigns it the password specified by <new password for keystore>. It generates a public/private key pair for the entity whose "distinguished name" has a common name of "Mark Jones", organizational unit of "Java", organization of "Oracle" and two-letter country code of "US". It uses the default "DSA" key generation algorithm to create the keys, both 1024 bits long.
It creates a self-signed certificate (using the default "SHA1withDSA" signature algorithm) that includes the public key and the distinguished name information. This certificate will be valid for 180 days, and is associated with the private key in a keystore entry referred to by the alias "business". The private key is assigned the password specified by <new password for private key>.
The command could be significantly shorter if option defaults were accepted. As a matter of fact, no options are required; defaults are used for unspecified options that have default values, and you are prompted for any required values. Thus, you could simply have the following:
keytool -genkeypair
In this case, a keystore entry with alias "mykey" is created, with a newly-generated key pair and a certificate that is valid for 90 days. This entry is placed in the keystore named ".keystore" in your home directory. (The keystore is created if it doesn't already exist.) You will be prompted for the distinguished name information, the keystore password, and the private key password.
The rest of the examples assume you executed the
-genkeypair
command without options specified, and
that you responded to the prompts with values equal to those given
in the first -genkeypair
command, above (for example, a distinguished name of "cn=Mark Jones, ou=Java, o=Oracle, c=US").
So far all we've got is a self-signed certificate. A certificate is more likely to be trusted by others if it is signed by a Certification Authority (CA). To get such a signature, you first generate a Certificate Signing Request (CSR), via the following:
keytool -certreq -file MarkJ.csr
This creates a CSR (for the entity identified by the default alias "mykey") and puts the request in the file named "MarkJ.csr". Submit this file to a CA, such as VeriSign, Inc. The CA will authenticate you, the requestor (usually off-line), and then will return a certificate, signed by them, authenticating your public key. (In some cases, they will actually return a chain of certificates, each one authenticating the public key of the signer of the previous certificate in the chain.)
You need to replace your self-signed certificate with a certificate chain, where each certificate in the chain authenticates the public key of the signer of the previous certificate in the chain, up to a "root" CA.
Before you import the certificate reply from a CA, you need one
or more "trusted certificates" in your keystore or in the
cacerts
keystore file (which is described in importcert command):
The "cacerts" keystore file ships with several VeriSign root CA certificates, so you probably won't need to import a VeriSign certificate as a trusted certificate in your keystore. But if you request a signed certificate from a different CA, and a certificate authenticating that CA's public key hasn't been added to "cacerts", you will need to import a certificate from the CA as a "trusted certificate".
A certificate from a CA is usually either self-signed, or signed by another CA (in which case you also need a certificate authenticating that CA's public key). Suppose company ABC, Inc., is a CA, and you obtain a file named "ABCCA.cer" that is purportedly a self-signed certificate from ABC, authenticating that CA's public key.
Be very careful to ensure the certificate is valid prior to
importing it as a "trusted" certificate! View it first (using the
keytool -printcert
command, or the
keytool -importcert
command without the
-noprompt
option), and make sure that the displayed
certificate fingerprint(s) match the expected ones. You can call
the person who sent the certificate, and compare the fingerprint(s)
that you see with the ones that they show (or that a secure public
key repository shows). Only if the fingerprints are equal is it
guaranteed that the certificate has not been replaced in transit
with somebody else's (for example, an attacker's) certificate. If
such an attack took place, and you did not check the certificate
before you imported it, you would end up trusting anything the
attacker has signed.
If you trust that the certificate is valid, then you can add it to your keystore via the following:
keytool -importcert -alias abc -file ABCCA.cer
This creates a "trusted certificate" entry in the keystore, with the data from the file "ABCCA.cer", and assigns the alias "abc" to the entry.
Once you've imported a certificate authenticating the public key of the CA you submitted your certificate signing request to (or there is already such a certificate in the "cacerts" file), you can import the certificate reply and thereby replace your self-signed certificate with a certificate chain. This chain is the one returned by the CA in response to your request (if the CA reply is a chain), or one constructed (if the CA reply is a single certificate) using the certificate reply and trusted certificates that are already available in the keystore where you import the reply or in the "cacerts" keystore file.
For example, suppose you sent your certificate signing request to VeriSign. You can then import the reply via the following, which assumes the returned certificate is named "VSMarkJ.cer":
keytool -importcert -trustcacerts -file VSMarkJ.cer
Suppose you have used the jarsigner tool to sign a Java ARchive (JAR) file. Clients that want to use the file will want to authenticate your signature.
One way they can do this is by first importing your public key
certificate into their keystore as a "trusted" entry. You can
export the certificate and supply it to your clients. As an
example, you can copy your certificate to a file named
MJ.cer
via the following, assuming the entry is
aliased by "mykey":
keytool -exportcert -alias mykey -file MJ.cer
Given that certificate, and the signed JAR file, a client can use the jarsigner tool to authenticate your signature.
The command "importkeystore" is used to import an entire keystore into another keystore, which means all entries from the source keystore, including keys and certificates, are all imported to the destination keystore within a single command. You can use this command to import entries from a different type of keystore. During the import, all new entries in the destination keystore will have the same alias names and protection passwords (for secret keys and private keys). If keytool has difficulties recover the private keys or secret keys from the source keystore, it will prompt you for a password. If it detects alias duplication, it will ask you for a new one, you can specify a new alias or simply allow keytool to overwrite the existing one.
For example, to import entries from a normal JKS type keystore key.jks into a PKCS #11 type hardware based keystore, you can use the command:
keytool -importkeystore -srckeystore key.jks -destkeystore NONE -srcstoretype JKS -deststoretype PKCS11 -srcstorepass <source keystore password> -deststorepass <destination keystore password>
The importkeystore command can also be used to import a single entry from a source keystore to a destination keystore. In this case, besides the options you see in the above example, you need to specify the alias you want to import. With the srcalias option given, you can also specify the destination alias name in the command line, as well as protection password for a secret/private key and the destination protection password you want. The following command demonstrates this:
keytool -importkeystore -srckeystore key.jks -destkeystore NONE -srcstoretype JKS -deststoretype PKCS11 -srcstorepass <source keystore password> -deststorepass <destination keystore password> -srcalias myprivatekey -destalias myoldprivatekey -srckeypass <source entry password> -destkeypass <destination entry password> -noprompt
The following are keytool commands to generate keypairs and certificates for three entities, namely, Root CA (root), Intermediate CA (ca), and SSL server (server). Ensure that you store all the certificates in the same keystore. In these examples, it is recommended that you specify RSA as the key algorithm.
keytool -genkeypair -keystore root.jks -alias root -ext bc:c keytool -genkeypair -keystore ca.jks -alias ca -ext bc:c keytool -genkeypair -keystore server.jks -alias server keytool -keystore root.jks -alias root -exportcert -rfc > root.pem keytool -storepass <storepass> -keystore ca.jks -certreq -alias ca | keytool -storepass <storepass> -keystore root.jks -gencert -alias root -ext BC=0 -rfc > ca.pem keytool -keystore ca.jks -importcert -alias ca -file ca.pem keytool -storepass <storepass> -keystore server.jks -certreq -alias server | keytool -storepass <storepass> -keystore ca.jks -gencert -alias ca -ext ku:c=dig,kE -rfc > server.pem cat root.pem ca.pem server.pem | keytool -keystore server.jks -importcert -alias server
A keystore is a storage facility for cryptographic keys and certificates.
Keystores may have different types of entries. The two most applicable entry types for keytool include:
All keystore entries (key and trusted certificate entries) are accessed via unique aliases.
An alias is specified when you add an entity to the keystore using the -genseckey command to generate a secret key, -genkeypair command to generate a key pair (public and private key) or the -importcert command to add a certificate or certificate chain to the list of trusted certificates. Subsequent keytool commands must use this same alias to refer to the entity.
For example, suppose you use the alias duke to generate a new public/private key pair and wrap the public key into a self-signed certificate (see Certificate Chains) via the following command:
keytool -genkeypair -alias duke -keypass dukekeypasswd
This specifies an initial password of "dukekeypasswd" required
by subsequent commands to access the private key associated with
the alias duke
. If you later want to change duke's
private key password, you use a command like the following:
keytool -keypasswd -alias duke -keypass dukekeypasswd -new newpass
This changes the password from "dukekeypasswd" to "newpass".
Please note: A password should not actually be specified on a command line or in a script unless it is for testing purposes, or you are on a secure system. If you don't specify a required password option on a command line, you will be prompted for it.
The KeyStore
class provided in the
java.security
package supplies well-defined interfaces
to access and modify the information in a keystore. It is possible
for there to be multiple different concrete implementations, where
each implementation is that for a particular type of
keystore.
Currently, two command-line tools (keytool and
jarsigner) and a GUI-based tool named Policy Tool
make use of keystore implementations. Since KeyStore
is publicly available, users can write additional security
applications that use it.
There is a built-in default implementation, provided by Oracle. It implements the keystore as a file, utilizing a proprietary keystore type (format) named "JKS". It protects each private key with its individual password, and also protects the integrity of the entire keystore with a (possibly different) password.
Keystore implementations are provider-based. More specifically,
the application interfaces supplied by KeyStore
are
implemented in terms of a "Service Provider Interface" (SPI). That
is, there is a corresponding abstract KeystoreSpi
class, also in the java.security
package, which
defines the Service Provider Interface methods that "providers"
must implement. (The term "provider" refers to a package or a set
of packages that supply a concrete implementation of a subset of
services that can be accessed by the Java Security API.) Thus, to
provide a keystore implementation, clients must implement a
"provider" and supply a KeystoreSpi subclass implementation, as
described in How to
Implement a Provider for the Java Cryptography
Architecture.
Applications can choose different types of keystore
implementations from different providers, using the "getInstance"
factory method supplied in the KeyStore
class. A
keystore type defines the storage and data format of the keystore
information, and the algorithms used to protect private/secret keys
in the keystore and the integrity of the keystore itself. Keystore
implementations of different types are not compatible.
keytool works on any file-based keystore implementation. (It treats the keystore location that is passed to it at the command line as a filename and converts it to a FileInputStream, from which it loads the keystore information.) The jarsigner and policytool tools, on the other hand, can read a keystore from any location that can be specified using a URL.
For keytool and jarsigner, you can specify a keystore type at the command line, via the -storetype option. For Policy Tool, you can specify a keystore type via the "Keystore" menu.
If you don't explicitly specify a keystore type, the tools
choose a keystore implementation based simply on the value of the
keystore.type
property specified in the security
properties file. The security properties file is called
java.security, and it resides in the security properties
directory, java.home/lib/security
, where
java.home is the runtime environment's directory (the
jre directory in the SDK or the top-level directory of the
Java 2 Runtime Environment).
Each tool gets the keystore.type
value and then
examines all the currently-installed providers until it finds one
that implements keystores of that type. It then uses the keystore
implementation from that provider.
The KeyStore
class defines a static method named
getDefaultType
that lets applications and applets
retrieve the value of the keystore.type
property. The
following line of code creates an instance of the default keystore
type (as specified in the keystore.type
property):
KeyStore keyStore = KeyStore.getInstance(KeyStore.getDefaultType());
The default keystore type is "jks" (the proprietary type of the keystore implementation provided by Oracle). This is specified by the following line in the security properties file:
keystore.type=jks
To have the tools utilize a keystore implementation other than the default, you can change that line to specify a different keystore type.
For example, if you have a provider package that supplies a keystore implementation for a keystore type called "pkcs12", change the line to
keystore.type=pkcs12
Note: case doesn't matter in keystore type designations. For example, "JKS" would be considered the same as "jks".
These are numbers associated with a particular entity, and are intended to be known to everyone who needs to have trusted interactions with that entity. Public keys are used to verify signatures.
If some data is digitally signed it has been stored with the "identity" of an entity, and a signature that proves that entity knows about the data. The data is rendered unforgeable by signing with the entity's private key.
A known way of addressing an entity. In some systems the identity is the public key, in others it can be anything from a Unix UID to an Email address to an X.509 Distinguished Name.
A signature is computed over some data using the private key of an entity (the signer, which in the case of a certificate is also known as the issuer).
These are numbers, each of which is supposed to be known only to the particular entity whose private key it is (that is, it's supposed to be kept secret). Private and public keys exist in pairs in all public key cryptography systems (also referred to as "public key crypto systems"). In a typical public key crypto system, such as DSA, a private key corresponds to exactly one public key. Private keys are used to compute signatures.
