texts: What were the main centres of population in South America in 1500 AD?

texts:
I'm especially interested in the areas outside the Andes, but a general overview of known sites of urbanisation  in the continent in that era would be great.

Edit for clarification: Various articles and books talk about population in aggregate: "x million Incas, y million Aztecs". I'm more curious about what specific cities and urbanised regions we know of - and especially the ones usually neglected in pop culture. Everyone knows about Machu Picchu. Fewer people know about the Muisca Confederation. And the Marajoara culture is all but unknown to the non-scientist. What other well-developed, well-populated regions existed around the turn of the 1500s that few are aware of; and how do they compare to the rest of the continent?


texts: Many Questions Regarding the Principality of Theodoros

texts:
I think I've made a pretty decent list of Princes of Theodoros. However I'm still not quite sure about alot of them. Here is my list.

Demetrios 1340 to 1370 (rough)
Basil 1370 (rough) to 1380 (rough)
Stephen 1380 (rough) to 1391
Alexios I 1391 to 1445
John 1445 to 1447
Alexios died young
Olubei 1447 to 1458
Isaac 1458 to 1470 (rough)
Alexander 1470 (rough) to 1475

I want help clarifying the dates if possible but more importantly I want to know when Alexander overthrew his pro-Ottoman brother Isaac.
I also would like to know when Theodoros became independent so was Demetrios the first prince or were they independent from Trebizond before him? If they were, since when?


texts: Where can I find a world map from the Victorian period?

texts:
I'm looking for a (preferably open-source) decently quality political map of the world from around 1890 (1885-1900 would be usable for what I want). I don't have a lot of experience looking for maps or other historical documents, and Googling hasn't given me any real information.

So, where should I be looking for a map like this at?


texts: Was the communication between Spitfire and other fighters' pilots encrypted?

texts:
If machines like SIGSALLY were occupying so much space like in the picture above, were the pilots' communication encrypted or somehow obscured in order to prevent the enemy from eavesdropping on the time of World War II?

I know voice cryptography only started to develop that times.


texts: What do we know about the location of Islamic schools in pre-colonial Africa?

texts:
There is much research in history and social science on how Christian missionary schools changed the formation of human capital in Africa, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. However, I find very little historical research on the role Islamic schools played in human capital formation in Africa. Discussions often center around Islamic institutions of higher learning (e.g. madrasas), such as research on Islamic centers in Timbuktu based on the Timbuktu Manuscripts. Less seems to be known about elementary Islamic education. That little is known about the role of Islamic education historically is also noted in a new book by Sriya Iyer (2019), Economics of Religion in India. She notes that there is little historical data on Islamic education. Much of the research on Islamic education in pre-colonial Africa seems to be driven by clever guesswork.

My question is quantitative or geographical. What historical data or maps (published or in archives) do we have on the distribution of Islamic schools in pre-colonial Africa or in Africa after the pre-colonial era? I am not looking for a set of examples. I am looking for historical or contemporary attempts at mapping the historical geographic distribution of Islamic education in Africa (compare with the map referenced below).

From my perspective, it would be optimal if we had historical data on Islamic schools at the beginning of the 1900s that is comparable to the historical data we have on Christian missionary societies in Africa, see Ethnographic Survey of Africa - showing the tribes and languages, also the stations of missionary societies from 1925. With better historical data, we could improve our understanding of religious competition in Africa, and the role of Islamic educational institutions on literacy, social and political development.

(My attempt at answering this question has been to see if colonialists at some point mapped the location of Islamic schools. So far I have skimmed relevant books on colonial Africa from the beginning of the 1900s at https://archive.org.)


texts: Did Boris Pavlovich Belousov die in 1970 or 1976?

texts:
I'm working on a paper about the Belousov-Zhabotinsky-reaction (a chemical oscillator).

I included some information about the history of oscillation reaction, in particular about Boris Pavlovich Belousov and Anatol Markovich Zhabotinskii.

Boris Belousov was the first to discover the Belousov-Zhabotinsky-reaction (BZ-reaction), whilst Zhabotinsky later continued Belousovs research.

My problem now is the year that Boris Belousov died. I have a few contradicting sources. The year is 1970 or 1976.

Some sources that say 1970: Wikipedia, Nature, Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths.

Source that says 1976: Journal of Biosciences.
This source does not have references on where the year 1976 came from.

Do you agree that I should use 1970, because that is what most sources say? Or is it more plausible that it is 1976, because that source has a DOI? But on the other hand, the second source did not include references on the year of death..


texts: Why did Black and Asian immigrants from the Empire not come to Britain in substantial numbers until after WW2?

texts:
The Windrush saga in the British media has thrown light on the situation of post-WW2 migrants from the British Empire - particularly the Caribbean, India and Pakistan - who came to the UK in the immediate aftermath of WW2 under the Attlee government and so began modern British immigration.

My question is - why did these migrants come in at that time in particular, and why had they not come previously?  Most of the now-ageing immigrants describe having thought of themselves as British subjects, and therefore eligible to move throughout the Empire.  And indeed, some migrants did move to the UK during the earlier part of the Imperial era.  As early as 1892, an Indian migrant was elected to the House of Commons, and there were a number of notable individual Black/Asian people living in the UK in the 19th Century, as well as small communities in certain specific places.  I cannot find any references to restrictions on Empire/Commonwealth migrants prior to the Commonwealth Immigration Act of 1962.

My question is - why did substantial numbers of Empire immigrants not move to the UK during the earlier periods of Imperial history, and why did so many come in at that particular point in time? I am vaguely aware that it was partly because the socialist Attlee government actively encouraged them to come, but I would have thought that, given the substantial disparity in GDP per capita between Britain and some of the other nations of the Empire, there would have been significant pull factors in place previously anyway. Also, what were the motivations (ideological and practical) for the Attlee government in encouraging their arrival?


texts: Were slings used for throwing hand grenades? If not, why?

texts:
It seems using a sling is far more effective than throwing things with your bare hands. As far as I know, slingers were widespread in the Ancient era, as well as in the Middle ages:

However, in XIX-XX hand grenades were thrown, well, by hand:

Googling "sling grenadier" gives a bunch of fantasy troops. The only one mention was the Spanish Civil War sling grenadiers:

Slings were way more compact in comparison with a grenade launcher. However, using slings for throwing grenades wasn't so popular. Or was it? And why?

Updates

"There are situations where you actually can't use a sling (trenches, indoor, under fire, etc.)" - I'm not talking about using a sling every time INSTEAD of throwing a grenade by hand, but in addition to. It's like a rock - you can use it as a sling ammo, but you can still throw it by hand, no problems.

Slings have low accuracy - A sling target used for competitions is ~1.5 meter wide. You are supposed to hit it from a 90 meter distance. So, slings have decent accuracy.

Grenades have another use-cases - indeed, you don't need a long distance to, say, throw a grenade into a room. But there are still use-cases where you need that distance. That's why we have grenade launchers. But you can't carry a grenade launcher in your pocket. Also, a sling are way cheaper.

Fusing problems - I know grenades have safety handles and you're supposed to grip it when you throw a grenade. Using a sling will make this mechanism unsafe and doubtful. But that is kind of deductive fallacy - grenades have safety handles BECAUSE we throw them by hand. If slings were used, there would be different safety mechanisms.


texts: In Edwardian England, did poor families arrange to have their children buried in the graves of unrelated adults?

texts:
In Max Arthur’s Lost Voices of the Edwardians, a "compilation of memories from the turn of the century" (1901 - 1910), one Florence Hannah Warn relates how her brother Gilbert was buried:

  When a tiny child died, the cost of a funeral was beyond the pocket of
  a poor family, so an arrangement was made to bury the infant at the
  same time as an adult’s funeral. In front of the glass hearse there
  was a little glass compartment running the width of the hearse, and
  the little coffin was placed there, and so buried in the adult’s
  grave....None of us attended the funeral, but I remember we had black sashes to wear on our Sunday dresses.

After a lot of searching, I came up with nothing further on this burial practice. I believe it is a form of tandem burial but this search term revealed no further details on the above (but it did turn up a lot on an 'historical' Irish hospital practice which came to light a few years back, concerning the burial of un-baptized babies in the coffins of unrelated adults). I may, of course, have been using the wrong search term.

Searching Victorian / Edwardian funeral practices also turned up nothing, though I did learn a lot about burial clubs. I also tried searching Florence Hannah Warn but again drew a blank.

It seems strange that I've turned up no other information so I'm wondering just how widespread burying a child in the grave of an unrelated adult was.

Was this just an Edwardian practice, or does it date back further than that? Is there any archaeological evidence, for example, of this happening in earlier times? When did it die out, or was it made illegal?

EDIT The example here seems to be different from a 'common burial' as suggested by Boaz's comment. I may be reading too much into the passage cited, but it seems this was an individual adult's funeral - a hearse has been paid for (and a glass one at that - not cheap?). This raises the additional question as to whether the child's name appeared on a gravestone - maybe not, as the family did not attend the funeral.


texts: Did Cuba Benefit More Economically by Dealing with the Soviets

texts: The Soviets arguably had a good reason to deal with Cuba as it led to them having an attacking point in the event of a hot war. However, the US are usually inclined to boost a country's economy up to create a new trading partner; that being said, they were pro-communist. Out of the two options, did Cuba benefit economically from its distrust of America?


texts:
By German influence I am referring to the German language.
I hear all the time that if Germany won the war we would be speaking German right now. Clearly there is a lot of exaggeration there and the extent of the German language within other European societies if the Nazis won can be argued, but we can agree that it would be very influential not only in Europe but the world.
I believe there are two scenarios that could have played otherwise in the war that can explain my question.
First the Germans winning in Europe but no control whatsoever over the US as it supposedly stayed neutral.
Second Germany defeating the US as well.
Taking the first and second scenario into consideration what would be the international language today, German or English?
We know English's influence on the world was brought up by the US power after the war so if they were defeated would that crush English as a future language in scenario two?
Now judging from past experience with dictatorships, which Nazism was the worst of all, don't you think that if they had won the war as things began to settle down, and the Germans were no longer occupied by the war, they would finally get tired and start to protest and revolt against Nazism and it would crumble from within Berlin itself? How would that affect German influence do you think?
I think it is important that I say that I know this question does not have an answer it is based on personal opinion and that I have excluded Russian and Japanese from this to make things simpler but if you want to include them feel free to do so. History is not my subject I never did it in school so please bear with my disorganised and perhaps unpractical questions.
Thanks


texts: What was the social and cultural role of a "country squire" in Victorian/Edwardian England?

texts:
In Agatha Christie's "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd", the following passage appears:

  Ackroyd has always interested me by being a man more impossibly like a country squire than any country squire could really be. He reminds one of the red-faced sportsmen who always appeared early in the first act of an old-fashioned musical comedy, the setting being the village green. They usually sang a song about going up to London. Nowadays we have revues, and the country squire has died out of musical fashion.

