texts: Sources for letters written during the Boer Wars?

texts: For a project at my school I need to make a 'letter home' of a Canadian soldier that participated in the Second Boer War. I need to draw from primary sources and I'm not having luck finding any. Does anyone know where to find letters written by soldiers in the Second Boer War. (I can find stuff on the life of soldiers in the war no problem, but actual letters are kind of hard).


texts: Which European Languages are not Indo-European?

texts:
I saw this question asked on Twitter today. At first blush it seemed like an easy reference question, but I can't find any place that actually has this spelled out in one place. I ended up having to do a lot of research, and still lots of folks came up with answers I didn't think about.

So perhaps this question can be that place. Feel free to add any qualifying languages that aren't listed to the wiki answer below.

For the purposes of the question, I'd like to stick to standard accepted boundaries of Europe, and not to include languages that only appeared due to late modern migration (eg: Arabic in Germany). Also of course no dead languages. (sorry, Etruscan. We miss you!)


texts: When was the last time a country acquired territory by buying land from another country?

texts:
Reportedly, U.S. President Donald Trump has proposed for the U.S. to buy Greenland from Denmark, an idea that has been rejected by Greenland and Denmark, with one politician quoting it as this is not the 19th century.

In the 19th century, the U.S. bought Alaska from Russia.  In 1917, it bought the Danish West Indies from Denmark (now called the U.S. Virgin Islands).

Are there any more recent examples or has this idea gone out of fashion in the past century?  When was the last time that a sovereign state acquired land from another sovereign state through purchase, including a transfer of sovereignty?  Is this list on Wikipedia complete?
I mean land purchases that include travel of sovereignty. Otherwise any state-owned real estate purchase would count. –

Related: What are some cases where a country bought land from another country, other than the United States?


texts: Who said, "Watch your thoughts, they become your words"?

texts:
I saw the following quote:

"Watch your thoughts, They become your words;
Watch your words, They become your deeds;
Watch your deeds, They become your habits;
Watch your habits, They become your character;
Watch your character, for it becomes your destiny."

Does anyone know who said this quote?


texts:
What is the earliest written date found?

When I say "date" I primarily mean a date in the Gregorian calendar (perhaps the calendar-year is most interesting). It could also be interesting to know about other (perhaps earlier) written dates in other calendars. Here "written" can mean any means of "externalizing" the information of a point in a calendar in some way; possibly in context to some volume of literature, a letter, a stone, head stone, ... anything really.


texts: Is it true that US tracer rounds were red and VC green during Vietnam war?

texts:
Quote from American Marine diary about tracers during vietnam:

    0200 hours - Heavier fire coming in. Never had seen green tracers used against us. In a way, kind of pretty to look at, red tracers going out and green coming in; deadly green.

  I really wish these sources could be a bit better but honestly information on this is surprisingly weak. If anyone reading this happens to have fought in Vietnam and can confirm that american rounds are red and VC rounds were green, that would be wonderful.

  (block quote above is from SciFi StackExchange answer to star-wars question What is the significance of the reversed colours of imperial and rebellion lasers compared to lightsabres?)

Is there some historical confirmation to this assumption about tracer color being uniformly consistent red/green on both sides?


texts: Male Persian names in the Sasanian Empire

texts:
I am writing a short story about two non-noble men traveling through the Lut desert from Herat (back in the time called Harēv) to the city of Kerman (Back in the time called Veh-Ardashir - not to be confused with the western part of the ancient city Ctesiphon at the Tigris in Iraq) fleeing the pillaging army of the Hephthalites in 484 CE after Sasanian king Peroz I was killed in the Battle of Herat.

The men are probably in their twenties, maybe early thirties, but I don't think that matters. Anyways, I am trying to find a name for the both of them. What names were given to men in Persia during the Sasanian period (224 to 651 CE)?

So far I was only able to find this post mentioning quite a few non-arabic/islamic male names, but I suppose these are modern day (or rather post islamic conquest) names? Can anyone confirm or disprove my assumption? Or is there any difference at all?


texts: What kinds of clothes were made at home by average medieval women and what kinds were bought?

texts:
I am aware that the medieval period is long and there may have been differences amongst countries. I don't know how much I must specify my question. So, if necessary to choose a time and place, please focus on England, 1300-1400AD.

I read on Wikipedia for this period:

  The basic garments for women consisted of the smock, hose, kirtle, gown, surcoat, girdle, cape, hood, and bonnet.[4]

Unfortunately, I have only found medieval examples for the kirtles, but  they seem fairly complex. I am aware, that the examples from paintings might represent the most elaborate garments:

  Still, I wonder, how much of the attire women were able to fashion by themselves, given the cloth.

When I was little we lived in the Greek mountains and most women had sewing skills, but I think for something like the kirtle above they generally went to the seamstress.

Edit:

It turns out the kirtle image is from 1626, so even that is not medieval, but Renaissance clothing (many thanks to the commentator Mr Denis de Bernardy). I will try to find a more accurate one. Until then, I think, it may serve as an estimate for the level of sophistication.


texts: When did formal social dance fall out of favor in the US?

texts:
Up until about the 1950s, one can see instances of social dance (especially ballroom) dominating the social scene. This includes instances such as the tennis court scene with Humphrey Bogart and Audrey Hepburn in Sabrina, several Astaire/Rogers films, and even Peggy and Steve speak of going dancing in Captain America: The First Avenger. Formal social dancing dates back to the Medieval and Renaissance periods, and have included everything from country reels to formal line dancing (as seen in film adaptations of Regency-era novels, such as those of Jane Austen) and ballroom dances such as the waltz or the more modern Charleston and Latin American pair dances.

These dances remain popular to this day in Central and South America, where parties and large social gatherings will include everyone dancing salsa, merengue, and (more recently) bachata. Yet in the United States, this style of dancing (read: "ballroom," which encompasses what were then casual or country dances) has largely fallen out of favor.

My question is this: When did such activities fall out of mode in the United States? And, furthermore, why did they largely disappear from the mainstream?

NB: I am aware of specific instances -- weddings, prom, quinceañera, cotillion, bar mitzvahs, etc. -- where such dances are still performed as part of the social norm. However, these events are rare. The average US dinner party, for example, is unlikely to include pairs dancing at any point in the evening, where at one point the living room would have been cleared of furniture and swing or jazz music played.


texts: What time zone was used in Sikkim before it became a state of India in 1975?

texts: UTC+5:30 is now used in the whole India including Sikkim. What time zone was used before 1975? According to the geographical location of Sikkim I guess UTC+6 might be used there. I searched online but couldn't find any information that gives a clear answer.


texts: How flexible is kinship taxonomy in Jewish communities?

texts: Recently I read this article, which describes the flexible use of the word cousin in African-American and Latinx communities. It made me wonder: historically, have Jewish communities have had similarly flexible family taxonomies?


texts: Why didn't the US and USSR jam each other's early-warning radar?

texts:
Radar jamming refers to rendering a radar system ineffective by saturating it with noise, typically by bombarding it with a high-intensity signal on the radar's operating frequency(es) in order to drown out any genuine returns in a sea of noise.

Early-warning radars are radar installations designed (as the name indicates) to provide an early warning in case of attack; during the Cold War, both the US and USSR deployed large networks of these radars to detect incoming bombers or missiles and give them time to retaliate.

Given that blinding these radars would have placed the blinder at an enormous advantage over the blindee (by, e.g., rendering the blindee unable to detect or react in time to an incoming first strike), why were there no US or Soviet attempts at jamming each other's early-warning radars?


texts: Polovtsy is a name used to refer various Turkic tribes living to the East of Kievan Rus. I wonder at what point those Turkic peoples became Muslim?


texts: What is the origin of the idea to cover genitals with clothes or other materials?

texts:
This question was difficult to word. Please edit if it can be worded better.

I've seen many murals and ancient drawing as far back as 3,000BC (Kemetian, Sumerian) of society wearing atleast some clothing to cover their genitals (and/or breasts of women). I've also seen primitive tribes of modern day, some who cover, some who are topless, and some who are totally naked.

What exactly was the origin and reasoning behind societies/civilizations adopting such clothing (i.e. covering a precise part of the body)?

I'm thinking before most common religions came into practice, that make covering obligatory.


texts: Which Luftwaffe units participated in the raid on Manchester on 11 March 1941?


texts: Is the enforcement of Hijab wearing for Muslim women a recent occurrence?

texts:
Is the practice of mandating that a Muslim women wear some form of a Hijab or Burka a recent occurrence? In that, has the practice always been alive and well, or have countries like Saudi Arabia and Iran merely revived an otherwise dead practice as part of their uber-theistic method of controlling their people; with the practice then leaking into the more secular or liberal Muslim communities?

I was born in '99, so I've only known the middle east for the mess it's become, and thus I'm curious if the Muslims of the 1700-1990 (or whatever), were just as into the veil as the Muslims today are.

I mean, the Bible apparently says some stuff about covering your hair if you're a girl as a part of 'modest dress'; so seeing how most versions of Christianity today, even the really conservative strains, have grown to ignore these more 'annoying' parts, I'm curious if Islam did the same.


texts: How did militia barracks look in the 19th century?

texts:
I’m seeking some information (preferably photos or art, but description would also help a bit) on how the exterior of militia barracks looked in ~1790 - 1870 in Europe.

It would be helpful to mention in which country the barracks in each image was located.

I was able to find this image only, but I need more images with greater detail. Any help is appreciated.

Preston Barracks, UK (1850) from mybrightonandhove.com.


texts: How was body temperature checked before thermometers?

texts:
Medicine always advances, and it's obvious that many decades or centuries ago, some medical procedures were done differently.

