texts: What was the perception of the average British person of the Boston Tea Party?

texts:
Do we have any record of the reaction of the average British person to the Boston Tea Party? Would the proverbial man on the street have been aware of the event? If so, what was their perception of it immediately following news of the event reaching Britain? I have found a lot of material about the state's reaction to the event, but not much about the average person.

T.E.D. says in a comment:

  As it was more of an affront to Parliament rather than Britain, Parliament is probably the better place to look for relevant reactions anyway. Its likely your typical farmer/factory worker didn't even hear about it.

I arrived at this type of conjecture myself, but I'm interested in evidence, if there is any.

In response to further comments questioning the newsworthiness of the Boston Tea Party at the time, here is a piece from the "London Magazine" in 1774:

The Able Doctor or America swallowing the Bitter Draught, 1774. BM sat 5226

© The Trustees of the British Museum

 Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/

Obtained from http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=1452655&partId=1


texts: Has the side with less artillery ever won?

texts:
Exclude cases where the artillery simply lacked ammo, was positioned so it couldn't fire, or got humanwaved. I am pretty sure there is no battle where the side with less artillery lost. Since the bulk of an army's firepower is in artillery I don't think other arms would be significant except to hold territory.

And of course exclude battles where there just wasnt any artillery involved. As I recall artillery came into widespread use around the start of the modern period. I think there were similar questions in the past but were asked poorly.


texts: Amount of time an aeroplane could stay in the air during the last stages of WW1

texts: I know for a fact that aeroplanes were used at the last stages of the first world war to capture images of the enemy trench system and supply lines. They were also used to alert the artillery how far off they were to an enemy trench. However, I have also read some sources stating that aeroplanes in World War 1 were both unstable and sometimes didn’t have enough fuel to stay on the air for long. It was apparently a very dangerous job as they could suddenly drop at any second. But, in terms of figures, how often would the engines stall/ fail causing the pilot to crash in mid-air? And approximately how long could a pilot stay on the air?


texts: How much debt did Italy remit Germany in the London Debt Agreement?

texts:
Italy was one of the signatories of the London Debt Agreement in 1953, pardoning part of previous German debts.

Is there an estimate of the amount owed by Germany to Italy? Various sources cite the total amount that was remitted to Germany, but I could not find a breakdown by countries.
What was the origin of Italy's credit? WWI and the Treaty of Versailles? As far as I understand, Italy had no right to WWII reparations, and had to pay some of its own.

Origin of the question: in the recent political discussions on 'Coronabonds', some opinionists and politicians have mentioned these past debts.


texts: How did the gold of the new world cause the Spanish Empire to collapse?

texts:
There are some arguments that Spain over-exploited the precious metal deposits of the new world, leading to wide-scale inflation. This, coupled with their expulsion of Jewish money lenders, caused their economy to collapse. I am confused as to how this happened, or were the reasons that the Spanish empire collapsed unrelated to the wealth they got?

I am mainly confused as to how Spain, with access to the wealth of an entire continent, failed to simply dominate the entirety of Europe and could not even deal with the Barbary pirates raiding her shores.


texts: Are there any examples of balistas, scorpions, or other catapult-like weapons being used in field battles

texts: I know balistas, scorpions, and other war machines were used for sieges, but I'm wanting to know if they were ever used as offensive weapons for field battles. I've heard about the Battle of Jaxartes, but couldn't really find much information about the use of them in the battle. I would really appreciate any information you might have on the subject.


texts: Aside from Henry VIII, did a king ever take part in a joust as an unknown knight (incognito)?

texts:
The unknown knight would seem to belong in the realm of fiction - witness Gareth in Le Morte d'Arthur and Wilfred in Ivanhoe, among others - but incognito knights fighting in jousts or melees were not uncommon in reality.

In January 1510, Henry VIII, together his Groom of the Stool and courtier William Compton, entered a joust as 'Stranger' knights with their identity hidden. This was to circumvent a ban on the teenage king taking part in jousts, a ban which had been imposed by his father Henry VII for the obvious reason that it was too dangerous a sport for the then heir to take part in.

Although his father was now dead, the new king was too young to openly flout the ban which the senior officials of the realm supported; his wife, Catherine of Aragon, was pregnant but Henry had no heir. The King was forced to reveal himself when Compton sustained a serious injury; one of the few people who knew who the stranger knights really were panicked, thinking that it was Henry who injured.

Are there any other cases of a King, identity unknown at the time to those he was fighting and to the general audience, taking part in a joust or a melee?

As this question seems to be quite tough, I would also accept an answer for an heir to the throne or, failing any such examples, the legitimate son of a reigning monarch.


texts: What options were available to MacArthur to prepare for Chinese intervention in the Korean War?

texts:
The initial successes of Chinese military in Korean War against high odds can be said to be a major blunder on the part of MacArthur's military leadership. We know that MacArthur did not make particular preparations. But what were his available options in preparation for the Chinese intervention?

I am asking about the operational aspects. MacArthur himself proposed air interdiction along Yalu River and bombing inside China as the means of defense against Chinese intervention. In fact, he presented them as the only option. But such proposals were after the fact -- not in advance of Chinese intervention when he had the freedom to establish other lines of defense. In any case, such actions were strictly forbidden from the parameters MacArthur was given to operate in. I am not aware of any other proposals at time. Were there other available options? Say, alternative force dispositions -- a defensive line somewhere away from Yalu River that would have forestalled PVA's offensive? On paper, the UN Command had a large force. Were there reasons for what MacArthur proposed to be the only possible defense?

For full disclosure, MacArthur at one point argued to Joint Chiefs of Staff that a defensive perimeter along the waist of Korean peninsula was infeasible -- on top of the mountains and hills northeastward. If that was true, there was no further available options to MacArthur. However, that seems to me a one-time claim of his and of dubious nature. As in, unless you find corroborating evidence elsewhere, I question whether that was even a result of MacArthur's own analysis. (For a motive to make rash claims, he made many arguments not exactly but effectively for escalating the conflict with China, which means he had a different strategic vision for US than the persons higher in chain of command that he seemed eager to advance.) As well, the argument was made after the casualties and setbacks were inflicted by the initial Chinese offensives -- not before when he had more to work with.

There are of course the more strategic, more political aspects that anyone is welcome to comment on.

Back to the initial question, unless some strategic reasons render it vacuous, were there actions available to MacArthur that would have forestalled the Chinese offensive?

This question is not a hypothetical; it asks what options were available to MacArthur.  Every historical actor chooses actions from a set of potential actions constrained by strategic objectives, physical and economic realities, etc.


texts: Why was William Tyndale burnt at the stake?

texts:
I read here that the main reason Tyndale was executed by the church was because he translated the Greek bible into English.

Somewhere else I read that this is not true. Tyndale was charged with mistranslating certain biblical verses to support his heretical views, and that is why he was executed.

This reason sounds more logical to me; however, I would like to know whether this is true. I would also like to see real examples of his mistranslations or heretical views: which specific verse(s) in his bible translation did the church find offensive or heretical, and what do we know about them?


texts:
I'm trying to identify the uniform the chap in this photo is wearing.
The photo was taken I believe about WW1 period.
The reverse has the inscription 'The Count' Letta's fiance. I know who Letta is she was born in 1893 and married another chap in 1920.
This is the only photo, it was found in a box of old family photos.


texts: Why was Scipio the Younger accused of wishing to abolish Tiberius Gracchus laws?

texts:
In the Wikipedia page of Gaius Gracchus you can find this paragraph, which I find particularly confusing:

  When Scipio the Younger agreed to represent the Italian allies, who were protesting the injustices done to them which Tiberius Gracchus' land reform was supposed to remedy, he won the hostility of the people, who accused him of standing against Tiberius Gracchus and wishing to abolish the law and incite bloodshed.

If Tiberius fought for the citizenship of Italian allies, why would the people be mad at him for standing with such allies? Even if the Roman citizens didn't want the citizenship to be extended to the allies, to accuse Scipio of trying to abolish such laws is not coherent.


texts: Did ancient and/or medieval cultures that emphasized the danger of religious pollution also exert more control over women?

texts:
Let me open by saying this is emphatically not a politically motivated dig at any modern or historical culture. I recognize that it can be difficult to answer a question about cultural values, let alone the possible causes of said values, while keeping up good standards of scholarship. If this question needs editing to better fit site rules please advise how in the comments before voting to close.

A emphasis on the dangers of religious pollution is a recognizable part of many ancient and medieval cultures, but it would appear some much more than others. The first three societies that come to my own mind are ancient Greece, classical and medieval Japan, and the medieval Islamic world. All of these cultures, deservedly or not, also have a strong reputation for controlling the movement, social interactions, and sexuality of at least upper class women.

Religious and sexual purity are not the same thing, but the two are often closely linked in our own time. It seems fairly intuitive to me that societies which put greater emphasis on avoiding spiritual pollution might also be more likely to exercise tight control over women. (But I am of course not implying the former is required for the latter.) I was wondering if speaking in terms of social history or anthropology, there's anything meaningful to be said about a relationship between these two values? Alternatively, feel free to offer counterexamples or evidence that I'm seeing something that's not really there.

DEFINITIONS

Pollution, as best I can define it: The idea that immoral, unclean, or ritualistically improper actions can spiritually defile an individual or community and that this necessitates some proscribed cleansing action, presumably to avoid further contamination or spiritual peril. Pretty much every major religion and culture I'm aware of incorporates the notion to some extent

For an emphasis on the dangers of religious pollution to be "recognizable" within a culture, it should exhibit an occupation with such themes in its art and religious culture that is noticeably (or at least, very plausibly) greater than other comparable societies that are near it in time or space.

EXAMPLES

Ancient Greece and spiritual pollution has been covered on this site before. In particular "[Greek] mythology abounds in instances of extreme pollutions such as incest, parricide, and cannibalism." I've also read from multiple sources that ancient Greeks had a low opinion of women, strictly limited their property and rights. "Throughout antiquity most Greek women had few or no civil rights and many enjoyed little freedom of choice or mobility."

