texts: Did land based airpower give the Americans a decisive advantage at the Battle of Midway?

texts:
This question was inspired by another (on a different SE site) about the Avalon Hill board game.

As told in many American history books, the battle of Midway featured four Japanese heavy carriers vs. three Americans, giving the Japanese a potentially decisive advantage. (Plus the Japanese had many more support ships, at least potentially, although this advantage was squandered by the Japanese "wave" approach to the battle.)

But in reading this account (and others), of Midway, I was struck by the fact that while the number of carrier based aircraft was almost equal (248 for the Japanese vs. 223 for the Americans), the latter also had 123 landbased aircraft, on Midway. Essentially, Midway was a fourth "carrier" that had more capacity than any of the actual American carriers (and three of these carried almost as many aircraft as the four Japanese heavy carriers). The Japanese had two light carriers in the "rear" waves (arriving the second day), with a total carrying capacity of 45 aircraft, enough to reduce, but not eliminate the American numerical advantage.

The importance of the American advantage in landbased aircraft was reflected in the fact that the Japanese spent the early part of the battle bombing Midway (and destroying many of these "excess" aircraft), rather than seeking out and destroying the American carriers, perhaps giving the Americans a decisive head start in this regard.

Years later, at the battle of the Philippine Sea, the Japanese relied heavily on land based aircraft to counteract America's numerical advantage in carrier based aircraft. Whether or not the idea is sound, the Japanese clearly believed in it, which may have informed their strategy earlier, at Midway and elsewhere.

What do historians have to say about the role of America's landbased aircraft may have played in determining Japanese priorities and objectives at Midway? Do they credit the Midway based planes with distracting attention from the carriers, or even make the case that with fewer planes, the Japanese "ran out" faster? Has anyone pointed out that a facsimile of the battle, if fought elsewhere without Midway and its planes, might have turned out very differently?


texts: I know that the Colosseum is about 189x156 meters, and 48 meters high, but I am having trouble finding any information on the dimensions of each of the 4 rows of seating. To be exact, where each row starts/ends. I can't seem to find anything other than very basic information on the dimensions of the structure.


texts: Why was the Aeolipile not put to practical use in classical antiquity?

texts:
The Aeolipile was a simple mechanical device that generated kinetic energy from steam.  Its invention is attributed to the Hero of Alexandria in the 1st century AD.

Source:  Aeolipile

With the benefit of hindsight, the leap from that machine to using kinetic energy to generate motion or operate machinery seems logical, yet as far as I can tell it wasn't made until the 17th century when steam power would first be used to do meaningful work.

What technological (and if present, cultural) factors prevented further growth in the use of steam power in 1st century Roman Egypt, or any other region during classical antiquity?


texts: Did the Germans use a "Verdun"-like strategy at Stalingrad?

texts:
In February 1916, the Germans might have captured the fortress of Verdun (France), quickly through an all-out assault. Instead, the German General Falkenhayn initially elected to make an artillery attack on it, without using a lot of infantry. His rationale was allegedly stated in his Christmas (1915) memo to the Kaiser (some historians dispute this), which was interpreted to mean that he wanted to attack a city of sentimental value to France, "suck in" as many French troops as he could, kill as many as possible with artillery fire, and bleed the French army to death. Capturing the fortress would be of secondary importance. The end result was that the Germans failed to capture the fortress, and inflicted French casualties at rate of only slightly more than 1- to 1 (versus a 5 to 4 overall Allied advantage), meaning a tactical defeat for Germany.

In 1942, the German summer offensive (Fall Blau) started spectacularly with the capture of Voronezh on the Don by the left flank of the southern front by armored divisions. If this armor had been sent southeast to Stalingrad, supported by an eastward advance of infantry, the Germans might have captured it by late July.

Instead, the Germans sent the armor from Voronezh due south for the Caucasus oil fields. This not only prevented them from using the armor to capture Stalingrad, but blocked the infantry advance of Paulus' Sixth Army. The assault on Stalingrad didn't begin until late August, giving the Soviets more time to reinforce the city.

Why were the Germans so dilatory on their attack on Stalingrad? Were they trying to
"suck in" Soviet reinforcements to "Stalin's city," destroy them en masse, and thereby weaken Soviet forces to the north (around Moscow) and south (the Caucasus)?


texts: In France, 1916, would a soldier who was invalided out of the army, e.g. as an amputee, still get his army pay?

texts: In France, the law providing ex-servicemen with an army pension did not come in until 1919, so if wounded soldiers were unable to fight, what did they live on?


texts: How do new countries legally and without bloodshed declare themselves independent?

texts:
I saw an article about the legality of the declaration of independence. For example, when USSR broke up, several countries became independent, but for others, there is still fighting to maintain them as part of Russia. Why were some allowed to be independent and others not? One peaceful split I know of was Czechoslovakia in the 90's. How was that so peaceful while Serbia had lots of fighting?

Is there a way for countries to become legally independent without the bloodshed?


texts: Why was the Western Front so static in World War I?

texts: Once the German advance was halted, neither side could seriously advance for two years. This seems like an extraordinarily long time. Why didn't anyone succeed at going around the trenches or striking through?


texts: Was Rosie the Riveter sourced from a Michelangelo painting?

texts:
The Russian Wikipedia page states that an art from Michelangelo is a source of inspiration for Rosie the Riveter arrwork.

My own impression is this looks indeed like that, there are many similarities. But is this somehow proven by any historical facts/sources?


texts:
The Polish husaria did carry wings -- as can be seen here or here.  Their purpose has been debated with no clear answer.  What I want to know is was there an evolution in the wings design or just one type? If the former, does the evolution offers a clue as to what their purpose was? If the latter, what event(s) prompted the adoption?

Because everyone likes action shots:


texts: What is the historical background of the current Ukraine crisis?

texts:
Apparently the "Ukraine" is actually split east and west. Many people in the eastern part would prefer for their country to be part of Russia, while protesters in the western Ukraine wants something different, perhaps full "independence." Unless they want to align with some country in Europe, or "Europe" generally.

Both parts of Ukraine were originally part of Kievan Rus, early in the past millenium. But they seemed to diverge around mid-millenium when the eastern part became part of Russia, while the western part became part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Yet under e.g. Bogdan Khiemelnytsky, many in the western Ukraine didn't want to be part of the Commonwealth, either.

Where do the stated wishes of western (and eastern) Ukrainians differ today, and how do those statements align with those of the past? Or put another way, what historical differences between western and eastern Ukrainians would cause them to differ today? Or is the distinction between west and east Ukraine, although grounded in "history," now an artificial one today?


texts: What were the achievements of the temperance movement?

texts:
The 18th Amendment introduced Prohibition. Did Frances Willard, the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) and the wider temperance movement achieve anything else?

For example:

Did the WCTU have any effect on grass roots political efforts?
Did the the movement have any effect on women in politics?
Did the temperance movement facilitate action on other social causes?


texts: How did Columbus calculate the size of the Earth?

texts:
Eratosthenes' calculations of the size of the Earth were very precise and very accepted during Columbus' time. Still, Columbus was convinced that the world was significatively smaller and that getting to Asia from Europe was feasible.

What was the method used by Columbus to calculate the size of the Earth? Maybe more importantly, why were his results accepted?


texts:
This is an old family photo. Can anybody identify the uniforms in this picture?
My family was from Russia/Ukraine/Belarus.
Any other info would be cool -- about the medals?


texts: How dependent was Nazi Germany on iron ore from Sweden?

texts:
From the wikipedia article on Swedish iron mining during WW2, there are a lot of uncited claims. I'll quote the most outstanding of them here:

  In the year before the war, Germany received 22 million tons of iron ore from various foreign sources. Although it was able to produce around 10m tons of its own iron ore each year, it was of low grade quality and needed to be mixed with high grade material from other countries such as Sweden, which annually supplied it with 9 million tons

...

  Grand Admiral Raeder, head of the German navy, declared that it would be "utterly impossible to make war should the navy not be able to secure the supplies of iron-ore from Sweden".

Any truth to these?