I'd like to find out about how body temperature was checked in the past to determine illnesses, before thermometers were used for this purpose. I am also specifically looking for information which references the century/time (example: 11th century, etc) or where this was used. I have little to no knowledge of the history of medicine, therefore if the answer to this question is as simple as "Touching the forehead with hand" or something of the sort, I would appreciate more information regarding this technique's origins. Thanks in advance.


texts: Is the story "Conquistadors using plans of Constantinople in the new world" factual?

texts:
As someone from Istanbul, I have always heard stories and legends about the olden Roman city, when it was Constantinople. I am curious about the one I really like, whether it has any truth in it, or is it a just a legend? It goes like this;
"Since Constantinople was build in later years as the new Eastern capital, Romans gave all their best efforts in building and designing the perfect city. The Queen of Cities was so perfect that even during their conquests in the new world Spanish conquistadors carried the detailed plans of it, so that they can use this perfection as the layouts for the cities they plan to found."
This story is especially used as a sad comparison with modern Istanbul's terrible city planning, saying Turks ruined the perfection. Is there any historical evidence for this story?


texts: When did they start counting the days from 1 to 31 in Europe?

texts:
In history the Romans didn't count their days of a month not by adding each day extra. But instead of that they used three moments in a month, Kalendae, nonae and Idus. And from those days they counted back.
Now in the 4th century Constantine introduced with his new christian religion also a new kind of dating. The 8 days week was changed in a 7 days week. And also the names of the days changed from A t/m H to the planetairy names of the day, like the roman languages has at the moment.

But was that also the day that they start counting like 1,2,3...28,29,30 of the month?


texts: Are species introduced to England and Wales by the Romans still found near Roman settlements?

texts:
Anecdotally, it seems as though species of fauna and flora introduced to England and Wales during the Roman occupation are still more likely to be found near Roman settlements. Obviously, some introduced species, such as the rabbit, are now extremely widespread. But, for example Alexanders was introduced as a food plant, and still grows in profusion around Richborough Castle, the former Roman fort of Rutupiae. I have only ever seen the edible Roman snail in England in the grounds of a former Roman villa.

Has anyone studied this to see if there's actually a statistically significant correlation, 1,600 years on?


texts: How would ancient Greeks have exercised?

texts:
I am very aware that they boxed and wrestled, but neither of these will pack on the necessary muscle to look like the statues or paintings they made. I understand that they probably exaggerated on some of the historical figures, but I imagine that there is some truth to it.

Did they have versions of lifting weights, perhaps with heavy stones? Did they just do loads of push-ups with stuff on their back?

I'm very curious how they looked like that long before the modern understanding of physiology.


texts: Has the Delmarva Peninsula been known by any other name?

texts: Wikipedia explains that Delmarva is a term that originated in the 20th century. What was the name of the Delmarva Peninsula during the British colonial time and on 19th-century United States?


texts: Who was the first foreigner to be naturalized as a Mexican citizen?

texts:
The earliest example I have is Jose Antonio Bolcof of Russia, who became a Mexican about 1833. Who beat him?

cf. Who was the first foreigner to be naturalized as a Mexican citizen in Alta California? -- a similar question in more specific scope.


texts: When did Byzantines become more Greek than Roman?

texts:
Towards its end, we know that Byzantine Empire was more or less Greek, while it continued to call itself the Roman Empire (please correct me if it's not so).

What was the phase in its history, when it became more Greek than anything else, in terms of language, customs, and ruling class?

An auxiliary question is please suggest me some good sources about the social and cultural life in the empire.


texts:
"Class" is a set of connected, but not identical, theoretical approaches to social division in human societies, including past human societies.  Historians regularly make use of "class" in their writings, but with so many approaches to "class," how can we tell which approach a historian is using in their writing?

What major approaches to "class" as a theoretical category do historians commonly use?

An ideal answer would outline a summary name for each approach, describe how it approaches class and what class means in this approach, and point to major theoreticians or historians using their approach.  A "Heads of Title" approach would be the ideal answer.

An ideal answer would not need to fully specify each approach to class.  Hopefully a subsequent series of questions could ask for the use of class in particular ways in historiography if these are of interest.


texts: Is the Kalashnikov Automatic Rifle 1947 still in production?

texts:
I'm having a rather frivolous argument with a friend of mine over the production of the AK-47.

He argues that the Kalashnikov AK-47 was only produced in the late 1940s/50s, and that further modifications and edits to the design no longer make it an AK-47.

I argued that, along the same lines, according to his logic, an M16A2 is no longer an M16.

So, at the crux of the matter, do modifications and later variants of the AK-47 no longer make it an AK-47, and if so, has it passed out of production?

To the best of my research, it hasn't.


texts: In a feudal system the king would give land to the knights in exchange for military services. Where did he get his money from then?

texts:
From what I've read (grossly oversimplifying) in a feudal system king owned all the land and would give parts of said land to his knights in exchange for military service.

The knights would, in turn, divide the land into smaller chunks and let peasants use these chunks in exchange for a part of their produce and/or money.

Where did the king's goods/money come from then?

The possibilities I can think of are:

he lent only a part of the land in exchange for military service, while the rest was providing income instead
king's income came from taxing the trade
in times of peace the knights would pay rent, while at war their military service would replace the rent

However I was not able to find any confirmation for these.


texts:
How do historians deal with information that has no other sources than gossip?

I mean facts (or "facts") that are not covered by primary sources, but are widely known from gossip. Usually this information is related to human sexuality as it was somewhat hidden in sources, but are "known". Some may be related to other imperfections like kleptomania and so on. Some of course are trivia or anecdotes, but may say much about specific persons and explain some decisions, if they were true.

Examples of such gossip, legends etc. are

Alexander the Great, Emperor Hadrian, Leonardo da Vinci and many others were homosexual
Elizabeth I Tudor was a virgin
Elizabeth Bathory drunk virgins' blood
There was a woman pope (Joan)
There was a man in Iron Mask held in prison
all what Marquis de Sade did
Circumstances of Felix Faure's death

etc.

Please note I don't say that any is true. Some probably are backed with sources (I've found them in my memory), but they are to show what I mean.

I understand that historians should be sceptic, but if gossip is related for 2000 years?... And it is important to have good overview of person's acts?


texts: Previous examples of large scale protests after presidential elections in the US?

texts:
After the elections there were many news reports of large-scale, mass protests throughout the US, for example:

https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/live/2016/nov/09/donald-trump-us-election-2016-live-reactio

http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-election-protests-idUSKBN1343CO

http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2016/11/09/anti-trump-protests-erupt-new-york-chicago/93570584/

Many more can be found on Google.

However, I cannot find news records of mass protests after the previous Obama or Bush elections.

Is this just an example of the media playing the news up, or is this actually the first time in recent history that mass protests have been organised against the new president immediately after the election?

--EDIT--

Thank you for the answers and I like the answer by Timothy about the Abraham Lincoln election (which I will most likely select as the right answer unless there's a better one) but I was hoping to know about such protests happening in recent times (let's say after the 1950s, or if not, after the 1900s, if we need to specify a time frame), for reasons of unpopularity of the winning candidate. I was looking for something other than the answer given by John because protests against Bush were due to allegations of fraud in the election itself, while the current protests are due to the elected person being who he is. I am looking for similar cases.


texts: Where can I obtain the full "British Statistical Blue Books" of British colonies in Africa?

texts:
I'm a poli sci grad student looking to access the full British statistical blue books which catalog statistics for British colonies. Does anyone know where I can obtain access to them, preferably free of charge?
EDIT: I have already searched google but found very little of interest. The only relevant piece of information I was able to find was an archive.org copy of "Statistics of the Colonies of the British Empire". While this is one of the blue books and is certainly useful, it originates from the 1830s; given that my focus is on Africa, the relevant data would come after that by a few decades at least.


texts: Did Engels and Welles ever call for the extermination of Basques and Serbs?

texts:
Someone in some scribble in a matter-of-fact way made this assertion. Is it based on fact?

Here's the original quote (in Russian) and its googletrans + my light fixing:

  Фридрих Энгельс упоминал о необходимости истребить наиболее отсталые
  европейские народы (басков, сербов), дабы те не задерживали развитие
  общественного прогресса. Ему вторили другие влиятельные социалисты –
  такие, например, как писатель-фантаст Герберт Уэллс.

  Friedrich Engels referred to the need to destroy the most backward
  nations of Europe (Basque, Serbs), so they do not delay the
  development of social progress. He was echoed by other influential socialists
  - such, for example, as science fiction writer HG Wells.


texts: Who would qualify as British subject during the Victorian age of the Empire?

texts:
This has come up in another question regarding nationalism, and limiting inheritance based on whether a spouse is a British subject.

My question is - was anyone in the Empire such a subject? Or was this limited to those born in Britain, or born to British citizens overseas.

My view is, British subject includes everyone, at that time, mainly because people in British territories were recognised as British until the fairly recent category of British Overseas Territory person was introduced.


texts: Was there any practical use for German spiked helmets (Pickelhaube)?

texts:
In 1916, during the First World War, the Germans dropped the idea of using the pickelhaube because it wasn't practical in the trenches. I read the wiki, but I am left with one question:

It remained in service for more than 70 years, it doesn't seem to be practical at all and its additional combat value looks negligible. Did it have any real practical use?

[Source: Dr Max Litthauer’s pickelhaube (spiked helmet) with camouflage covering, 1914–1918. Donated by Bart Ullstein © Jewish Museum Berlin]


texts: Praenomens in ancient Rome seemed to have been rather limited, especially by the time of the empire. There must've been cases where close friends or cousins and the like would've had the same praenomen. Since close relations adressed each other by their praenomen, how was this handled? Did they then use nicknames instead?


texts: Why does Edinburgh Castle's one o'clock gun fire at 1pm instead of, say, noon?

texts: Curious to know if there is a specific reason they fire it at 1pm. Noon would make more sense to me!


texts: When did the socialist movement start becoming noteworthy in Russian history?

texts:
I'm not a historian but I've always been intrigued by modern Russian history, from the socialist revolution to the present. I'm thinking of reading more on the subject and want to know how far back in time the socialist movement dates and what the circumstances leading up to the revolution were like. How far back does the Russian socialist movement go?