An entity is a person, organization, program, computer, business, bank, or something else you are trusting to some degree.
Basically, public key cryptography requires access to users' public keys. In a large-scale networked environment it is impossible to guarantee that prior relationships between communicating entities have been established or that a trusted repository exists with all used public keys. Certificates were invented as a solution to this public key distribution problem. Now a Certification Authority (CA) can act as a trusted third party. CAs are entities (for example, businesses) that are trusted to sign (issue) certificates for other entities. It is assumed that CAs will only create valid and reliable certificates, as they are bound by legal agreements. There are many public Certification Authorities, such as VeriSign, Thawte, Entrust, and so on. You can also run your own Certification Authority using products such as Microsoft Certificate Server or the Entrust CA product for your organization.
Using keytool, it is possible to display, import, and export certificates. It is also possible to generate self-signed certificates.
keytool currently handles X.509 certificates.
The X.509 standard defines what information can go into a certificate, and describes how to write it down (the data format). All the data in a certificate is encoded using two related standards called ASN.1/DER. Abstract Syntax Notation 1 describes data. The Definite Encoding Rules describe a single way to store and transfer that data.
All X.509 certificates have the following data, in addition to the signature:
This identifies which version of the X.509 standard applies to this certificate, which affects what information can be specified in it. Thus far, three versions are defined. keytool can import and export v1, v2, and v3 certificates. It generates v3 certificates.
X.509 Version 1 has been available since 1988, is widely deployed, and is the most generic.
X.509 Version 2 introduced the concept of subject and issuer unique identifiers to handle the possibility of reuse of subject and/or issuer names over time. Most certificate profile documents strongly recommend that names not be reused, and that certificates should not make use of unique identifiers. Version 2 certificates are not widely used.
X.509 Version 3 is the most recent (1996) and supports the notion of extensions, whereby anyone can define an extension and include it in the certificate. Some common extensions in use today are: KeyUsage (limits the use of the keys to particular purposes such as "signing-only") and AlternativeNames (allows other identities to also be associated with this public key, e.g. DNS names, Email addresses, IP addresses). Extensions can be marked critical to indicate that the extension should be checked and enforced/used. For example, if a certificate has the KeyUsage extension marked critical and set to "keyCertSign" then if this certificate is presented during SSL communication, it should be rejected, as the certificate extension indicates that the associated private key should only be used for signing certificates and not for SSL use.
The entity that created the certificate is responsible for assigning it a serial number to distinguish it from other certificates it issues. This information is used in numerous ways, for example when a certificate is revoked its serial number is placed in a Certificate Revocation List (CRL).
This identifies the algorithm used by the CA to sign the certificate.
The X.500 Distinguished Name of the entity that signed the certificate. This is normally a CA. Using this certificate implies trusting the entity that signed this certificate. (Note that in some cases, such as root or top-level CA certificates, the issuer signs its own certificate.)
Each certificate is valid only for a limited amount of time. This period is described by a start date and time and an end date and time, and can be as short as a few seconds or almost as long as a century. The validity period chosen depends on a number of factors, such as the strength of the private key used to sign the certificate or the amount one is willing to pay for a certificate. This is the expected period that entities can rely on the public value, if the associated private key has not been compromised.
The name of the entity whose public key the certificate identifies. This name uses the X.500 standard, so it is intended to be unique across the Internet. This is the X.500 Distinguished Name (DN) of the entity, for example,
CN=Java Duke, OU=Java Software Division, O=Oracle Corporation, C=US
(These refer to the subject's Common Name, Organizational Unit, Organization, and Country.)
This is the public key of the entity being named, together with an algorithm identifier which specifies which public key crypto system this key belongs to and any associated key parameters.
keytool can create and manage keystore "key" entries that each contain a private key and an associated certificate "chain". The first certificate in the chain contains the public key corresponding to the private key.
When keys are first generated (see the -genkeypair command), the chain starts off
containing a single element, a self-signed certificate. A
self-signed certificate is one for which the issuer (signer) is the
same as the subject (the entity whose public key is being
authenticated by the certificate). Whenever the
-genkeypair
command is called to generate a new
public/private key pair, it also wraps the public key into a
self-signed certificate.
Later, after a Certificate Signing Request (CSR) has been generated (see the -certreq command) and sent to a Certification Authority (CA), the response from the CA is imported (see -importcert), and the self-signed certificate is replaced by a chain of certificates. At the bottom of the chain is the certificate (reply) issued by the CA authenticating the subject's public key. The next certificate in the chain is one that authenticates the CA's public key.
In many cases, this is a self-signed certificate (that is, a certificate from the CA authenticating its own public key) and the last certificate in the chain. In other cases, the CA may return a chain of certificates. In this case, the bottom certificate in the chain is the same (a certificate signed by the CA, authenticating the public key of the key entry), but the second certificate in the chain is a certificate signed by a different CA, authenticating the public key of the CA you sent the CSR to. Then, the next certificate in the chain will be a certificate authenticating the second CA's key, and so on, until a self-signed "root" certificate is reached. Each certificate in the chain (after the first) thus authenticates the public key of the signer of the previous certificate in the chain.
Many CAs only return the issued certificate, with no supporting chain, especially when there is a flat hierarchy (no intermediates CAs). In this case, the certificate chain must be established from trusted certificate information already stored in the keystore.
A different reply format (defined by the PKCS#7 standard) also includes the supporting certificate chain, in addition to the issued certificate. Both reply formats can be handled by keytool.
The top-level (root) CA certificate is self-signed. However, the
trust into the root's public key does not come from the root
certificate itself (anybody could generate a self-signed
certificate with the distinguished name of say, the VeriSign root
CA!), but from other sources like a newspaper. The root CA public
key is widely known. The only reason it is stored in a certificate
is because this is the format understood by most tools, so the
certificate in this case is only used as a "vehicle" to transport
the root CA's public key. Before you add the root CA certificate to
your keystore, you should view it (using the
-printcert
option) and compare the displayed
fingerprint with the well-known fingerprint (obtained from a
newspaper, the root CA's Web page, etc.).
A certificates file named "cacerts" resides in the
security properties directory,
java.home/lib/security
, where java.home
is the runtime environment's directory (the jre directory
in the SDK or the top-level directory of the Java 2 Runtime
Environment).
The "cacerts" file represents a system-wide keystore with CA certificates. System administrators can configure and manage that file using keytool, specifying "jks" as the keystore type. The "cacerts" keystore file ships with a default set of root CA certificates; list them with the following command:
keytool -list -keystore java.home/lib/security/cacerts
The initial password of the "cacerts" keystore file is "changeit". System administrators should change that password and the default access permission of that file upon installing the SDK.
IMPORTANT: Verify Your cacerts
File: Since
you trust the CAs in the cacerts
file as entities for
signing and issuing certificates to other entities, you must manage
the cacerts
file carefully. The cacerts
file should contain only certificates of the CAs you trust. It is
your responsibility to verify the trusted root CA certificates
bundled in the cacerts
file and make your own trust
decisions. To remove an untrusted CA certificate from the
cacerts
file, use the delete option of the
keytool
command. You can find the cacerts
file in the JRE installation directory. Contact your system
administrator if you do not have permission to edit this file.
Certificates are often stored using the printable encoding format defined by the Internet RFC 1421 standard, instead of their binary encoding. This certificate format, also known as "Base 64 encoding", facilitates exporting certificates to other applications by email or through some other mechanism.
Certificates read by the -importcert
and
-printcert
commands can be in either this format or
binary encoded.
The -exportcert
command by default outputs a
certificate in binary encoding, but will instead output a
certificate in the printable encoding format, if the
-rfc
option is specified.
The -list
command by default prints the SHA1
fingerprint of a certificate. If the -v
option is
specified, the certificate is printed in human-readable format,
while if the -rfc
option is specified, the certificate
is output in the printable encoding format.
In its printable encoding format, the encoded certificate is bounded at the beginning by
-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
and at the end by
-----END CERTIFICATE-----
X.500 Distinguished Names are used to identify entities, such as
those which are named by the subject
and
issuer
(signer) fields of X.509 certificates.
keytool supports the following subparts:
When supplying a distinguished name string as the value of a
-dname
option, as for the -genkeypair
command, the string must be in the
following format:
CN=cName, OU=orgUnit, O=org, L=city, S=state, C=countryCode
where all the italicized items represent actual values and the above keywords are abbreviations for the following:
CN=commonName OU=organizationUnit O=organizationName L=localityName S=stateName C=country
A sample distinguished name string is
CN=Mark Smith, OU=Java, O=Oracle, L=Cupertino, S=California, C=US
and a sample command using such a string is
keytool -genkeypair -dname "CN=Mark Smith, OU=Java, O=Oracle, L=Cupertino, S=California, C=US" -alias mark
Case does not matter for the keyword abbreviations. For example, "CN", "cn", and "Cn" are all treated the same.
Order matters; each subcomponent must appear in the designated order. However, it is not necessary to have all the subcomponents. You may use a subset, for example:
CN=Steve Meier, OU=Java, O=Oracle, C=US
If a distinguished name string value contains a comma, the comma must be escaped by a "\" character when you specify the string on a command line, as in
cn=Peter Schuster, ou=Java\, Product Development, o=Oracle, c=US
It is never necessary to specify a distinguished name string on a command line. If it is needed for a command, but not supplied on the command line, the user is prompted for each of the subcomponents. In this case, a comma does not need to be escaped by a "\".
IMPORTANT: Be sure to check a certificate very carefully before importing it as a trusted certificate!
View it first (using the -printcert
command, or the
-importcert
command without the -noprompt
option), and make sure that the displayed certificate
fingerprint(s) match the expected ones. For example, suppose
someone sends or emails you a certificate, and you put it in a file
named /tmp/cert
. Before you consider adding the
certificate to your list of trusted certificates, you can execute a
-printcert
command to view its fingerprints, as in
keytool -printcert -file /tmp/cert Owner: CN=ll, OU=ll, O=ll, L=ll, S=ll, C=ll Issuer: CN=ll, OU=ll, O=ll, L=ll, S=ll, C=ll Serial Number: 59092b34 Valid from: Thu Sep 25 18:01:13 PDT 1997 until: Wed Dec 24 17:01:13 PST 1997 Certificate Fingerprints: MD5: 11:81:AD:92:C8:E5:0E:A2:01:2E:D4:7A:D7:5F:07:6F SHA1: 20:B6:17:FA:EF:E5:55:8A:D0:71:1F:E8:D6:9D:C0:37:13:0E:5E:FE SHA256: 90:7B:70:0A:EA:DC:16:79:92:99:41:FF:8A:FE:EB:90: 17:75:E0:90:B2:24:4D:3A:2A:16:A6:E4:11:0F:67:A4
Then call or otherwise contact the person who sent the certificate, and compare the fingerprint(s) that you see with the ones that they show. Only if the fingerprints are equal is it guaranteed that the certificate has not been replaced in transit with somebody else's (for example, an attacker's) certificate. If such an attack took place, and you did not check the certificate before you imported it, you would end up trusting anything the attacker has signed (for example, a JAR file with malicious class files inside).
Note: it is not required that you execute a
-printcert
command prior to importing a certificate,
since before adding a certificate to the list of trusted
certificates in the keystore, the -importcert
command
prints out the certificate information and prompts you to verify
it. You then have the option of aborting the import operation.
Note, however, this is only the case if you invoke the
-importcert
command without the -noprompt
option. If the -noprompt
option is given, there is no
interaction with the user.
Most commands operating on a keystore require the store password. Some commands require a private/secret key password.
Passwords can be specified on the command line (in the
-storepass
and -keypass
options,
respectively). However, a password should not be specified on a
command line or in a script unless it is for testing purposes, or
you are on a secure system.
If you don't specify a required password option on a command line, you will be prompted for it.
The Internet standard RFC 5280 has defined a
profile on conforming X.509 certificates, which includes what
values and value combinations are valid for certificate fields and
extensions. keytool has not enforced all these rules so it
can generate certificates which do not conform to the standard, and
these certificates might be rejected by JRE or other applications.
Users should make sure that they provide the correct options for
-dname
, -ext
, etc.
The command interface for keytool changed in Java SE 6.
keytool no longer displays password input when entered by users. Since password input can no longer be viewed when entered, users will be prompted to re-enter passwords any time a password is being set or changed (for example, when setting the initial keystore password, or when changing a key password).
Some commands have simply been renamed, and other commands deemed obsolete are no longer listed in this document. All previous commands (both renamed and obsolete) are still supported in this release and will continue to be supported in future releases. The following summarizes all of the changes made to the keytool command interface:
Renamed commands:
-export
, renamed to -exportcert
-genkey
, renamed to -genkeypair
-import
, renamed to -importcert
Commands deemed obsolete and no longer documented:


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| Deallocates and cleans the Editor. More... | |
| void | RenderSelection (ObjectList *selection, SDL_Renderer *renderer) |
| Draw an indicator of which objects are currently selected. More... | |
| void | RenderSelectionObjects (Object *obj, SDL_Renderer *renderer) |
| void | HandleEditorEvents (Editor *editor, SDL_Event *event) |
| Handle event for editor. More... | |
| void | RenderEditorGrid (Editor *editor, SDL_Renderer *renderer) |
| Draws the grid for the editor. More... | |
| void | RenderSelectionBox (Editor *editor, SDL_Renderer *renderer) |
| Draws the selection box. More... | |
Contains structs and functions for the in-game editor
Allocates memory for a new Editor and returns the pointer.
| [in] | map | The Map to edit |
| void DestroyEditor | ( | Editor * | editor | ) |
Deallocates and cleans the Editor.
| [in] | editor | The editor to destroy |
| void DrawEditor | ( | Editor * | editor, |
| SDL_Renderer * | renderer | ||
| ) |
Draws the editor.
| [in] | editor | The Editor to draw |
| [in] | renderer | The renderer to use |
| void HandleEditorEvents | ( | Editor * | editor, |
| SDL_Event * | event | ||
| ) |
Handle event for editor.
This should be called in the event loop
| [in] | editor | The Editor to handle event for |
| [in] | event | The event |
| void HideEditor | ( | Editor * | editor | ) |
Set the Editor stop drawing itself.
| [in] | editor | The Editor to hide |
| void RenderEditorGrid | ( | Editor * | editor, |
| SDL_Renderer * | renderer | ||
| ) |
Draws the grid for the editor.
| [in] | editor | The editor to draw for |
| [in] | renderer | The renderer to use |
| void RenderSelection | ( | ObjectList * | selection, |
| SDL_Renderer * | renderer | ||
| ) |
Draw an indicator of which objects are currently selected.
| [in] | selection | The list of objects that are selected |
| [in] | renderer | The renderer to use |
| void RenderSelectionBox | ( | Editor * | editor, |
| SDL_Renderer * | renderer | ||
| ) |
Draws the selection box.
| [in] | editor | The editor to draw for |
| [in] | renderer | The renderer to use |
| void RenderSelectionObjects | ( | Object * | obj, |
| SDL_Renderer * | renderer | ||
| ) |
| void ShowEditor | ( | Editor * | editor | ) |
Set the Editor to draw itself.
| [in] | editor | The Editor to show |