Apparently the British thought it critical enough to try to interdict it, but never got much of a chance after Germany controlled Norway (1940 May onwards). Still, if it was this critical, you'd think there be sources. Just how dependent was Nazi Germany on Swedish iron ore? Would the Wermacht really grind to a halt without it?

I'm looking for documented numbers regarding this.


texts: Can we classify holocaust as Hitler's war time strategic mistake?

texts: Can we classify the Holocaust as one of Hitler's  war time strategic mistake?


texts: Why do some playing cards have only one eye?

texts:
At some point, playing cards graduated from having wildly varying designs to having a standard design. Kings of Hearts are now "suicide kings," because of the sword behind their head, and Jacks of Spades and Hearts are "one eyed jacks."

The only way to get those nicknames is standardized imagery. Well, not standardized exactly, designs will still vary, there's still a lot of art to card design--just google image search for "King of Hearts" to see the variety, but certain common features like the pose will remain fixed across many decks.

So how and when did card faces essentially turn into heraldry?

What determined why some of them were drawn in profile (one-eyed) rather than portrait?


texts: Why is no one claiming the title of Caliph?

texts:
The Ottoman Caliphate was abolished in 1924 by a reform from Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, and then the title was claimed by Hejaz. Soon, however, the kingdom was annexed by the neighbor Nejd, the two of them later to form Saudi Arabia.

In a summit in 1926 in Cairo, there was a question of revival of the Caliphate, but no one was interested.

My question is, then, why is the title never again reclaimed by any Muslim state?


texts: Was Queen Henrietta Maria (of England) known for scratching her initials into things?

texts:
C. S. Lewis's novel That Hideous Strength contains the following passage:

  “Look out! Look out!” said a dozen voices at once as a splintering of glass became audible and a shower of stones fell onto the Common Room floor. A moment later several of the Fellows had made a rush for the windows and put up the shutters: and then they were all standing staring at one another, and silent but for the noise of their heavy breathing. Glossop had a cut on the forehead, and on the floor lay the fragments of that famous east window on which Henrietta Maria had once cut her name with a diamond.

Although this is clearly a minor device in a fictional location, the blogger "A Pilgrim in Narnia" points out that the novel makes references to real places in Britain, and speculates here that the fictional Bracton College, where the above scene takes place, is a representation of Malvern College in Worcestershire, which Lewis attended.

This brings up whether such acts of petty vandalism by bored monarchs are historically verifiable.

Henrietta Maria herself was vilified as a proxy to her husband Charles I, and because she would not give up her Catholic faith. So this characterization by Lewis could be a faint echo of that.

Is there a "Henrietta Maria Window" or anything like it in Malvern College, or some other institution associated with C. S. Lewis? Alternatively, was HM known to perform acts of petty vandalism like this?


texts: How were large sums of money carried/transmitted prior to the 1940s or so?

texts: I visualize that expensive items were literally paid for in cash and people going to Europe, for example, wanting to spend the season in style, brought stacks of thousand and five thousand dollar bills with them. Maybe there were letters of credit or other instruments your bank could prepare for you to present at a European bank but that seems cumbersome. On the other hand, carrying so much cash seems dangerous. Personally, I never saw my parents with much cash but my grandfather (born at the beginning of the 20th) did tend to carry a wad.


texts: What broad changes to "world thought" happened in the 6th and 5th centuries BC?

texts:
The 6th and 5th centuries BC saw the appearance of a remarkable number of philosophers and thinkers all over Eurasia whose influence continues to this day:

Socrates (470 - 399 BC), "father of Western philosophy"
Zoroaster (ca. 550 BC), founder of Zoroastrianism
Buddha (traditionally dated 480 - 400 BC), founder of Buddhism
Mahavira (599 - 527 BC), founder/reformer of Jainism
Confucius (551 - 479 BC), founder of Confucianism
Laozi (ca. 6th century BC), founder of Taoism

Leaving aside the question of whether some of these individuals are historical people or merely legends to whom the pivotal works of the period were attributed, this places what are commonly considered the originators of Western, Persian, Indian and Chinese philosophy all within a timeframe of 200 years, although (with the possible exception of Confucius and Laozi) there is no account of any of them actually meeting.

It is therefore not unreasonable to assume that the simultaneous origin of so many major schools of thought reflects a large-scale movement across the loosely connected "meta-civilization" Greece–Persia–India–China. Is there any evidence of such a movement indeed occurring? Confucius and Laozi are commonly assigned to the "Hundred Schools of Thought" period during which Chinese philosophy as a whole flourished, but I have yet to see any explanation (apart from simple coincidence) which places them in the larger context of their contemporaries from other parts of the world.


texts: How heavily were the British taxing their American colonies?

texts:
The British levied several taxes on the American Colonists (13), which were at least part of the reason for the American Revolution. Were the British taxing the 13 colonies for more money than was being spent on or in the 13 colonies?

[edit]
I am not asking if taxation was the cause of the American Revolution. I am asking how much the British took in as tax revenue from the 13 Colonies, and how much was spent on the 13 Colonies (before the Declaration of Independence).


texts:
Bulls have 4 legs. These statues have 5 legs. Why?

Khorsabad
The Palace of Sargon
This area mainly contains sculptures from the city and palace of Khorsabad, built for the Assyrian king Sargon II (721-705 BC). The pair of human-headed winged bulls stood originally at one of the gates of the citadel, as magic guardians against misfortune.


texts: Did the proto-Indo-Europeans displace or overlay the pre-existing European tribes?

texts:
The various proto-Indo-European groups which entered European in the 2nd millennium BCE replaced local languages very thoroughly.  Basque and Sami might be remainders of pre-PIE people's languages.  Their technology (e.g., horses, bronzeworking) also became very widespread.  But what about the people?

On the one extreme, it's possible that the PIEs killed off almost all of the locals, leaving isolated populations (e.g., the aforementioned Basques) and a small fraction of survivors who were genetically dwarfed.  I.e., similar to the near-extinction events in America and Australia when smallpox-carrying Europeans arrived.

On the other extreme, it's possible that a relatively small number of well-armed chariot riders put themselves in power but contributed relatively little to the gene pool, like the Mongols in China or the Spanish in Mexico.

Do we have enough information to make a guess as to what place on this spectrum is most likely?


texts: How did the development of unbreakable and asymmetric encryption change warfare?

texts:
Modern encryption is generally considered mathematically impossible to break, unlike well-known historical instances like the Enigma. Additionally, asymmetric encryption negates the need to ensure everyone has the same key, an obvious weak point of symmetric encryption - obtaining an adversary's public key doesn't allow you to decrypt all of their messages.

How did this change warfare and/or espionage?


texts: What is the average price, in silver, for a loaf of bread through history?

texts: I would like to build a graph for the price of a loaf of bread based on exchange of silver. My research has shown that some items or commodities have remained very consistent when priced against other commodities. A cow ready for slaughter for one ounce of gold, for example. Obviously there are some historical aberrations to this but usually because of other influences, war, famine or drought as examples. But otherwise these relations hold long term. The reason or need for this graph is to show that only fiat or paper currency suffers from inflation, with the only exception that I know of being Spain, a gold and silver based economy, after conquering the "new world" and bringing home too much gold. Ultimately what I am looking for are historical quotes for the amount paid with dates and, hopefully location. Thanks in advance.


texts: I am looking for a database of US aircraft casting numbers

texts: I have found many US aircraft have casting numbers in their aluminum parts, bosses, tools, to identify the specific aicraft.  28 is a PBY, I believe. Is there a book or database on these, and when this all started?


texts: Did the slave trade from Africa to the Middle East decline during the 20th century?

texts:
From reading Wikipedia, it's not clear how much the slave trade to the middle east from Africa declined, or when. If it declined, did that coincide with

1) the turn of the century, when almost all of Africa was colonized by Europeans?

2) the end of the first world war?

3) the establishment of the UN and international laws against slavery?