(Perhaps you can suggest a book: I'd like to find a book which maybe covers the socialist movement starting by developing a background of Russian politics, the formation of the movement, discusses ideologies & philosophies  of the key sides/people involved, the revolution, the world wars, the cold war, the iron curtain, the soviet union, and how Russia has progressed to its current state).


texts: What is the source for John Adams Sr. writing about Hamilton taking blame for Washington?

texts:
I know I read a while ago one of John Adams' writings about how people were generally discontented with Washington during the latter years of his administration, but expressed anger towards Hamilton instead, as he wasn't the revered, almost deified figure Washington was. I've tried searching for the document online with various search terms, like "Hamilton Washington discontent Adams", and pretty much everything I can think of, but I can't find this source. It was definitely written by John Adams, though. Any thoughts? What was this document?

I'm not sure if this sort of thing is allowed here, so let me know if I should edit in any way.


texts: What are the origins and history of shaking, trembling, jerking, contorting, collapsing, fainting and similar manifestations in Christianity?

texts:
I'm interested in learning about the origins and evolution throughout Church history of manifestations such as shaking, trembling, jerking, contorting, collapsing or fainting attributed to the Holy Spirit (i.e., not due to a diagnosed medical condition). For further context, I posted a related question asking for the neurological and psychological causes of these manifestations on Psychology.SE. Feel free to check it out.
For illustrative purposes, here are two testimonials about these manifestations that were recorded in 1995 during the first few months after the beginning of the Brownsville Revival:

Brownsville Revival - Alison Ward Testimony - August 18, 1995
Amy Elizabeth Ward Mercy Seat Alison Ward Brownsville Revival Pensacola FL

I understand that events such as the Toronto Blessing (1994) and the Brownsville Revival (1995) have played a very influential role in promoting these manifestations the last two or three decades, but, what about the past? Were these relatively recent events pioneer regarding these manifestations or can we find older records of similar manifestations in Church history? What are the oldest records?

Update based on @Jurp's answer: according to Wikipedia the oldest records of these manifestations in Protestantism would pertain to the First Great Awakening that took place in the 18th century. However, it would seem very strange to me if there were no records prior to that. Is it truly the case that there are no records of these manifestations during the first 17 centuries of Christianity and that they suddenly began to take place from the 18th century onward? If so, why?


texts: Does the HMHS Britannic wreck still have a grand staircase or any staterooms?

texts: Does the wreck of HMHS Britannic still have a grand staircase or any staterooms or were they all removed prior to being converted into a hospital ship?


texts: Identify this two mast one funnel side paddle-steamer boat circa 1900

texts: I am trying to identify this side paddle wheel steamer. Looks like a wedding party just forward of the sail. Can't ID the flag. Image/photo is gelatin silver so early 1900s most probably.


texts: Why did Germany request compensation after the Agadir (2nd Moroccan) crisis?

texts:
The way I learned it, France sent troops to Morocco to suppress revolts there on the request of the Sultan. Germany saw it as France trying to take over Morocco and sent a gunboat to Agadir. Their goal was to pressure France into giving them compensation for such an action.

But why should Germany get compensation from France for sending troops to Morocco? To me, it seems like Morocco is completely unrelated to Germany. I mean, couldn't they have just sent a whole fleet of battleships over to France directly and demand compensation that way?


texts:
In the movie "Kingdom of Heaven", Saladin was portrayed as somewhat agnostic. He has been portrayed this way in literature as well, if I recall correctly.

Is there a basis to this?


texts: Were commandants in Kamchatka from the Army or the Navy?

texts:
The Imperial Russian Navy operated out of Kronstadt, next to St. Petersburg. Well before sending the Nadezhda and Neva into the Pacific in 1803, the empire had Pacific ports like Okhotsk, accessible by land from Yakutsk, as well as several in Kamchatka, generally reached by sea. Okhotsk had a shipyard, as well as a commandant who was tried by the Admiralty (thanks @PieterGeerkens), but I can't tell yet if the Kamchatka commandants were in the navy too.

During Catherine the Great's rule (1762-1796), to which military force and commandant were the Kamchatka detachments in Bolsheretsk and Nizhnekamchatsk responsible?


texts: Hynniewtrep National Liberation Council: Listed by India from when to when?

texts:
From when to when has the Hynniewtrep National Liberation Council been on India's list of organizations declared as terrorist organizations?

Wikipedia says it started on 16 November 2000 but the reference does not seem to support that theory.

It seems to be getting less active, and actually it is not on India's list anymore.

Question: When did they enter the list, and when did they leave it?


texts: Why did the US use so much ordnance during the Vietnam War?

texts:
Never 100% on these numbers but the US evidently dropped c. 4000000 tons of bombs, including c. 400,000 of napalm, on South Vietnam, around 2000000 on Laos, over 2500000 on Cambodia, and 1000000 on North Vietnam--no/little napalm in those three countries. These numbers are often juxtaposed with figures from WW2, which are roughly 200,000 tons of bombs dropped on Japan (c. 40,000, rounded, for the nuclear TNT equivalence), iirc c. 10,000 tons of napalm there.

Now the United States Strategic Bombing Survey (the one, idk if there were more than one, about the air war vs. Japan) said, I think, that ~500 tons of bombs in an explosive/antipersonnel/incendiary cascade, could be enough to devastate a city (not sure what size range was indicated but the Tokyo firebombing involved ~1750 tons of napalm iirc) and...

... Well also there was an article in the Air Force Magazine (or maybe it was just a magazine with the title Air Force) way back in 1961 that said 10000000 tons of bombs would be the order of magnitude required to level the Soviet Union.

I have seen a few distinct reports from pilots who were confused as to why they were instructed to constantly drop bombs irrespective of targets. I know the "theory" of the Ho Chi Minh trail but I am not looking for an American-propaganda explanation...


texts:
I'm writing a research paper on Napoleon; on how his tactics make him the best military general of all time

There are many battles I could use that illustrate his tactical prowess, but I am not sure how I should structure them

Should I make each section of the paper on a specific section of the war and outline his tactical victories in each section? Or should I make each section a particular tactic and outline all his successes with that tactic.

I am leaning towards the former; but I don't know which of the coalitions (1st coalition, 2nd, etc) I should use; this is only a 1000 word paper


texts: Are any archeological remains found from the Yellow Sea, China

texts:
During the last ice age when the sea level was lower, much of the continental shelf was exposed. For example, the North Sea was previously a low-lying region which is called "Doggerland".

There are multiple finds of bone fish-spears, flint axes and so on. Some are found by dredging, some by divers. These provide evidence that the region was inhabited by Mesolithic peoples. source1 source2 source3

At that time the Yellow Sea, and particular the Bo Hai Bay, was above sea-level. And Neolithic China was featured multiple sites around the Yellow Sea. source4

Is there archaeological evidence that the Bo Hai Bay and the Yellow Sea region were inhabited at the end of the ice age? Have there been any archaeological finds from the seabed?


texts: Did Helsinki have higher standards of living than Saint Petersburg when it was a part of the Russian Empire?

texts: For over a century Finland was a part of the Russian Empire. It seems that overall Finland was significantly richer than Russia proper in the early XX century (look at these estimates). Was Helsinki in specific more developed that Saint-Petersburg? If so why didn't the Russian elites move to Helsinki? Also were there other instances when a colony was more developed that the metropole?


texts: How was a line looped under a sailing vessel for keelhauling?

texts:
The Wikipedia article on keelhauling says:

  The sailor was tied to a line that looped beneath the vessel, thrown overboard on one side of the ship, and dragged under the ship's keel, either from one side of the ship to the other, or the length of the ship (from bow to stern).

What I can't figure out is, how did the sailors manage to run a line under the ship? Having a diver swim it across seems prohibitively dangerous, especially on big ships, and even more so for lines running bow to stern. And I can't think of any other way to get a rope from one side to the other without getting snagged.

Is there any historical record of how this was accomplished? If not, I would also welcome reasonable speculation.


texts: Around the time of Columbus, were there other failed attempts?

texts:
In 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue. He sailed farther than anyone else had ever done, on three tiny ill-equipped ships. After days of sailing he finally reached his intended destination and discovered the Westward sea route to the East Indies.

Unfortunately he didn't actually reach his goal. Fortunately for me, he discovered the new world.

Were there other explorers heading out into the unknown and uncharted waters Westward from Spain, England, or Portugal that failed? In other words, everyone remembers the winner, and second place is another word for loser. Who were some also-rans?


texts: Origin of "The grass did not grow where Attila had passed"

texts:
Legend says that where Attila's horse passed grass did not grow again. For example, a variant of this quote can be found on Biographay.com's entry on the man.

What was the first use of this phrase or any of their variations?

Sometimes it's even atributed to Attila himself.

I want to know what historian/writer/chronicler recorded it for the first time.


texts: Is there any corroborating evidence for the story of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego?

texts:
Is there any historical evidence from the Babylonian or Persian side corroborating the story of Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego found in Daniel chapters 1-3? What is the general state of records of events from that time area? What sources are available to research the validity of the Biblical account?

Such public miracle would likely have been documented by multiple sources. Are there surviving sources other than the Old Testament Scriptures? Are there validated reasons to take this particular Biblical account as accurate history? A modern day skeptic like me would say that the Jews could have just made the story up.


texts: In the First Barbary War, how long was the USS Philadelphia aground?

texts:
During the First Barbary War.  The USS Philadelphia was giving chase to a Barbary Corsair in the bay of Tripoli when she ran aground October 31, 1803.   Captain Bainbridge at first gave orders to put on sail and try to push the USS Philadelphia over the reef she was beached upon. The effort failed only driving the ship further aground.   Next Captain Bainbridge gave orders to make the ship lighter by among other things throwing the cannons overboard.   Finally Captian Bainbridge tried to scuttle the ship,  destroyed his gunpowder and raised the white flag without contest condemning 307 US service men to slavery in Tripoli until the end of the first Barbary War; 10 June 1805 when the United States agreed to pay for their freedom.