Now, presumably for a contemporary reader at the time (the book was published in 1926) this would be a very illuminating description.  However, as a reader from 90 years in the future, I'm completely at a loss.  What was the role of a "country squire", what did they generally do, what were the intended stereotypes that one might be?  What was the style of an "old-fashioned musical comedy" and are there examples with a country squire I could look up?

My websearches for "Country Squire" have mostly things named after the phrase, such as the motorcar from 1950 and plenty of hostelry.


texts: What was the ancient Egyptian word for "soldier"?

texts: I can't find it anywhere on the Internet, and I was hoping someone here might know.


texts:
We know that the Roman Empire became a Christian state. Was it illegal to blaspheme God in Antioch in 360.-410.? What punishment was prescribed (if it was illegal)? If it was punishable, who could carry out the punishment?

Edit.

So pardon for my rough approximation in the original post, I would really like to know the law which governed blasphemy (of Christ) in Antioch in the period of 386.-397.


texts: Can anyone confirm the identity of these WWI uniforms?

texts:
The photo below was found among some other WWI photos. It seems to be from a book (rather than an original photo) and has been (firmly) glued onto a piece of board (so impossible to see any text on the other side which might help with identifying the uniforms). I'm mostly interested in the two officers bottom left and bottom right.

Googling has led me to think that at least three of the officers are British Army, maybe Machine Gun Corps. Can anyone confirm this?

The officer bottom left also seems to be British but there are two differences: the stripes on the inside of his trousers (riding breeches perhaps, as suggested by kimchi lover) and the colour of his shirt (or were officers allowed to wear different colour shirts?). Do these differences signify anything?

The fifth officer (bottom right) is a bigger mystery, though. The cap suggests not British. The most logical answer would seem to be French but I can't find any French uniforms on Google images to confirm this. Looking at the list of belligerents in World War I, there are quite a few other possibilities (Serbia, Belgium, Italy, Portugal, Greece...) but googling hasn't turned up anything.

Note: Three of the officers have pets. This was common during WWI so I don't think it has any relevance to the questions above.

EDIT

As requested by LangLangC, I've worked on the picture a bit but not sure if it's much help (click on the image for full size).

The mounting (on black board) seems to have been done within the last few years as there is little sign of aging.


texts: At what point after the war did Confederate money begin to attain value again?

texts:
At the start of the U.S. Civil War, the Confederate States of America began to print their own money.  Almost immediately it began to lose value due to inflation (except in 1864).  By the end of the war it was considered, for all intents and purposes, worthless.

However I am sure anyone now in the year 2019 would love to get their hands on any of these confederate bills as they can garner you anywhere from $100 to thousands of dollars just for 1 bill.

My questions are

Since the money was considered worthless at the end of the war, did most people just throw it out?
If any was kept, was it kept more as a souvenir of sorts?
Is there record of anyone hoarding it all with the assumption it would one day be worth something?
And what I'd like to know the most is at what point in history did these bills break even again? Meaning what year did their value increase to the point that they held the same purchasing power as back when they were in use during the war?   So for example a confederate $100 bill goes from $100 down to $0 and back up to $100 for a short time before it exceeds $100 in value. About what year did this happen?


texts: When did the allied "Desert Air Force" in North Africa smash Axis armour?

texts:
In the answers to this question, it is mentioned that allied air power "smashed" Axis armour in North Africa. Is there a major battle at which it occurred?
Or did it happen during a longer interdiction campaign ?

My research has shown some examples so far of the activity of the Desert Air Force:

During Operation Compass, British Air Force inflicted heavy losses to Italian Air Force. This might have led to more ground support, but I can't find evidence of it
During the Battle of Alam Al Halfa (Six-Days battle), British Air Force struck Rommel's forces, but mostly logistics and headquarters rather than actual fighting troops (armoured vehicles, infantry or artillery pieces)
The Desert Air Force, during the Italian campaign, claimed to be the best Allied CAS. But there was not that much Axis armour left, and it was after the Desert campaign


texts: Has the US Congress ever repealed a law?

texts:
Has the United States Congress ever repealed legislation, rather than amend the legislation or let the legislation be annulled by the Supreme Court?

It seems to me that once a law is passed it becomes very difficult to remove such law even if it becomes evident the law is absurd or detrimental. Even the most notorious laws in the US only get amended so to remove the most sharp edges, or get repelled by the courts as unconstitutional.

But, are there any counter-examples where the US Congress opted to repeal a law?


texts:
I am intrigued by the practices and beliefs of a community native to Kerala - India, the Kerala Iyers not Namboodris, they are Tamil Brahmin communities residing in Kerala, who migrated centuries ago from Tamil Kingdoms to Kerala. They practice an admixture of Malayali and Tamil cultures, though most of their forefather Tamil practices are still intact.

Though they still converse in Tamil and follow most Tamil practices, they refuse to align themselves as a part of the Tamil region and are in fact against few practices(preference in food, attire, religious practices, etc.) native to Tamil region!

I looked up online for any literature on the causes of migration and there was no literature I could look into. But there were few websites that discussed the reasons for migration in their own views eg here.

Several sources suggest that the Brahmins were driven out of Tamil Kingdom and forced to take refuge in Kerala due to:
1. Invasion by Muslim rulers
2. Isolation from society, etc.

I am looking for the reason(s) for their migration with credible source(s). I was also wondering if there was something to do with the reason of migration for their non-alignment with Tamil Brahmins.

A few sources/leads that I came across.

A news article published in a regional daily, here
A research article (un?)published by Prof. Lakshman Singh - Plight of Palghat Iyers - Couldn't get my hands on it, not even the abstract!
A very brief account of a Tamil brahmin settlement in Kerala @ Coolimuttam
This is a refute to the news article published1 by one of the Kerala Iyers, Mr. Narayanmurthi. ( I tried google, google scholar searching for the article on Plight of Palghat iyers and I couldn't get to it anywhere)
Another account on Kerala Iyers from yet another community in Kerala @ Kuzhalmannam.

Hope this helps.


texts: Why could the Soviet Baltic fleet not break out of the Gulf of Finland

texts:
In this question one answer states that the Soviets' Baltic fleet was stuck in the Gulf of Finland due to an anti-submarine net and mines. But the Mediterranean has plenty of narrow gulfs and straits, and yet the Allies were able to sail around doing naval invasions.

What about the Axis operations in the Gulf of Finland made it impossible for the Baltic fleet to break through?


texts: Are there any extant original first-century manuscripts of any of Josephus' works?

texts: It has been claimed that there are no surviving originals of any of Josephus' works.  I have not found any help through Google, and so I wonder if anyone can give me any information about this, along with references.


texts: Did any major European country stay neutral during the Napoleonic Wars?

texts: During World Wars I and II, many countries managed to stay neutral, like Spain and Switzerland. Was there any major country (e.g. not a city-state or a micronation) that did the same during the Napoleonic Wars?


texts: Which monarch had the longest break in their reign?

texts:
During periods of political instability it is not rare for monarchs to be deposed, new monarchs declared, and the original monarch to reclaim their throne a few months later. During this time the deposed monarch is often actively fighting a civil war - still commanding armies and controlling territory.
Much rarer is where monarchs have a long period (many years) in which they were effectively unable to act as monarch of the nation - either in prison, exile or similar - and were then able to reclaim their throne. I know of two significant examples:

Henry VI of England was ruler for two periods - between 1422-1461 and again from 1470-1471.
Roman Emperor, Justinian II was also ruler for two periods - between 685-695 and again from 705-711.

Are there any other historical examples or rulers who were able to reclaim their throne after a significant (many years long) gap? Which monarch had the longest gap in rulership?


texts: How Many Members of US Congress Have Died While In Office?

texts:
As best I can tell, Leo Ryan of California is the only U.S. Member of Congress murdered while in office. He was killed by members of the People's Temple in Guyana in 1978. What I'm looking for are how many died while in office.

I guess I could dig through each article on Wikipedia for all 112 Congresses and get the info but if anyone has the exact figures that would be helpful.

(My son, who's doing a unit on US Government, asked this when we were discussing why there are special elections. I thought it would make a good question here.)

I found this Wikipedia page thanks to ihtkwot's input: United States Congress members killed or wounded in office. I think some of the info I was looking at was biased and didn't include Senators, thus leaving Ryan as the only murdered member. I can't believe I forgot about Larry McDonald since he was my Congressman when he was killed on KAL Flight 007.


texts: Is there a quote that expresses Mill's opposition to Indian democracy?

texts:
I heard in a talk that John Stuart Mill was in favor of democracy in his own country but against democracy in India, I read the following  in a paper -

Mill’s support of British imperialism may seem puzzling given that
Mill defends toleration, liberty, and experiments in living. How could
the theorist who defends a principle holding that no one could
“rightfully be compelled to do or forbear because it will be better
for him to do so” (OL 18:223– 24) also defend a system of imperialism
seeking to compel the improvement of others? Tolerant Imperialism: John Stuart Mill’s Defense of British Rule in India by Mark Tunick, 2006

But could not find any direct quote, can any one provide relatively direct quote where John Stuart Mill  said against democracy in India but contrary advocates democracy in England or other European country?  I am looking for a quote that is more direct than what is posted already, note that I got better quote than what is given in answer.


texts:
At a 1937 housewarming party held by German filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl, a Dr. Ebersberg appears in three photos with the hostess, Hitler, Goebbels and a few others.