Note: I am aware that a slave trade still exists. Decline is not the same thing as disappearance.


texts: How were Roman Legions disarmed/disbanded before entering Italia?

texts:
When Caesar crossed the Rubicon, it was illegal. Legions were supposed to disarm (edit: disband) themselves before coming back to Rome, in order to discourage any coups.

But I've also read in various places that Greeks and Romans bought their own weapons. Someone of higher status could afford better equipment.

So how exactly were they supposed to disarm themselves? Was there some private armory in the Alps where the weapons would be stashed? If so, how was that organized such that the possessions got back to the proper owner when he came around to collect it? And how was any of this financed?

Or if just disbanding, such as crossing one-at-a-time, then I don't see why the legionaires couldn't just regather once at or near Rome. So a coup or civil war still seems easily possible.

I'm most interested in the Imperial Roman Era, about 1 - 400 AD.


texts: How did the James river serve as a natural defense during The US Civil War?

texts:
In a text I read it the following was stated:

“Although Richmond's proximity to Washington, D.C., was hazardous strategically, Virginia's topography—the Appalachian Mountains and rivers, such as the James and Rappahannock, that flowed east to west—served as a natural defense against invasion.”

But how did rivers act as a natural defense to prevent the North from invading into Virginia?


texts: What are the largest numerical units that the median-wealthy person in Western civilization was aware of through the centuries?

texts:
For example, I just searched Shakespeare and saw hundreds of references to "thousand", a dozen or two references to "million", and no occurrences of the word "billion".

Update: The Wikipedia article on the long and short scales was useful.


texts: What role, if any, did the Chinese Communist Party play in the Soviet invasion of Xinjiang?

texts:
The Soviets invaded Xinjiang to support their client, a warlord who had no connection to the CCP.

Did the CCP support this invasion? Oppose it? Or just try to avoud talking about it?

Related: were the Soviets actively supporting the Kuomintang in skirmishes against Japan at this time?


texts: UK Tories vs Whigs in the 19th century: broad political classification?

texts:
I realise that it's hard providing a direct parallel to today, but is it roughly fair to say that the Tories were analogous to modern conservatives and the Whigs were closer to modern progressives?

Or does the vastly different levels of suffrage mean that a correlation to today is pretty much impossible. If so, what is a good generalisation? Whigs = supported by trade; Tories = supported by the aristocracy and landed gentry?

As a follow up: I have a vague understanding that Queen Vic was sympathetic to the Whigs due to the events that led up to the Bedchamber Crisis, but was this more because of personal affection for her ladies-in-waiting rather than ideology?

Thanks in advance.


texts: What denomination of Christianity did Anne Boleyn believe in?

texts: It is agreed upon by historians that Henry VIII's second wife Anne was a reformist against the Roman Catholic Church during the Tudor period. But what sect of Christianity did she favor in particular as the ruling religion in the church of England?


texts:
After some general searches in reference to the subject, I found that 'her beauty ... was in itself not altogether incomparable' and that 'She was a woman of surpassing beauty', as Plutarch and Cassius Dio respectively said.

But, according to B. Pascal, a French philosopher, contrary to what Plutarc and Cassius make us think, said 'Cleopatra's nose, had it been shorter, the whole face of the world would have been changed'.

So, I'm wondering, was Cleopatra's nose short or large? Or, in general, how was it?

I searched for some pictures showing statues of Cleopatra, but, the ones I found, have their noses knocked off, or are inconsistent.

Can anybody show a reliable source which describe how Cleopatra's nose was? And, in general, how did her face look like?

Thank you.


texts: Which historical figures are remembered for actions contradictory to their intentions?

texts:
Some historical figures are remembered for their actions (Alexander of Macedon, Napoleon), while others are remembered for their intent (Charles de Gaulle). Which historical figures are remembered for consequences that contradict their intent?

For instance, one could argue that Hitler is responsible for the establishment of a modern-day Jewish homeland in the Holy Land. That certainly was not his intent, but he did much more to further that goal then Theodor Herzl or Haim Weizmann ever did. However, we do not traditionally celebrate Hitler for this accomplishment. Which historical figures are celebrated (or hated) for an accomplishment that was contradictory to their intention?


texts: What's the historical origin of drinking champagne on New Year's Eve?

texts: With the new year right around the corner, I got wondering: what's the historical origin of drinking champagne on New Year's Eve? How did it become such a global trend? Where did this trend originate from?


texts: Was the battle of Stalingrad "unique" in the annals of history?

texts:
I'm referring to the fact that BOTH sides ordered their troops to fight for the city "to the last man and last round." (Hitler). The Soviet Union's General Vasili Chuikov echoed this by saying "We will defend the city or die in the attempt."

The Soviets were the first to be besieged in Stalingrad in September, 1942. They "survived" by pouring in a steady stream of replacements and reinforcements. But more than 90 percent of the original complement of troops became casualties.

The German 6th Army originally consisted of about 330,000 men. After they were surrounded by seven Soviet armies outside Stalingrad in November, 1942, only 91,000 Germans survived to surrender. Of these, all but 5,000 or so of the starving soldiers soon died in captivity. Making this adjustment, the German death rate was about 98%.

Have there been other instances in history where both sides had armies that were besieged in turn at the same location? And both sides' besieged forces suffered 90+ per cent casualties?


texts: How much did we know about heredity pre-Mendel?

texts:
As is common knowledge, the founder (more-or-less) of modern genetics was Gregor Mendel, who first laid down the laws of Mendelian inheritance. In particular, he discovered the existence of dominant and recessive traits in pea plants, and the re-discovery of his discovery set into motion the modern field.

My question is this: how much was known about human heredity before Mendelian inheritance was discovered? I imagine human beings would have always noticed that children end up looking like their parents. But would they have known the nitty-gritty of it, for example, that black hair was more likely to be passed on to children (a la Game of Thrones), or that two people with cleft chins can still have a cleftless kid? Did any of the ancients or later scientists ever tackle the subject in a significant way?


texts: How did societies adapt to using alcohol to make water safer?

texts:
I've heard that there were two common methods to disinfecting water in the past: boiling water or turning it into alcohol. Presumably, those in the East relied on boiling water, while those in the West relied on alcohol.

In the context of contaminated water supply, ethyl alcohol may indeed have been mother’s milk to a nascent Western civilization. Beer and wine were free of pathogens. And the antiseptic power of alcohol, as well as the natural acidity of wine and beer, killed many pathogens when the alcoholic drinks were diluted with the sullied water supply. Dating from the taming and conscious application of the fermentation process, people of all ages in the West have therefore consumed beer and wine, not water, as their major daily thirst quenchers.
The experience in the East differed greatly. For at least the past 2000 years, the practice of boiling water, usually for tea, has created a potable supply of nonalcoholic beverages. In addition, genetics played an important role in making Asia avoid alcohol: approximately half of all Asian people lack an enzyme necessary for complete alcohol metabolism, making the experience of drinking quite unpleasant. Thus, beer and wine took their place as staples only in Western societies and remained there until the end of the last century. (Source)

What I'm interested in is how those societies functioned if they had to rely on alcohol as a source of water, as compared to societies that relied on boiling water. Was the alcohol thinned down? Was it used only as an emergency source of water?
If they had indeed relied on alcohol, did those societies develop a genetic immunity to alcohol intoxication? Did it have health effects as compared to societies that relied on boiling water? Or was it treated in a manner similar to how modern societies drink carbonated water?


texts: Have there been known instances in history when a queen consort slept with someone other than her husband, and no one got hurt? How was that possible?

texts:
King Henry VIII executed two of his wives for alleged adultery. This was almost certainly true of one of them, Catherine Howard, while the facts concerning the other one, Anne Boleyn, are in dispute.

When King Christian VIII of Denmark married Princess Caroline of Great Britain, as detailed in the movie "A Royal Affair,", the queen's affair with the court doctor (and royal adviser), Struensee led to the man's overthrow and execution.

In a third situation, Isabella, the wife of King Edward II had an affair with Mortimer that resulted in the overthrow and (probable) murder of the king by his wife and lover.

As a commenter pointed out, a queen's adultery would likely threaten the succession, with potentially serious consequences for the country.