APICheck Project Documentation
APICheck is an environment for integrating existing HTTP APIs tools and create execution chains easily. Designed with integration third party tools in mind.
APICheck is comprised of a set of tools that can be connected to each other to achieve different functionalities, depending on how they are connected. It allows you to create execution chains
This page contains a list of currently available tools with a brief description of them.


{% extends "main/base.html" %}
{% block title %}
Details for {{ hit.title }}
{% endblock %}
{% block content %}
Battery: {{ hit.battery }}
Owner: {{ hit.owner }}
Mturk ID: {{ hit.mturk_id }}
HIT Type ID: {{ hit.hit_type_id }}
Creation Time: {{ hit.creation_time }}
Description: {{ hit.description }}
Keywords: {{ hit.keywords }}
Reward: {{ hit.reward }}
Lifetime in Hours: {{ hit.lifetime_in_hours }}
Assignment Duration in Hours: {{ hit.assignment_duration_in_hours }}
Max Assignments: {{ hit.max_assignments }}
Auto Approval Delay in Seconds: {{ hit.auto_approval_delay_in_seconds }}
Requester Annotation: {{ hit.requester_annotation }}
Number of Similar Hits: {{ hit.number_of_similar_hits }}
Review Status: {{ hit.review_status }}
Number of Pending Assignments: {{ hit.number_of_assignments_pending }}
Number of Available Assignments: {{ hit.number_of_assignments_available }}
Number of Completed Assignments: {{ hit.number_of_assignments_completed }}
Qualification for Number of Approved HITs: {{ hit.qualification_number_hits_approved }}
Qualification for Percent of Assignments Approved: {{ hit.qualification_percent_assignments_approved }}
Qualification Adult: {{ hit.qualification_adult }}
Qualification Locale: {{ hit.qualification_locale }}
Qualification Custom: {{ hit.qualification_custom }}
Sandbox Only: {{ hit.sandbox }}
{% endblock %}