Front, from left: Ilse Riefenstahl (sister-in-law of Leni Riefenstahl, wife of Heinz Riefenstahl), Dr. Ebersberg, Goebbels, Leni Riefenstahl and Hitler. Back, from left: Hitler's adjutant Fritz Wiedemann, Bertha Riefenstahl (mother of Leni and Heinz Riefenstahl), Heinz Riefenstahl (younger brother of Leni Riefenstahl). Source: Wikipedia

In the photo above, Dr. Ebersberg and Hitler are possibly sharing some witticism while the others are (more or less) paying attention to the photographer. There do not appear to have been any other people at the housewarming other than Hitler's photographer, Heinrich Hoffmann, who took the photos (but I could be wrong on this).

At the same event, Dr. Ebersberg also appears among a smaller group in the photo below.

From left: Heinz Riefenstahl, Dr. Ebersberg, Leni Riefenstahl, Hitler, Goebbels, Ilse Riefenstahl. Source: Wikipedia

There are a few other photos from this party (see also this better quality one here) but none show any other people other than those already mentioned.

At this event, the presence of the Riefenstahl family is self-explanatory. Of the others, Hitler was a great admirer of Leni Rienstahl's work and Goebbels was obviously associated as Minister for Propaganda. Wiedemann was not only Hitler's personal adjutant but had also served with him in the First World War, while Hoffmann was also close to Hitler.

That leaves the Dr. Ebersberg. I've been unable to find out anything more about her, or why she was in such high-flying Nazi company. In a comment on another post, LangLangC observed that Dr. Ebersberg is not mentioned once "in 900 pages of LR's memoirs". She may have been the wife of the lawyer and judge Heinrich Ebersberg but (even if she was) this doesn't seem to explain anything as he does not appear to have had any connection with anyone at the housewarming party.

Who was Dr. Ebersberg? Other than in these pictures, was she connected to any of the principals (Hitler, Goebbels, Leni Riefenstahl) and, if so, how?


texts: When was cannabis legalized in the Netherlands?

texts: In which date was cannabis legalized in the Netherlands? I mean the introduction of coffee shops


texts: What were the business models of real estate development in ancient Rome?

texts:
I just watched Mary Beard's documentary about the Romans. One thing I'm curious about is that some of the models of living of the Romans seemed to be quite similar to today's: e.g. that there were multistory apartment buildings as well as middle and high class single homes.

Do we have an idea about the relative costs of these buildings? Do we now how much work was involved in creating standard apartment buildings vs more expensive homes for the wealthy?
Do we know how long it took to create either of them in terms of total hours of work?
Were the buildings made by request or commissioned by public demand, i.e. when needed?
Who paid for multistory buildings? What was the business model so to speak?

I don't know much about Roman history beyond my secondary school education and Mary's documentary. So I apologies if my questions don't make sense to someone who knows much more about this period and appreciate any corrections.

Thanks!


texts:
The different Wikipedias offer different stories.

English Wikipedia claims poison as a likely cause of death:

  In 1481 Mehmed marched with the Ottoman army, but upon reaching Maltepe, Istanbul he became ill. […] According to the historian Colin Heywood, "there is substantial circumstantial evidence that Mehmed was poisoned, possibly at the behest of his eldest son and successor, Bayezid."

German Wikipedia lists a string of ailments but emphasises that poison seems unlikely:

  Mehmed II, who suffered in his last years of life from gout, a great body fullness and edema in his legs, died on May 3, 1481 on the so-called Tekfūr Çayırı, also Hünkār Çayırı near Gebze, when he collected his army for a campaign.  […] Suspicions of poisoning on behalf of the Venetians or of Bayezid, who had fallen from grace because of opium consumption, are based on a lyrical insertion in the chronicle of Ashikpashazade, but are not covered by other sources.

Gottfried Benn simply claims that he died of delirium tremens. (Quoting "Genie Irrsinn und Ruhm: Genie-Mythus und Pathographie des Genies" by Wilhelm Lange-Eichbaum; but not fully online)

But then again in Louis de Mas Latrie: "Projet d’empoisonnement de Mahomet II et du pacha de Bosnie accueillis par la République de Venise (1477-1526)" Gênes, 1881 we read of attempts to poison him. His death was ordered as many as twenty times by the Council of Ten between 20 April 1456 and 28 January 1478.

The Spanish Wikipedia opts for poison, French offers sparse and small details and the Turkish seems to say that he "died of gout"

Following the links from the various WP-pages resulted in not much more than already listed there and further research lead equally nowhere so far.

Therefore I have the following question: What seems to be the most likely cause of death? Is there any evidence for Benn's assertion or a source for what seems to be his isolated opinion?


texts: What is the oldest known reference to "The Circle Game"?

texts:
The Circle Game] is certainly much older than the Baby Boomers, being already a boys' standard in Middle School when I arrived in the 1960's. But what is the oldest known reference to it (or a reasonably clear antecedent, though it's hard to get much simpler)?

  The game starts out when the Offensive Player creates a circle with their thumb and forefinger, not unlike an "A-Okay" signal, somewhere below his waist.

  His goal is to trick another person into looking at his hand. If the Victim looks at the hand, he has lost the game, and is subsequently hit on the bicep with a closed fist, by the offensive player.

  ....

  It is customary to playfully "wipe off the hit" after it is delivered. (Quick open hand brush on the bicep.)

Update:

I first encountered this game in 1966 or 1967 in Southern Ontario.
This is the game seen being played by a few Army and Navy Cadet spectators in last Saturday's (2019-12-14) Army-Navy football game making the circle symbol on national television (over announcer's right ear).

I have seen several mentions on Twitter over the weekend (no region information) about it being played in Middle and High School elsewhere in North America, and by groups of U.S. Marine enlisted men, over the past half century.
It is also sometimes called the "Made You Look Game" with the same rules.
Although in Middle School I saw it occasionally used as a means of bullying weaker students, by High School I saw it exclusively played by the jocks as a game of one-up-man-ship amongst themselves.
Here is the game being played on a Malcolm in the Middle episode (year unknown)


texts:
St Thomas, the apostle is said to have visited India in 52 AD and died in 72 AD in India as per history books. But looks like this event has no proof before 16th century AD. So, my questions are:

Did he really visit India?
If yes, is there any inscription/literature mentions this before 16th century AD?


texts: Researching a Spanish document from the ~XV century

texts:
One of my family relatives who lives in Seville, Spain (my family is from Andalusian descent) has sent me pictures of a book she owns and has received from her mother. My family claims that the book in question was passed from generation to generation within my family since the XV century.

The book is in bad shape, and my relative doesn't feel comfortable moving it from the apartment where she lives, or even turning pages to take pictures of it.  Still, I convinced them to open it and take a few pictures of the document; I include some examples below:

My first question is: How can I research where the escutcheon above is from? What type of escutcheon is it?

My family says that the book talks about two individuals who my family claims to be our ancestors:

Juan Núñez Salgero
Alonso Númez Salgero

Their names can be seen on pages inside the book (I have pictures below). From the stories my family remember, the two individuals above fought along with Ferdinand I of Aragon (also known as Fernando of Antequera ) during the Reconquista against the Mulsim Kingdom of Granada and conquered Antequera. This story seems to be consistent with what the following page from the book:

where I think the text in large character says ( I can't understand the small text at the bottom):

  La nobleza y limpieza de Juan Nuñez Salgero. Descendientes de los
  primeros ganadores de la ciudad de Antequera

Where I understand limpieza to refer to Limpieza de Sangre. The text seems to say that Juan Núñez Salgero was of the nobility and of "pure blood" (i.e. christian with no muslim or jewish ancestry) and descendant of the individuals who conquered Antequera in
September 16, 1410. Back then, Ferdinand I of Aragon was not king yet (he was crowned "King of Aragon" in 1412), and winning this battle gave him the title "Ferdinand of Antequera" (i.e. Don Fernando de Antequera). So this seems to be consistent with the story told by family relatives.

Here is another picture of a different page they took:

My second question: I am having a hard time translating the text above to modern Spanish. For example, the first sentence seems to say:

  Por estas preguntas, se examinan los testigos en la XX que hacen
  Juan Núñez y Alonso Salgero

where I think XX is "provinça", but I don't know what that word means. It looks like provincia, but it would not make much sense considering the rest of the sentence. Also what does the rest of the text say? E.g. What is boco?

My last questions: More generally I am interested in knowing what this book is all about. For example, what was the purpose of the exam and the witnesses? (from the last page above).

I am trying to get my relatives who own the book to take more pictures, but it's not an easy task. They don't seem to be willing to share it physically with anyone, and don't seem resources to pay for a professional historian.

I know that History.SE is not the place to offer things like:

How much would a document like this be worth?

But, I am interested in preservation.  I personally would like to see it in a museum or some other national repository of antiques, but don't know how to best proceed.

What is the best thing I or they can do if we want this book to be preserved?


texts: In multimember constituencies of the House of Commons, how many votes did each voter have?

texts: From the 1200s until the 1900s, seats in the Commons were elected in multimember -- primarily two-member -- constituencies. How many votes did enfranchised voters get in these elections? Did the candidates run on a single slate?


texts: Why were Navajo code talkers used during WW2?

texts: In history class, we are covering WW2. On the topic of code-talking, Native American language usage was mentioned, but nothing was said about cryptography. An online search did not come up with any clear information relating the two topics. Why was the use of Native American languages the preferred method of code talking? Was cryptography crack-able, so not used?


texts: Can you identify these images from Revolution-era Russia?

texts:
I saw an unrelated image include portions of these images:

I know they are from the 1918-1932 era of the USSR, judging from the art style, but I can not find titles or translations for them. I also find it interesting that the man in the first image looks like the man in the second image, just years younger.

I am wondering what their origins are and what their subtitles translate to?

Thanks.


texts: How many of Japan's 29 lost Pearl Harbor aircraft have been accounted for?

texts:
I've seen varying numbers regarding the amount of Japanese aircraft that attacked Pearl Harbor on Dec. 7, 1941, but the number of attacking planes that failed to return to Japan's carriers remains constant: 29.