Are there any "well known" cases in history where it was established that queen consort of a king slept with someone other than her husband, and no one was executed, or was known to get into serious trouble as a result? If so, what were the circumstances that prevented bad consequences? Put another way, why might the threat to the succession or to the country not seem to matter, in such cases?

(A "queen consort" is a the wife of a king. Queen Victoria, who allegedly had some affairs after Prince Albert died, is not in this category. Elizabeth I was known as the "Virgin Queen.")


texts: Countries involved in World War 1(the Great War)

texts:
I can get a list of countries which were involved in World War 1 as Allies but I can't find list of countries who supported Germany in World War 1, basically I can't find list of countries which were enemies to the Allies. Did they have anything in common?

Can someone give a list of Ally and enemy countries. Why did a handful of other countries support Germany?


texts:
To be clear, I mean the socks you wear on your feet, to insulate you form your shoes/boots/other footwear.
By common, I mean easily available to the masses, rather than just to the rich.


texts: What was middle class family life like in post-civil war Georgia?

texts: I'm researching middle class family life in Georgia immediately after the US Civil war.  What was life like for middle class families?  What were the common themes/experiences?


texts: Paying for something in Revolutionary Times

texts: If someone were paying a bill or for a debt in 1790, did they pay with cash or a note of some sort?


texts: The picture is of a ship that my late father is believed to have served on, I can find no identification marks on the photograph, so even a type of vessel would be a great help, as I have no records of his service history.


texts: Is there a known society without cult of love?

texts: Was there ever a society in which sex was viewed either as a functional necessity, duty before the gods or pleasure without any admiration of love?


texts: Could a nobleman / lord join the clergy in the middle ages?

texts:
First of all, perhaps my terminology is dodgy here, but by nobleman I mean A member of a noble family, of noble birth and by lord I mean a ruler -- that is, the Duke of Somewhere would be a lord; his second son (no land, no title) would be a nobleman. Probably not right, but for the purpose of this question I'll stick with that.

Also, by Middle-ages I (perhaps incorrectly) refer to Europe, roughly 11th-16th Centuries.

Could a nobleman join the clergy (and become a priest or whatever -- my knowledge on church titles isn't massive)? If so, would he still be a nobleman? I mean, he'd be of noble birth (in most cases) but would he be considered a nobleman still after joining the church?

Perhaps further, could a lord join the clergy? And if so would he have to relinquish his title and lands?

I hear of, for instance, the second son of a king joining the clergy while his older brother becomes king: it's one of those things that one hears, but I cannot actually find any evidence of it -- and again, even if it's true, would he still be considered a nobleman?


texts: Where was the Buenos Aires - Lima Spanish Royal Road?

texts:
the Royal Road was a designation assigned to any road administered by the Spanish Crown, including through its viceroys. During the Spanish Empire, several such roads ran through the expanses of Central and South America (as well as California). A famous example is the 966km long * California Mission Trail* connecting Mission San Diego de Alcalá to Mission San Francisco Solano.

One of these roads connected Buenos Aires to Lima. What is the course of this route? Is there any map depicting its path? I couldn't find any image or map that covers the road nor basic information about it.


texts: How could black men serve as officers in the US army during segregation?

texts: How did black men such as Benjamin Oliver Davis Sr achieve high ranks in the US military during segregation? Those ranks should put them in position of power over white people, not very segregation-like.


texts: Pre-war comments on Hitler: Just figures of speech, he doesn't really mean it, just a way to whip up supporters?

texts:
I've got to this interview with a historian about the pre-war mood between the American reporters and one with that especially impressed me was the quote that some sources used as a this year's US election warning:

  When someone lobs those kinds of rhetorical bombs, it's sort of a natural human tendency to say, "Oh, that's just a figure of speech. They don't really mean it. It's just a way to whip up supporters." Atlantic:Nagorski

For our school festival about totality, I'd really appreciate if anybody linked me any specific quote from these days that would go in the similar spirit.

I'd be glad if you found the specific quote the historian in the interview is talking about but I'll be glad for any kind of quotes from the pre-totalitarian quotes that would somehow describe the liberal approach (I'm not trying to get into politics, I just find those scary well-meant assumptions as extremely interesting).

Thank you for any references.


texts: What aspects of Primo Levi's works are considered historically inaccurate?

texts:
I have read his books and I suspect he deliberately changed some details for literary purposes. Of course Holocaust deniers might question much of what he wrote but do serious historians also cast doubt on some important details of his Survival in Auschwitz and The Truce (The Reawakening). A question I have is simply why the guards left anyone alive to bear witness. I know that the guards were in a hurry; I also know that they had actually been instructed not to kill remaining Jews by Himmler to use as bargaining chips (of course murders continued sometimes anyway) and perhaps Levi's survival has something to do with Himmler's directive.

EDIT: I would say, what important aspects of Levi's books are either considered heavily fictionalized or outright falsehoods? I know that various characters, even though given pseudonyms in the books, were real people but from memory, I question things like the above-mentioned fact that he was left alive, what circumstances allowed this since nazis were still in killing mode long after the war was clearly lost. There is a scene where an Allied prisoner of war gives Levi a thumbs up: POWs really interacted (at a distance even) with Jewish inmates?


texts: Is it possible to estimate the distribution of Jews in the variety of cities they settled in the aftermath of expulsion from Palestine by Adrian in 135 AD and in the following few centuries of the late antiquity? In particular, are there any source on what were the numbers of Jewish communities in Alexandria, Carthage, Rome, and other large cities of the Empire? I would like to learn how the numbers in these communities changed between 2nd and 5th centuries AD, including their percentage within population, were there any large scale migrations not immediately after 135 AD, etc.


texts: Is Dalmatia often disregarded or largely overlooked when studying the history of the Roman Empire?

texts:
Dalmatia, the present-day Croatian coastal region, has some of the most well preserved Roman ruins and sites in the world, perhaps rivaling the South of France, Turkey/Asia Minor, as well as most of Spain. However, my historical education rarely, if ever, discussed Roman Dalmatia, often receiving anecdotal status at best.

The largest surviving Roman imperial palace in the world is in the Dalmatian city of Split and one of the best-preserved Roman coliseums is also in Dalmatia. Yet, despite the surviving historical presence of Roman architectural antiquity, Roman Dalmatia has often been of parenthetical significance when compared with Roman Provence, Asia Minor, much of Spain, Greece and Egypt.  In other words, why has Roman Dalmatia been marginalized or even excluded from our historical and educational discourse?


texts: How formalised were the various tiers of Russian nobility during the regency of Sophia Alekseyevna?

texts:
I'm a few chapters into Robert K Massie's biography of Peter the Great, and I was surprised to read that, in the aftermath of Peter's seizure of power from his sister and regent Sophia, when passing judgement on her lover Vasily Golitsyn, he confiscated the latter's property, revoked his status as a boyar, and exiled him to the Russian arctic.
This surprised me because everything I had read about the boyars up to that point had led me to believe that they were an ill-defined social class, with very fuzzy borders. I had thought that they were closer to the feudal barons of the Normans and Plantagenets, and not the more formal peerage of later English and British dynasties. In my mind's eye, a boyar was defined by his genealogy and landed estates, and not by a piece of paper from the crown; one's status as a boyar could not be revoked by fiat, anymore than Richard the Lionheart could have degraded one of his barons - although the estates on which such status depended could be taken away.
So that's the contradiction I'm trying to resolve. Have I misunderstood something? Or has Massie himself got the wrong end of the stick?