New! New! New!
Building on that, we'd like to provide a forum for the Jetty community to share more information about Jetty's diverse uses, maybe inspire some new ideas, and shine the PR spotlight on worthy projects and products.
The forum will be in the form of articles submitted by users that focus on their interesting or innovative use of Jetty. We'll feature one article per month on the Jetty website, with a prominent link to it from the Jetty home page. Previous feature articles will continue to be available, building up a catalogue of case studies.
So, if you'd like to contribute an article about your particular application of Jetty, contact us us with an outline. The brief for the article is fairly wide-ranging, but if you're not sure if your idea is appropriate, email us to discuss it.


ComponentConfig class
Configuration of a component inside a container.
The configuration includes type information or descriptor, and component configuration parameters.
Constructors
- ComponentConfig([Descriptor descriptor, TypeDescriptor type, ConfigParams config ])
- Creates a new instance of the component configuration. [...]
Properties
- config ↔ ConfigParams
-
read / write
- descriptor ↔ Descriptor
-
read / write
- type ↔ TypeDescriptor
-
read / write
- hashCode → int
-
The hash code for this object. [...]
read-only, inherited
- runtimeType → Type
-
A representation of the runtime type of the object.
read-only, inherited
Methods
-
noSuchMethod(
Invocation invocation) → dynamic -
Invoked when a non-existent method or property is accessed. [...]
inherited
-
toString(
) → String -
Returns a string representation of this object.
inherited
Operators
-
operator ==(
dynamic other) → bool -
The equality operator. [...]
inherited
Static Methods
-
fromConfig(
ConfigParams config) → ComponentConfig - Creates a new instance of ComponentConfig based on section from container configuration. [...]