After Bainbridge's surrender, the USS Philadelphia was re-floated and renamed "Gift from Allah" and became the prize of the Tripolitan Pirates.   In February 16, 1804; Lieutenant Stephen Decatur, Jr would lead an assault team into Tripoli Harbor and would burn the USS Philadelphia to deny it to the Tripolians.

  Lord Horatio Nelson, known as a man of action and bravery, is said to have called this "the most bold and daring act of the Age."

How long after the beaching of the USS Philadelphia was it refloated and added to the Bey's Pirate fleet?

Sources:
The U.S.S. Philadelphia
The First Barbary War
The Most Daring Act of the Age


texts: Is this a true quote of Engels about vague Russian leaders and their vague followers?

texts:
In the recent movie "The Young Karl Marx", Engels refers to Russian communist leaders being confused and finding confused followers.

Is this a true quote and if yes, whom did he mean?


texts: Why do central European nations use the color black as their national colors?

texts:
We all know that national colors exists, often associated directly with the flag of a nation. Red and white for example are one of the most frequently used colors world wide by many nations (Austria, Poland, Japan, Indonesia, ...), also blue (US, France, UK, Russia).

Black on the other side today is only used by one of the major nations: Germany. It was also used in the past by its predecessor states, the Third Reich, the German Empire, and also many of the different German states before unification like Prussia. Austria also used Black in combination with Yellow for most of its history and only abandoned that after World War One around 1920.

Which leads us to my question - why are the central Europe nations the only major nations to use the color black as their national colors in the past and today? Does it symbolize something special?


texts: Why didn't the Communist Party in Czechoslovakia use the military to suppress the protests during the Velvet Revolution?

texts: I've been reading a bit about the fairly peaceful transition of power in Czechoslovokia through the protests throughout the country, but I'm wondering, why didn't the ruling party attempt to bring the military to the streets to shut down the protesters with force?


texts: Have voice actors ever been used to impersonate military or political officials to trick the enemy into doing something?

texts: I am mostly referring to WW2 and cold war when embedded spies could have impersonated officials on low levels to carry out orders which were never issued.


texts: How widespread were major dynasties which did not follow agnatic succession or male primogeniture?

texts:
Agnatic succession - as far as monarchic rule - is a way of determining the rules for the next monarch by declaring the eldest surviving child of the current monarch as the heir (typically, male child if any are alive - e.g. male primogeniture), but in rare cases going against Salic law origins, any children, like in Sweden or 21st century United Kingdom).

How widespread were sizeable monarchies in Europe that didn't follow Agnatic succession?

Wiki mentions a couple in Agnatic Seniority page, e.g. Rus' Rurikids, Poland, Anjou and Morocco for non-Europe.
What about sizeable monarchies in Europe that followed Agnatic succession without male primogeniture?

Wiki mostly mentions Sweden as an example.
Same questions for non-European ones.

Please note that I'm not merely seeking individual examples not covered by the Wiki, but more interested in how widespread the situation was than in having 1-2 specific examples, and reasons for why not (Salic law?).

The time period I'm interested in is 500CE=>1800CE. - this excludes House of Saud, or Tabloid Dynasty.

By "sizeable monarchies", I mean dynasties which lasted for at least 3 generations, and controlled a territory larger than 500,000 km2 or a population over 100,000.


texts: What is Seneca the Younger referring to about Pompey's death?

texts:
In Seneca the Younger's "On Tranquility of the Mind", he writes:

"You are rich: but are you richer than Pompey? Yet even he lacked bread and water when Gaius, his old relation and new host, had opened  the house of Caesar to him so that he could close his own. Though he possessed so many rivers flowing from source to mouth in his own lands, he had to beg for drops of water. He died of hunger and thirst in a kinsman's palace, and while he starved his heir was organizing a state funeral for him."

What is he talking about? Wasn't Pompey stabbed to death?


texts: Effect of natural environment on the development of cultures

texts:
Let there be this quantitative question: how do the specifics of a natural environment influence the development of a newborn culture?

Following are the specifics of the question:

Which environmental factors are to be considered relevant here? Is it
the climate, temperature zone, humidity, weather characteristics,
fertility of land, local ecosystems and animals, availability of
resources, natural dangers and diseases, etc.? Where in the cultural mosaic do these specific factors manifest themselves (one by one)?
Can the natural environment be a decisive factor in the development
of a culture? Take the (un)availability of basic resources (foods)
for example: can this be a determining factor in developing into,
say, a liberal or restrictive/hostile society? Etc. What other
decisive factors could be considered here (if any) - and to which
societal characteristics should they lead?
To flesh out the explanation in all angles, do you have any
qualitative examples that may be shown here? (as in significant environmental
factors on cultures in the classical mediterranean, in the viking
society, etc. ...)
A bonus question (to be able to apply all that theory onto
something): what could an underground society (lots of rocks and
caves) develop into, culture-wise? (assuming that some limited
amounts of sunlight and food sources are available). Note: if this sub-question seems too vague (as in lacking some required data), feel free to use your imagination (to add that lacking data to the big picture by yourself).


texts: More cases of visiting politicians having their own entourage/followers beat up protesters?

texts:
During a recent visit of Turkey's president Erdogan to Washington, his bodyguards (and maybe other members of the entourage) attacked a small group of protestors. This is odd insofar as, it is a blatant and very visible violation of the host countries monopoly of force - the protestors where not directly threatening Erdogan or members of his entourage, so there was no justification of self defense.

The only other similar incident I can think of was the visit of Persian Shah Palevi to Berlin in 1967, when so-called 'Jubelperser' attacked (aided by the police). According to this article, the 'Jubelperser' where SAVAK agents, other (German language) sources claim they where recruited among Shah loyalists living in Germany and led by SAVAK personnel.

Did, since the end of WWII, another such incident happen anywhere?

To be clear, I am not interested in self defense by bodyguards.


texts: How did people wash dishes before dish detergent?

texts: Using a sponge and dish detergent is a convenient way to clean one's dishes and utensils, but how did people clean their dishes before the invention of dish detergent?


texts: Is Zonaras' epitome of Cassius Dio the fullest surviving ancient annalistic account of Roman history for the period 292–265 BC?

texts:
Is the Byzantine historian Zonaras' epitome of Cassius Dio's   Roman History (as presented alongside Dio's fragments in the Loeb edition of the Roman History) our fullest surviving ancient annalistic account of Roman history for the years 292–265 BC?

To the best of my knowledge, this period also receives  coverage from Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Diodorus Siculus and Appian, though their surviving annalistic narratives are fragmentary.

Is there any other surviving annalistic source that is superior to those mentioned above?

(NB: This discussion is restricted to sources containing full-length annalistic accounts of Roman affairs, excluding Plutarch's Life of Pyrrhus which falls in the genre of biography.)


texts:
Are there any known phrases that were used by Romans to celebrate or cheer for the Republic?

I've searched for some phrases I came up with, like Ave Res Publica, and some other derivatives I've gathered from google translator, which is not the most trustworthy Latin source. I just couldn't find a single occurrence of any such phrasing.

p.s.
Ave Res Publica !!!


texts: To whom does Jefferson refer in the "Tree of Liberty" quote?

texts:
The famous tree of liberty quote, in full reads:

  God forbid we should ever be 20 years without such a rebellion. The people cannot be all, & always well informed. The part which is wrong will be discontented in proportion to the importance of the facts they misconceive. If they remain quiet under such misconceptions it is a lethargy, the forerunner of death to the public liberty.  We have had 13 states independent 11 years. There has been one rebellion. That comes to one rebellion in a century & a half for each state. What country before ever existed a century & a half without a rebellion? & what country can preserve it's liberties if their rulers are not warned from time to time that their people preserve the spirit of resistance? Let them take arms. The remedy is to set them right as to facts, pardon & pacify them.** What signify a few lives lost in a century or two? The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots & tyrants. It is it's natural manure.

My question is, who is Jefferson referring to when he says "The remedy is to set them right as to facts..."

Because right before the previous sentence "Let them take arms." is referring to the rebels during Shays Rebellion, so it is assumed the "them" in the second sentence would also be the rebels, but if that is the case, would it not be contradicting the whole letter up to this point if them was referring to the same people who Jefferson  just said periodic rebellion is necessary?

Is the them in the second sentence referring to the governing body at the time and NOT the rebels?


texts: Did the Portuguese get anything in return when they handed back Macau?

texts: In 1999, Portugal fully returned Macau to China. However, did they get something for giving Macau back to China, or was it just a sign of good faith and decolonization in general?


texts: Was the use of imperial nicknames in ancient Rome meant as an insult?

texts:
A few Roman emperors are commonly known by nicknames.  I'm thinking specifically of the Emperors Gaius (Caligula) and Antoninus (Caracalla.)  These nicknames were never in official use, at least while they were alive.  However, they seem to be by far the most commonly used names for said emperors today.

My question is whether the use of these nicknames after the deaths of these  emperors is meant as an insult or a sign of contempt, or whether they were simply used for the sake of distinguishing one emperor from another of the same name (as with Antoninus, a name used by more than one emperor.)  I ask because both of the listed emperors are widely regarded as two of the worst in Roman history.  Caligula and Caracalla seemed to be used during those emperors' lives informally as agnomens, and both are based on pieces of clothing they wore.  And Caligula, or "Little Boots", does seem kind of insulting or mocking as a nickname, referring as it does to the little soldier's boots that young Gaius wore while hanging around his father, the general Germanicus, while on campaign with the legions.  (The implication of "Caracalla", translating as something like "Gallic cloak" supposedly based upon a style of cloak he liked to wear, is a little less clear to me.)


texts: What is the origin of this joke about matchmaking?

texts:
The joke is told with references to Bill Gates and the World Bank, like so:

  I told my son, “You will marry the girl I choose.” He said, “NO!” I
  told him, “She is Bill Gates’ daughter.” He said, “OK.” I called Bill
  Gates and said, “I want your daughter to marry my son.” Bill Gates
  said, “NO.” I told Bill Gates, My son is the CEO of World Bank.” Bill
  Gates said, “OK.” I called the President of World Bank and asked him
  to make my son the CEO. He said, “NO.” I told him, “My son is Bill
  Gates’ son-in-law.” He said, “OK.” Reddit

Many jokes are actually quite old and recycled so I suspect this one may have been refreshed with the contemporary references, but it's difficult to search for a previous version without those references. I'm looking for a more high-brow (i.e. older/more respectable) source and form of that joke, presumably devoid of the contemporary references, possibly with equivalent historical references.


texts: Typology and the cause of difference between European medieval kingship?

texts:
Western Medieval Catholic kings and nobility in Britain, France, Spain and Portugal, Italy, Germany and Austria share certain distinctive common features that can be summed under the term of vassalage that are less present in Hungary and Poland, possibly also in Scandinavia. I am referring to the tradition of local autonomy of noble fiefs, integrated withing a pyramid of vassalage but very stable and distinct for hundreds of years. Many such fiefs operated as separate states or as states within states  - not far from a federative structure, within which the power of kings was tempered by that of his nobles, and that of the great lords by the power of their vassals.