Classical Japan has been noticeably preoccupied with their own concept of religious pollution going back to the time when the capital would be moved on the death of the emperor. I would characterize gender relations in medieval Japan as complex, but upper class women in particular have faced drastic limits in mobility, legal rights, and education. Interestingly, the linked article attributes this primarily to Buddhism imported from China. Depending on the continuity of local ideas about pollution this might actually constitute very good evidence against the proposed relationship.

The Medieval Islamic World is has extensive and scrupulous rules regarding cleanliness and purification. That said, after considering both the vast diversity and political relevancy of women in the Islamic world, I frankly decided it was imprudent of me to use it as an example without reading much, much more. If more knowledgeable people then me want to discuss it in an answer, whether as evidence for or against the possible relationship, then by all means.

Other possible societies to draw upon might include medieval Europe, India, and (as per the comments) the ancient Judaic world.


texts: What military first used fire support bases?

texts:
What country first introduced the use of fire support bases (FSB) as seen, for example, during the Vietnam War? Is this a uniquely U.S. military doctrine that developed out of that specific war?

The U.S. Military has continued to use this tactic to some extent in Afghanistan; but where did the use of FSB's originate in the first place?


texts: Which prayer did sailors in Russian America expect to hear?

texts:
Father Ioann Veniaminov (Saint Innocent) was a Russian Orthodox priest who ministered in Russian America. Leaving Sitka, he recorded the following in his journal:

  Tuesday, June 30, 1836. Having said the usual public prayer desired by sailors on such occasions, we boarded the ship, taking a sexton with us....

I'd like to identify this prayer. I did find an unattributed "Orthodox Prayer for Pilots, Sailors, and Those who Travel by Air or Sea", but if this is it, the title was updated in the 20th century to include air travel, and in some searching I did not find an analog in the Russian language. Another Orthodox site mentions "the simple yet eloquent prayer offered by every sailor who sets off to sea – 'Keep us, our God; for your ocean is so wide and our boat is so small.'" If every sailor said it, that's different from a prayer offered by a clergyman.

What was the "public prayer" that the sailors in Russian America wanted to hear?


texts: Absolute rulers who voluntarily resigned their power

texts:
I am looking for examples of absolute rulers who voluntarily resigned their power. To get the ball going, here are two from Roman history:

Sulla
Diocletian.
Chandragupta Maurya
Jigme Singye Wangchuk
Ivan the terrible (for a year, sorta).
Charles V

On the other hand, Solon fails to make list as not being quite an absolute ruler, and the emperor-monks that were once common in Japan also do not fit as they resigned but retained a share of influence on the government nevertheless. Also, regents who faithfully turned over the realm to a king who grew up are to be excluded - I am looking for rulers in their own right, however that right was acquired.


texts: Watergate, the burglars - why bring crisp cash with them to the break-in?

texts:
My question, however technical it may be: why did the burglars bring crisp new dollar bills with them to the actual break-in?

It might be an obscure Watergate question but no one has focused or even mentioned it. I've read a couple of books, watched All the President's Men and intently listened to available podcasts. None mention the crisp dollar bills!

The burglars brought with them roughly $2300 in new, mostly $100 dollar bills, with serial numbers in sequence! In today's currency that is almost $13,900. But, why bring that money with them at all? The burglars had an accomplice supposedly looking out for them from across the street with binoculars and a radio for communication. He could have kept the money if it was their payment. Was the money supposed to be planted in the Democratic National Committee Headquarters, and if so for what (convoluted) purpose?

Am I missing something obvious, because it feels that way? Please help me out.


texts: What uniform is this (German/WW1?) and could a 15–16 year old be wearing it?

texts:
I was told that this would be a German uniform from WW1.
Is that correct?
I would assume that would be right, however, the picture is from spring 1917 and the young man was only 15–16 years old in this picture (born 1901).

(click to enlarge)


texts: Has the US National Guard ever been deployed nationwide before, as has been done with the Covid-19 pandemic?

texts:
I've tried looking in various places online and have been unable to find when in US history we have had nationwide deployments of the National Guards? Where can I find this out? Or do you know?

Edit: As per comments, I want to clarify a) trying to find when the N. G. was deployed to every state b) I've browsed through the first 5 pages of Google results for "nationwide deployments of US National Guards" as well as browsed some Wikipedia articles, which articles specifically I no longer remember.


texts: Were the commentaries and subcommentaries part of the Tang Code?

texts: Are the commentaries and subcommentaries in Wallace Johnson's translation of the Tang Code (Princeton University Press) written by Wallace Johnson or are they part of the original text of the Code?


texts: Was Buddha well known by western Romans in Late Antiquity?

texts:
St. Augustine of Hippo was Manichean before he became a Christian. I have read in Wikipedia that Mani, the prophet of Manichaeism, knew but rejected the doctrines of Buddha and that he died about a century before St. Augustine. There's also in Wikipedia information about Indian, maybe Buddhist, ambassadors and travelers arriving to Rome and Greece.

Is there any evidence to show that St. Augustine or some other common westerner Roman from his time (about 400 AD) was familiar with Buddha and his teachings? I want to exclude eastern Romans, like Syrians and Egyptians, from this question. When I say "common Roman" I mean ordinary, maybe educated people, like Augustine. I exclude politicians, merchants and ambassadors.


texts:
If not all, the vast majority of wars in known history were dirty, cruel and with a lot of civilian casualties. That makes me wonder if there has ever been a "clean" war where both sides played "by the rules"? The criteria would be:

Minimal civilian causalities
The war started with a declaration of war
No illegal weapons (biological, chemical etc.) used
The war ended with a treaty
No or minimal propaganda was used
The two sides have similar stands on the reasons why the war started


texts: How did conditions in Nazi labor camps and the Gulag compare?

texts:
I've recently read first-person accounts of men who were held at Auschwitz and the Gulag, respectively. The foci of the narratives are very different (Primo Levi, Walter Ciszek), although at least in broad strokes—cold, hunger, authoritarian discipline—the experiences seem at least somewhat similar. I wonder if anyone has made a rigorous comparison of life in the two camp systems.
Obviously the Nazi labor camp system existed alongside of an extermination camp system, which certainly affected the experience of the prisoners, just as it affects our retrospective understanding of the camp. Perhaps that factor alone makes the two systems incomparable, but I would appreciate any answers that were able to set that factor to one side, as it were.


texts: Worth of an old 1/4 tanka coin when it was active 1516-1526

texts: Can someone tell me what was the worth of a quarter tanka  in India when Ibrahim Lodi's was the ruler (1516-1526 CE) or what a quarter tank could buy at that time?


texts: Which undeciphered writing system has the largest corpus of text?

texts:
Dozens of ancient writing systems are still undeciphered. My question is: Which of them has the largest number of known inscriptions (and might thus be most accessible to future decipherment, though that is not part of my question)?

For example, the Phaistos Disc, whose inscription is in a unknown writing system, has only 241 symbols in total, and no other specimens of that writing system are known.

On the other hand, in the early 19th century, both Akkadian cuneiform and the Egyptian hieroglyphs, for each of which thousands of inscriptions comprising millions of tokens were known, were still undeciphered (of course, they have both been deciphered since).


texts: What was the dominant Soviet strategy for invading Germany in the 1980's?

texts: Through archives and doctrinal publications, was there any bias towards attacking NATO through the North German Plain, the Fulda Gap, or something else?


texts: Were Roman emperors officially considered kings of Egypt?

texts:
On this statue of Augustus (image is from Wikipedia), he is depicted wearing the traditional dress of Egyptian pharaohs:

I wonder whether Roman emperors were officially declared kings of Egypt or not, and if yes, who of them was and who was not?


texts: How did Richard I sail through the strait of Gibraltar?

texts:
Here's something that puzzles me. At the start of the third crusade, Richard I sailed to the holy land around Europe, through the strait of Gibraltar and across the Mediterranean.

At the time, the south of the Iberian peninsula was under the control of the Almohad caliphate. I'm sure the 14km of strait was under heavy shipping traffic. And I think Saladin was aware of what was coming.

So did the Almohad empire not try to stop them, or was the strait simply too big to control in that way? Could Richard's whole Armada simply sail through unchallenged? I don't know what the relationship was between the Almohad and the Ayyubid dynasty, but presumably, they'd prefer other Muslims to a bunch of Christians.


texts: Why was Iceland not a part of the Danish-Swedish deal in Kiel in 1814?

texts: In the Treaty of Kiel of 1814, Norway was essentially given from Denmark to Sweden as a "sorry we were on the other side", but Iceland was not a part of this deal at all. This is in spite of the fact that Iceland had been a part of Norway since 1261 AD and then later part of Denmark-Norway in 1380 or so.  So why was Iceland (and indeed other Norwegian "colonies", such as Greenland) excluded from the treaty?


texts: How did Yugoslavia economically survive the Cold War

texts:
During the time of Cold War, both USA and USSR have a program to help their allied country economically.
For USA, they have a policy called "Marshal Plan" which is aimed to support democratic country by giving them economic support.

This is a map showing the support USA gave.

For USSR, they have an organization called "Comecon" to support their communist country.

This is a map showing Comecon alliance. Yugoslavia is the country with a bright red colour with a status of "Observer".

According to the maps, the countries surrounding Yugoslavia were economically supported by either USA or USSR, but Yugoslavia didn't really participate in any.
My question is how did Yugoslavia economically survive when other countries have economic assistance but they didn't.


texts: What was the legal framework in Ancient India?

texts:
We all know the immense contribution ancient Roman, medieval Roman (or Byzantine), and pre-modern HRE cannon law has made to the modern world. These empires relied on a  written constitution (or code) and trained magistrates, lawyers, and notaries [cf. Judith Herrin, Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire; Peter H. Wilson, Europe's Tragedy: A New History of the Thirty Years War]. Much of today's European civil law can trace its origin to those cannons and much of our current legal framework (courts, judges, constitution, senate, and lawyers) are a direct copy of their ideas.