As a side note, Massie alludes to - but does not name - other, perhaps lesser, noble ranks, which Sophia and her predecessor would bestow on individuals. And then there is the title of prince, or knyaz, which seems to have had a subtly different meaning in the pre-Petrine era. If anyone could explain either of those phenomena to me, I'd be very grateful.


texts: Was Japan known to be a potential threat to the USA in the 10 year period prior to 1941

texts: In the years leading up to the Pearl Harbor attack, did non-military Americans see Japan as a potential threat to the USA?


texts: I wanted to ask when exactly in the cuneiform record was the name Kish first mentioned. I realize as a Sumerian nation Kish has existed as early as 3000/2900 BC, but when was the city given an official name. Thanks.


texts: What is the first known organized religion in the world?

texts: Which were the first religions to be created with well known scriptures, ceremonies and traditions? Was it that of the ancient Egyptians or the old kingdoms of the Middle East? What about Africa or the East?


texts:
While reading history text online, I find that some dates have a prefix e.g.

c. 5000 BP
c. 3300 BCE
ca. 3300 BC

What does the prefix mean?


texts: Ports with ships in the commercial Halifax trade, late 18th Century

texts:
Halifax, Nova Scotia, was founded by the British in 1749; I am interested in the commercial trade during the French Revolutionary Wars, 1792 thru 1798, which is the period of the First Coalition.

The source of the map is James Cheshire at Spatial Analysis, who took the log data from the CLIWOC project database. The database itself is no longer accessible. But see here. I was able to track down a copy of the database, but it requires MS Access 2000 to read the data, and I have not been able to find a tool to convert the data to the more recent MS Access format.

Map shows British trade routes as derived from ship's logs between 1750 and 1800.

I am interested in learning which ports, American and British, were active in the shipping trade, both to and from Halifax, during this time period.


texts: 1972 textbook by Charles University professor on Thirty Years War

texts:
Just yesterday I came across a textbook citation on the Thirty Years War.

Here is what I (think I can) remember about the book in question: the author was professor at Charles University in Prague, his book was published in 1972 by Cambridge University Press, its cover blurb said that he analyzed new original sources that had surfaced from former noble estates, etc., to shine new light on the 17th-century period (presumably from a Marxist angle). The prof's name  perhaps started with a 'P' and ended with an 'y' (almost but not quite as e.g. in Pokorny).

Needless to say, I am today no longer able to trace that book and find it e.g. on amazon. Do you perhaps know the right full citation, or can you describe further leads?

I have read e.g. Golo Mann on Wallenstein, and I plan to read C.V. Wedgwood for (presumably) a British view on these monumental events on the continent, so why not add another (again, presumably and from some angle) unconventional source as well.


texts: Why did Alexander the Great succeed in overthrowing the Persian Empire?

texts:
What was the reason that Alexander the Great succeeded in overthrowing the Persian empire?

Is it possible that the key reason was that the people of Persia decided not to defend against Alexander so he could overthrow the strong Achaemenid dictatorship and capitalism?

(it seems this policy reiterated several times for example at the time of Arab invasion and Islamic revolution)


texts: Song school vs. Han school of Confucian thought in the Qing dynasty

texts:
The Song school eventually prevailed due to favor from the Qing emperor and also because some Han texts were determined to be not genuine by scholars of the time.

My question is, were the scholars who determined the validity of the Han texts influenced/pressured by the fact that the Qing dynasty favored the Song school? Perhaps they found it more convenient to come up with evidence that some Han texts were disingenuous due to the prevailing attitudes of the rulers?


texts: Regional Customs for Leaving a King's Presence

texts:
Maimonides, in his Laws of Prayer (Mishne Torah, Hilkhot Tefillah 5:11) provides an analogy for a prayer-related Jewish custom, whereby one concludes his Amidah by bowing first to his left and then to his right. In his opinion, this is because the one at prayer is facing God, and just as one first bows to the right side of a king before taking leave and only afterwards to his left side, so one should do likewise when taking leave of the divine:

Because one's left is to the right [side] of His countenance; i.e., just like when one stands before a king, he takes leave from the right of the king, and then afterwards from the left of the king. Thus, they established that one should withdraw from the Amidah in the same manner as he withdraws from before a king.
[English taken from Eliyahu Touger's translation, which is
online.]

Maimonides' source for this custom is the Talmud (Yoma 53b, which can be viewed here), but the Talmudic source never mentions the idea that this is also how one takes leave of a human monarch. To the best of my knowledge, Maimonides' text is the earliest source for this particular idea.
Is there any historical basis to this? Maimonides lived in the 12th century, both in Spain and in Egypt. Was it ever the case in either of those places (or in other, earlier places of which Maimonides might have heard) that a person departing from a king first bowed to one side of him (perhaps to a minister or prince who stood at one side of him) and then to another?
It is entirely possible that Maimonides is making this up, in an effort to find a rational explanation for a Talmudic law, but if there is an historical basis that would be fascinating - and this seems like the best place to ask!

The Wikipedia article on Maimonides can be viewed here.
The Wikipedia article on this prayer (the "Amidah") can be viewed here.


texts:
What was Palestine before, if not a country? Could you give me some history on this?

Also, the recent recognition of Palestine as a country in the UN could have far reaching implications. Are there other examples of similar situations where the UN has provided recognition in a volatile region?

EDIT: After reading the following answers, it seems that any answer to the question "what was Palestine before" necessarily includes information about who (for some of you who means which religion or which race) lived in the region at what times. While it is completely fine to provide facts such as X lived in the region R during time T or Y kicked X out in so and so date, it is not okay to make judgements about who belonged there and who was right or wrong. If you want to take this route, I would suggest doing it on another thread. The question here is not to discuss Israel-Palestine conflict. The question simply asks what was Palestine before.


texts: What happens to the women left behind by polyandry?

texts:
I'm asking specifically about the practice of polyandry in Himalayan civilisations, such as Bhutan. But I'd welcome insights from other polyandrous societies too.

It's often been said that, however inhumane polygyny, i.e. a husband having multiple wives, might be for the women involved, the situation is even worse for the vast majority of men. A man with a hundred and one wives means a hundred men without a wife; and polygynous societies - be they Saudi Arabian or Mormon fundamentalist - always seem to have grave problems with large numbers of frustrated young men.
Polyandry, i.e. a wife having multiple husbands, always seemed, on the contrary, to be a humane and reasonable response to the pressures polyandrous societies faced: as far as I can tell, the root of it is the scarcity of good arable land. But what about the young women who have to go without a husband? Are there any structures in polyandrous societies which give such women a place and a path in life? Are unmarried women feared in polyandrous societies in the same way in which unmarried men are feared in polygynous societies? Men being men - I am a man, so I should know! - I find it hard to believe that all these women die virgins; but do they?

A side question: How do polyandrous societies choose which women are allowed to marry? In polygynous societies, the wealthiest, older men tend to get their pick of brides. Do polyandrous societies tend to select the prettiest girls, or is it that only each family's eldest daughter is permitted to marry? Or is some other system used?


texts: Was respiratory rate used as time measurement?

texts:
There is a Jewish source that an hour was split into 1080 parts and there seems to be an explanation for that number that it is the amount of breaths taken in an hour (18 breaths per minute (which is realistic))

Is there any evidence that breath was used as a time measurement, before clocks became popular?


texts: How would a 16-17th Century European Rapier have been made?

texts:
I've done a little reading on sand and permanent casting but a rapier seems like it may be thin for that kind of manufacture.

What methods and tools would have been used to make it?

(Please provide sources for your answer so that we might perform expanded research.)


texts: Has the existence of a matriarchal society really been discredited?

texts:
I always thought that there was proof of the existence of matriarchal society in the ancient times but apparently, according to Wikipedia this hypothesis is mostly discredited today. Why?

Wiki cites:

  The view of matriarchy as constituting a stage of cultural development now is generally discredited. Furthermore, the consensus among modern anthropologists and sociologists is that a strictly matriarchal society never existed." 'Matriarchy', Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007


texts: Did Soviet Republics like Kazakstan and Azerbaijan have their own military units?

texts:
Were Soviet units typically separated by national origin or were all men from all Soviet nations mixed together in divisions? I'm not talking just through World War II, but from the 1940s all the way to the 1980s.

For example, in this picture, would the "asian" looking soldier be an ethnic minority from Siberia, or could the soldier be from a central Asian Soviet nation?

http://image2.thematicnews.com/uploads/images/00/00/41/2015/06/01/04244de000.jpg


texts: What is the difference between a professional historian and an amateur?

texts:
Some historians appear to practice history professionally, in the sense that they produce histories that are accepted by other historians as "real" and "full."  In this sense there is a profession of sorts, and exclusive body of persons who determine who may enter into appropriate practice.