How many of these aircraft have been physically accounted for via wreckage, or by the evident damage crash diving into a target would have caused?


texts: What did Mesopotamian beehives look like?

texts:
Do we still know what beehives looked like in ancient Mesopotamia?  Are there any contemporary images or descriptions?  I'm looking for anything from before 500 BC.

I've found an image of ancient Egyptian beehives, though it's hard to tell much about them from the picture.  (Article on beekeeping in ancient Egypt)

They're described in the article as clay cylinders, which is quite different from all the types of beehives I've ever seen.


texts:
It seems to me that Gaddafi is viewed in the West only as a lunatic dictator. However, after a naive investigation about his life I have realized how a complex figure he was. We know most of his negative record, so here I want to recall that Libya was one of the most "developed" countries in Africa, that he supported Nelson Mandela at a time when he and his organization were regarded as "terrorists" and he promoted the African Union.

I clearly remember that the African states were among the last to recognize the new Libyan authorities.

So I wonder whether his view in the West is fair and especially how is he viewed outside the West, e.g. in Russia, Iran and especially in Africa.


texts: What is the oldest building in the world still in use?

texts: What's the oldest building in the world that is still in use (i.e. used for something other than a tourist spot).


texts: How did people react to Cavendish bananas when they first replaced the Gros Michel strain?

texts:
I was reading that the bananas we eat today (Cavendish) weren't particularly popular until the 50s, when the more popular Gros Michel variety was virtually wiped out by a nasty disease.  Apparently Gros Michel was much sweeter and had a different flavour and texture.

There are several interesting articles on the subject online, and Amazon lists a couple of books that look interesting.  What I'm looking for here is primary sources - things written around the time the transition was taking place, describing people's personal reactions to the new bananas.

By personal reaction, I mean I'm not interested in sales data or whether executives thought people would like them - I want to know whether regular people noticed the change and, if so, what they said about it.


texts: Classical battle sizes vs medieval battle sizes

texts: Why did classical battles did tend to be larger than in the medieval period? One particular example I am thinking of was the Battle of Stamford Bridge, which had around 30,000 participants, compared to the Battle of Wattling Street which supposedly had 10,000 Romans facing against 230,000 Britons. The number of Britons is of course likely exaggerated, but even if the Romans were outnumbered 1:3, that would already make for a larger battle than Stamford Bridge.


texts: Gap between poor and rich in the Roman Empire

texts:
Was the difference in purchasing power between the poor and the wealthy in the Roman Empire, greater than or less than than the difference between rich and poor people in modern western economies?

Given the breadth in time and diversity in Gini coefficient in "modern western economies", the answer should probably focus on the methodology for reaching an answer, rather than specific values for the answer


texts: Did this "sledge rigged like a sloop" vehicle ever exist, or was it an invention of Jules Verne?

texts:
In Jules Verne's Around the World in Eighty Days, the main character Phileas Fogg misses his train in the American north and ends up hitching a ride on a curious invention, as described here:

  There Mr. Fogg examined a curious vehicle, a kind of frame on two long beams, a little raised in front like the runners of a sledge, and upon which there was room for five or six persons. A high mast was fixed on the frame, held firmly by metallic lashings, to which was attached a large brigantine sail. This mast held an iron stay upon which to hoist a jib sail. Behind, a sort of rudder served to guide the vehicle. It was, in short, a sledge rigged like a sloop.  During the winter, when the trains are blocked by the snow, these sledges make extremely rapid journeys across the frozen plains from one station to another. Provided with more sails than a cutter, and with the wind behind them, they slip over the surface of the prairies with a speed equal if not superior to that of the express trains.

(From Jules Verne's Around the World in Eighty Days from Sterling Publishing, New York.)

Picture from the Golden Picture Classic edition, Tom Gill illustrator.

Did this invention actually exist, or did Jules Verne make this vehicle up? I have read that authors from this era often invented strange contraptions to make the story more interesting, especially if the story took place in America.


texts: Has there been other settlements in occupied territories in recent history?

texts:
The issue of Israeli settlements in the West Bank (and other territories) is quite controversial, including its legality and its impact on the peace process. I'm wondering if there was any similar occurrence in recent history - has an occupying power built settlements and transfer its own population to the occupied territories? If there are such cases, how did it happen, how was the international reaction and how was the issue resolved (if it was)?

If I need to specify my definition, let's say:

recent means anything since the 20th century,
the territories were occupied as a result of a war or some other coercive means,
the territories were big/significant enough (i.e. not just a city or a microstate). As
comparison the West Bank population is 2.5-3 million), let's use this as minimum.
The occupying power transfered its civilians to the occupied territories to live and the settler population should be significant, say more than 10% of the native population. (as comparison, according to Wikipedia there is about 1 Israeli settler per 5 West Bank Palestinians).


texts: What is the significance behind "40 days" that often appears in the Bible?

texts: Several times within the Old and New Testament of the Bible there are notes pertaining to a long time as "40 days," as in 40 days of fasting, rain, traveling, etc. Why 40? Is there a factual association? The only thing I've noticed are references to 40 days needed for mummification in natron. Any insight? Thanks!


texts:
Back in my high school days (I'm 23 now) we learned about a lot of topics but the one that stood out to me was the period of heavy segregation, racism and important historical figures from that time period that made black people or POC (people of color) have the same rights as their counterpart white people. We also delved into black history month and learned a lot about different figures there, but there was one person who we learned about who I wish I remembered and payed more attention to as I don't remember this persons name.
What I do remember is that the person in question was a leader figure and that he and a bunch of his colored friends would always get beaten up in public (especially in cafés), but being the person he was, he stuck to his beliefs and values. He believed in peaceful protest, non violent confrontations and so on. So what my history teacher told us is that he taught his people essentially how to take a beating without giving one back, and not resolve violence with violence but rather resolve it through diplomacy. I hope I’ve given enough information so that someone can please tell me this persons name, as I’ve completely forgotten it and wish I didn't.


texts:
How did ancient Rome deal with the unemployed? (I mean not the idle by supposed laziness, or vagabonds).

Did they at some point have free citizens who were unemployed, in the sense that they wanted to work, but couldn't find anything?

I am aware there were a class who worked as farmers, clerks, trade men, teachers and the like. Early Rome had a "yeoman" peasantry and laboring class that was uprooted after a large number of successful wars flooded the empire with cheap slave labor that could do the above-mentioned jobs by the middle of the second century B.C.

What happened when there were not enough jobs for Roman citizens? Was Rome, in fact, an early "welfare" state?


texts: Who started the Great Fire of Smyrna in 1922?

texts: I wish to know if there is historical evidence that definitively identifies who started the fire in Smyrna in 1922, or, whether we can conclude given the available evidence, or if it is more complicated than just assigning fault to some side. There is an article in Wikipedia with accounts that are contradicting one another. I would like to know if there are other pieces of evidence in academia apart from those that are presented in the article and whether this topic is settled among historians.


texts: What did Harry Truman think about the 25th Amendment to the US Constitution?

texts:
The American Presidential succession process is interesting in that it starts off in the executive branch (with the VP), moves to the legislative branch (Speaker of the House, then President Pro Tem), then moves back to the executive to each cabinet officer from oldest to most recent creation of the department. In looking at this state of affairs, I learned that President Truman wanted it this way:

  Insofar as possible, the office of the President should be filled by
  an elective officer. There is no officer in our system of government,
  besides the President and Vice President, who has been elected by
  all the voters of the country. The Speaker of the House of
  Representatives, who is elected in his own district, is also elected
  to be the presiding officer of the House by a vote of all the
  Representatives of all the people of the country. As a result, I
  believe that the Speaker is the official in the Federal Government,
  whose selection next to that of the President and Vice President, can
  be most accurately said to stem from the people themselves.

Feerick (1995)

And Truman's wishes were enshrined in the Presidential Succession Act of 1947. The 25th Amendment / Amendment XXV revisits some of these issues, like enshrining that the Vice President must be the first in order of succession, creating the process of filling a vacant office of Vice President, and mandating procedures for handing presidential incapacity other than death, and was ratified in 1967 while Truman was still alive.

What did he think about the 25th Amendment? What are sources that provide further details on Truman's thoughts on the 25 Amendment?


texts: Identification of location and type of bi-plane

texts: Could the location be on the west coast or in Hawaii? 1920s time frame?


texts: Did Archimedes spend time in Alexandria, Egypt?

texts:
We know that Archimedes was a native of Syracuse , Sicily and that much of his scientific and inventive works were conducted in this particular Eastern Sicilian city during the 200'S BC/BCE. However, did Archimedes ever spend any length of time in Alexandria, Egypt, specifically at the city's Library and its adjacent college? Did he work as a type of Research Fellow for the Library-(similar to a Research Fellow at the Library of Congress)?

If Archimedes did spend time at the Alexandrian Library, did he draw upon the numerous scientific and mathematical papyri and scrolls within the Library?


texts: Was Antarctica a factor in the Falklands war?

texts: Were Argentina's and the UK's Antarctic territorial claims significant in the Falklands War?


texts: Are the coal mining revenue provided in the "Gentleman Jack" realistic for 1830s?

texts:
The "Gentleman Jack" series is based on the diaries of Anne Lister - a XIX century woman, often declared as "first modern lesbian" (the "gentleman" is apparently a slur, similar to modern "dyke").
Anne is approached by the coal industrialist who wishes to rent the right to mine coal on her land, and, to his surprise, she provides a detailed cost and profit analysis:

You sell your coal in
Halifax at eight pence a corve [...]
I’m reliably informed that the
cost of getting and hurrying to the
surface twenty corves of coal is
six shillings. That’s seventy-two
pence divided by twenty, that’s
thruppence ha’penny per corve. Which means you make four-pence
ha’penny clear gain. Per corve. So
let’s times that by five and we
have one shilling and ten pence
ha’penny - or twenty two pence - per square yard. Four thousand
eight hundred and forty square
yards in an acre, times twenty-two, and your clear gain per acre is
four hundred and fifty three pounds
and fifteen shillings.