In Poland and Hungary kingship was not hereditary, but elective. Why this difference? Is a Germanic versus a non-Germanic order at play here? What was the situation in Scandinavia?

"Modern states" means in the Western part of Europe the dissolution of this system and the centralization of kingdoms ("absolutism"). But a different kind of absolutism was typical in Eastern Europe namely in the Orthodox Christian realm (Russia, Bulgaria, Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia) were a system of Byzantine origin seems to have prevailed. In some cases nobles had no stable fiefs (wasn't this the case in Poland too?) and the King/Prince had absolute power on these (as well as on the nobility status). In some cases the leadership was not hereditary but the power was absolutist. Was this really a Byzantine (or even Roman) feature or is there a different origin at play?

Other interesting aspects here may be the different roles played by religion - the presence and absence of Catholicism (in the differences between Catholic and Orthodox rulers and nobility)  and the initial rivalry between the Pope and the (Western) Emperor (can that count in explaining the difference between Germany and the more centralized kingdoms?).


texts: Why did Hitler attack the Soviet Union when he was still busy fighting the United Kingdom?

texts:
During World War 2, Hitler was fighting a war with Great Britain, but while fighting that war, he attacked the Soviet Union. Everyone knows that having to fight on two opposite fronts at once is bad... and it's also a well known fact that every European country which tried to invade Russia has always been thoroughly beaten.

So apart from the standard "he was a crazy guy bent on taking over the world" answer, what was the rationale behind launching a full-scale attack on the Soviet Union while still actively fighting the British Empire?


texts:
Can someone identify the era, nationality, crew and type of boat from this albumen photo? Note small cannon on far left. Thanks

We can add few more close-ups if necessary.


texts:
I am looking for information about Dr Johannes Pohl. According to David G. Roskies in Against the Apocalypse, Pohl was a member of Einsatzstab Reichsleiter Rosenberg, which was tasked with cataloging all of the books in the library of Vilna and determining which was of benefit to a planned Museum of the Orient and which was pulp.

I am interested because, according to Roskies, Pohl had studied for a period of time at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, was at least reasonably conversant with Hebrew and had a familiarity with rabbinic literature that certainly exceeded that of his boss, Dr Alfred Rosenberg. I have thus far, however, been unable to find mention of him in any of the sources at my disposal.

Regrettably, I do not read German, so sources in English, Hebrew or Yiddish would be preferred. That said, if anybody has some German information, I could certainly get it translated! Thank you.


texts: Are there any surviving military textbooks from the Napoleonic era?

texts: Napoleon attended school for military officers, so it stands to reason they would have some books around which they based their curriculum. Are there any complete and publicly available recordings of such books (from any nation at this time period) available?


texts: Why would 19th century parents make their babies wear stiffened bodices?

texts:
I found a free source of the German women's magazine "Der Bazar" which often contains patterns for sewing various items of clothing or decorative items. One particular issue (Der Bazar Nr. 19, 11. Mai 1896, 42. Jahrgang on page 224) contains:

The translation of the image description is:

jacket, blouse and bodice for babies

Unfortunately the actual pattern paper where the detailed description would have been is lost.
Now my understanding of the depicted item is that

it's not a corset in the common (modern) sense of the word, because it has no steel or whalebone stiffening.
The vertical lines are most probably cording that gives the garment some stiffness, but much less than steel or whalebone would have done.
The type of closure means that the garment would fit closely to the body, but not constrict it.

I'm well aware that corsets were an indispensable item of clothing for women at that time - to shape the fashionable silhouette and support the bust, but until now I assumed that girls would start wearing corsets with the onset of puberty or a few years before that.
Why would parents in the 19th century make their babies wear stiffened bodices?
The magazine writes boastful:

Die ganze Babyausstattung unserer Zeit ist praktisch geworden und dabei dem zarten Reiz des Kindes durchaus angemessen geblieben.
[...]
Alles, was mit den zarten Geschöpfen in Berührung kommt, ist vormvollendet und zugleich auf die sanitäre Wirkung hin berechnet.

translated:

All the baby equipment of our time has become practical, while remaining quite appropriate to the delicate charm of the child.
[...]
Everything that comes into contact with the delicate creatures is perfect in form and at the same time calculated for the sanitary effect.

So I assume they had some practical reason for stiffened baby bodices, but the magazine doesn't mention it with even a single word. The magazine also mentions that baby boys would have worn clothes identical to baby girls, so I'm not sure if this type of bodice was exclusively for girls or not.
Edit: I found more examples of a corset or stays-like item intended for babies, but non of them are clearly dated. Please notice the reoccurring vertical stripes.

Image source
Bottom row: corset for infants from 6 months to 3 years and from 6 months to 4 years.

Image source


texts: Where was the pre-war (ww2) border between Poland and Germany?

texts:
I am interested in mapping the pre-war (WWII) border between Poland and Germany.

Is there any data available in a public resource? Can anyone describe waypoints along the border in terms of modern day cities and towns, or better yet longitude and latitude data for the frontier?


texts: What is the largest overnight depreciation?

texts:
What is the largest overnight currency depreciation? How large, which currency and when?

When examining historical records of currency depreciation, it is helpful to have a better understanding of what is normal, so that one can understand the impact of an abnormally large depreciation.


texts: Why did Germany attack Neutral Belgium in the first world war?

texts: I have a basic idea about the Schieffen plan and I know that Germany attacked Belgium in the First world war. But I am slightly confused about this topic, as despite the fact that the schieffen plan did involve taking the French by Surprise, a proposal with Belgium to let the German troops pass would’ve been a lot faster and would’ve meant less blood-shed and gore. This raises the chance that Germany, may instead have been trying a country expansion or a conquest just like they did with Alsace and Lorraine. There is one other chance, which is whether Germany attacked Belgium because they had a treaty with Britain where if they were attacked Britain would step in (Britain were in the triple entente). So, I was just wondering which of this is the most likely reason as to why Germany chose to attack neutral Belgium?


texts: Racism Amongst People of Germanic Ancestry in NAZI Germany

texts:
Hitler wanted to promote the "master Aryan race" of blonde haired blue eyed people, but even in Germany, many Germans could not have passed this standard: large numbers looked Eastern Europe and French or other ethnicities. Hitler believed the people of Germany and other Germanic countries contained the most blood of the Aryans, but that their bloodlines needed to be protected and improved from the harmful intermarriages that had been ongoing for centuries.

So what was life like for a Germany citizen that looked like the wrong "racial background?" Were they ignored, drafted, given extra labor duties, the subject of more police targeting? Were there groups they couldn't join like the SS or others, even if their German bloodline was provable?

Was there real discrimination against them?

Did Hitler or anyone in the NAZI Party have a future plan to eventually clean out the ethnic diversity of the German populace?


texts: What happened to horses when cars became popular?

texts:
Horse populations were greatly reduced as cars became prevalent: http://www.cowboyway.com/What/HorsePopulation.htm

What happened to the surplus horses during that period, say, in the USA? Or was the transition slow enough that not breeding new horses was enough?


texts: What proportion of the Arab population of Palestine pre-1948 came from families that lived there before 1880?

texts: It is known that the population of Palestine increased greatly between, say, 1880 and 1948. Apart from Jewish immigration there was also considerable Arab immigration (partly related to the economic impetus the Jews immigrants supplied to the land). Are there statistics that say which proportion of the Arabs in Palestine in 1948 came from families that lived there before 1880?


texts: Why did US helicopters suffer mechanical failures in Operation Eagle Claw?

texts:
The Wikipedia entry about it says,

  The operation encountered many obstacles and was eventually aborted.
  Eight helicopters were sent to the first staging area, Desert One, but
  only five arrived in operational condition.[3] One encountered
  hydraulic problems, another got caught in a cloud of very fine sand,
  and the last one showed signs of a cracked rotor blade. During
  planning it was decided that the mission would be aborted if fewer
  than six helicopters remained, despite only four being absolutely
  necessary.[3] In a move that is still discussed in military circles,
  the field commanders advised mission abort, which President Carter
  accepted and confirmed.[4]

  As the U.S. force prepared to leave, one of the helicopters crashed
  into a transport aircraft which contained both servicemen and jet
  fuel. The resulting fire destroyed both aircraft and killed eight
  servicemen.[3] Operation Eagle Claw was one of Delta Force's first
  missions.[5][Note 1]

It also says,

  While en route, Bluebeard 6 was grounded and abandoned in the desert
  when its pilots interpreted a sensor indication as a cracked rotor
  blade. Its crew was picked up by Bluebeard 8. The remaining
  helicopters ran into an unexpected weather phenomenon known as a
  haboob[14] (fine particles of sand suspended to a milky consistency in
  the air following dissipation of a thunderstorm). Bluebeard 5 flew
  into the haboob, but abandoned the mission and returned to the Nimitz
  when erratic flight instrumentation (altitude indicator) made flying
  without visual reference points impossible.

Why did Bluebeard 6's rotor crack? Was it caused by bad weather or unknown mechanical failure or something else?