I know that India also has a long tradition of its own legal principles. For example, we know from John Keay: India --A History that during the Mughal period, the administration was uniform and structured and that there existed courts (known as kotwaalis) and magistrates (or kotwaals) [cf, ]. But how did this law function and how was it administered? Where did it originate --did the Mughals bring it with them or was it indigenous to India?

Therefore, I have three three questions for the legal framework in India's ancient period and early middle kingdom period (i.e., 2nd century BCE - 7th century CE):

Was there a (more or less) uniform law? A uniform law would mean that different kingdoms and janpads would follow roughly similar laws. Non uniformity would mean widely different laws in different realms.
Was this law (or these laws) documented?
Were there lawyers and trained magistrates?


texts:
I am searching for Iranian languages and I encountered this chart shows Scythian as a Northeastern language.

On the other hand, my history course indicated that Scythians are a Proto-Turkic tribe.  I've seen the same assertion in academic articles. The Turkish Wiki page supports the Proto-Turkic origin of the Scythians.

What is the origin of the Scythians? Why do these sources differ so much?


texts: When was the Passover Seder ritual formalized?

texts:
When were the Passover Seder customs in their present form formalized?

As a terminus post quem I think we can surely take 70 CE when the Second Temple was destroyed since parts of the Seder wistfully invoke the memory of the Temple rituals.

However, I'm pretty sure the ritual took some time to codify, by analogy with the Mishnah and later religious law books.


texts: At the peak of the American whaling industry, what share of the workforce were involved in it?

texts:
I have a vague recollection of reading that at its peak, the whaling industry employed an eye-catching proportion of the total American workforce but I can't find the source I originally read.  The closest I could get was this mention that the industry was the fifth biggest in terms of economic output.

Including all the downstream activities, how many people were employed by the whaling industry in America and what proportion of the total national workforce did this comprise?


texts: How did the Germans get housing again after WWII?

texts:
After a large number of homes were destroyed in the war, how did the average German become a homeowner again?

I know about the Marshall Plan, but this question does not refer to how the economy in general was handled.

Take an average German urban family in late 1945 for example. They lived in a flat which is now a piece of rubble, with all their possessions gone, and so is the situation of most of the city. Nearly everyone is homeless. The city is almost completely destroyed. Their government has collapsed, and the country is under foreign military occupation. What do they do now?

How did such an average family become a homeowner again? What if they lost everything during the bombings, even all kind of personal identification? How was it handled? In less than a few decades almost everyone had a home, a job, and a good standard of living.


texts:
This practice appeared NOT to have been common in the twentieth century, with long-ranged, and "repeating" weapons. But prior to the nineteenth century, it was apparently a form of surrender.

What would cause soldiers to "ground arms" (throw their weapons to the ground) as opposed to using other forms of surrender such as raising a white flag?

At what level was the decision made to "ground arms?" Did private soldiers do this individually, or did the commanding officer shout, "ground arms," to his soldiers while he surrendered to the opposing commander?

Were there "conventions" to protect soldiers who had "grounded arms" from slaughter? Did the practice of "grounding arms" work like a "fair catch" in (American) football?


texts: How difficult was to escape from a naval battle after engaging into one during the Age of Sail?

texts:
So, I am designing a board game which includes pirates/imperial battles during the age of sail. While I have found a lot of information on the internet as well as books, papers and of course other boardgames, I am having difficulty in determining a more accurate picture regarding sailing maneuvers and battle tactics.
More specifically, I would like to find out if escaping a battle was a viable option after realising the engagement tactics have failed and the battle would be lost, given that the ship has not taken damage to the sails.
Also, was escaping easier than boarding? And were they both mainly dependent on the maneuverability of the ship and the navigational skills of the crew or did other factors play significant role?


texts: What made capitalism different from previous forms of manufacture and trade?

texts:
When giving defenses of capitalism, people often free markets or free enterprise as a "natural" freedom that's gone on since the dawn of civilization.

However, capitalism, both as an idea and organization of economy and political power, is only a few centuries old.

What really was going on economically before capitalism, that is similar enough to be considered by some to be basically the same thing today? Why was a new term coined and a new idea constructed?


texts: How significant was the Fall of Constantinople as an event leading to the Age of Exploration?

texts:
I have been hearing that the Fall of Constantinople was the most important event that ultimately led to the Age of Exploration, mainly the discovery of the New World by Columbus and of the sea route to India by Vasco da Gama.

However, from what I know, Ottoman Turks had surrounded the Byzantine empire for quite some time before they actually managed to win the legendary city of Constantinople. Byzantines in their last few years were hanging on to very tiny land around Constantinople, and Turks had already gained their foothold in Europe. So is it not true that this conquest of 1453 was merely a prestigious event? (This might be an exaggeration, but you get the idea)

Furthermore, the Ottoman Turks wasn't the only Islamic kingdom that stood between Europe and the other end of Silk route, namely India and China. The area to the east of Byzantine empire had been controlled by Islamic kingdoms and caliphates for almost 800 years before the fall of Constantinople; and yet the silk road existed during that time. Then why would the fall of Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire be the last straw that broke the camel's back? Or is it really true that because of this, Europeans got worked up and ended up discovering sea routes to India and the New World?


texts: Before the use of Anno Domini dating (BCE/CE), how were years numbered?

texts: Currently we use Anno Domini (A.D.) year numbering, sometimes secularized as "BCE" (Before Common Era) or "CE" (Common Era). What was the prevailing method of dating years in Western culture before this system came into use?


texts: How did the Romans supply water in winter?

texts:
Roman aquaducts are famous, but didn't the water freeze during winter? Where did the cities get their water during winter?

EDIT: running water doesn't freeze as easily as motionless water, which leads to an important bit of info we need: how fast did the water run in Roman aquaducts? We might also need to know volumetric flow rate.

EDIT 2: Of course rivers don't freeze solid. I know it's only a surface or skin of ice. However, once the surface freezes, how did they access the liquid water underneath it? How did they pump that into their aquaducts?


texts:
There were massive statistics collected during the late Russian Empire (1861-1917)-- the "Zemstvo Statistics." They are available on microform at Yale (http://www.library.yale.edu/slavic/microform/zemstvo.html). Have they been digitized? If not, is there some problem with the data which has made it difficult to digitize?

Thanks,
JR


texts: Why are the French and Indian Wars / Seven Years' War not considered WW 1?

texts: The French and Indian Wars, which began in 1754, led to the Seven Years War beginning two years later in 1756; both ended in 1763. Why is this not considered World War 1? It was a world conflict, was it not? It changed the balance of power in the world (with Britain in the primacy), did it not?


texts: Was Nikolai Bukharin told at trial his job was “to confess and repent, not to argue”?

texts:
A recent Economist article claims:

  As Nikolai Bukharin, a close Lenin ally, was told during his own
  trial, his job was “to confess and repent, not to argue”.

I've searched without success for a primary source for this. It doesn't appear in any translations of his trial that I could find (although I was only able to find very dodgy translations).

Is this a thing that was really said and, if so, where?


texts: When was the Western Facade on the Sant Andrea Basilica by Alberti constructed?

texts: I've found conflicting answers on other website and was wondering if anyone knows.


texts:
I'm an American. I have heard many pop culture references to a full-time job as a "9-to-5". However, an ordinary full-time job is typically clocked as eight hours a day starting from 8:00 AM and ending at 5 PM, with an hour subtracted for lunch.

Was a 9-to-5 ever really between the hours of 9:00 AM and 5:00 PM? When did this change and why? Both Business.com and the Chicago Tribune have published articles opining on the loss of the (literal) 9-to-5. However, they don't describe when or who worked 9:00 to 5:00 or why this has changed.

Some commenters are asking how common this phrase is. Here are some references to establish the idea's notability. Based on the usage in songs in the 1970s and 1980s, I would suspect the idea was present in America at that time. However, neither me nor my social network were alive at that time which limits our ability to discern the truth.

Dolly Parton released a song in 1980 called "9 to 5" for a movie of the same name.
B.T.O. released a song in 1973 called "Taking Care of Business". Throughout the song the character attempts to get to work, taking the 8:15 bus to get to work by 9:00 AM.
Webster's Dictionary defines "9 to 5" as "a job with regular daytime hours".

In keeping with the wisdom in "Why did you stop beating your wife":

The event I am interested in is a transition from 9-to-5 as some kind of fulltime work norm versus 8-to-5. I suspect this happened in the 20th century, but I couldn't say when or why.
This does involve an assumption that there was ever a common 9-to-5 work schedule. I am unable to validate it beyond what I hear through pop culture, which is what brings me here. I am open to an answer which points out that this was never the case.


texts: How did Newton support himself during his research?

texts: It is said that Isaac Newton, at the age of 23, came home and made his famous discoveries. Who sponsored him? Or did he farm while doing his research?


texts: How common are major cities not built by abundant water?

texts:
When you look at the biggest cities in the world, they all tend to be built on a major body of water, either a coast, a large lake, or a major river.  This made sense in ancient times, as abundant water fills two essential needs for civilization, (abundant water for drinking and abundant water for agriculture,) but even in modern times, when one would think that irrigation and pipelines would mitigate the necessity for local access to abundant water, we still see major cities showing up on the waterfront.

I can only think of one example, modern or historical, of a major city without local access to abundant water, and that's Jerusalem.  (And it took some pretty impressive feats of ancient engineering to get water to it.)  But it seems strange to think that that would be the only one.  Are there any other examples of major cities, either historical or modern, without local access to abundant water?  How common was it?


texts: WW1: What would happen if an aerial bomb was dropped from too high an altitude?

texts:
I've read that by the end of World War I they had both contact and timed fuses(fuzes?), so in the case of a timed fuse (early in the war?), the bomb would just explode early, but what of the contact fuse? Would it eventually land and then explode?