Just to put that in perspective: a family of 5 could live quite comfortably for bit over 1 pound per week while spending about 2 shillings on coal and the life savings of Anne's elderly father (a landowner and retired officer) were around 450 pounds.
It is bit unclear is the number presented above a total income from an acre of field or just an annual one, but since Anne is tempted to open her own mine, with the initial cost of 2000 pounds that (according to her advisor) would be quickly paid off, it seems that this might be an annual rather than total income.
I've found this study that shows the fortnightly wage for a minter around 1835 to about 300 pences per fortnight (or 12.5 shillings per week)1
Are those details about coal mining revenue reliable?
1 For a help with currency conversion, let me quote Terry Prattchett:

Two farthings = One Ha'penny. Two ha'pennies = One Penny. Three pennies = A Thrupenny Bit. Two Thrupences = A Sixpence. Two Sixpences = One Shilling, or Bob. Two Bob = A Florin. One Florin and One Sixpence = Half a Crown. Four Half Crowns = Ten Bob Note. Two Ten Bob Notes = One Pound (or 240 pennies). Once Pound and One Shilling = One Guinea.
The British resisted decimalized currency for a long time because they thought it was too complicated.”

Here is a chart:

Shillings & Pence (s. / d.)
Pence Equiv.
Coin / Note Name

0 / ¼
¼ d.
Farthing

0 / ½
½ d.
Ha'penny (Half-Penny)

0 / 1
1 d.
Pence

0 / 2
2 d.
Tuppence (Two-Pence)

0 / 3
3 d.
Thruppence (Three-Pence)

0 / 6
6 d.
Sixpence

1 / 0
12 d.
Shilling or Bob

2 / 0
24 d.
Florin

2 / 6
30 d.
Half a Crown

5 / 0
60 d.
Crown (Five Shillings/Bob)

10 / 0
120 d.
Ten Bob (Note)

20 / 0
240 d.
Pound (Note) (£)

21 / 0
252 d.
Guinea (Coin)


texts: Which country ruled Flanders in the 16th century?

texts:
I am reading a novel, The Forty-Five Guardsmen written by Alexandre Dumas; it described a story happening after 1572 in which the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre took place.

It mentioned a region called Flanders, and I am confused. Where is it, and who ruled this place? Can I have a picture outlining the area it enclosed?


texts: Did Victorian(-era) British officers knowingly fire their revolvers at targets clearly out of range?

texts:
Numerous movies depicting war in the Victorian era, exhibit officers who fire their revolvers at targets clearly out of range for their revolvers. 1. Is this accurate? 2. If so, why did officers do this; are not they wasting ammunition? I doubt the ability of a revolver to scare or deter enemies; at the least, the officers should have chosen to try this with a rifle? For example:

Zulu (1964), at around 1:22:23 of 2:17:48, Lt. John Chard fires his revolver in the direction of Zulus in the mountains clearly out of range:

Majuba: Heuwel van Duiwe (1968) at around 32:34 of 1:34:47, Lt. Col. Philip Anstruther fires his revolver in the direction of Boers camouflaged and concealed in the grass clearly out of range.


texts: When did Hinduism forbid overseas travel?

texts:
Reading a comment made on this site, I saw something very curious:

  Why not blame it on the ancient Hindu belief that traveling overseas pollutes a person irredeemably, thereby stunting the growth of Indian naval technology and ensuring Europeans came to India rather than vice versa?

Searching on Google, I find quite a few people debating whether there are current rules against overseas travel, or what the penalties are, but I haven't been able to find anything about this belief in ancient days.

I know that Hinduism did spread to Indonesia at one point, so I imagine there was no prohibition against overseas travel in those days.  So, to be more specific:

When did Hinduism first prohibit overseas travel, and when did it stop prohibiting overseas travel?


texts: Who kept noble prisoners captured in battle?

texts: During the Hundred Years War era, noblemen captured in a battle were normally held for ransom. In such a case, who got to keep the prisoner, provide him lodgings, and receive the ransom? Was it the soldiers who captured him? The lord which the soldiers served? Or the sovereign which the lord served?


texts: Is the story about Mussolini and Oliver Hardy apocryphal?

texts:
There is a story that Mussolini wore bowler hats until someone told him that he looked like Oliver Hardy. Is this true? Is there any evidence for it or is it apocryphal?

The times I have seen the claim (once on a history blog, once when I was a kid in a horrible histories book), they have been totally unsourced. I know that Mussolini was a fan of the duo, and I know that their producer danced with Mussolini’s daughter at least once. And there are photos of young Mussolini in bowler hats, which is a style he appears to have dropped as he aged. I am hoping someone will have a specific reference or at least know where the claim originated.


texts: Where to find a comprehensive list of proto-cuneiform Sumerian glyphs?

texts: I'm looking for representations and meanings of the logographs of the Uruk period (3500–3000 BC), such as those on the Kish tablet. I've only been able to find a few examples, but over 1000 are known. The only relevant work I've seen referenced is Falkenstein (1936), which I can't find anywhere.


texts:
When did wheel-mounted water-carrying fire-fighting machines first appear in Japan?

I am curious about the date, and maybe some history about whether it was invented or imported, and by whom if information is available.


texts: If I were a well-to-do ancient Roman, could I make money by investing in the construction of an aqueduct?

texts:
One incentive for wealthy Romans to finance construction of aqueducts was, of course, glory. One's name would go up on the wall somewhere, and down in history, too.

However, there was more to aqueducts than just delivering water to cities for drinking, washing, cooking, and lavatory needs. For instance, hydraulic mining was all the rage in some places. One would run a spur from the existing aqueduct to indulge in a bit of ruina mortium, or hushing, to use water to bare up a gold or nickel vein.

Perhaps a prospector looking for funds might approach me, offering a contract and promising a sizable cut. Or I could hire someone to do some research to see if there were any areas that had growth potential, and the one obstacle was the lack of water.

Or, perhaps, the governor, or the Emperor himself, might send his agents to me, and I would promise, for a fee, to provide engineers, foremen, and slaves for an aqueduct project?

In other words: were there wealthy people in the Empire not personally involved in aqueduct construction who could invest in it on the chance they might turn a profit?


texts: What Were the Main Causes of  World War One?

texts: It would appear that the very root of the cause of WWI was the assassination of the heir to the Austrian-Hungarian throne. To me, this is an incredibly odd reason to start a world war. Was the war as pointless as it seems?


texts:
This BBC article, citing the food historian Caroline Yeldham, says

  Breakfast as we know it didn't exist for large parts of history. The
  Romans didn't really eat it, usually consuming only one meal a day
  around noon, says food historian Caroline Yeldham. In fact, breakfast
  was actively frowned upon.

Quoting her directly, the article continues,

  "They were obsessed with digestion and eating more than one meal was
  considered a form of gluttony."

This Smithsonian article more or less says the same thing and cites Yeldham in the BBC article. It's heading is

  Mostly the Old And Ill Ate Breakfast Until the Rise of the Working Man

and the sub-heading is

  Romans disdained the meal, few ate it in the Middle Ages, but most eat
  breakfast now

Caroline Yeldham has been described as "eminent" by historynewsnetwork and "well-known" by this University of Leeds article, but several other sources seem to at least partially contradict her.

Wikipedia's article Ancient Roman Cuisine says

  Traditionally, a breakfast called ientaculum1 was served at dawn.

and this article seems to agree, even citing details of the meal:

  The usual time for their breakfast was early in the
  morning. The ientaculum, or breakfast, consisted of a buffet of flat,
  round loaves seasoned with salt were eaten. Rich ancient Romans, the
  Patricians would also have eggs, cheese, honey, milk and fruit
  included in these early meals

This article seems to fall somewhere in-between, saying "Romans were not big on breakfast" and that it was not a major meal.

From the conflicting information above, it seems that some Romans ate at least a 'smallish' breakfast. I would also surmise that farmers and soldiers probably ate some kind of breakfast, though there is also a reference to patricians.

Was there any particular class of Romans which didn't eat breakfast and considered it 'gluttony'?

Or are the somewhat conflicting accounts due to differences over time? (none of the sources are time-specific and Ancient Rome covers a period of over 1,000 years)

Did the later Romans, under the influence of Christianity, drop breakfast? I mention this because, due to the influence of Christianity, breakfast was not common in early medieval Europe.


texts: To what extent did Gandhi affect the factors that led to the partition of India?

texts:
From the collected works of Mahatma Gandhi, we can learn that he was not as vehemently opposed to the Partition of India as one would expect. (See here)

  Probably no one is more distressed than I am over the impending division of India. But I have no desire to launch a struggle against what promises to be an accomplished fact.

However, to what extent did he influence the resulting lines that were drawn or expedite the partitioning process? As an example, did he mitigate the intense riots and pressure from both sides? Or ease cultural and ethnic tension between Muslims and Hindu’s? Or what political leaders did he talk to to expedite the process?


texts: How did the triple entente manage such a large breakthrough in WW1?

texts:
In WW1, there have been many attempts at breakthroughs in order to evade the trench system. The battle of Somme was one of the less successful attempts at a German breakthrough. Yet, before USA managed to get to the scene of the war Germany also made a breakthrough, yet there not able to optimize this breakthrough. When the triple entente and the USA finally broke through, they managed to optimize it very well and countered Germany right back to Mons. I was wondering why was the triple entente able to take back so much more land than the Germans once they counter-attacked?

Source(s):
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/interactive/animations/western_front/index_embed.shtml


texts: Are there examples of African/European/American hunter-gatherer's constructions?

texts:
Often people think about hunter-gatherers as primitives. "Dark Emu" book is a great example of popular history book that refutes those beliefs. Aboriginal constructions could be quite impressive: Brewarrina - 1800 meters of dams for fishery, Toolondo 1200 m channel, Condah eel traps - 2 km of channels, Bulloo water storage dam that stored 700 m^3 of water during arid season, 7 m deep water wells caved in stone.
"Dark Emu" concentrates on Australia. What about the rest of the world?
I found some info about Comox Harbour(Canada) or Iijoki River(Finland) fish traps but they look much less impressive than Brewarrina Complex.
What are examples of African/European/American hunter-gatherer's record sizes for dams, canals, wells?


texts: Did New Mexicans under Spain regard themselves as Mexican?

texts:
Mexico, in its original sense, is the homeland of the Mexica (Aztec) people and its principal city. The sense of the name broadened, presumably as people in the metropole spoke broadly about it, and then contracted as marginal regions left its orbit.