Did the haboob cause any failures of the helicopters?

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Eagle_Claw


texts: How deep would a Roman Marian cohort's battle line be, in a melee?

texts:
Are there any estimates for how deep a Roman battle line was, under Marius, at the level of a cohort? Whether the line was 3, 6, or another number of ranks deep?
I'd suppose 3 would be a minimum, and something like 4 would be more standard?
I would settle for estimates for a pre-Marian Roman line.


texts: What's the backstory behind the US federal regulation that requires buses to stop at railway crossings?

texts:
This Travel SE question's accepted answer raises that there's a Federal Regulation in the US, namely 49 CFR § 392.10 - Railroad grade crossings; stopping required, that requires buses that transport passengers to stop at railway crossings whether a train is coming or not.

Cornel's website has a few links to amendments. Language related to this seems to be present in the 1970 and 1973 amendments. The Federal Register link for 1968 is broken but the Library of Congress has a 392.10 reference titled "Railroad grade crossings; stop-ping required" that from a cursory read suggests it was around then. More specifically, a note on page 19700 (thanks Nate Eldredge!) suggests that the paragraph 292 became 392 in 1968, and that the regulation was introduced even earlier. The Federal Register, unfortunately, doesn't allow to search for docs from earlier than 1994, so my search to locate the earlier text was fruitless.

There were a few major train accidents in the past with some of them related to the US. Cursory search yields e.g. Prestonburg, Kentucky, in 1958; Greely, Colorado, in 1961; or Spring City, Tennessee, 1955; among other crashes. There's always the possibility, of course, that the regulation simply was some official who thought it was a good idea and threw it in in passing, but this seems weirdly too specific so I would imagine some school bus related train crash or something equally awful occurred a few weeks or months before the regulation got introduced.

When was this introduced exactly, and what was the backstory that led to this regulation?


texts: When was divorce made illegal again in Ireland?

texts:
Divorce has been legal in the UK for a long time (since Henry VII obviously). Ireland was part of the UK since 1800 (Act of Union of 1800), so I assume that civil divorce was legal in Ireland in the 19th century (right?).

However Ireland only recently legalised civil divorce in 1995 (Fifteenth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland), so at what point was civil divorce made illegal in Ireland?


texts: Does anyone know what day(s) the Dacian calendar year started on?

texts:
The Dacian calendar is supposedly one of the most accurate calendars of ancient times. I've found generalities about the overall composition of the calendar, like it has three seasons, instead of 4. Summer is 21 weeks, then autumn and winter are 13 weeks each.

"The Dacian calendar was based on a 13-year cycle, ending with a correction day. The same calculations show that a Dacian year was 47 weeks. Users of this calendar scored 8 weeks of 8 days, followed by a week of 7 days, three weeks of 8 days and a week of 6 days. Consequently, the year had, in Dacians, when 365, when 364, when 367 days, exactly in that order. The year did not start on a fixed date, as in the Gregorian calendar today, but on the same day of the week." From Steem.

In my net research, I have not found the approximate day(s) the Dacian new year starts on in comparison to the Gregorian calendar. As an example, the first day of the Persian calendar, known as Nowruz (نوروز), is equivalent to March 21st of the Gregorian calendar, or Chinese New Year, Zhōngguó Xīn Nián (中國新年), is on a date between January 21st and February 20th on the Gregorian Calendar. Any help finding this group of days for the Dacian New year would be greatly appreciated.


texts: Who inherited from the pre- World War II German states?

texts:
The German states (aka Länder) have been completely reshaped after WWII and I wonder: Which current German states inherited laws and state-owned property from the former pre-WWII states?

In states that were preserved across the war this should be straightforward, but what about:

The states that merged after the war

Mecklenburg (Mecklenburg-Schwering & Mecklenburg-Strelitz)
Baden-Württemberg (Baden & Württemberg)

The states that disappeared

Prussia
Lübeck
Lippe
Schaumburg-Lippe
Oldenburg
Brunswick


texts: Convict stowaways crossing the Pacific in 1796

texts:
According to H.H. Bancroft's "History of California", in 1796, English convicts stowed away on the Otter in Botany Bay, and were forced ashore in California at gunpoint. Governor Borica was ordered by the Viceroy to send the stowaways back to Spain. Against his own will and interests, he shipped the ten men and one woman off to San Blas, Nayarit, supposedly en route to Cadiz, Spain.

According to Davis's "Seventy-five Years in San Francisco", on October 6th, 1797, the "American ship, [of] Captain Dows forcibly put on shore eleven foreigners from his vessel".

Did the stowaways ever make it onto a ship on the Atlantic? How did their odyssey end?


texts: Was homosexuality illegal during the early Muslim rule of the Indian subcontinent?

texts:
Was homosexuality punished under the early Muslim rule in India, beginning with the Umayyad conquest of Punjab and Sinh in 712? The early Muslims were Arabs and part of a universal caliphate. After the caliphate collapsed, they were replaced in India by the Persian Samanid Empire, and the Persianised Ghaznavid dynasty.

Thus, unlike the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire in the 13th and 16th centuries, which were largely confined to India and became progressively more native, the earlier Islamic regimes were wholly foreign and based outside of India.


texts: Did medieval Icelanders write with runes?

texts:
The land-taking of Iceland took place while Norse culture wrote short texts such as inscriptions using runes (during the transition from the Elder to the Younger Futhark). Runes are closely identified with the Old Norse religion, and the Poetic Edda, an Icelandic work describing Norse tradition, calls them divinely inspired. Despite the runic letter thorn being revived in Rask's orthography for Icelandic, Byock's book "Viking Age Iceland" does not mention any runic inscription, nor does my web search reveal any.

Volcanic rock is hard to work and wood was scarce, but the Vikings did
have enough smooth stones for pavers, and enough wood for interior paneling. There are several Faroese and Irish runestones, and those were from smaller colonies. Admittedly runestones were more popular in what is
now Sweden than in Norway, from where most Icelandic settlers embarked, but were there none at all, or so few there that none survive?


texts: What can I learn about family crest number 11?

texts:
Hello I am trying to find out some information on this family crest:

Is this crest related to this mon?

I have a full samurai suit of armor with this mark.


texts:
Why did human decide to take track of time? how did human find out about time first? and when and how did they felt some thing called time? there are some guesses but I want to know if there is any thing recorded from then.
Because the concept of "time" is so weird, even now it's so weird and abstract to me and it's man-made, didn't used to exist before we define it. so it came into my mind, how did people create such concept.
PS: my question is NOT a duplicate of this one


texts: Did the 1918 flu pandemic affect travel within USA, and in what ways?

texts:
I was looking for information on whether the 1918 flu pandemic made it difficult to travel locally within USA, and in what ways.

I found this article that talks about how the St. Louis (Missouri) city government implemented an emergency order that closed schools, theaters, pool halls, playgrounds, churches, taverns, and other public places. The order also restricted attendance at funerals and limited streetcar travel to seated passengers.

However I have not found similar information about other localities.

Considering that the flu killed an estimated 670,000 largely working-age people in the USA, it seems that many cities were probably heavily affected by it.

Is there historical information on the effect the 1918 flu pandemic had on travel within USA?


texts: Are there known cultures which did not get it that it takes a man to create a child?

texts:
In Patrick Rothfuss' "Kingkiller Chronicle", a fantasy epic, the Adem are a nation of warriors where both sexes are equal. Apart from using sign language and being quite libertarian about sex, the women have the quirk that they do not believe that men have any influence about child bearing, they call it disparagingly the "belief of a man-mother". Their idea is that women "ripe" when they are ready and having regularly sex hides the constant gap of nine months.
While the example is based on a fantasy epic, the idea is kind of fascinating.

Are there or have been any known cultures on Earth which really did not get it that men are necessary to create children?


texts: Why didn't the British consider the USS President's attempted flight as a fake surrender?

texts:
In the War of 1812, the USS President was captured by the Royal Navy.

Wikipedia gives the final actions of the day:

  President ceased fire at 7:58 pm and hoisted a light in her rigging, indicating that she had surrendered ... Following the standard practice, Endymion ceased fire and hove to for repairs once President had surrendered. Endymion could not immediately take possession of her prize, as she had no usable boats; Decatur took advantage of the situation, despite having struck, and made off to escape at 8:30 pm. Endymion hastily completed repairs and resumed the chase at 8:52 pm. At 9:05, Pomone and Tenedos came up with the heavily damaged President, unaware that she had already struck. Pomone fired two ineffective broadsides (there was minimal damage to President's starboard side) into her, following which Decatur hailed to say that he had surrendered. Shortly afterwards, Captain Lumley of Pomone took possession of President.

By attempting to escape, had the President not faked a surrender? This would IMHO qualify as perfidy under modern laws of war, and as a war crime. Yet Wikipedia's article on Stephen Decatur (who was commanding the USS President) indicates the British weren't offended at all:

  Soon Majestic caught up with the British fleet. Decatur, now dressed in full dress uniform, boarded Majestic and surrendered his sword to Captain Hayes. Hayes in a gesture of admiration returned the sword to Decatur saying that he was "proud in returning the sword of an officer, who had defended his ship so nobly." Before taking possession of President, Hayes allowed Decatur to return to his ship to perform burial services for the officers and seamen who had died in the engagement. He was also allowed to write a letter to his wife.

Why would the British not be offended?


texts: Why was whale oil used instead of petroleum?

texts:
I just watched “In the Heart of the Sea” about Moby-Dick and Herman Melville. It seems a lot of labour and danger to kill whales to get oil for light and heating.
Wikipedia says petroleum was known in ancient Persia and also China. Why wasn’t this more explored and used?

world history of oil mentions use in street lights in Poland in 1500, and it seems by then Europe had some idea about oil. Compared to the use of eg. coal it just seems to have been no interest in petroleum until the wells started in Pennsylvania in 1850s.


texts: When the outbreak of World War II was foreseeable, were any European commoners able to pre-emptively emigrate?

texts:
When the outbreak of World War II was foreseeable, or at least a conflict of some proportions was, were any common Europeans able to preemptively emigrate?