I reckoned that if the contact fuse was at the nose a strong wind (or some other major attitude change) would cause the bomb to fall 'goofy' so it would just land without incident. However, I've also read that special fuses were created that armed based on sudden motion or change of direction, in which case you get roughly the same result as the timed fuse -- it would trip early or late and detonate too early or too late.

Are these valid assessments or am I missing something?

Thanks for any insights!


texts: What rank did cadet branches hold in the peerage?

texts: I've looked at the answers for the question "How did cadet branches start?", and based off the information in that forum, I would like to know what rank equivalent to peerage the cadet branch could hold. Could they be given the ranks, powers, and titles equivalent to that of a duke or earl, or did cadets have something separate?


texts: Did British WWII generals have a choice which uniform to wear?

texts:
Could the generals of the British army choose what kind of uniform to wear? I am mainly asking because Bernard Montgomery is very often photographed in a battle dress even in very official events like getting an award. In other photographs in a sweater when meeting the prime minister and the chief of staff, who is in a full uniform with a jacket. Was it his personal choice?

Photo Wikimedia

Photo Wikimedia


texts: What factors contributed to successful colonization of Asia & Africa?

texts: What all factors contributed to successful colonization of Asia and Africa by European countries in 18th and 19th century? And, why England was more successful than the other European countries?


texts:
William Tolman was reportedly a mechanic from New England who got to Petropavlovsk on a whaling ship in 1813. Somehow he stayed behind and lived his whole long life in Kamchatka.

None of the sources I found reading about Tolman named the ship. I found nothing useful in the American Offshore Whaling Voyages Database. The author of a paper called "Yankee Whalers in Siberia" (1946) was also ignorant of this voyage. Likely it was not a whaler after all. The article Whaling in the Sea of Okhotsk says whaling operations in the nearby Sea of Okhotsk didn't begin until the 1830s; Whaling in the United States says that American whalers didn't reach Hawaii until 1820, and it's hard to imagine them getting to Kamchatka first. Worth noting, Peter Dobell sent two trade ships to Kamchatka from Canton in 1812.

What was the ship on which Tolman arrived?


texts: Who made those 1:50,000 maps in 1930's China

texts: Gong Chu in his Memoir mentioned several times Red Army officers poring over 1:50,000 maps of the most backward areas of China in early 1930s. I wonder who could possibly make those maps.


texts: Where was the County of Thurn und Taxis located?

texts: Thurn und Taxis is a German princely family most famous for starting the first modern postal service. Wikipedia lists the County of Thurn und Taxis as a state of the Holy Roman Empire in the Electoral Rhenish Circle, but it isn’t clear where exactly it was. So where was it located in the empire? Or was it not landed?


texts: Did Jinnah in 1947 or 1946 forsake his demand for Pakistan on the condition of maximum autonomy for the provinces within the united India?

texts:
Is this true that Mr. Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the All India Muslim League in 1947 or 1946 accepted the proposal for freedom for a united India if the provinces could be granted maximum autonomy within a loose federation after the end of the British rule?
If so, then exactly when and what exactly did the League agree to?
Authentic references on the stated facts also please!


texts: What tactical situations made the use of traditional horse cavalry effective in World War II?

texts:
In another question When was the last cavalry charge?, answers discussed several occasions where horses were still used in combat, including in cavalry charges.  I thought that the invention of the machine gun had made that tactic obsolete, yet many armies, including the U.S. Army, maintained some horse-mounted cavalry leading into the war.  Today, "cavalry" units use helicopters or tanks to achieve the same effect.

My question is: under what tactical situations during World War II were horse-mounted cavalry units still effective?  If the opposing side included armor or multiple machine gun teams, would that have discouraged commanders from employing the horse-mounted troops?


texts: How did the civilian population of Nazi Germany react to Operation Overlord?

texts: How did the civilian population of Germany react when it became known that the Allies had finally launched their attack on the Atlantic Wall?


texts: How did the supplies shipped in winter over the "Road of Life" to Leningrad compare to those at other times of the year?

texts:
A key factor in the survival of Leningrad during its 900 day siege was the "Road of Life" built across a frozen Lake Ladoga during the winter months of 1941, 1942, and 1943, and lasting nearly half a year.

How do the supplies shipped over the road compared with a "normal" volume of supplies delivered by ship during the summer months?

At what point was ice thickness would it stop/start.. and how long were the "windows" in the spring and fall when the ice was not thick enough to support the Road of Life, but the lake was still too frozen for conventional shipping?


texts: Why was the Japanese Army's fatalities inflicted:suffered ratio so low in the Pacific theatre?

texts:
Leaving aside the naval battles of the Pacific, why did the Japanese army do so poorly against allied forces (specifically United states and Australian forces) when on the defensive. While logistics and weight of numbers may indicate inevitable Allied victory in island battles, particularly later in the war, this does not explain why well embedded predominately high-morale troops with carefully designed defensive plans and structures almost always fared worse than invading forces.

While the Battle of Kaiapit is a great example of this, where Australia lost 14 men to over 200 Imperial: a disparity of losses is reflected in almost all areas of the Pacific theatre (except China) right through to (and including) the Battle of Okinawa.

What is the explanation for this? It was not as if the Imperial Army had not had ample training and experience, and while Japanese armour was weak and in short supply, artillery and gun emplacements are more important in defensive tactics (and these the Imperial army seemed to have plenty of).


texts: What's the earliest example of a permanent embassy?

texts:
In all the accounts I've read, when the great empires of the ancient Mediterranean needed to talk to each other, they sent an ambassador or a messenger.  As in, someone from Country A brought a message to Country B, and then returned home.  Of course, in modern times, most major nations have permanent embassies within the capitols (or other cities) of other nations, so that there's (for example) a British ambassador ready in Washington D.C. in case any British/American talks are required.

What is the first example of this?  Was there a building or a home of a prominent Egyptian living in Rome during the time of the Republic, serving as the Pharaoh's representative?  Did Charlemagne have a standing presence in Byzantium, or Philip II in England?

What is the first example of two sovereign nations having permanent, standing offices within each other's territories for the purpose of ongoing diplomatic contact?


texts: Are there any ideas as to what the English landscape was like before the arrival of the Angles?

texts: I am not sure if this question is within the guidelines (it may be), but I am curious as to this: In North America, for instance, it is often said it was heavily forested and that a squirrel could get from one side unto the other without touching the ground.


texts: Who are the three men standing and what are they holding at this University of Paris Doctors' Meeting?

texts:
The image below is used on several sites but none of them give much information on this painting other than "Medieval Education in Europe: Meeting of Doctors in the University of Paris" and the source ("Chants royaux" manuscript, Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris). The painting itself is Early Modern but apparently depicts a Medieval scene.

Image source: MEDIEVAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE: A FORCE OF FREEDOM AND SUBMISSION

The same image is also used in the article Contro l’homo academicus. Il corpo vorace delle logiche accademiche, on the Scholasticum site and quite a number of others. The scene depicted may be one of the three Condemnations of 1210–1277.

Who are the three men standing, what are they holding and what is their function at this meeting?


texts: Was the decrypting of communications in WW2 a one-sided effort, or did Germany also do it?

texts:
Lately, I've read a lot about how the "Allies" in WW2 (I always found that term strange since the others were also "allies", just not with the USA!) kept breaking all the German ciphers from both the Enigma and Lorenz machines in all their variations and upgrades. From the sound of it, the USA and "Allies" were basically able to "predict" Germany's every move by being able to decrypt their communication messages.

My question is: did Germany not do this in the opposite direction at all? If so, why not? If they did, I sure have never read one darn word about it anywhere. It would be extremely interesting to hear about such efforts and how successful they were.


texts: Has anyone seen this type of grandfather clock before?

texts:
I found this grandfather clock and I was fascinated by its workings. Since this is about history, I'd like to know who made it so I can research the rest. I will upload four pictures of it.

First picture:

Second picture:

Third picture:

Fourth picture:


texts: Why didn't the Moroccans try to explore and conquer the New World?

texts:
Why didn't the Marinid try to discover and colonize the New World during the 15th and 16th centuries, like the Spanish and Portuguese?

They faced the Atlantic Ocean and had the power and the technology.


texts: Does modern scholarship accept an Ethiopian or Nubian origin for Egyptian hieroglyphs?

texts:
Diodorus Siculus made the claim that the Hieroglyphs were actually an Ethiopian script, which was held sacred by the Egyptians and was learned and transmitted only within the priestly families of Egypt. Among the Ethiopians the script was so common that most Ethiopians knew how to read and write in hieroglyphs. Here is the excerpt:
(Vol. II) DIODORUS SICULUS
LIBRARY OF HISTORY
p95 Book III (beginning)

They say also that the Egyptians are colonists sent out by the
Ethiopians, Osiris having been the leader of the colony.....
And the larger part of the customs of the Egyptians are, they hold, Ethiopian,
the colonists still preserving their ancient manners. For instance, the belief that their kings are gods, the very special
attention which they pay to their burials, and many other matters of a
similar nature are Ethiopian practices, while the shapes of their
statues and the forms of their letters are Ethiopian;  for of the
two kinds of writing which the Egyptians have, that which is known as
"popular" (demotic) is learned by everyone, while that which is called
"sacred" is understood only by the priests of the Egyptians, who learn
it from their fathers as one of the things which are not divulged, but
among the Ethiopians everyone uses these forms of letters......
We must now speak about the Ethiopian writing which is called
hieroglyphic among the Egyptians, in order that we may omit
nothing in our discussion of their antiquities. Now it is found that
the forms of their letters take the shape of animals of every kind,
and of the members of the human body, and of implements and especially
carpenters' tools; for their writing does not express the intended
concept by means of syllables joined one to another, but by means of
the significance of the objects which have been copied and by its
figurative meaning which has been impressed upon the memory by
practice.