However, there are many persons who lack this stamp of legitimacy who happen to speculate about, read about, or write about the past.  Some appear to publish major works of non-fiction that HarperCollins might claim is a history.  How can the difference between the amateur and the professional be detected when professionals also publish in HarperCollins (for example).

What are the criteria of professionality in history and which are fundamental?


texts:
In today's edition of Le Monde, Marek Halter mentions something about Jewish Kings in Carolingian France, recognized by Charlemagne. Probably using Arthur Zuckerman 'Jewish Kingdom in feudal France' 1972. A quick check on wikipedia says that this theory was rebutted by scholars, including Aryeh Grabois, in his paper 'Le 'roi juif' de Narbonne Annales du Midi 218 (1997), 165–88'. This publication is not available online.

The column of Marek Halter is in a general publication, and therefore has no bibliography. I wondered if anyone knew of a reputable source (available online) to check/disprove this statement.

I am sorry if this is the professional History SE : I'll remove my post if it is. In maths where I belong, we have both a layman maths and a professional maths SE, but I could did not see if there was such a choice in History.


texts: Was "Golden Pheasant" used pejoratively in Nazi Germany?

texts:
Students of nazi Germany will know that high ranking nazis and those who joined the NSDAP early on (the "old fighters") were known as "Golden Pheasants" because of the colour of their party badge, and the golds, reds and browns in the uniform, reminiscent of a cock pheasant's plumage.

Was "Golden Pheasant" a slur term in Nazi Germany or was it fairly neutral (something like "Top Brass" in English perhaps)? Would regime loyalists have used it? Might ordinary Germans or anti-nazis have reworked the phrase into something more pejorative?

C.J. Sansom's novel Dominion has one of its characters describe a senior nazi as a "Golden Peasant" (sic).

However the narrator at that point is a somewhat disillusioned junior policeman. I'm wondering whether the author intends it deliberately as a piece of wordplay (indicative of a hostility to the regime), or if it's sloppy proofreading/editing on the part of the publisher.


texts: In the early Roman Republic, did every patrician family have at least one consul?

texts:
It appears that gens Foslia for example only produced one: Marcus Foslius Flaccinator in 433.

Are there examples of patrician families that produced no consuls?

Or is it that our knowledge of patrician families comes mainly from the lists of consuls in the first place? So that there may have been patrician families out there that never produced a consul and we would never know about them?


texts: How can I date this carved wood sculpture?

texts:
I found this beautiful wood-carved sculpture:

It does look quite old and I wonder around what it was created. Also I'm interested which things to look out for, in order to determine the age and possibly spot newer imitations.

More images


texts: Why is Kubb - a skittles game - associated with the Viking Age?

texts: Is there any evidence to suggest that kubb might have been played in the Viking Age, or was it just associated with Viking history to promote it? If so, who invented it, or when did it originate?


texts: Did the Soviet ever attempt "innocent passage" thru American waters?

texts:
In 1986 and 1988, the US Navy sent warships into Soviet Crimean Sea territorial waters as exercises of innocent passage (which essentially means that you can sail through an unfriendly nation's waters as long as you keep moving and don't do anything provocative, with the UNCLOS defining those provocative behaviors).  The US Navy sailed through without stopping or doing anything provocative.

Naturally, the Soviets were not pleased, since they had tried to assert limits of which parts of their waters that innocent passage was allowed.

Did the Soviets (or, later, Russians) try anything similar in US territorial waters?


texts: What's the dating of the standard Akkadian version of the Gilgamesh Epic?

texts:
Wikipedia says:

  The most recent Akkadian version (c. 1200 BC), also referred to as the standard version, consisting of twelve tablets, was edited by Sin-liqe-unninni and was found in the Library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh

But it appears that the tablets on which the epic was written date to 7th century BCE. Do I understand correctly that the Epic was compiled in 12th century BC, but the extant tablets containing it were created in 7th by a scribe for Assurbanipal?


texts: How common was travelling before the invention of the steam engine?

texts: I've read someplace that before the invention of trains people rarely traveled, and it was common for them to never even leave their home towns or go as far as 20 miles from them (there is the famous story that Immanuel Kant never left his hometown, and he died the same year that the first full-scale working railway steam locomotive was built, although that might be unrelated). But the source didn't specify if that applied to everyone or only to farmers and serfs. Did city dwellers travel? Also, after the invention of trains and widespread construction of rails, how long did it take for traveling to be considered 'common'?


texts: Did Saladin speak any European languages?

texts:
As the leader of a large coalition force I'm aware he was multilingual, speaking at least Kurdish and Arabic (one site added Turkish) but a European language seems like a longshot. If he did speak one, I'd guess possibly a little Latin or Norman French? Certainly not English, or so I'd imagine. Hmm.
My question is basically would Saladin have needed a translator when speaking with Norman crusaders? (This is a common scenario from pop culture, in everything from Kingdom of Heaven to Scott and Haggard novels, in which he usually gets by on his own.) I've tried several googles and articles on Saladin and not turned anything up.
No doubt information might be sparse online given the period and non-western subject, not to say the unlikelihood that he did speak any such language at all, but I'm hoping someone here might know.
Edit: As an extra, I would also be curious to know if there was a standard practice for this, such as when Richard met Al-Adil?


texts:
Re-posting this question of mine from the Worldbuilding Stack Exchange:

I know it's common for shops and stores to be named in D&D and other fantasy settings, but how common was that practice in the medieval era (say, from 1000 AD onward)? It seems to me that inns and the like were named more often than, say, the workshops of smiths, traders, or other craftsmen and merchants.

I'm trying to be as "realistic" as possible with the campaign world I'm establishing, so if there's historical precedent, I'll feel better about it.

Edit: It's also been brought to my attention to clarify whether or not I mean this in a general or specific sense. The answer is the former. If the convention wasn't really present in Asian or Middle Easter countries, for example, but was in European ones, that information still helps immensely. I'm just hoping to find out how popular the practice was in the medieval era.


texts: Sales of books of Rousseau in Versailles

texts: I am currently comparing the sales of books by Rousseau and Voltaire in the city of Versailles, and I noticed a very important peak in sales of books by Rousseau in 1781. I was wondering if anyone knows if there is any particular relation between Rousseau and Versailles, or something that might explain this peak. Same question for Voltaire and Geneva.


texts: Why did Sun Tzu believe you shouldn't wait beside a river when eager to fight?

texts:
In Sun Tzu's Art of War, Chapter 9 (The Army on the March), Verse 5, Tzu says

  If you are anxious to fight, you should not go to meet the invader near a river which he has to cross.

My thinking is that you should meet the invader near a river and let him cross it so that he is tired and weak. I am confused as to why "you should not meet the invader near a river which he has to cross."


texts: What were the requirements in order for a man to become a burgher (or citizen) in German cities in the middle ages?

texts: I really need some help answering this question. Could a man who lived in another town or part of Germany, for example East Frisia, about 1500 AD, go to Bremen for example and become a burgher there? What were the requirements he had to meet in order to become a citizen? Would joining a guild automatically give him citizenship status? What requirements did guilds have for those coming into cities from elsewhere?


texts: How did the Allies deliver the Moscow Declaration to the Nazis?

texts:
On the 1st November 1943, the Allies published the Moscow Declaration 'Declaration on German Atrocities in Occupied Europe' to give 'full warning' to the Nazis that when the war ended the Allies intended to 'pursue them to the uttermost ends of the earth ... in order that justice may be done.'

Q. How was this declaration delivered to the Nazis given that they were already in the midst of a war?


texts: How was city cleaning financed and organized in the late 19th century?

texts:
This answer about usage of horses contains a brief description of the situation of New York. Are there examples where city cleaning was done by firms or was the communal government responsible for city cleaning in all metropolitan cities?