Level: 1
Points: 0
Score Multiplier x1
Damage: 1
Fuel: 6%
Score: 0
Total Score: 0
Press spacebar to start the game.


regional_mix-class.Rd
creates an regional_mix
model.
The randomised quantile residuals ("RQR", from Dunn and Smyth, 1996) are defined by their marginal distribution function (marginality is over #' other species observations within that site; see Foster et al, in prep). The result is one residual per species per site and they all should be standard normal variates. Within a site they are likely to be correlated (as they share a common latent factor), but across sampling locations they will be independent. The deviance residuals (as used here), are actually just square root of minus two times the log-likelihood contribution for each sampling location. We do #' not subtract the log-likelihood of the saturated model as, at the time of writing, we are unsure what this log-likelihood should be (latent factors confuse #' things here). This implies that the residuals will not have mean zero and their variance might also be heteroskedastic. This was not realised when writing #' the original RCP paper (Foster et al, 2013), obviously. We still believe that these residuals have some utility, but we are unsure where that utility stops. #' For general useage, the "RQR" residuals should probably be preferred.
regional_mix(rcp_formula = NULL, species_formula = NULL, data, nRCP = 3, dist = "bernoulli", offset = NULL, weights = NULL, control = list(), inits = "random2", titbits = TRUE, power = 1.6) # S3 method for regional_mix AIC(object, ..., k = 2) # S3 method for regional_mix residuals(object, ..., type = "RQR", quiet = FALSE)
| rcp_formula | an object of class "formula" (or an object that can be coerced to that class). The response variable (left hand side of the formula) needs to be either 'presence', 'occurrence', 'abundance', 'biomass' or 'quantity' this will help specify the type of data to be modelled, if the response variable is disperate to the model distribution an error will be thrown. The dependent variables (the right hind side) of this formula specifies the dependence of the region of common profile (rcp) probabilities on covariates. |
|---|---|
| species_formula | an object of class "formula" (or an object that can be coerced to that class). The left hand side of this formula should be left empty (it is removed if it is not empty). The right hand side of this formula specifies the dependence of the species"'" data on covariates (typically different covariates to |
| nRCP | The number of mixing components (groups) to fit. |
| offset | a numeric vector of length nrow( data) that is included into the model as an offset. It is included into the conditional part of the model where conditioning is performed on the unobserved RCP type. Note that offsets cannot be included as part of the rcp_formula or species_formula arguments ??? only through this argument. |
| weights | a numeric vector of length nrow( data) that is used as weights in the log-likelihood calculations. If NULL (default) then all weights are assumed to be identically 1. |
| control | a list of control parameters for optimisation and calculation. See details. From |
| model_data | a List which contains named objects 'species_data': a data frame containing the species information. The frame is arranged so that each row is a site and each column is a species. Species names should be included as column names otherwise numbers from 1:S are assigned. And 'covariate_data' a data frame containng the covariate data for each site. Names of columns must match that given in |
| distribution | The family of statistical distribution to use within the ecomix models. a choice between "bernoulli", "poisson", "negative_binomial" and "gaussian" distributions are possible and applicable to specific types of data. |
| initialise | a characture string which defines the method used to initialise finite mixture model clustering. #Will have to synergise this function call across RCP and SpeciesMix. Looks like SpeciesMix uses a em.prefit to setup initialisations. regional_mix has a number of methods. This seems like a good place to setup the bivariate clusting step - cobra function. |
# NOT RUN { simulated_data <- simulate_regional_mix_data() ## need to finishing generating this function. rcp_form <- as.formula(paste0("cbind(",paste(sort(sp_name),collapse = ','),")~1+x1+x2+x3")) spp_form <- observations ~ 1 + w1 + w2 model_data <- list('species_data' = Y, 'covariate_data' = X) fm_regional_mix <- regional_mix(rcp_form,spp_form,data=model_data,distribution='bernoulli',n_mixtures=5) # }


In this first tutorial, I did several things:
Here's the link to the repo's main git page for ease of access.
Thanks for visiting! Hopefully I'll learn to make prettier and more interactive pages soon.


The project which became Firefox started as an experimental branch of the Mozilla Suite called m/b (or mozilla/browser). After it had been sufficiently developed, binaries for public testing appeared in September 2002 under the name Phoenix.
Firefox 23 was released on August 6, 2013. It includes an updated Firefox logo, mixed content blocking enabled by default to defend against man-in-the-middle attacks, implementation of the range form control attribute in HTML5, dropping support for the blink HTML element as well as text-decoration:blink CSS element, the restriction to have to "switch to a different search provider across the entire browser," and a global browser console, a new network monitor among other things.
Back to home


-
Slides day 1
Exercise 1 - Parameter estimation
Exercise 2 - Tree topologies
Exercise 3 - Model comparison
Exercise 4 - Branch support
Exercise 5 - Command line
Exercise 6 - Inferring ML phylogenies with codon models
Exercise 7 - Inferring ML phylogenies using real datasets
Exercise 8 - Re-Analyze published datasets
Exercise 4 - Branch support
Inferring phylogenies using maximum likelihood
In this tutorial you will be guided in using PhyML and its extension, CodonPhyML, to solve common phylogenetic problems. For some of the following exercises there might be more than one single solution.
Goal: Computing the branch support on the inferred phylogenetic tree.
In this exercise we are going to compute the branch support using 2 different approaches: non-parametric ML bootstrap and SH-aLRT (note: the running time is much shorter for SH-aLRT).
Datasets
Dataset file:
First Run
Run PhyML with the using the branch support method: Bootstrap
Second Run
Run PhyML with the using the branch support method: SH-aLRT
Tasks
- Compare supports inferred by non-parametric ML bootstrap to those obtained using SH-aLRT method
- Are the results compatible?
This exercise was prepared by Maria Anisimova
- Previous
- Next