From reading some other questions and answers on this site, I've learnt that countries on opposing sides of the war allowed each other's diplomats to safely leave the scene of the action. But what about certain common people who suspected that something was afoot in advance of World War II's outbreak? Were any of these folks able to jump ship?

EDIT: No attempted answers by 2020.


texts: What is the actual Polish street name of the street in Martinau, now Rokitnica, of Strasse der SA?

texts:
My mother who was born in Beuthen/Bytom, but must have lived at least for a while in Martinau, "Strasse der SA 19". I want to go there and find the street.

Martinau was Rokittnitz (part of the Landkreis Beuthen from 1927 on) and was named Martinau from 1936 until 1945. Rokitnica is now a part of Zabrze (*) I think from 1951 on, according to Wikipedia.

Before my mother married my father in Bytom in the year 1941, she must have lived in Martinau. I have a confirmation of the marriage (Bescheinigung der Eheschliessung), in which her address is given as

  Martinau, Strasse der SA 19.

Please help me to find the actual current Polish name of this street in Rokitnica in Zabrze, Poland.

(*) Zabrze also named Hindenburg O.S. 1915-1945


texts: How were concussions treated in late 19th-century America?

texts:
It’s 1899 America, a person has a bleeding head wound after an impact (the rest of their body being unharmed for the sake of the focus question).

They have a concussion and, when they wake up, they will show many symptoms like dizziness, vomiting, doubled vision, severe confusion, and repeated coming into and out of consciousness.

What were the treatments for concussions, or at least their side effects, in this time period?


texts: How did Mao Zedong's policy abuse affect those in the Five Black Categories during the Cultural Revolution?

texts:
Mao Zedong attempted to fragment society by distinguishing between different sectors of society, by labeling those whose presence was a threat to Mao Zedong communist policy the Five Black Categories.

However, one part as too I'm not too sure is how did Mao Zedong act like he did towards those in the Five Black Categories. I could not find much information regarding this particular topic, as presumably most of the papers/articles discussing about this are in Chinese.

So in summary, my question is how did Mao Zedong act like he did towards those in the Five Black Categories (through the military, politically etc.). I would also really appreciate if anyone can link me research papers/articles for further reading.


texts: Did ancient miners have ways of predicting ore/stone deposits?

texts:
When miners in the ancient world went looking for materials in the earth, like gold or iron, did they have ways of predicting where those might be found?  For example, we now know that diamonds are often found in cone-shaped deposits in old volcanos, but that knowledge is related to the study of geology and our understanding of how diamonds are made.

Did ancient miners just find gold on the surface and start digging, or did they have ways of targeting their search and predicting where they might find valuable resources?


texts: Why did Drexler acquiesce to Hitler's demand?

texts:
Quoting Wikipedia:

  Führer was the title demanded by Adolf Hitler to denote his function as the head of the Nazi Party; he received it in 1921 when, infuriated over party founder Anton Drexler's plan to merge with another antisemitic far-right nationalist party, he resigned from the party. Drexler and the party's Executive Committee then acquiesced to Hitler's demand to be made the chairman of the party with "dictatorial powers" as the condition for his return.

What I don't get is why did Drexler submit to Hitler's demand? Hitler's demand is pretty much for Drexler to give up his party to Hitler. What happened that made Drexler did that?


texts: The role of science in enabling the survival of civilisations

texts:
The Claim

asapScience has a video about the role of science in the society. In their video, they claim:

  When we look to history we see that ignoring science has led to the crumbling of societies. Ancient Greece was a time of great learning around around ideas of space, time and light and during the subsequent Roman Empire these ideas were mostly embraced however the Romans were complacent with the learning of the Greeks and little innovation or exploration of new ideas around science and knowledge took place during this era. With shifting government and values, emphasis on reason and science slipped away and Rome eventually fell into the dark ages.

Question

Does it seem that civilisation survival/"health"/thrive correlate with technological advances / investment in science?
Does it seem legit to you to claim that the greeks were "good scientists" and it helped their society while romans were "bad scientists" and this yield to the decline of their society?

Note

I am aware the the term scientist did not exist at that time and I might well be using it poorly. One can replace the term "scientist" by "scholar", "philosopher", "natural philosopher" and "science" by "knowledge exploration" or anything else that might apply.


texts: What is a term for cultural and social influences left by colonial power that has a long-lasting, negative influence?

texts:
I'm currently doing research on colonial effects on North African countries, and one aspect I want to comment on are both the positive and negative effects of the previous colonial power. Some of these are the colonial mentality (colonial inferiority complex) that has permeated (negative effect), as well as through cultural/linguistic imperialism. On the other hand, positive aspects are (some may argue) democratic ideals of governance, economic systems based on free markets, architecture, or social structures.
My analysis is on some of these cultural imperialism after-effects that are still in play today, whether it is elitism, social stratification, and division in ethnic/class backgrounds. The palpable social and cultural influences which have a long-lasting, transgenerational influence due to previous colonization coupled with colonial mentality - is there a term for this?
Acculturation is, as far as I can tell, a method by which describes the process by which social, cultural, and psychological changes may develop between two cultures (i.e., colonial culture adapting to the prevailing culture), but this does not seem to specifically describe this phenomena.
If there are any books/papers on this, as well as a specific term for this effect, that would be very helpful!


texts: Why did the dominance of maize last so long in North America?

texts:
In North America the native corn, maize, was the dominant grain and flour and an important mainstay in the diet. At first it was obviously the only available grain crop, with Old World cereals such as wheat not being introduced. But for what seems an oddly long time - right up to the turn of the 20th century - it remained the favored crop and daily food in many forms (bread, whiskey, etc).

Was the soil particularly favourable towards maize? And were they simply most experienced and accustomed to maize farming before old cereals were introduced widely?
Was it simply a preference that finally phased out with the onset of globalization?
Was there a major export demand to meet? Though this doesn't explain the simple family farms out west.
Is there any other reason it took so long for wheat to take over as the universal mainstay grain and when might this have been, more specifically?

And a little question on the side: if they made their whiskey with corn, did they also use it in beer commonly?


texts: Are there examples of wrong / inaccurate translations that had a major impact?

texts:
Are there examples of wrong or inaccurate translations that had a major impact on the historic course of events (e.g. prevent a conflict from escalate)? And are there examples where the interpreter intentionally made a wrong translation in order to make an impact?
I would like to specify the focus of the question as follows
Are there examples where an individual interpreter has intentionally translated something wrongly with considerable consequences on the historic course of events? I would be particularly interested in such examples of simultaneous translation.


texts: Recommended Reading 19th Century US Settler Daily Life?

texts:
At the time of this writing, I am riding in the comfort of an air conditioned minivan, traveling through the deserts of Arizona and California along I-10. I began to think about 19th century settlers crossing these plains in their covered wagons. Did they cross through this region on their way to Los Angeles, or would they have taken a milder northern route? If they did cross through the desert, where did they get water? Would a single family travel alone with any hope of success?

I have so many questions about the daily life of a settler in the 19th century -- I'm hoping someone can point me to a good published diary or other historical account.


texts: When were domesticated animals tethered on a pole with a rope?

texts:
Domestication of plants and animals are thought to have happened during the neolithic period, roughly between 13000-7000 years ago. Now I'm interested of the history of using rope and central pole to tether animals like goats on the land, where they can eat grass and form a circular area.

Where and when did tethering of the animals happen? Have anyone tried to trace it, or is it too specific for reseach?


texts: Did California mission priests administer, not merely call for, corporal punishment?

texts:
California missions were staffed by a Franciscan priest or two, and a half a dozen soldiers. The former addressed spiritual and administrative concerns and the latter established physical security for the Spanish interests.

Mission neophytes were often physically punished. I assumed that the military units would have used force at the priests' discretion. However, Lorenzo Asisara recalled that in 1812, Donato, a neophyte at Mission Santa Cruz "was punished by" Padre Andres Quintana with a wire-tipped whip. (Donato then convened a group, planned, and executed the torture and assassination of the padre.)

The source is not entirely explicit about who wielded the whip. Did mission priests administer, not merely call for, corporal punishment?


texts: When was the first intentional ricochet fired from a naval artillery?

texts:
Wikipedia states that the first ricochet firing was performed in 1688. This other website says it may have existed in 1587. All those historical events are for cannonballs fired from the ground towards a ground target.
This article says that ricochet fire was performed by "naval gunners" in the 18th century. Thus, this technique was used by both ground and naval artillery.
I'm curious about how fast those usages were transferred and adapted from ground military to naval military in that time.
Let's consider a ricochet fire:

that is fired from a ship
that bounces on water
whose bounce is intentional
whose target is on water

When was such a fire fired for the first time?


texts: Was anyone blamed for Japan's defeat at Tai'erzhuang?

texts:
The battle of Tai'erzhuang was the first major Chinese victory in the Second Sino-Japanese war. IJA 10th and 5th divisions, aiming to take Tai'erzhuang and ultimately Xuzhou, were instead held up in Tai'erzhuang and Linyi respectively. Stuck in bloody urban combat and cut off, the 10th division gave up the small town and retreated after suffering significant casualties.

There were some crucial errors/failures that the Japanese commanders made:

Rensuke Isogai, commander of the 10th division, chose to press forward towards Tai'erzhuang without support from the 5th division or 13th division from the south.
Itagaki Seishiro, commander of the 5th division, was unexpectedly held at Linyi, a humiliating outcome at the time. This prevented the 5th division from effectively supporting the 10th during the battle.
As the 10th division was bogged down in urban combat and being cut off by Tang Enbo's elite forces, 10th division asked for help and the 5th division broke off the attack on Linyi and headed towards Tai'erzhuang. However, at one point Itagaki inexplicably turned back towards Linyi. He later explained that due to communication errors, he thought that Tai'erzhuang was already taken and therefore no longer needed his reinforcements.
All three divisions disregarded Tokyo headquarter's policy for a one-year truce in the first place.