Was there special taxation for horse owners to finance city cleaning?


texts:
I recently saw photos online taken from supposedly Soviet Russian shop, displaying a number of products as well as other interior of the shop. The cashier machines look extremely mechanical, but there was one product on the shelves that seemed to have a barcode on it, and according to other commenters, this product was manufactured in USSR (it is a cheap variant of eau de cologne). However, the photo was of poor quality, and I can't really see if it is indeed a barcode or just some striped decoration

Did Soviet Union ever start using barcodes, or did this happen only later when more western products were available in the markets?

EDIT; here is a link to the page http://www.doodoo.ru/interesting/12933-soviet-shop.html. The picture I'm talking is the very first on this page:


texts: During the breakup of the Soviet Union, on what basis was citizenship granted or withheld for each of the fifteen new republics?

texts:
The politics and economics of the Soviet Union caused large numbers of people to be transplanted from one region to another, for example:

The Crimean Tatars were deported to Central Asia;
Ethnic Russians were encouraged to settle in Estonia;
Dissidents of all stripes were exiled to Siberia.

When the Soviet Union collapsed, on what basis, then, was citizenship granted or withheld for each of the fifteen new republics?
My reading suggests that, at the time of writing, all the post-Soviet states grant citizenship primarily on the basis of blood (jus sanguinis), and not birthplace (jus soli). That's all well and good, but, for example, there was no independent Kyrgyz state before 1991. Logically, one cannot grant citizenship on the basis of blood, without an existing stock of citizenry from which to start. One could, of course, in the case of Kyrgyzstan, start off by granting citizenship on the basis of ethnicity, but ethnicity is always difficult to nail down precisely. Do you get citizenship on the basis of a Kyrgyz-sounding surname?
I'm especially interested in the case of persons of Russian descent with a connection to Central Asia. What boxes would such a person need to check in order to be granted citizenship of one of the Central Asian republics?


texts: Was the location of the 180° line of longitude coincidence or deliberately chosen?

texts:
This question on Politics.SE asks about the alignment of maps, and got two answers.  The first (mine) says the split through the Bering Strait was chosen for practical reasons, the second says that it's due to centering on the Prime Meridian.

This led me to wonder whether the ease-of-splitting was a deliberate factor in choosing the Prime Meridian, or whether it coincidentally happened that halfway around the world was almost entirely ocean.  Was this a factor, or just historical coincidence?  The Wikipedia article makes it clear that it was chosen at the International Meridian Conference, and provides some reasons, but doesn't discuss this part at all.


texts: Is the USA Congress explicitly patterned after the British Parliament?

texts:
I have always presumed this to be the case. They have a similar form: two chambers, the lower representing "all the people" and the upper representing, very roughly speaking, "institutional forces" (in the British case it used to be the Church and the aristocracy, in the American case it's the states). The electoral system and the procedures are largely similar.

It also stands to reason that the American Founding Fathers, being well-acquainted with the British political tradition, would have emulated it, adding what they surely perceived as improvements. And, as far as I know, Britain was the only European country to even have a proper parliament in the 18th century.

But this is all surmise and conjecture, no matter how sensible. Is there documentary evidence that Congress is a conscious imitation of/improvement upon Parliament?


texts: Where did Vasco Núñez de Balboa first see the South Ocean?

texts:
Do we know the exact place in Panama where Vasco Núñez de Balboa first saw the South Ocean?

(If so, do we have a picture of this place where he saw the two oceans at the same time?)

In Decisive Moments in History from Stefan Zweig, it is written that Balboa and his men built at this location a Christian cross with the initials of the King of Spain. Is the cross still there or is there some monument that marks this point?


texts: What does the inscription on this sword mean?

texts:
The British Library has a 13th century sword with unknown inscription. They recently started a call to arms to translate the inscription.

The inscription reads:

NDXOXCHWDRGHDXORVI

Its meaning is unknown (although there are some guesses) as is why it's on the sword.

I know there are a couple of experts around who know a thing or two about inscriptions and swords. Who would like to give it a shot, all in the name of History?

The original British Library Blog has been updated with additional information from Marc van Hasselt (Utrecht University, Hastatus Heritage Consultancy). He suggests that this is one of several swords found across Europe that appear to originate from the same workshop.

A similar sword found in Alphen aan den Rijn (in the Netherlands) has the following inscription:

BENEDOXOFTISSCSDRRISCDICECMTINIUSCSDNI

DIOXMTINIUSESDIOMTINIUSCSDICCCMTDICIIZISI


texts: Did any ancient historian consider Tiberius' first year as Emperor to be the first year of his co-regency with Augustus?

texts:
Out of curiosity, did any ancient historian consider Tiberius' first year as Emperor to be the first year of his co-regency with Augustus? According to an answer to a question on Hermeneutics StackExchange, the author of the Gospel of Luke, who took a historian's approach to telling the story of Jesus may have counted Tiberius' 15th year from his first year as co-regent. So I am wondering if any other ancient historians have done the same thing, whether it be with Tiberius and Augustus or any other rulers.

This question is said to possibly be a duplicate of this question. In that question, I asked for historical evidence supporting the co-regency of Tiberius and Augustus. If you read the above question carefully, you will see that I am not asking the same thing. As I said above, I want to know if any ancient historian considered Tiberius' first year as Emperor to be the first year of his co-regency with Augustus.


texts: Can anyone explain why a wreck of a battleship lies in the Nevada desert?

texts: Can anyone explain the reason why a wreck of a battleship lies in the Nevada desert as it is represented in the picture above?


texts: Did Army Group Center have easier going up to Smolensk than between Smolensk and Moscow?

texts:
To try to get an answer to this question, I would like to explore its factual bases, including, but not limited to the following:

1) How did the road/railroad communication network west of Smolensk back to German "staging" points in Poland (e.g. Warsaw) compare to communications between Smolensk and Moscow?

2) The Soviets defended themselves in part by practicing a scorched earth policy.How effectively was this policy applied west of Smolensk as opposed to east of Smolensk?

3) Germany occupied western Poland for 20 months (October 1939-May 1941), before the invasion of the Soviet Union, and presumably upgraded the infrastructure to support the future invasion. Does this suggest that the Germans could have done something in the ten months from August, 1941 to June 1942 to upgrade the lines of communication from the 1939 border to Smolensk? Or was the communications across western Poland part of the problem, meaning that the line of communications basically went all the way back to Germany?

I'm assuming that Germany's problems east of Smolensk were mainly logistical (including weather related), because she actually faced better trained/armed Soviet armies west of Smolensk than east of it.


texts:
Background: Explorer 1 was successfully launched into orbit by the US 1958-02-01 about four months after Sputnik 1 was successfully launched by the Soviet Union 1957-10-04, and Vanguard 1 wasn't successfully launched until 1958-03-17.

The Vanguard program started with Vanguard 1:

  Vanguard 1 (ID: 1958-Beta 2) is an American satellite that was the fourth artificial Earth orbital satellite to be successfully launched (following Sputnik 1, Sputnik 2, and Explorer 1). Vanguard 1 was the first satellite to have solar electric power.

Eisenhower's last two sentences in the filmed message discussed below refer to scientific purpose and international arrangements.

Question What were the international space arrangements and scientific purposes Eisenhower spoke of in October 1957?

The Quote: I've transcribed the block quote below myself from the video clip at http://dbsmaint.galib.uga.edu/news/clips/wsbn33649.html found at Series WSB-TV newsflim clips of Dwight D. Eisenhower congratulating the Soviets on Sputnik and commenting on Project Vanguard and the U.S. ballistic missile program, Washington, D.C., 1957 October 9. It seems fairly accurate, but I don't have an independent official transcript for verification.

Creator:           WSB-TV (Television station : Atlanta, Ga.)
Date of Original:  1957-10-09

  As to the Soviet satellite, we congratulate Soviet scientists upon putting a satellite into orbit.

  The United States satellite program has been designed from its inception for maximum results in scientific research.

  The rocketry employed by our Naval Research Laboratory for launching our Vanguard has been deliberately separated from our ballistic missile effort in order

  first, to accent the scientific purposes of the satellite,
  and second, to avoid interference with top priority missile programs.