|
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| SUMMARY: NESTED | FIELD | CONSTR | METHOD | DETAIL: FIELD | CONSTR | METHOD |
java.lang.Object org.openqa.selenium.remote.service.DriverService org.openqa.selenium.phantomjs.PhantomJSDriverService
public class PhantomJSDriverService
Service that controls the life-cycle of a PhantomJS in Remote WebDriver mode. The Remote WebDriver is implemented via GhostDriver.
NOTE: Yes, the design of this class is heavily inspired byorg.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeDriverService
.
| Nested Class Summary | |
|---|---|
static class |
PhantomJSDriverService.Builder
Builder used to configure new PhantomJSDriverService instances. |
| Field Summary | |
|---|---|
static java.lang.String |
PHANTOMJS_CLI_ARGS
Capability that allows to add custom command line arguments to the spawned PhantomJS process. |
static java.lang.String |
PHANTOMJS_EXECUTABLE_PATH_PROPERTY
System property/capability that defines the location of the PhantomJS executable. |
static java.lang.String |
PHANTOMJS_GHOSTDRIVER_CLI_ARGS
Capability that allows to pass custom command line arguments to the GhostDriver JavaScript launch file, spawned PhantomJS process. |
static java.lang.String |
PHANTOMJS_GHOSTDRIVER_PATH_PROPERTY
Optional System property/capability that defines the location of the GhostDriver JavaScript launch file (i.e. |
static java.lang.String |
PHANTOMJS_PAGE_CUSTOMHEADERS_PREFIX
Set capabilities with this prefix to apply it to the PhantomJS page.customHeaders.* object. |
static java.lang.String |
PHANTOMJS_PAGE_SETTINGS_PREFIX
Set capabilities with this prefix to apply it to the PhantomJS page.settings.* object. |
| Method Summary | |
|---|---|
static PhantomJSDriverService |
createDefaultService()
Same as createDefaultService(org.openqa.selenium.Capabilities) . |
static PhantomJSDriverService |
createDefaultService(org.openqa.selenium.Capabilities desiredCapabilities)
Configures and returns a new PhantomJSDriverService using the default configuration. |
protected static java.io.File |
findGhostDriver(org.openqa.selenium.Capabilities desiredCapabilities,
java.lang.String docsLink,
java.lang.String downloadLink)
Find the GhostDriver main file (i.e. |
protected static java.io.File |
findPhantomJS(org.openqa.selenium.Capabilities desiredCapabilities,
java.lang.String docsLink,
java.lang.String downloadLink)
Looks into the Capabilities, the current $PATH and the System Properties for PHANTOMJS_EXECUTABLE_PATH_PROPERTY . |
| Methods inherited from class org.openqa.selenium.remote.service.DriverService |
|---|
checkExecutable, findExecutable, getUrl, isRunning, start, stop |
| Methods inherited from class java.lang.Object |
|---|
clone, equals, finalize, getClass, hashCode, notify, notifyAll, toString, wait, wait, wait |
| Field Detail |
|---|
public static final java.lang.String PHANTOMJS_EXECUTABLE_PATH_PROPERTY
public static final java.lang.String PHANTOMJS_GHOSTDRIVER_PATH_PROPERTY
"src/main.js"
).
public static final java.lang.String PHANTOMJS_CLI_ARGS
Set this capability with a list of of argument strings to add, e.g.
new String[] { "--ignore-ssl-errors=yes", "--load-images=no" }
.
public static final java.lang.String PHANTOMJS_GHOSTDRIVER_CLI_ARGS
Set this capability with a list of of argument strings to add, e.g.
new String[] { "--logFile=PATH", "--logLevel=DEBUG" }
.
Acceptable arguments:
--ip=IP_GHOSTDRIVER_SHOULD_LISTEN_ON
--port=PORT_GHOSTDRIVER_SHOULD_LISTEN_ON
--hub=HTTP_ADDRESS_TO_SELENIUM_HUB
--logFile=PATH_TO_LOGFILE
--logLevel=(INFO|DEBUG|WARN|ERROR)
--logColor=(false|true)
public static final java.lang.String PHANTOMJS_PAGE_SETTINGS_PREFIX
page.settings.*
object.
Every PhantomJS WebPage Setting can be used.
See PhantomJS docs/a>.
public static final java.lang.String PHANTOMJS_PAGE_CUSTOMHEADERS_PREFIX
page.customHeaders.*
object.
Any header can be used.
See PhantomJS docs/a>.
| Method Detail |
|---|
public static PhantomJSDriverService createDefaultService(org.openqa.selenium.Capabilities desiredCapabilities)
PhantomJSDriverService
using the default configuration.
In this configuration, the service will use the PhantomJS executable identified by the the
following capability, system property or PATH environment variables:
PHANTOMJS_EXECUTABLE_PATH_PROPERTY
PHANTOMJS_GHOSTDRIVER_PATH_PROPERTY
(Optional - without will use GhostDriver internal to PhantomJS)
public static PhantomJSDriverService createDefaultService()
createDefaultService(org.openqa.selenium.Capabilities)
.
In this case PhantomJS or GhostDriver can't be searched within the Capabilities, only System
Properties.
protected static java.io.File findPhantomJS(org.openqa.selenium.Capabilities desiredCapabilities, java.lang.String docsLink, java.lang.String downloadLink)
PHANTOMJS_EXECUTABLE_PATH_PROPERTY
.
NOTE: If the Capability, the $PATH and the System Property are set, the Capability takes
priority over the System Property, that in turn takes priority over the $PATH.
desiredCapabilities
- Capabilities in which we will look for the path to PhantomJSdocsLink
- The link to the PhantomJS documentation pagedownloadLink
- The link to the PhantomJS download page
File
object
java.lang.IllegalStateException
- If the executable not found or cannot be executedprotected static java.io.File findGhostDriver(org.openqa.selenium.Capabilities desiredCapabilities, java.lang.String docsLink, java.lang.String downloadLink)
"main.js"
).
Looks into the Capabilities and the System Properties for
PHANTOMJS_GHOSTDRIVER_PATH_PROPERTY
.
NOTE: If both the Capability and the System Property are set, the Capability takes priority.
desiredCapabilities
- Capabilities in which we will look for the path to GhostDriverdocsLink
- The link to the GhostDriver documentation pagedownloadLink
- The link to the GhostDriver download page
File
object
java.lang.IllegalStateException
- If the executable not found or cannot be executed
|
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| PREV CLASS NEXT CLASS | FRAMES NO FRAMES | |||||||
| SUMMARY: NESTED | FIELD | CONSTR | METHOD | DETAIL: FIELD | CONSTR | METHOD |


AP Top News at 6:22 a.m. EST
by EndPlayBattle lines harden as Trump impeachment inquiry goes public
Next up in impeachment hearings: A parade of key witnesses
New Gaza rockets disrupt Israel, Islamic Jihad cease-fire
Power struggle in Bolivia: Añez at home vs Morales in exile
Hong Kong police say protesters out of control, deny curfew
California crisis of fires, blackouts decades in the making
Walmart hires off-duty officers ahead of El Paso reopening
Powerful hard-liner: Iran should stop honoring nuclear deal
Turkey to deport IS suspect stuck at Greek border to US
China tests Mars lander in international cooperation push


In the 'Name Template' field fill out the template to construct names. Add the $INDEX field at the point you want to increment the name. For example: SAMPLE_$INDEX will create names of the form SAMPLE_1, SAMPLE_2, etc..