Please Note: Ethiopia does not necessarily refer to the modern country (Abyssinia) now called by that name. The Ethiopians of antiquity were usually the Beja (Medjay), Bisharin and Nubian peoples of Northern Sudan and Southern Egypt
The word Ethiopian in Greek is derived from the word Aethiops, meaning Of the burnt face. It was a generic term for black skinned people similar to latin words like Niger, Hebrew words like Kush, spanish words like Moreno or Moor.
I am aware that there are some black skinned peoples who are native to Southern Egypt. They still live there even till this day; The Nubians. He may have been referring to them or so it seems.
What is the position of modern scholarship on the claims of this Greco-Roman historian?


texts: What were the sources of Jewish immigration to Israel between 1939-1951?

texts: Which countries did Israeli Jews emigrate from in 1939-1951 ? This table is incomplete (for example, it only shows the origin of ~3000 in 1948). Is better data available (preferably online) ?


texts: Why did Roosevelt and Churchill use voice-based telecommunication, instead of simpler text-based options which were easier to encrypt?

texts:
Roosevelt and Churchill used an extremely sophisticated telephone encryption system, SIGSALY, to communicate during WWII. In fact, they did not use it all the time because apparently it changed the voices a lot.
At the time, teletypes with automatic encryption existed. They were much easier to build and handle than SIGSALY.
Wouldn't it have been an alternative to have a quick typist on both sides, so that Roosevelt and Churchill could communicate as in a modern-day online chat?


texts: Was it Stalin behind the idea of universal elections in the USSR?

texts:
Recently I have read an article that claimed that Stalin wanted to introduce competitive, alternative elections in the USSR while the regional secretaries were strongly against the idea and pushed for a "great purge" of 1937 so to secure the positions after the new constitution of 1936 was introduced.

Some background. Following the constitution of 1926 the deputies were elected by the working collectives rather than by a popular vote. This was done so the the bourgeoisie could not participate.

The "stalinist" constitution of 1936 was the first to introduce the voting principle similar to the capitalist countries: the deputies were to be elected based on territorial principle. The newspapers of the time described the forthcoming voting as alternative and Stalin himself made a speech underlining the importance of the possibility of "revoking" a deputy, which as he claimed, was absent from the law of capitalist countries which made the deputies completely independent from the voters during their term.

The article claims that the secretaries were very much in fear about them to loose elections and pushed for political purges which they hoped to control.

Note also that Stalin was behind many other ideas that made the USSR more like other capitalist countries: he pushed for re-introducing military ranks, scientific degrees, reconciliation with the church, abandoned the idea of the world revolution, disbanded Comintern, renamed Red Army into Soviet Army, substituted the political commissars in the army to the commanders.


texts:
I understand that the word exists in Welsh, but that it's a modern loanword from Gaelic referring to Scotland.

Albion first appears in ancient Greek accounts along with Ierne as being part of the British Isles.
The Romans don't appear to have used the term much, preferring Britannia though the term survived enough for Aethelstan in the 10th century to use it as part of his title.
Presumably the word survived in Gaelic or maybe Pictish which is where the modern word comes from, but does anyone know if the word has any historic use in Welsh?

I can hazard a guess that Roman rule replaced the native word in common use, much like Welsh adopted the use of Welsh to refer to themselves instead of the native Cymry, though it's only a guess.


texts: Who were the 'Water People of North America' and what do we know about them?

texts:
I stumbled upon a website showing fascinating water structures in North America. Unfortunately it does not say much about the culture which built these and only speculates about the potential usages of these structures. Given that they appear to be very large, I think this must have been researched by someone. Many of them look like irrigation channels, but some are really mind-boggling, a few examples below.
What do we know about the people and purposes behind these fascinating structures?
108°28′35.5″W, 50°34′17.1″N

location unknown


texts:
I've read in a book written about 80 years ago descriptions of 3 paintings,
the paintings were seen about 130 years ago.

These are the descriptions (translated to English):

Painting #1

Painting of a battle field, on a high place the commanders stand and look through some sort of telescope how their soldiers fight, on one side there are rivers of blood and two people are fighting, from another side injured people with chopped legs and broken hands. Nurses carrying 3 injured people on one bed with a doctor walking near them, but a bullet explodes and hits the doctor and one of the nurses so the injured people are falling into a deep pit. A fighter riding on a horse is being thrown away in the air with his horse by a bullet hitting them. Another fighter is riding on a horse and swing his sword with his right hand, with his left hand he's holding his horses bridle.

Painting #2

A field with grain, one part of it has wheat the other has barley. On the side of the field there's a road. The sky is bright and the sun is shining. On top of one wheat in the field stands a small bird. On the end of the field there's a tree with many branches and on one of the branches sitting a raven.

Painting #3

A court in Rome, prisoners are tied, judges, a prosecutor and a pleader. A small child standing on a chair pointing on the crowd with one finger and looking on the judges. The person being judged is sitting with his head between his knees.

Some background: The book's author is known to be accurate about details. He mentions that the paintings were made by "The known and famous artist Raphael". He also states that the first 2 paintings were reviewed by thousands of known artists. (I'm not sure but they were probably seen at the Louvre Museum). However I couldn't find the paintings while searching the web for Raphael's paintings. I've tried to go through this web site and also this web site to no avail. I also went through the Catalogue of Raphaels work in the book "Raphael: His Life, Works and Times by Eugène Müntz" which @user2448131 suggests in his comment, but I didn't manage to track them there also.

Please help me find these paintings.


texts: How would “distraint of knighthood” law in medieval England fit with the fact that all knights must be of noble birth?

texts:
I've read recently about “distraint of knighthood” law in medieval England started by Henry III but I found it very strange indeed.
This law forced all rich people who has 40 £ or more to be knighted by the king or pay fine instead.
However, many of those rich people were not necessarily nobles, but rather, rich merchants, patricians craftsmen, yeomen, and non-noble landowners.
Such law will create a large group of knights (thus becoming nobles) who are of non-noble birth! even if they are rich they are still seen by nobles and clergy as commoners. This is quite against the common fact that all medieval nobles were of noble birth, so how would this law fit with these contradictions?

Also, was this law only in medieval England? Were there any similar laws in other parts of Europe?


texts: Did the British and the French build the Suez Canal?

texts: How is it that British officials and French engineers were responsible for the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869? This was before Egypt became a protectorate of the British Empire in 1914.


texts: What were the most popular destinations for British and American tourists on the Continent in the period 1880-1900?

texts: How common was English and American travel to the Continent of Europe between 1880-1900? By businessmen, families, debutantes, honeymooners, politicians etc.


texts: Is there any historical evidence that suggest that Zoroastrianism is older than Judaism or vice versa?

texts:
So from what I remember reading around Zoroastrianism is or seems to be older than Judaism not only older, but the former seems to have influenced the latter. However while talking to a friend today he told me that that is not and that the dead sea scrolls actually seem to be evidence that Judaism is much older than Zoroastrianism?
I wanted to know if anyone here has the correct information or maybe reliable resources with that information?


texts: How did the people of Massachusetts react to the territory that is now Maine being split off from Massachusetts?

texts: Maine was admitted to the Union after being split off from Massachusetts during the time of the Missouri Compromise. Henry Clay had this idea because if Missouri were to be admitted to the Union as a slave state, the balance between slave and free states would be unequal. My question is, how did the people of Massachusetts react to Maine being created out of their territory? Or did they not really care? If not, how did the people who cared react? Did they do anything about it?


texts: How was early Indian history re-constructed?

texts: I heard that ancient Indian history was reconstructed from Iranian/Persian and Chinese texts that survived til today. Is this true? Also what were the other major sources used?


texts: Where can I find pictures of clothing of poor or common male European musicians between 1500 and 1700

texts:
Can anyone provide pictures or credible descriptions of clothing as a modest musician anywhere in Europe might have worn between 1500 and 1700? I realise that my question spans 200 years and many countries. Feel free to restrict it if you need. I have searched a lot of paintings by myself, but I suspect they tend to depict musicians in extremely fancy clothing.

If you can show that the examples below are not of rich musicians or that the clothing of musicians didn’t significantly differ from that of others, you are welcome to do so.

It seems easy to find examples of musicians painted by Dirk van Baburen 1622:

Or van Baburen 1623:

Unfortunately, they are not full body pictures and seem to my untrained eye to depict rich people. If the latter assumption is wrong, I will be delighted to know! To me such feathers and hats certainly look expensive.

Caravaggio 1596 also shows cloth that looks rich and luxurious to me. I assume such pigment was expensive, but I am just guessing:

The only somewhat modest(?) picture that I could find was Dürer 1504:


texts: Which plants had nearly all their mature specimens harvested?

texts:
The coastal redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) is a long-living tree native to California. Each mature tree contains an incredible amount of durable and splittable softwood, so nearly all were cut down between 1840 and 1970. Old-growth redwood trees are now a delicately preserved rarity, sometimes adorned with sensors or kept secret. The Santa Cruz County History Journal produced a wonderful volume of scholarly monographs covering the exploitation and preservation efforts.

Was any other population of long-living plants so reduced by harvesting? Did it also see intensive conservation efforts afterwards?


texts: Did former SS-member Alois Brunner advise Syria on organizing it's Intelligence Service?

texts:
Alois Brunner was a Nazi, member of the Waffen-SS and assistant to Adolf Eichmann. After WWII he lived, more or less well hidden, in western Germany until he went to Syria in '54, aided by the BND.

Wikipedia: "In Syria, he was hired as a government adviser. The exact nature of his work is unknown." German wikipedia states he was advised the Syrian dictatorship on "the jewish question", whatever that means in this context.

Now this text claims:

  the ties between the Ba’ath regime and the far-right going back to the days of the Cold War, when Hafez al-Assad sheltered Alois Brunner, the assistant of Adolf Eichmann. Brunner would help Assad restructure the Ba’athist state’s secret services on a model based on the Gestapo and the Waffen-SS.

...without giving a source.

Is there any evidence that Brunner advised on security service structure and organization?