New Mexico is an administrative region established in 1581 with a name implying apartness from Mexico. For two centuries it was part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, often informally called "Mexico" after its capital city. Upon independence in 1821, the part name became the whole and New Mexicans found themselves living within their homeland's own namesake.

At independence, did the New Mexicans — people in the society called New Mexico — already regard themselves as Mexican, or did they have to get used to the idea?


texts: How did militaries dispose of their rubbish in WWII?

texts:
Just wondering about this recently -
An army must create a lot of rubbish. Disposable food packaging, ammunition packaging and shell cases, etc.
How did militaries dispose of rubbish during WWII?
Specifically, I'm wondering about:

Large gun shell casing in navies. Perhaps it was more important to recycle this stuff?
Naval garbage disposal in general - (is there a bunch of garbage at the bottom of the ocean?)
Individual soldier's ration packaging.

There's a couple of aspects I'm interested in:

Recycling. I imagine some things it was more important to recycle, but also, sounds like a logistical nightmare.
Safety - I imagine a garbage dump might pose operational security/safety issues.
Environmentalism - though I imagine this wasn't a consideration.


texts: Did Hitler and Nazi officials give interviews and cooperate with the Weimar republic general press?

texts:
Politicians often purposely avoid being interviewed by journalists based on numerous arguments and if they do get interviewed they might ensure to film the interview with their own crew to expose possible "edit fallacies".

When I have learned on how the Nazis gained popularity before 1933 (before Hitler became a chancellor); first in Munich, then more broadly in Bavaria, then in all of Germany I have learned of the following methods:

Public speaking in events
Provoking audience to start brawls in events that were later be press-reviewed (thus exposing more to the party)
Using sticker-signs and suggesting pamphlets
Using propaganda megaphone-equipped cars
Using symbols that were grasped "mysterious" and "charismatic"
Using hierarchical system of commanders and commandeered that were grasped "charismatic"
Publishing their own printed material with tremendous amount of antisemitism and racism

My problem

I have never come across data about them being interviewed or somehow cooperating with the general German press of the time.

My question

Did Hitler and Nazi officials give interviews and cooperate with the Weimar republic general press (or did they vehemently refuse to do so in comparison to other political leaders in the Weimar republic)?


texts: Was Lenin's 'Socialism and Religion' a reaction to something specific? What?

texts:
In 1905, Lenin wrote the text 'Socialism and Religion' Some quotes:

Religion is one of the forms of spiritual oppression which everywhere weighs down heavily upon the masses of the people, over burdened by their perpetual work for others, by want and isolation. Impotence of the exploited classes in their struggle against the exploiters just as inevitably gives rise to the belief in a better life after death as impotence of the savage in his battle with nature gives rise to belief in gods, devils, miracles, and the like. Those who toil and live in want all their lives are taught by religion to be submissive and patient while here on earth, and to take comfort in the hope of a heavenly reward. But those who live by the labour of others are taught by religion to practise charity while on earth, thus offering them a very cheap way of justifying their entire existence as exploiters and selling them at a moderate price tickets to well-being in heaven. Religion is opium for the people. Religion is a sort of spiritual booze,   in which the slaves of capital drown their human image, their demand for a life more or less worthy of man.
[...]
If that is so, why do we not declare in our Programme that we are atheists? Why do we not forbid Christians and other believers in God to join our Party?
[...]
But under no circumstances ought we to fall into the error of posing the religious question in an abstract, idealistic fashion, as an “intellectual” question unconnected with the class struggle, as is not infrequently done by the radical-democrats from among the bourgeoisie. It would be stupid to think that, in a society based on the endless oppression and coarsening of the worker masses, religious prejudices could be dispelled by purely propaganda methods. It would be bourgeois narrow-mindedness to forget that the yoke of religion that weighs upon mankind is merely a product and reflection of the economic yoke within society. No number of pamphlets and no amount of preaching can enlighten the proletariat, if it is not enlightened by its own struggle against the dark forces of capitalism.   Unity in this really revolutionary struggle of the oppressed class for the creation of a paradise on earth is more important to us than unity of proletarian opinion on paradise in heaven.

The whole wording makes me wonder if, at the time, parts of the party where arguing for a more militant atheism. Was there a specific position Lenin was arguing against, what was it?


texts: Why did Baldwin of Boulogne proclaim Edessa a County, not a Kingdom?

texts:
[Edessa was] ruled by Thoros, who was officially a vassal of the Turks but in reality acted independently. He did not expect that situation to continue for very much longer without help, so he offered to adopt Baldwin as his successor. ... Shortly thereafter, a coup topped Thoros, leaving Baldwin as the sole ruler of Edessa. ... The new County of Edessa was the first of the crusader states.

  —Concise History of the Crusades, Madden

Wikipedia suggests the title was related to the County of Verdun:

  Baldwin succeeded Thoros as ruler, taking the title of Count (having been Count of Verdun as a vassal of his brother in Europe).

I couldn't find a reference to Baldwin ever being Count of Verdun. I see his brother Godfrey of Bouillon as one:

  The counts of Verdun belongs to the family of Ardennes of which Godfrey of Bouillon, the hero of the First Crusade, was an illustrious member.

  —Catholic Encyclopedia, volume 15, Tournon-Zwirner

So Godfrey was the Count of Verdun, made his brother a vassal and gave him the title. Later, Count Baldwin conquers a city and decides to make a new county out of it, because that's the same level of title he had before?

Was it considered too brazen to claim a higher title?


texts: How many barons were there in feudal 10th century France?

texts:
Around AD 1000, the king was technically owner of all of France but the land was 'leased' to his vassals: dukes, counts, lower barons, and these in turn leased it to lower barons and knights.

What I don't have an idea of are the numbers in this tree structure. How many vassals would the king have had (ten, twenty, a hundred), and in what ratio of dukes:counts:barons? How many vassals would a typical baron have? Were the dukes as powerful as the king in terms of vassals, ie was the king "primus inter pares"?


texts: Is there any historical basis for King Suro being illustrated with a branching crown?

texts:
King Suro of Gaya is often depicted with a multi branching crown, but I can find no factual, historical reason for this. The crown his Queen Heo is depicted with is historically accurate, but the other Gaya crown found (presumably for the King) had an antler design, not a branching design.

The bearded figure is King Suro. I do not know the provenance or authority of that illustration. The crown in the modern recreation of King Suro (as pictured) is clearly based on that illustration.
It differs significantly from the antler crown found in the tombs, as pictured. This discrepancy is unlike the Queen's floral crown (the unbearded figure), as photographed, and as in the illustration and modern statue and recreation.
Is there any historical accuracy in that branching crown of King Suro? Any written description or find on which it is based, or is it just an exercise in artistic license?
(Additional info: Crown of Gaya)


texts: Why did a young George Washington sign a document admitting to assassinating a French military officer?

texts:
On May 28, 1754, a young Lt. Colonel named George Washington ambushed a French force at Jumonville Glen with assistance from a Iroquois leader named Tanacharison. One of the casualties was the French expedition's leader, Joseph Coulon de Villiers, Sieur de Jumonville.

When word reached Fort Duquesne about the incident, Jumonville's half brother, Captain Louis Coulon de Villiers, vowed revenge. He attacked Washington's troops garrisoned at Fort Necessity and forced them to surrender on July 3, 1754. In the surrender document, written in French, Coulon de Villiers inserted a clause describing Jumonville's death as an "assassination".

Then a 22 year old Lt. Colonel, Washington could neither read nor speak French. He signed the surrender document without reading it. This was his first and only surrender during his entire life. It led many British army officers to question whether command should be given to young colonials.

This incident set into a motion a chain of events that quickly spiraled into the Seven Year's War; this conflagration involved 15 nations in combat on five continents. It was the first global war.

Why didn't George Washington simply agree to surrender Fort Necessity without signing the document? Why not offer to write up a surrender agreement in English, a language that both Washington and Captain Louis Coulon de Villiers both read? Why would he sign such an important document if he could not read it?

Please provide answers based on historical documents.


texts: What happened to US's Lend-Lease machinery given to the Soviet Union?

texts:
Although most sources say that the Russians were supplied with great amounts of equipment and food as part of Lend-Lease program, I have not in all my years living in Russia seen US labeled machinery. I understand that it has been many years since WWII, but I would expect such technology to survive in some way, like in museums, memorials, etc. I have not found any documentation on this online.

Knowing that Russians were reluctant to admit receiving aid, esp. US aid, could it be that they rebranded the machinery with soviet labels? Or did they just decommission them ASAP?

P.S. I lived near Vladivostok, where allegedly 49% of the aid came through.


texts: Were US Navy WWII-era submarine crewmen allowed on deck?

texts:
Similar to Were German WWII-era U-Boat crews allowed on deck? except for the USN.  There's a whole lot of ocean between the mainland and Hawaii, and between Hawaii and the Imperial Japanese Navy, and later there just weren't many targets or IJN hunters around.

EDIT: to clarify, I'm asking about regular crewmen, during non-combat conditions, not the gun crew.


texts: Was Hitler exclaiming "Heil Hitler!" himself when saluting?

texts:
Boris Johnson in his book “The Churchill Factor: How One Man Made History” writes:

  The only man to come through it with colours flying was Churchill’s parliamentary aide Bob Boothby, MP, who famously replied to Hitler’s megalomaniacal greeting of ‘Heil Hitler!’ with the only logical response: ‘Heil Boothby!’ said Boothby.

And he sources the information from Robert Rhodes James' book "Robert Boothby: A Portrait of Churchill’s Ally" (London: 1991), p. 138 (to which I have no access).

The phrasing suggests that Hitler was exclaiming "Heil Hitler!" himself when meeting with others.