Deborah's Phone Case!!
Welcome to Deborah's Phone Case
Deborah's Phone Case has been running for 2 days and all the products are new. There are selfie sticks, phone cases, and assessories for phones in this store.
Deborah's Phone Case has been running for 2 days and all the products are new. There are selfie sticks, phone cases, and assessories for phones in this store.


Helping fetch page load time, server response time !! See the network whether you're making a proper request.


--- layout: default title: Code With Mu ---
Mu is a simple code editor for beginner programmers. It's written in Python and works on Windows, OSX, Linux and Raspberry Pi.
Mu has only the most essential features, so users are not intimidated by a baffling interface.
Whatever the task, there is always only one obvious way to do it with Mu.
It's quick and easy to learn Mu ~ complexity impedes a novice programmer's first steps.
Learning should inspire fun ~ Mu helps learners quickly create and test working code.


DEEZED MAN COLLECTIVE
About
Music
(current)
Videos
Contact
Our Music
Check out our music on
Bandcamp
&
Spotify
!
Grocery Shopping by Deezed Man Collective


<
Sauce - 3 gallons
Spices - 2
Pizza - 1
Some of the best homemade pizza you'll ever taste. Mozorella Cheese, Margherita sausea and spectacular crust.
MMMMMMMMMMM GREAT STUFF
Profile
Favorites
Home
My Orders
Cart


Can you think of an analogy to describe HTML, CSS and the DOM? How would you describe it to your non-technical friend?
HTML, to me, is the skeleton of the body you are building: it defines what amount of and where the limbs, brain, and vital
organs are.
CSS, is used to define how the body appears; what colour, what length, etc.
DOM, is commonly referred to as a "tree" with multiple branches or layers. The DOM allows us to
interact, modify, and remove elements -- or in this analogy, limbs -- of markup (or body).
What is meant by boxifying design?
Given that all HTML elements can be considered as boxes, I think it means to look at elements of design as a series, or array of boxes. The content of the design is contained within each of these boxes, so it pays to dissect each section of a design into boxes; and build / form these boxes with your HTML.
What is the box model?
As above, All HTML elements can be considered as boxes. In CSS, the term "box model" is used when talking about design and layout. The CSS box model is essentially a box that wraps around every HTML element. It consists of: margins, borders, padding, and the actual content.


Personality Insights Sunburst Chart
This is the sunbirst chart created from performing a personality insight into John's twitter feed.
It uses the IBM insights service to process tweets and provide a suggestion into the personality of the person.


ArbitaryMann Repot
ArbitaryMann Repo
ArbInternal
(View)
OrdinaryInjector
(View)
GrowtopiaNetworkClient
(View)
GameRepackMaster
(View)
Unknowncheats
(View)
-----------------
YES IM A GTA IV FANBOY!


Report ID:
Courier:
Related Package ID:
Issue Date:
Report Type:
Status:
Description:
Handler ID:
Current Result:
Result:


{{page.album-title}}
{% for image in page.images %}
{% endfor %}
--- layout: page title: "album" description: "masonry" active: gallery header-img: "img/gallery-bg.jpg" album-title: "my 2nd album" images: - image_path: /gallery/archive/g02/bg1.jpg caption: IMAGE TITLE mfp-title: IMAGE TITLE copyright: © photorama - image_path: /gallery/archive/g02/bg2.jpg caption: IMAGE TITLE copyright: © photorama - image_path: /gallery/archive/g02/bg3.jpg caption: IMAGE TITLE copyright: © photorama ---


title: ArrayBuffer to/from Base64
stage: 0
contributors: Kevin Gibbons
ArrayBuffer.prototype.toBase64 ( )
The following steps are taken:
1. Let _O_ be the *this* value.
1. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(_O_, [[ArrayBufferData]]).
1. If IsSharedArrayBuffer(_O_) is *true*, throw a *TypeError* exception.
1. If IsDetachedBuffer(_O_) is *true*, throw a *TypeError* exception.
1. Let _block_ be _O_.[[ArrayBufferData]].
1. Let _outAscii_ be the sequence of code points which results from encoding the sequence of bytes which is _block_ according to the base64 encoding specified in section 4 of RFC 4648.
1. Return CodePointsToString(_outAscii_).
1. NOTE: CodePointsToString is used only because RFC 4648 does not produce a sequence of code units. Implementations may be able to produce an ECMAScript string directly.
ArrayBuffer.fromBase64 ( _arg_ )
The following steps are taken:
1. If Type(_arg_) is Object, let _string_ be ? ToString(_arg_).
1. NOTE: because `[` is not a valid base64 character, the Strings returned by %Object.prototype.toString% will produce a SyntaxError below. Implementations are encouraged to provide an informative error message in that situations.
1. Else, if Type(_arg_) is not String, throw a TypeError exception.
1. NOTE: The above step is included to prevent errors such as accidentally passing `null` and receiving an ArrayBuffer containing the bytes « 0x9e, 0xe9, 0x65 ».
1. Else, let _string_ be _arg_.
1. Let _characters_ be StringToCodePoints(_string_).
1. NOTE: StringToCodePoints is used only because RFC 4648 does not produce a sequence of code units. Implementations may be able to base64-decode _string_ directly.
1. If _characters_ cannot result from applying the base64 encoding specified in section 4 of RFC 4648 to some sequence of bytes, throw a SyntaxError exception.
1. Let _bytes_ be the single sequence of bytes such that applying the base64 encoding specified in section 4 of RFC 4648 to that sequence would produce _characters_.
1. Let _buffer_ be ? AllocateArrayBuffer(*this* value, the number of bytes in of _bytes_).
1. TODO: using *this* above is annoying, but consistent with `Promise.resolve` etc. On the other hand, buffers are unusually low-level, so it may not be worth trying to be consistent.
1. Set the value at each index of _buffer_.[[ArrayBufferData]] to the value at the corresponding index of _bytes_.
1. Return _buffer_.


Preview iframe
This is how your application will be called when a Turker previews it.
- assignmentId=ASSIGNMENT_ID_NOT_AVAILABLE
- hitId=3QI9WAYOGQB1JHFXFBKNFQWIIXDS66
Accepted iframe
This is how your application will be called when a Turker accepts the HIT.
- assignmentId=3QJOXOW4XJR5LLT1RYC03PK705PEM1
- hitId=3QI9WAYOGQB1JHFXFBKNFQWIIXDS66
- workerId=A2Z5PF2PKGX24
- turkSubmitTo=https%3A%2F%2Fworkersandbox.mturk.com


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