This is connected to my older question about Nazis and Iraq's Mukhabarat.


texts: What was the liquor that was based on petrol which was produced in the USSR during the Second World War?

texts:
I have a 1971 Spanish edition of the book "Stuka Pilot" by Hans-Ulrich Rudel where he recounts his memories of war.

In the second chapter, in which he talks about the first combats of "Operation Barbarrossa" in 1941, there is a paragraph that seems to indicate that Soviet civilians used petrol to make homemade liquor. The following is my English translation:

  For my part, I especially regret the petrol,
  as the old women of the villages in
  the region exchange it for fresh eggs. Apparently, they make liquor
  with it. Naturally, this exchange is forbidden, but everyone loves
  boiled eggs. As for the liquor, which the villagers try to resell to
  us, it is a particularly infernal variety of rat poison, so strong
  that it is not possible to withstand one of its drops on the skin. On
  the other hand, the Russians drink it without a gesture.

I couldn't find more information about this ersatz homemade liqueur. What was it called by the Russians? How popular was it in the Soviet Union?


texts: Was it customary for young upper-middle class women to chew gum in public in German-speaking Europe?

texts:
I'm writing a fiction work and there is a scene about a young, well-educated, but stormy woman, willing to stretch the boundaries of what's allowed. I'm thinking about making her chew gum in public. The story plays in Vienna of the 1930s.

Was it socially acceptable for a decent lady to chew gum in public?

Research

I couldn't find any information about Europe. In the US of the 1930es chewing gum was marketed as a female product (my emphasis):

  Gum companies then focused their advertising on middle and
  upper-class women with more refined sensibilities. Their goal
  was to change gum’s reputation from a product considered “unladylike”
  to something upmarket and even glamorous. This shift began in the
  mid-1930s, when Americans looked to advertising print culture as a
  roadmap for daily life. A 1938 ad featuring actress Claudette Colbert
  reinforced beauty standards by making gum synonymous with good health,
  white teeth and a perfect complexion. Gum became marketed less as a
  sweet treat, and more as a feminine product.

Chewing gum ad featuring Claudette Colbert, source

Source

This site claims that formal etiquette of the 1930es did not explicitly forbid chewing gum according to Chewing Gum Etiquette by Helen Ufford, Delineator, February 1936, p. 4:

Who could think that that's an ad for chewing gum...

Source

Because

celebrities like Claudette Colbert weren't ashamed of chewing gum, and
because there were special etiquette rules regarding it,

I conclude that chewing gum may have been a little bit provocative (but not over the top, not Lady Gaga grade provocative) and quite widespread (if it wasn't, there would be no rules of conduct related to it). That's ideal for someone who wants to push the limits, but not too much (like my character).


texts: Did Alexander the Great win or lose against Porus (before the eventual 'fleeing')?

texts:
The western accounts of the battles state that Alexander the Great won against Porus' armies, and then, once Porus amounted a larger one, a great deal of the Greek forces mutinied, and then Alexander the Great retired his conquest and returned to Babylonia. Thus, Alexander the Great did not necessarily tuck tail, but was forced due to the mutineers of his army.

I have heard, though I have not consulted, that the eastern accounts of the war had Alexander the Great losing those initial battles and realized that he could not win, and then he decided to return to his kingdoms.

What is the general consensus? I must say that the only source where I have heard that Alexander the Great lost is from Indians, which seems like a reasonably biased source.

Did Alexander the Great win or lose the battles against Porus before leaving?

(Keep in mind that I have not read his conquests since I was a boy, so please forgive any inaccuracies.)


texts: Where does the enmity between Shia and Sunnis stem from?

texts:
Shia and Sunni muslims are frequently engaged in violent clashes with each other, particularly in Irak and Syria at the moment.

Where does this enmity stem from? Are the motivations mainly religious or political?


texts: What were the main causes of successful take over of India by Britain?

texts:
The East India Company ruled an entire country of huge size for 101 years (1757–1858). During this time they did almost everything they wanted to do and won almost every battle in India.

What was the principle of the successful gradual takeover of India by Britain?


texts: Was There Compensation For Requisitioned / Impressed Aircraft In WW2?

texts:
I've been studying and comparing commercial airliners of the 1920s and 1930s.  Many of these models are listed as "impressed" when WW2 occurred.  I've been trying to find out exactly what transaction occurred when such assets were impressed, particularly in the USA and UK.  Unfortunately I'm having a hard time finding sources that detailed how this worked, and what situations this resulted in.

For example, what appears to have been the only Lockheed Vega to be owned by an Australian was impressed at the start of WW2 and destroyed by the government due to being a danger to operate.  Under normal rules, would the owner have been paid off when the aircraft was impressed, when the aircraft was written off, or never?

I think a lot hinges on whether the title was transferred from the civilian owner to the government.  If so, was there compensation at the moment of title transfer, or did the owner hope for return of title and aircraft later, or compensation if it was lost?

The question is scoped for USA and UK.


texts: Did bronze metallurgical development peak by the end of the bronze age?

texts:
There is a lot of talk, books, and science about the development of iron into increasing qualities and types of steel, but I do not see the same attention given to bronze. This is not counting the development from copper into bronze near the start of the bronze age, as that is commonly taught in some detail. However, such articles often stop at the point of the development of bronze, and so give the impression that once they had bronze, it never got better. Or at least, it is left rather mysterious as to how much better it got through history.

By the end of the bronze age, around 500 to 300 BC, did bronze metallurgical quality peak (assuming it did not reach peak quality earlier)? Or did bronze continue to get better and stronger, even in the iron age?

As an example, was bronze of a far higher quality in the modern era, with fewer impurities, and higher strengths and tolerances? Or was it very similar to ancient examples of the metal?


texts: What is the oldest movie theater in the US that has been in continuous use as a movie theater?

texts: It appears from Wikipedia that the oldest theater in continuous use is in Denmark, but since so much of the film industry is dominated by Hollywood, I was wondering what is the oldest movie theater in the United States.


texts: Was lighter or darker skin pigment valued higher in ancient Greek civilization?

texts: Did the ancient Greeks higher value lighter skin and hair, as do modern Indians?


texts: Can you name a battle in 14th C (?) in which many knight got killed because of pointed shoes?

texts:
At some point in the 14th C, if I remember correctly, mounted knights and nobles followed a fashion to wear poulaines or sabatons, which were really pointy shoes as part of their armor.

Unfortunately, there was a battle with the Turks, I believe, where the shoes showed the obvious drawback that you could barely stand on them, thus making it very hard to fight.  Many European knights lost their lives when the enemy took advantage and the fashion came to an abrupt halt.

Couldn't find a reference to it.  Wikipedia does mention those shoes re Battle of Sempach but the article didn't make the shoes seem like a big deal.  Whereas my recollection was Turks, not Swiss and lots of dead knights.


texts: Were there any missing opera actresses in Paris between 1881 - 1910?

texts:
As you might have guessed (or maybe not), my question was merely risen by the mystery of the Opera Ghost, from the Phantom of The Opera written by Gaston Leroux.
I have been all over the internet in order to find if there have been any opera actresses (or any other staff at the opera) reported missing for weeks or even days in Paris in the late 19th century.
I know the characters are based on numerous people but the facts remain true. For example Cristine Daae is thought to be based on Cristine Nilsson. Even though many of Daae's characteristics come from M.lle Nilsson, there are some other singers that Leroux could have been inspired by.
Hence I was wondering if this particular detail was a fiction by Monsieur Leroux, or based on a fact of a random opera actress (or a dancer, or whoever works at an opera in Paris).


texts: How much contact did Sub-Saharan Africa actually have with the rest of the world since the beginning of civilization?

texts:
The book 'Guns, germs and steel' introduced me to the fact that the Sahara desert actually isolated Sub-Saharan Africa from the developments elsewhere since the beginning of civilization until European colonialism.

My main question: is this true? Were there major isolated exchanges of information? Is so, where? And why didn't it spread? This narrative seems very close to the racist, "savage, uncivilized" history espoused by European colonialist in the 18th and 19th century. It is a good assumption that factual historical research since the 1960's has changed this narrative that Jared somehow misses.

I guess it's a good idea to give a definition of civilization to begin with, so lets use the one from wikipedia: "a civilization contrasts with non-centralized tribal societies".
Additionally it's good to take dates into account, from wikipedia:

"The earliest emergence of civilizations is generally associated with the final stages of the Neolithic Revolution, culminating in the relatively rapid process of Urban Revolution and state formation, a political development associated with the appearance of a governing elite. The earlier neolithic technology and lifestyle was established first in the Middle East (for example at Göbekli Tepe, from about 9,130 BCE), and later in the Yangtze and Yellow river basins in China (for example the Pengtoushan culture from 7,500 BCE), and later spread. Similar pre-civilised "neolithic revolutions" also began independently from 7,000 BCE in such places as the Norte Chico civilization in Peru and Mesoamerica at the Balsas River. These were among the six civilizations worldwide that arose independently Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC, with civilisations developing from 6,500 years ago. This area has been identified as having "inspired some of the most important developments in human history including the invention of the wheel, the development of cursive script, Mathematics, Astronomy and Agriculture."


texts: Have the Romani people (gypsies) ever fought back violently against prejudice?

texts:
I've noted from my researches that the Romani people (gypsies) have always faced prejudice in Europe. Most countries since the 15th century have marginalized this people, and during the Nazi government of Germany, they were targeted just like the Jews. Still, they seemed to be very peaceful and would just travel to other places instead of fight back.

Have they ever fought back violently in the form of riots or a small uprising of some kind? I understand that there are far less sources to this compared to usual European history, so any help with this matter is appreciated.


texts: Have conscripted women fought in any notable battles or wars? Wikipedia's article on Conscription of Women does not mention any concrete examples.


texts: How common was marriage between nobles and peasants in the Middle Ages?

texts:
How common was it during the Middle Ages for European nobility to marry peasants or serfs?  I am aware that during the era, the institution of marriage was considered a severely practical matter rather than romantic, with stratification between social classes being very strict.