Is this true? Are there sources or documents which confirm Hitler using this exclamation?


texts: Spanish-American war from Spain's perspective?

texts: What did the Spanish-American war look like from Spain's perspective? Did the general population support the war? What were the reasons why Spain lost, was the general public aware of these reasons during/after the war, and what did they do about them? Thanks!


texts:
In the 2018 'Das Boot' TV series, the crew of the U-Boat mutinies against their captain as they perceive him to be too cautious and unwilling to engage the enemy.

Is there any historical record of a mutiny on board a U-Boat during WW2?


texts: During the Battle of Britain, what AA defenses were available, and where?

texts:
Regarding the Battle of Britain (1940 Jly 10 - Oct 31), I've never heard anything about the AA defenses on the ground. Surely they must have had some AA flak guns? What kind, how many, and where were they focused?

Wikipedia has this to say:

  On 1 January 1938, the British air defences had only 180 anti-aircraft guns larger than 50 mm and most of these were the older 3-inch guns. This number increased to 341 by the September 1938 (Munich Crisis), to 540 in September 1939 (declaration of war), and to 1,140 during the Battle of Britain. Production continued until 1945, averaging 228 guns per month throughout the period.

(Emphasis mine.) This is talking about a 3.7-inch gun (94 mm), and it begins to answer the question. However, there are no citations for it. I would also like to know where those guns were concentrated. London? Airfields? Ports?


texts: What does the Vietnamese name "Nguyen" actually mean?

texts:
In 13th century Vietnam someone overthrew the Ly dynasty and forced all the members of that family and its nobles to change their name to Nguyen.

When that dynasty was overthrown, its supporters changed their name to hide from the next dynasty.

This happened several more times and as a result, nearly 40% of Vietnamese have the name Nguyen.

Internet says the name derives from a Chinese name "Ruan." Ruan was a place fairly north in China but its people were displaced and moved south. There is an instrument with the same name.

Why was Nguyen chosen to be the loss penalty for the defeated dynasty? If I go by the etymology the internet claims, perhaps the new king was trying to drive home the point that his quarry were really foreigners who drifted in. At one point, the founder of the Ly Dynasty's founder was from what is now Fujian, China, but not Ruan. It would seem that if he wanted to invoke the foreignness of the Ly, he should made the people change their name to Fujian.

Does anyone have a good answer to what the name means and why the King chose it?


texts: Why didn't Asian countries expand and trade with Europe?

texts:
There are questions why China didn't explore and discover Europe.

The answer is that the Ming dynasty prohibits that. So the issue is that China is so centralized they can't do that. One king says no, then that's it.

However, Asia is not just China.

We got the Vietnamese, Japanese, Indonesians (with many maritime powers) and so on and so on.

Not one of them have good ship technology to travel to Europe?

Are the Chinese the only one with decent ship technology? The Chinese are not even a maritime nation.

Another explanation is the incentive. However, if Europeans want to trade with Asians, why Asians don't want to trade with Europeans?


texts: To what extent were the information, statistics and updates told to the public of the British and German homefronts accurate and reliable?

texts: My focus question is, as it says in the title above, about whether what was presented to the public on Germany and Britain's home fronts during the First World War was actually true, or was it presented in a very biased way depending on the country, was it made to appear that not as many people were dying and they were very successful? Did they lie about the conditions and injuries that the troops were facing? What do relevant up to date sources say about the accuracy of contemporary reports?


texts: What events led to the fall of the Zhou Dynasty during the Warring States period?

texts: The title above is fairly broad, so more specifically, what specific events led to the Warring States period experienced towards the end of the Western Zhou Dynasty in ancient China? As the lineage and vassal systems are broad answers to this question, what specifically about them contributed to this period in the otherwise illustrious and steadfast Zhou Dynasty?


texts:
Friends! First of all, thanks for your time and help.

I'm conducting a research on the word "Mark": it all started in a forgotten language, meaning "forest".
Since forests were natural borders, the word modified a bit and its new meaning was exactly this: "boundary". From this, words like Marquis are born—that is, the one responsible for caring for the borders.

This is all happening within a narrow cultural scope (mainly German, France and England), eventually leading to the meaning "sign/symbol", until the marc (unit [the measure for gold and silver]) turns up in my research out of nowhere.

Before it became a unit, the word "mark" became widespread in all nordic cultures, with very similar meanings in Icelandic, Norwegian, etc.

This is an art research, and the question is:
Why would a piece of gold / silver have such name? From "border" to "unit", it is one hell of a leap. Were there objects called "mark"? (A coin/ingot with a symbol, for instance.)

All this will end up in the Deutsche Mark, when the name no longer holds an evident association with what I'm researching, being just a convention.

Any sort of reference (text) or visuals (paintings, etc) would be extremely appreciated.
Thanks!

Ps: excuse me if this is an easy/stupid question. I’m not a native English speaker, so the more specific a topic gets, the harder the research.


texts: Where does the name of the country "Belarus" come from?

texts:
I've read the German and English Wikipedia on this topic as well as the translated Belarussian version and some sites I googled.
They all seem to argue that the 'Rus' part stems from the Region called  Ruthenia.
The German version advocates that the 'Bela' part might derive from a word meaning 'western' (as the western part of the Rus) whereas in the English Wikipedia it is translated as 'white'.
Also according to the English version the name originated in the 13th century.

I have a colleague at work from Belarus and he says something completely different.
According to him the country was named after a beautiful(~bela?) girl called 'Rus' around the year 800.

Does somebody know where his believe comes from and what the more likely/true explanation is.

My colleague's explanation sounds like a conspiracy theory to me. Only the historians who loved their country explain how it really was. And all the information I find on the web was either misinformation spread from the current government or propaganda left from the time when Belarus was part of the Soviet Union.


texts: Did it make sense for the Roman Empire to build a great wall?

texts:
Both Roman Empire and Han dynasty had to defend their northern boarders against powerful enemies, so both of them had the motivation to build a great wall along their northern boarders.

Roman Empire and Han dynasty had roughly the same size and population. If the Chinese had enough resources and manpower to build a great wall, then the Romans should also have.

Why didn't Roman Empire build a great wall, as the Qin dynasty and Han dynasty did? Did it not make sense for them?


texts: How much of the Jonestown money actually got given to the USSR?

texts:
So, I was reading the Wikipedia page on the Jonestown massacre, and I noticed that several members of the People's Temple (including their leadership) willed all of their money to the Communist Party of the USSR. It doesn't mention whether it actually arrived there, though, or if it was instead given to surviving family members of the cult members, like inheritances usually are.

As a result, I was wondering how much, if any, of the money of the cult and its members got given to the Communist Party - and whether or not the USSR Communist Party made any public statements about the matter.


texts: How were laws promulgated in the Middle Ages?

texts: These days, new laws are usually announced to the public through the publication of government gazettes and/or on official government websites. How did the public find out about new laws before newspapers became ubiquitous in the 17th century?


texts: Early attempts to abolish slavery in USA

texts: Were there any early attempts or debates to abolish slavery in the USA, before Lincoln?


texts: Is this 60's Atlanta airport security picture geniuine, and if so, what is happening here?

texts:
Following the advice I got from the user Semaphore I would like to split my original airport security question into separate parts and go into a bit more detail in regards to what I would like to know about those pictures, and this one in particular.

Just hate going through airport security with all those new gizmos, c. 1960.
Taken at Atlanta Municipal Airport during testing for their first security instruments.

That was before the first hijacking of a commercial flight in the US, if I am not mistaken!
Do you think it is real?
It seems to be taken at that time indeed, but... What sort of device would it be technically? The graphs on the paper show some repeating cycles... And the two vertical bars in there do not really look like a magnetometer to me. Also I do not think such things were even being developed back in those days as something for use on humans...
Even if the picture postdates the first hijackings, my impression is still that before 1968, both the airlines and the passengers viewed them as more of an inconvenience, rather than terrorism act or something. So, everyone was opposed to the idea of screening passengers, as that would just scare them off, and lead to costs for the carriers. Federal agents could be deployed on flights upon request from 1961... Apparently it was considered sufficient back then really. On top of that I do not think Atlanta was a place very popular with hijackers...
Also the facial expression of the woman and the other photographer in the background suggest that it was something staged. I feel it could be that someone just found it, and said it was airport security as a joke or a prank, because that was the first thing they thought upon seeing this...
The picture is circulated in the web with this description, but I could not find any more information on it. And that just makes me even more interested to know what is actually happening there.
If anyone knows what these things are all about, and how it used to work back then, I would absolutely love to hear that. So any explanations strongly appreciated! Thank You!


texts: Effects of land reforms in the 20th and 21st centuries

texts:
As Wikipedia clearly shows, there have been many different land reforms in many different times and places. It seems there is enough data for research about the consequences of land reforms.

I am interested in a statistical assessment of the effects of land reforms on the economy. To allow quantitative analysis, I have focused on land reforms in the 20th and 21st century, where quantitative data (or at least estimates) of various economical indices are available.

I am looking for measurements of the effect of land reforms on indices such as: the gross domestic product, the Gini equality index, the inflation rate, and the currency exchange rate relative to neighbouring countries.

Obviously, there are different kinds of land reforms, that may have different effects. For example, land reforms done in formerly-feudal countries, based on democratic ideologies, are different than land reforms done in socialist or communist countries, based on Marxist ideologies. So, the above questions can be asked, for each kind of land reform separately.

Can you point me to research papers on this subject?


texts:
I dug this sword guard while I was metal detecting at a Revolutionary War site.  I have been researching for days and asking for assistance on other forums but I have not had any success.  I would like to identify this sword guard.

I would like to know who made it and which side.


texts: Were there ever instances of sailors pressed into British service in Europe ending up in the Caribbean?

texts: I am working on a story in which I wanted to include a character who was pressed into the British Navy in 1790's England, and ended up on a ship headed to the Caribbean.  This is a pretty integral part of the story, so I want to make sure that it was even something that would have happened.  Thank you in advance for your time.


texts: Is the historical consensus that Galileo did not drop balls from the Leaning Tower of Pisa?

texts:
A narrative commonly taught in schools and propagated in books is that Galileo Galilei "dropped two spheres of different masses from the Leaning Tower of Pisa to demonstrate that their time of descent was independent of their mass" (Wikipedia). According to the same article, "it is accepted by most historians that it was a thought experiment which did not actually take place," but their references (here and here) are less than scholarly, to say the least.