The battle was a close call, with the Chinese defenders suffering 70% casualties and asking HQ for permission to withdraw multiple times, only to be rebuked and asked to fight to the death. Given this, the battle may have turned out differently if the Japanese commanders had not made crucial errors.

Were there any consequences for their failure at Tai'erzhuang? Did anyone bear responsibility? I'm mainly interested in whether anyone was held responsible for the failure or if their careers were harmed somehow.

Note that both Isogai and Itagaki were eventually recalled from front-line service, but to serve as Chief of Staff of the Kwangtung Army and War Minister respectively. On paper neither are demotions.


texts: What buildings could be found in the inner ward of a castle?

texts:
I'm familiar with some different layouts of castles (motte and bailey, concentric,...) and the main parts or areas they have or need (Keep, moat, barbican, ward, cistern, great hall, etc.)

While browsing the web I found this picture of an old castle in York, England.

In an inner ward like that I wouldn't be surprised to find buildings such as:

stables
storage areas
barracks for soldiers; rooms for servants or serfs
bakery; brewery

And, in case these are not in the keep itself, kitchen, chapel, rooms for servants,...

In the picture of the castle in York I see plenty of buildings/structures in the ward, and given the size of the main keep (and the tower that can be seeing on the bottom left corner) I would guess that chapel and kitchen would be in the keep, where there would be some room for soldiers or servants too. I counted like 20 buildings of various sizes and I was surprised to see that many, and wondering what their functions would be.

I don't know if any of the buildings that could be found in the inner (or outer) ward or bailey of a castle could be for example a mill, smith or lodging for important people who can't be hosted inside the main keep.

My question is: in a castle with a ward that size, what kind of buildings can be found inside the ward?


texts:
It seems to be a well-established fact that sharkskin was used as sandpaper. This includes the use of the skin of rays and dog sharks.

My question is:

A. how far back does this practice go?
B. were any other fish types outside of the shark family ever used for this?


texts: What titles did early Welsh rulers hold?

texts:
Before England created Welsh fiefs, what would the rulers of land be called in the area now called Wales? Wales existed as smaller kingdoms, ruled by kings, but were there lesser titles, such as how in England we had dukes and earls and barons?

Wikipedia gives a list of translations of British titles (such as baron to barwn) but these seem to be simply the Welsh translation for English words as opposed to actual titles held by lords. Did early Wales or the early Welsh kingdoms even have lower-ranking lords?


texts: When and why did single deity religions become more popular than multi deity religions?

texts:
In the world at the moment, the most popular religions seem to mostly be religions that worship only one "God", such as Christianity and Islam.

However, in the past there were many religions that worshipped a vast number of "Gods", such as Norse, Greek, Roman, Chinese etc.

Is there a historical reason why these older, multi deity relgions were replaced with religions that worshipped a singular god, and if so, when did this occur?


texts:
In English we have specific words for the main eating utensils:

Fork
Knife
Spoon

These are specifically what we place into our hands for eating.
I am not too aware of what it is like currently in other cultures. The only other one I am aware of is:

Chopsticks

Then we have the surrounding eating utensils (Dishes like Cup, Plate, and Bowl). We also have cooking utensils, of which there are a lot (Prongs, Grader, Pots, Pans, Stove, Spatula, etc.). But those aren't necessarily used for eating itself. There are also many variations on these basic structures (like the Butter Knife, or the Soup Spoon), but here I would just like to focus on the basics. Finally, there are tools used to clean up the mess, like the Napkin or Toothpick, but not too focused on that here either.

For part of the question I would like to know what are all the various main types of eating utensils for the hands, across cultures, of which I can only think of these:

Fork
Knife
Spoon
Chopsticks

Then as part of the history, it would be interesting to know roughly when these were developed if it's not too complicated.


texts: Is there an equivalent in Chinese history to the Spartans?

texts:
One thing the Spartans are known for is their militaristically flavored way of life.
Militaristic Decisions about their further life started as soon as childbirth, when it was decided whether to keep the child in the community or to cast it away.
Education was highly oriented on fighting lessons, the children had to endure every day tests for their stamina like sleeping naked outside or drinking repulsive broths.
It is said, the way of speaking was different from other Greeks, as exemplified but the anecdote of the Lycanian warrior who verbally humiliated another Greek militaristic leader who made a fierce speech by one word: "if".

Is there, in Chinese history, a similar popular trait of war-prone people known for their peculiar way of living, behaving, mentality etc. ?


texts:
While cleaning my house i found some old books written in Chinese. Can anybody tell me what these are? What the books are about and do they have any historical significance?

If this post does not fit into History and to any other SE site please migrate it.


texts: Why do historians distinguish two Industrial revolutions, instead of just one?

texts:
There was a 40 year gap between the two revolutions. Ending in 1830 and starting in 1870. However, why did historians distinguish two revolutions, instead of merging them together?

First Industrial Revolution - 1760 - 1830

Started in Europe
The start of new technology

Steam engines
Textile production
Mass iron production

Second Industrial Revolution - 1870 - 1914

Also started in Europe
Saw improvements of technology, along with new ones

Improved metal works - steel was mass produced
New usage of petroleum/oil
Invention and widespread use of electricity

Those were the main revolutions, however, many of the technologies in the second revolution were constantly being developed between the two time periods. Take the iron furnace for example. First it started off as a blast furnace, but then over time, it evolved into a more efficient method, using advanced purifying techniques, and regenerative cooling.

Another example could be synthetic dye - developed din 1850.

And that's only a few examples of how technology developed during the 40 year period.

So why do historians label two revolutions instead of one?

So why the two? Why not just one?


texts: What is the death toll attributed to US internment of Japanese-Americans during WWII?

texts:
We know that Spanish internment camps in Cuba at the start of 20th century were pretty horrific in terms of death toll.

What was the death toll attributed to US internment camps for Japanese-Americans during WWII?

(Specifically, deaths attributed to internment, NOT just deaths that occurred in the camp but would presumably occur just as well without it.)


texts: Did ancient or medieval warriors "substitute" in and out of combat?

texts:
This question arose in the role-playing games SE

Some claim that in archery, horse archery, or hand-to-hand combat, a warrior could function effectively for at most 2-3 minutes. Therefore, frontline troops, archers, or horse archers would substitute out of combat after 2-3 minutes of intense action, a la the line change in ice hockey.

Is there any historical proof for this? More specifically, how long could a longbowman sustain fire in combat if ammunition was freely available? Would this be different for a horse archer?

The Romans apparently had a system in place for this, but I interested in knowing whether this was widespread.


texts: How many British prisoners of war were taken by the Wehrmacht and how many died?

texts: I've read here that 3.5% of British POW's held in Germany died. But haven't been able to find an estimate with sources of how many were taken and how many died. Here it says 170,000 were captured and here over 200,000 but neither include deaths.


texts: How to find out if this sword is real or just a souvenir?

texts:
I received an old looking sword as a gift. The giving party has no information on the piece whatsoever, as it was bought online, on our local version of craigslist.

The blade is very blunt. So blunt in fact, that it could just be a sword bought by a Tourist. If so, I would like to sharpen it and use as decor. Also, the handle is fitted with a piece of felt in between. --> Probably used to reduce play, instead of fitting the pieces together more precisely.

However this sword is made with more effort than I would expect for a Touri-piece. (Mostly because of an intricate Handle, and an etch on the blade)

As this sword has no year, maker or similar engraved / etched, on it, I'm not sure where to start looking for some background of the piece. (with the exception of Toledo, (?)where this sword maybe came from(?))

How could I proceed to make sure it realy is just a souvenir? Would some pictures be helpful?

Does anyone know:

blunt swords not used as decor?
real swords with no makers-mark?

EDIT 1:
added pictures and Dimensions:

length of blade 80cm / 31 inches
length of handle 20cm / 8 inches (with hand-guard)
width of blade (base) 33mm / 1.3 inches
width of blade (behind the tip) 20mm / 0.8 inches

@MAGolding see this image for a close-up of the coat of arms. seems like to boars and to Stars on opposite sides.


texts: Why did the original Carthage never become a Roman city?

texts:
Carthage fell to the might of Rome, I think it was, three times in total. They were completely defeated and accepted some pretty horrible terms of surrender. And yet they maintained their self sovereignty until they were utterly destroyed at the end of the third Punic wars. In most other cases I know of, Rome absorbed the nations they conquered. They become provinces and citizens of Rome.

Particularly the second and third time Rome defeated them they had serious fears of Carthage raising again, so stationing a permanent Roman presence would seem logical.

So why was it that the city of Carthage was not converted into a Roman city, at the end of the first or second Punic wars, or as an alternative to the destruction that happened at the end of the third Punic war?


texts: What technological/economic factors triggered the Industrial Revolution?

texts: In the 19th century, many things started to change. The world of 1800 would not be a shock to a person from the 15th century. But for some reason, the world of today would be an incredible shock to someone from the 19th century. We have airplanes, automobiles, high speed trains. We've even put someone on the moon. All this happened in approximately 150 years, from the start of the Industrial Revolution until now. This is all fine and dandy, but why did the Industrial revolution start when it did? What happened?


texts: Who issued the passports for travel to Russian America?

texts:
Employees of the Russian-American Company were supposed to have seven-year passports to travel from Russia to the Company's colonies. Officials endeavored to stay in compliance, though it's clear that there wasn't always a valid passport for every employee (Correspondence of the Governors, pp. 71). A census form asks "by whom and where the passport was issued" (pp. 14). The Company's Main Office in St. Petersburg was one of the entities that undertook passport issuance and renewals. Closer to Company fur operations, the port commandant of Okhotsk once demanded to be sent those employees whose passports had expired (pp. 71) (a clue for another question). It must be no coincidence that the Company's normal employee contract also lasted seven years and was often signed in Okhotsk. However, Miller in Kodiak Kreol wrote that seven-year passports were issued in Irkutsk.

Which officials could create passports for the colonies? Could one be written in Okhotsk or Petropavlovsk?