I'd like answers to be contextualised with examples, and any historical evidence of how society reacted to these events.


texts: When was the name of the Mexican war changed to Mexican-American war?

texts:
I learned recently (by having an answer marked wrong in Pub Quiz) that the conflict which was called the Mexican War when I was in school is now called the Mexican-American War. My question:

  When, why, and how was the name changed? Is "Mexican-American War" now the official name? Who decides on the official names of wars anyway? Is it the Department of War (now Defense), the Department of State, some academic body?

According to the question Has anyone ever named a war after their own country or faction?:

  For example, during the Mexican-American War, the Mexicans referred to it as the American Invasion, and Americans referred to it as the Mexican War. After America won, we decided to call it the Mexican-American War.

If that's true, my sixth grade textbook was about a century out of date.


texts:
I have recently encountered two independent assertions that Puritans were not prudes like I and most of society think they were. Either society's view of Puritans is revisionist, or the two sources I read are wrong.

The Victorian era is responsible for the false caricature of Puritanism, portraying them as cold, passionless, and unromantic. This neo-puritanism of the nineteenth century, marked by prudery and frigidity was actually a product of the anti-Christian 'Enlightenment." The rise of humanistic rationalism exalted reasoning an denigrated other aspects of the human person; feelings and emotions were repressed beneath a facade of stylized manners and rationality. Anything was permitted for the rationalist elite so long as it was appropriately concealed.
John Calvin in particular taught that the primary purpose of marriage and sex is not merely propagation of the human family but social intimacy.
The Puritans were really responsible for the elevation of the significance of sex and romance within marriage in Western culture. Spring 2013 Jubilee Magazine p. 20

The second source is the book, "Love is a Choice" p.230, which says, "Only in the last few hundred years, since the French Revolution, have reasoning and logic come to dominate the mindset of mainstream Western civilization." The book goes on to mention how Puritanism was founded on verses such as Proverbs 3:5-6, which says "Trust in the Lord with all your heart and lean not on your own understanding."
Which view of Puritans is accurate? Were they Prudes or Progressives?


texts: Was Henry III of England the first fully "English" king?

texts:
With his focus on Edward The Confessor, underscored by naming a his son Edward, did Henry III represent some sort of a political transition from from France to England?

It also seems like there was no domestic political appetite for conquest in Normandy.

Edit, based on comment:

I know I am asking a vague question, for sure. It seems to me that the Normans were a foreign invading force in England. They spoke a different language (I think) than the local populace and the Plantagenet kings spent much of their time on the continent (at least until John). So when Henry III focused on Edward the Confessor it seems like he was trying to stitch the Royal line deeper into the history/mythology of England.

Also, the Barons seemed to have little appetite for conquest in France. It makes me wonder if the entire aristocracy was becoming more culturally aligned with the populace at large.


texts: Did anyone besides Heinz Guderian believe that Germany needed to "liberate" Soviets to prevail on the eastern front?

texts:
Germany's Field Marshal Heinz Guderian was quoted as saying:  "We lost the war the day we failed to raise the Ukrainian flag over the  cathedral in Kiev, that day was when the Ukrainians lost their hope and  faith in the third Reich as the liberators I intended!"
Question: Did any rational authority agree with him that it was necessary to  "liberate" non-Russian Soviet people for the Germans to prevail on the eastern front? (I'm not asking about people who thought that Germany could win no matter how they treated the Soviets.)
Definitions:

An "authority" is a recognized historian after the fact, or a contemporaneous high level soldier, diplomat or politician who had the power to shape events.
A German "authority" is considered "rational" only if he was better noted for his professionalism than his Naziism. Among military men, Guderian, Manstein and Rommel qualify; Goering, Jodl and (La)Keitel, who were noted for their Naziism, do not.

3."Prevail on the Eastern front" means that the final peacetime western Soviet border ended up being "rolled" back north and east of where it stood on June 21, 1941. A "liberation" of one of the Baltic countries, or Soviet Poland, or Finnish Karelia, or Romania's "Transdiniester region would qualify.

"Liberate" means to "Balkanize" the non-Russian Soviet Union, giving non-Russian Soviets nominal independence, or at least substantial autonomy, while maintaining de facto German control.


texts: Are there any secular accounts of the Sadduccees?

texts:
1. Question :

Are there any accounts by Greek, or other historians, that detail what happened to the Sadducees, who were tied to Temple in Jerusalem?

Was there a persecution of the Sadducees?

I am asking this question here - rather than Judaism.SE because I am hoping to find secular historical accounts, if possible ...

2. Context

The Sadducees were a political sect in Israel, defending their authority against the newer sect of the Pharisees (which later became known as Rabbinicism).  As a result, it is difficult to rely on the authority of Pharasaic/Rabbinic sources.

About a millennia after the Temple Period, Maimonides' declared that that they could be killed, on sight, without trial :

  Mishneh Torah, Mamrim 3:1-3 : 1 A person who does not acknowledge validity of the Oral Law is not the rebellious elder mentioned in the Torah. Instead, he is one of the heretics and he should be put to death by any person. ... 3 To whom does the above apply? To a person ... as did Tzadok and Beitus and those who erred in following them.


texts: Biggest successful secret project in history?

texts:
Many conspiracy theories rely on a powerful organisation (government agencies, secret societies, etc.) hiding the truth from public view. A prime example are alien conspiracies.

To the known record, what is the biggest secret project that was successfully pulled off in history?

The answer should satisfy the following criteria:

The size of project should be measured in number of people actively working on the project (either aware or unaware).
The project should have been successfully kept secret for a long period of time. For the sake of concreteness, let's say at least 5 years.
Bonus points if the project is international.

(Perfect secrecy, that is nobody outside the project knowing anything about the existence of the project, is basically impossible, so projects in which very few outsiders knew about it are still considered fine.)

The answer to this question is relevant to assess the likelihood of a given conspiracy theory.


texts: What was the effect of the Civil War on the cost of cotton?

texts:
If you look at contemporary sources discussing slavery as practiced in the antebellum American South, a couple recurring themes pop up again and again:

Cotton.  Cotton farming requires large amounts of unskilled labor, making it a perfect fit (if you disregard the moral implications, of course!) for plantation-style slave labor.
Economics.  Today we often view slavery through the lens of racism, but that appears to have been more of a justification than a motivation for Southern slave owners; the motivation was that it was just "good business," and the primary argument against ending slavery was not that the African race deserved it or anything of that nature, but rather that doing away with it would bring great financial harm upon the producers of cotton, which was one of the South's primary trade goods.  (In fact, if you update the vocabulary a bit, the historical arguments sound surprisingly modern, largely boiling down to "if you make us pay our workers well and treat them with the respect and dignity that human beings deserve, it will DESTROY OUR ECONOMY!!!"  Which will sound quite familiar to anyone keeping up with today's politics in America.)

Contemporary economics warns us that if you make goods significantly more expensive to produce, the costs will be passed on to consumers in the form of higher prices.  So that makes me wonder: what data do we have available on the effects of the Civil War, and particularly the liberation of the slaves, on the price of cotton?  How big of a difference did it actually make?

EDIT:  To be clear, I'm looking for price data before and after the war.  According to this article linked to in the comments, cotton prices in Great Britain "soared from 10 cents a pound in 1860 to $1.89 a pound in 1863-1864," but that was the direct result of price manipulation on the Confederacy's part in order to twist Great Britain's arm, so that's not particularly useful as a price point.  What would be very helpful would be data on cotton prices in Great Britain after the war ended and things started to get back to normal.  (Or establish a "new normal," as the case may be.)


texts: What was life expectancy in early medieval Britain?

texts: I'm working on doing background research for one of my novels and I'm looking for roughly how old a male in the peasant class would've lived around 5th or 6th century Britain.


texts: How common was the German desire for revenge for the humiliation of 1918 armistice?

texts:
The author of the article "How Peace Kept WWI Alive" (here in English) at spiegel.de writes about the relationship between the two World Wars.

The article says (emphasis added) that

  The experience of victory or defeat divides nations even more than the
  commemoration of the dead. It is difficult to say how many German
  soldiers perceived the cease-fire as a shock, as Hitler did. But by
  the time the Treaty of Versailles was signed, the dream of exacting
  revenge for the humiliation Germany had suffered became an
  obsession. This is one reason why there is not only a temporal but
  also a causal relationship between the two world wars.

  For many historians, there is a direct line between Verdun and
  Stalingrad. To emphasize the continuity of violence, some even
  characterize the two conflicts as the "Second Thirty Years' War." In
  their view, the years between 1914 and 1945 merge into a single,
  uninterrupted conflict interrupted by a prolonged cease-fire.

What I wanted to ask is, is there any evidence on how common this "obsession" to exact revenge was among the German populace?


texts: What happened to all the notable Roman families?

texts:
What happened to the numerous (patrician) families of Rome?

Like the Gens Julia for example.

There are no ancestors today leading back to them like for example the famous Medici family from renaissance Italy. I can't think of any Roman "last names" still in use.

What happened?


texts: About how many immigrants were on the Titanic?

texts:
All that I can find is that the majority of the 709 third class passengers were immigrants. Was it the vast majority, or nearly all of them?

Would there have been any immigrants in second class?

Is there an estimate of the number of migrants aboard the Titanic?

I want to attach a snippet to this question: Could the second and third class passengers go up to the deck, or anywhere "outside"?


texts: What were common types of clutches used in water and wind mills?

texts: What were common ways of engaging or disengaging machinery (Clutch?) in wooden drive trains of wind and water mills of the 1700’s and 1800’s?


texts: What was Vyshinsky's position about extrajudical repressions in the USSR?

texts:
Vyshinsky was the prosecutor-general of the USSR who is mosly known for his participation in the Moscow show trials of the 1930s.