Is this consensus of historians real? If so, who's saying it and where?


texts: What is the standing arch in Nagasaki made of?

texts: I am not sure if this is for here, for Skeptics.SE.com or not a serious question at all. However:


texts: After WW2, why did Stalin let Finland off with some loss of territory rather than occupation and crushing reparations?

texts: Finland did lose 10% of its territory and 20% of its industry according to Wikipedia, but given Stalin's paranoia, why was it not occupied by Soviet troops?


texts: Request for information about an Auschwitz-Birkenau story

texts:
Two months ago, I visited Auschwitz, and our guide told us a story during the tour:

In Auschwitz-Birkenau, there was a place intended for the Jews to sleep that had a drawing of a few kids performing normal activities, i.e attending school and playing games. There was a little girl there that used to play selections with her friends, like as if she was a Nazi soldier selecting which of her friends would go to the gas chambers.

I am investigating this story in the context of how this kind of event can alter children's minds, and more concretely, I am trying to gather more information about this little girl and her story.

Could you please help me to find info about this little girl and her story, just with a name, a link, her elaborated story or any source?


texts: In which direction does the thumb point in the "pollice verso?"

texts:
Pollice verso was the gesture used to indicate death by roman crowds in the arena. However, wikipedia notes some debate over the exact gesture indicated by the phrase.

Has there been any relevant scholarship in regards to this gesture that satisfies the ambiguity?


texts: Was India's independence inevitable after Cripps Mission?

texts: In 1942, the British government had sent Sir Stafford Cripps to negotiate with the Congress. According to most sources (though this was not made public at that time), the Cripps Mission had proposed immediate transfer of ministries to Indian ministers, with the Viceroy being the head of government. It had also promised to consider grant India complete independence after the war (though this is more hotly disputed). Many British historians believe that after this offer India's independence had become inevitable and it could not be denied by any British government. How true is this, and why did then India witness so much anti-British feeling during World War II?


texts: What became of the Richard III infidelity surprise?

texts:
Back when Richard III of England's grave was discovered, a paper published in Nature Communications reported that while his identity was confirmed through a direct-female descendent of his sister,

Y-chromosome haplotypes from male-line relatives and the remains do not match, which could be attributed to a false-paternity event occurring in any of the intervening generations.

News  articles at the time, including a BBC article and a Guardian article, worked this into a bombshell: The Tudors might be illegitimate!
The anonymous male line relatives all descended from John of Gaunt, who shared with Richard a direct-male link to Edward III. So assuming the tests were accurate and at least one of the relatives had legitimate lineage (both nontrivial assumptions!), then either John of Gaunt or Richard III (or both) did not descend from Edward III through the male line. The former possibility is significant because that would mean the Tudors had a much less legitimate claim than believed. The latter is also significant because that would mean Richard's brother Edward IV was likely also illegitimate.
Anyway, since then there's seemingly been no developments or follow-ups to these bold claims. Most of what I could find on the topic has been about assuring folks that the Queen's legal status is secure in any event, e.g.:
What are the immediate legal effects of rendering a royal branch illegitimate?
But I'm still curious for curiosity's sake. In the 6 years since the paper, has there been any further investigation into why Richard's DNA didn't match his living relatives?


texts: Does Little Hagia sophia still contain Greek mosaics under the plaster?

texts:
Little Hagia Sophia is a small church in Istanbul located close to the famous and large Hagia Sophia. It was built around the same time and is said to have contained very beautiful mosaics.

At the time of Turkish conquest of Constantinople, Hagia Sophia was converted to a mosque and the mosaics were plastered over due to the prohibition of religious icons in Islam. Similar fate befell Little Hagia Sophia about 50 years later. Fast forward to today, the church's dome and interior is still plastered. I could not find anywhere whether the mosaics underneath are still preserved waiting to be uncovered, or have they been removed entirely?

(Interestingly, there is a church in Ravenna with the same layout and possibly the same mosaics, also built during the reign of Justinian).

Wikipedia article: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Hagia_Sophia


texts: What is the most historically prevalent reason of states dissolving, other than military activity?

texts:
By "military activity" here I mean both internal disturbances and interventions from the outside. Also, by "reason" I don't mean the motivation or ideological background, but rather the actions that took place in order for a country to fall apart.

It's harder to define a state, all I can say is that I consider it here in the loosest possible sense, so you can go back as long as you wish in your answer.


texts: What is going on in this depiction of a mosque scene?

texts:
This is a painting of mostly bearded men in a mosque. (Source: https://www.amazon.fr/Gulistan-Contes-persans-Reza-Dalvand/dp/2352901766) If the shape of their mouths is to be relied on, they appear to be talking, singing or chanting. Some on the upper floor may be discussing, according to their arm-waving. One is up in the minaret perhaps on his way to the top, possibly indicating the moment before the call to prayer. Why is a man in the foreground touching the only beardless one? Is this a depiction of some kind of youth initiation ritual (hence the beardlessness)? or teaching singing/chanting by drawing attention to vibrations in the abdomen? If not, what is going on?

EDIT: The image is a recent illustration by Reza Dalvand from the cited book, although it might have been modeled after older art. I received the image by email and was hasty to post it here without enquiring about the source first. I am not sure if my question is still valid.
EDIT 2: The young man has just been admitted as a sage by 10 other sages (counting out the minaret man). He is replying to his father that he would rather remain silent about it than risk saying anything stupid. This does not explain the body language however.


texts: Why did the Arabs start the 1973 War during Ramadan, and did it affect their performance?

texts: The Arab-Israeli War in 1973, besides the Jewish Holiday, also took place during the Islamic holy month of Ramadan, during which practicing Muslims observe mandatory daytime fasting. Did this affect the performance of the Arab (Egypt and Syrian) armies? I'd think hungry or dehydrated soldiers may not fight or think as well as when they're well fed. Why did the Arab leaders decide to attack during this period?


texts: What is a "staved" town, like in "Staverton"?

texts: I'm researching Staverton, Northampton(shire), England. In the Domesday Book of 1086 it is called Stavertone.  According to wikipedia, the meaning of the town name is 'staved" town.  I've looked up the definition of stave and can't seem to make it apply to a town.  Thanks.


texts: What were the civic privileges created for the Jews by Porcius Festus?

texts:
Festus inherited all of the problems of his predecessor in regard to
  the Roman practice of creating civic privileges for Jews. Only one
  other issue bedeviled his administration, the controversy between
  Agrippa II and the priests in Jerusalem regarding the wall erected at
  the temple to break the view of the new wing of Agrippa's palace.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porcius_Festus

What were the civic privileges in question?


texts: What is the origin of the stereotype that Polish people lack intelligence?

texts:
A quick glance at Wikipedia's list of Polish people demonstrates the stereotype as false.  Poland has produced notable minds in such diverse areas of knowledge as Astronomy (Nicolaus Copernicus), Chemistry (Marie Curie), Music (Frédéric Chopin and Henryk Górecki), Literature (Stanisław Lem), Religion (Karol Józef Wojtyla AKA Pope John Paul II), and Politics (Lech Wałęsa). A deeper look into that list reveals a number of highly intelligent Polish people who are less well known.

Yet, there are an innumerable jokes and unfair stereotypes regarding Polish people being of inferior intelligence in American culture.

Where did this stereotype originate?


texts: Why didn't the Norsemen colonize North America?

texts: Why is there evidence of (pre-Columbus) Norse presence in North America, but no record of any attempt of permanent settlement?


texts: What is known about the possibility of a "real King Arthur"?

texts:
I once saw a documentary that discussed a discovered possible "round table" but wondered how "pie in the sky" this possibility was as well as just how much/how little evidence there is for any possibility of truth in the legend.
My daughter is just beginning a study of the middle ages and we will be studying some of the legends in her related literature.  I have done some research but feel as though I'm drowning in articles that seem too similar to each other, and they are vague at best.  I hoped for either a somewhat more knowledgeable answer to the question or a couple of ideas for good resources (or both).
I know there isn't a lot of evidence, and if there is any truth to it, it is most likely that King Arthur is actually an amalgam of multiple men.  If pure myth, how is it that this character became such a symbolic force in history to be touted as something more?


texts: What evidence is there that Bell stole the telephone design from Gray?

texts:
I've been watching a series of renown biopics called Drunk History, one episode of which claims that Alexander Graham Bell stole the design for the telephone from Elisha Gray.

Is this speculation or fact? What evidence exists?

I've done some Wikipedia and Google research but I'm still unclear.


texts:
Both Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels coauthored the Communist Manifesto. However, the philosophies described in the book are commonly referred to as Marxism. Also, Marx is a much more common name found in history textbooks focussed on the communist movement in the 1800s and the formation of the USSR.

For what reason is Marx so much more predominant than Engels in history?


texts: Are there incidents of ronin travelling outside Japan as soldiers of fortune?

texts:
There are time periods where large numbers of ronin flocked to Edo, and roamed the Japanese countryside looking for some source of income; generally during and right after the Senegoku period and around the Meiji restoration. Many of them took to banditry, or launched rebellions, or committed suicide.

Were there incidents of them going outside Japan to fight as mercenaries or to colonise lands in Taiwan or Philippines etc.


texts: Origin of left and right-hand road traffic rules, respectively

texts: Some countries we drive on the left; some countries we drive on the right. What is the origin of each style?


texts: Why did Russia support Serbia in the years leading to World War I?

texts:
Serbia, in its desires to develop a Slavic state, was hindered by Austria-Hungary, which took steps to stop Serbia, especially shown by the autonomy given to Albania by Austria.

When Austria declared war on Serbia, the Austrians were fearful of Russian intervention, so they asked Germany for help, and Germany gave them a "blank cheque."

Why was Russia so close with Serbia at this time?