But what was his position regarding the extrajudical repressions?


texts: What was the Jiangxi Soviet's language of operation between 1931 and 1934?

texts:
Gong Chu (龔楚) in his Memoir mentioned that the Chinese Communists in Jinggangshan soviet district between 1931 and 1934 had a shortage of representatives in a Cantonese unit of the red army because few communist leaders can speak Cantonese.

I wonder what language a Cantonese leader like Gong Chu himself spoke in a regular communist meeting. What language did Gong speak when he conversed with Zhu De or Zhou Enlai?


texts: How do I find the sources which determined the year of the fall of Babylon?

texts: I'm really asking a general question about the study of history. Allegedly, the Babylonian Empire fell to the Persians under Cyrus the Great in 539 BCE. All articles regarding this event simply take it for granted as an established fact. How would I go about finding the precise sources and reasoning that cause historians to generally agree on historical facts, such as Babylonia succumbing to the Persians in 539BCE?


texts: In Homage to Catalonia Orwell begins by describing an encounter of his with an Italian man who took part in the revolution. He also later wrote a poem about their encounter. My question is whether we know the identity of this man. If we don't do we have any suspicions?


texts: Are the Xibe people the same as the Manchu?

texts: Xibe people living in Xinjiang are Qing dynasty colonists in the region. They clearly speak the same language as the Manchu did, which bears a question: Are the Xibe and Manchu people the same ethnic group? If not, how different were they socially, genetically and maybe linguistically?


texts: Somebody told me that until the twentieth century Marco Polo was the strongest westerner ever to play go (weiqi).  Is this true?  I can't find any reference to it.  Googling Marco Polo and go doesn't seem to bring up anything.


texts: Why were there no religious wars in Poland?

texts:
During the 16th and 17th centuries, there were many religious wars in Europe. In countries, were it was very close to Rome (like Spain, Portugal, Austria, Italian states), they did not occur. In Northern Europe (Scandinavia), were it was far from Rome, or it head also political reasons (the Netherlands), the Protestantism was accepted (relatively) quickly. However, in the "middle" countries, like German states, France, in some part Bohemia and Hungary, and of course England and Scotland, the Reformation was not quickly accepted/rejected, but some wars or fightings occurred.

In Poland (and Lithuania), which is geographically in the same position as Germany, no wars happened. This is somehow strange, as many Polish people were protestant and many Catholic. Sources claim that "Poland was very tolerant", example (WHKMLA):

  The majority of Poland's nobility had converted to protestantism. Poland's tolerance policy attracted those who were persecuted because of their confession, from the Netherlands, France, Silesia.

The same is on the official site of Republic of Poland (but this might be a kind of propaganda):

  In the 15th and 16th centuries, Poland was a country open to new religious trends. Unlike other European countries, there were no religious wars here. Not only could heterodox religionists find sanctuary here, they were also protected by the kings and lords of Poland. As a result, culture and scholarship experienced an influx of new ideas and literary works, building up an image of Poland as a country of toleration. This was particularly true as regards the Warsaw Compact, ratified in 1573, which gave Protestants  equal rights with Catholics. The last Jagiellonian monarch, Zygmunt August (Sigismundus Augustus), said in Sejm, "I do not rule your consciences."
  Not surprisingly contemporaries and later generations called the Jagiellonian era, especially the 16th century, their Golden Age.

And what would be a post without citing Wikipedia? Here it is:

  The 16th century Commonwealth was unique in Europe, because of widespread tolerance, confirmed by the Warsaw Confederation. In 1563, the Brest Bible was published (...). The period of tolerance ended during the reign of King Sigismund III Vasa, who was under strong influence of Piotr Skarga and other Jesuits.

The Sigismundus III Vasa's reign was also strongly influenced by his Swedish claims, and considered protestant rulers of Sweden illegal. This however had no impact on Polish common tolerance policy.

My question is where did this religious tolerance come from? Why were there no fightings in this multi-religion state?

My assumption is that the Commonwealth was since its existence multi-cultural country. There were Polish, Lithuanians, Ukrainians, Germans, Jews etc. There were Catholics, Orthodox and Jews who (probably) made good businesses with one another helping them to find common factors. So when Protestants came, they were just another group of many. Or, referring to "good business", it was just not profitable for anyone


texts:
I am trying to calculate the number of deaths due to pestilence from 1750-1800,1800-1850,1850-1900,1900-1950,1950-2000, and 2000-2014.

Wikipedia has good information on many: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemic#Pandemics_and_notable_epidemics_through_history

I started adding up the numbers, but then it becomes very vague for some of the most serious diseases: small pox, measles, tuberculosis, malaria.

Does anyone know where I can get this information? I don't need it broken down by disease necessarily, I'm really just looking for an overall death toll.


texts: Was there an assassination attempt against Xerxes in the battle of Thermopylae?

texts:
I watched Frank Miller's 300 last night with my girlfriend, and after the movie ended she mentioned the assassination attempt against Xerxes would have been a great plot element for the movie and that it was a shame they didn't include it. I protested that the Greeks never attempted to assassinate Xerxes at Thermopylae, but she insisted. The Wikipedia article doesn't mention anything relevant, but she still insists.

I know my question may be dismissed as hearsay, but are there any sources that include a story about the Greeks attempting to assassinate Xerxes, or something similar? Are there any lesser known alternative versions of the battle in general? And if so, what version do the archaeological evidence support?

We've found out where my girlfriend had heard of the story, it was used as a plot element in 1962's The 300 Spartans. Leonidas and a few of his men sneak in the Persian camp right after they reach Thermopylae, in an attempt to end the invasion with one kill. Although they reach Xerxes' tent with extreme ease, they don't find the king in it (he was visiting the queen at the time) and the Spartans return to their base.


texts: Was WW2 necessary for Germany economically?

texts:
Many point to improvements in Germany's economy that took place under Hitler prior to WW2. To a certain extent, some of this must have been attributable to theft of Jewish property and the jobs in well-paid professions that because Jews were expelled from such positions. I am saying that two things: taking Jewish assets certainly nominally helped the state; freeing up jobs for "aryans" would contribute to the perception that Hitler was creating jobs.

My question is, did Germany require continued theft (that certainly took place during WW2) and I guess the economic benefits of war production (which ultimately are a waste without war) in order to thrive economically or could they have stopped prior to the war?


texts: Did the Indo-Greeks play a crucial role in promoting Buddhism?

texts: Did Buddhism become a widespread religion primarily due to the political support of the Indo-Greek rulers of India who favored it in opposition to Jainism?


texts: Who sold this book in London in the 1930s?

texts:
Several years ago, I purchased a copy of A.W. Wheen's English translation of Erich Maria Remarque's Three Comrades (published, as best as I can tell, sometime in 1937 by Hutchinson & Co. of London, England) at a second-hand bookstore in Canada (rather oddly, not in Toronto, but in Guelph). On the first (blank page), there are two things, one of which is of interest in the context of this question: a partially-torn sticker, seemingly applied by the bookseller, as seen below:

Now, I'm assuming this indicates London, England, but it could just as easily be London, Ontario given where this particular copy has clearly spent the better part of its history. So, the real question is this: does anyone know anything about Smallman & <blank>, Limited, proprietors of an unknown business in London?

Bonus points (i.e. a small bounty) will be awarded if you can tell me anything about the Keuroglouians of Toronto, in whose memory this book was donated.


texts: Why did the British Empire manage to conquer huge swaths of land abroad but couldn't supress nationalism within the British Isles?

texts:
The British Empire was extremely successful in the 19th century, to the point where for a few decades they were the largest empire in human history. But for some reason London never really managed to squash national resistance within its own lands - territories like Scotland eventually received broad autonomy and Ireland separated in 1918.

Why wasn't the UK able to maintain order and completely supress nationalistic fever in the British Isles?


texts:
This is my mother in 1944 or 1945. I never knew she was entitled to wear a medal ribbon. Being black and white, I have to take a guess based on the layout, and I think it may be the Defence Medal but I am puzzled by what seem to be horizontal bars. Has anyone any ideas?

(1) Defence Medal

(2) My mother

(3) Ribbon detail


texts: Can anyone tell me what style of sword this is?

texts:
Can someone please tell me what style of sword we are looking at here?

Such as Sumerian? Philippine? Middle Eastern? etc..


texts:
In 1821 Agustín Iturbide formed a ruling junta for newly independent Mexico that excluded his prominent fellow revolutionary officers. Near the end of 1821, Iturbide imprisoned several that may have been plotting against him. Among these was Mexico's first president, Guadalupe Victoria.

Victoria was elected to Congress while imprisoned. As his lawyer prepared a defense based on his status as a congressional deputy, two other deputies helped him escape from prison. He stayed in hiding for months waiting for a pardon which never came. Iturbide ordered Santa Anna to detain him, but the order was ignored.

By December 1822 Victoria and Santa Anna were working together to overthrow Iturbide. Their Plan de Casa Mata succeeding in bringing about the emperor's abdication. A triumvirate including Victoria came to power and Victoria's own term of office followed.

Where and for how long was Victoria imprisoned?

Principal source: Guadalupe Victoria: primer presidente de México, Lillian Briseño Senosiain et al, pp. 43-46.


texts: How would ancient jungle civilizations fight pitched battles?

texts: It's my understanding that battles between civilizations in ancient and medieval times (i.e. the time before gunpowder weaponry became widespread) were often pitched affairs in which soldiers fought in big formations, like the battles portrayed in the Total War games. But that leaves me scratching my head as to how civilizations located in jungle regions (e.g. the Maya, Khmers, or some of the Central African kingdoms) would have fought battles like that. I imagine it would be hard to keep your soldiers together in formation, let alone maneuver them around, if there are lots of trees and bushes getting in the way. Would these cultures have done all their fighting in open clearings rather than within the forest, or did they simply not do big pitched battles at all?


texts: If Carpathia was not full when she rescued Titanic survivors, why was she so overloaded?  There should have been plenty of room and spare cabins.