  Merging of this scientific effort with military programs could have produced an orbiting United States satellite before now, but to the detriment of scientific goals and military progress.

  Vanguard, for the reasons indicated, has not had equal priority with that accorded our ballistic missile work. Speed of progress in the satellite project can not be taken as an index of our progress in ballistic missile work.

  I consider our country’s satellite program to be well designed and properly scheduled to achieve the scientific purposes for which it was initiated.

  We are therefore carrying the program forward in keeping with our arrangements with the international scientific community. (emphasis added)


texts: What is the Diet when referring to Post-War Japan?

texts: I'm currently doing a study on America's influence on Post-War Japan and it mentions a lot about a group called 'The Diet' and I can't find any information on who they actually are. Can anyone help and tell me who they are?


texts: Is it true that the term "Byzantine" is less present in historians of Protestant tradition?

texts:
Trying to answer the question Why did the term "Byzantine Empire" enter common usage instead of "Eastern Roman Empire" or "Roman Empire", I find a presentation by the Greek Byzantologist Helene Ahrweiler at the France Culture radio. (The discussion is in French, accessible on the France culture website and on Youtube).
She says HERE that old Catholic anti-Byzantine bias is still reflected in the historiography of Catholic tradition by the use of the term "Byzantine", while those of Protestant tradition prefer "Late Roman Empire" (the "Anglo-Saxon") or "Oriental Roman Empire" (the Germans). I guess she means modern, contemporary historians, because some 19th century ones were nastier then Gibbon or Hegel.
In a comment under this meta answer I see this statement:
"On Wikipedia "Eastern Roman" redirects to "Byzantine Empire". I believe this [removing "Byzantine" and preferring "Roman"] corresponds better to the terminology used by a lot of Eastern-Europeans (the Greeks called their empire "Roman" until the end), but this website is in a Western European language." etc
Are the English-speaking and  German-speaking historians prefering other terms instead of "Byzantine"?


texts: If I remember correctly that the U.S did switch sides between sides supporting both Iraq and Iran at some point due to some sort of Cold War Reason. So my question is did the U.S. back empowerment of both the Shah of Iran and Saddam Hussein?


texts: Why anthropocentrism disappears during the Dark Ages

texts:
The human being ceases to be central part of Art in Europe with the arrival of the Dark Ages, only to return with the Renaissance.

What are some factors that explain that?


texts: What was the Carthaginian (Punic) term for elephant

texts:
Considering the legendary status of war elephants in Carthaginian (world) history... Do we know what their term was for “war elephants”, or simply “elephants”?  Can someone point me in the right direction to find the answer?

Thank you,
Gary


texts: Why did the Soviet Union's economy grow fast in the 1950's-1960's?

texts:
Communist economic systems self-implode. Today it has been recognized that Communism is bad for economic progress. There is no dispute that Communism makes countries poor based on what has happened in recent history.

However, what is puzzling was that despite this, the Soviet Union enjoyed fast economic growth in the 1950's and 1960's. Why was this so?


texts: How did succession work in the modern Argentine military dictatorships?

texts:
For example, it says on the wikipedia page for Alfredo Oscar Saint Jean, an Argentine president and general: "Saint-Jean's brief period as President in June and July 1982 ended when he was succeeded by General Reynaldo Bignone."

How does that work? Does the military have some kind of election? Does the General get to appoint his successor?


texts: What were Chiang Kai-shek's biggest strategic blunders during the Second Sino-Japanese war?

texts:
Just as it is often said that Operation Barbarossa is Hitler's biggest strategic blunder (either the whole thing, its timing or execution), what were Chiang Kai-shek's biggest strategic blunders in the Second Sino-Japanese war, and why?

For example, I've often heard that the Battle of Shanghai should not have been fought since it was indefensible (the IJN and air force could provide full support) and the NRA lost its most elite troops. However I've also heard that it was all part of a master plan of luring Japan to overextend. Which is true, or what else would be a big blunder?


texts: Did French troops use chemical weapons during the Siege of Laghouat in 1852?

texts:
During the Siege of Laghouat in Algeria, the French army massacred around 3627 civilians.
Many sources suggest that the colonial army also used chemical weapons in that confrontation.
However in these official debriefings there is no mention of a chemical weapon.
Some sources mention chemical substances like chloroform, like this entry on a genealogy wiki :

L'opération militaire étant dirigée de loin par le général Pélissier
qui gravement blessé a donné ordre de bombarder le quartier SEFAH,
avec des bombes à base de chloroforme, du Docteur Baudens, médecin
major de l'armée d'Afrique, expérimentateur dans le domaine des essais
scientifiques.

Other examples for this are Arabic and French Wikipedia pages about the siege, echoed on the English one as well:

… tactic of the French army one of the first instances of recorded use of chemical weapon on civilians.

Then on blogs (example), or newspaper like publications (example 1, example 2).
But these are all not really reliably referenced.
Are there reliable sources on the use of chemical weapons in these events?


texts: What are these items in this 16th century plan of an English town?

texts:
This plan or picture map of Great Yarmouth is from the reign of Elizabeth I (1558-1603). According to the Norfolk Record Office (pdf),

  It shows the town’s defences at the time of the Spanish Armada in
  1588. Its depiction of the town’s layout is not wholly accurate (the streets, for example, were laid out in a grid-like pattern), but the
  marketplace and St Nicholas’s Church are easily identifiable.

(click on image to enlarge) This image is taken from the British Library site which gives c.1585 as the date and refers only to "proposed harbour works". Source: British Library.

Daniel Defoe gave a description of Great Yarmouth in his A tour thro' the whole island of Great Britain (1724-27) but does not seem to mention No.2 so maybe these had disappeared by then (?).

What are people with the large 'wheel' doing (blue number 1)?
What are the structures (blue numbers 2)?

Note: In case anyone is curious, the ship with the flag with black and white horizontal stripes would appear to be from the Belgian commune of Waimes


texts: What is the secret behind the economic success of Republic of China (Taiwan)?

texts: Even though the Republic of China (ROC, also known as Taiwan) is not a member of the United Nations, it has been economically successful. What is the secret behind the economic success of it then?


texts: How does Lyndon Johnson's EO11246 establish Affirmative Action as we know it today?

texts:
Reading the Executive Order 11246 issued by President Johnson, I am unable to find where it states that contractors should give preferential treatment to any group.

It states that contractors must

  ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin

While this bans explicit discrimination, it seems to do the opposite of the Affirmative Action we see today, where race is in fact taken into consideration.

Where does the EO suggest to use affirmative action as we know it today, rather than a simple ban on negative discrimination?
Executive Order 11246


texts: Have there been negative large-scale long term effects from vaccines?

texts:
This is in regards to the COVID-19 vaccines.
As far as I am concerned, the speedy availability is the conjunction of 3 things coming together:

superior biotech compared to even 10 years ago, both in genomic analysis and vaccine tech;
running all the paperwork in tandem with the development, rather than sequentially;
lots of money and resources and just the highest priority.

Some people are concerned, and say that this is so new that we don't know about long-term side effects.
What are the historical examples where significant harmful side effects showed up long after a Phase 3 trial of a vaccine?
The examples I've been able to uncover are:

A vaccine issue in the Philippines in 2017: dengvaxia.  Dengue vaccines can under certain conditions make things worse if you catch a different strain, but I am not sure it came to light after initial trials gave the OK or if the trials were run well enough to catch this effect.  I assume that with the large-scale attention given to the various covid vaccines, we would have caught them out if they reinforced infections instead.

Dengvaxia is approved for sale in 19 countries, including the European Union and the United States, and has saved an estimated 1 million lives. ...
No one reportedly died from the vaccine.  Many of the victims' parents nonetheless blamed the dengue vaccine for their children's deaths.
Dengvaxia controversy - Wikipedia

There are plenty of cases where things go wrong in medical trials or with released medication, for example, thalidomide. Or medications that caused problems which only became apparent over time. In that list, only one is a vaccine which caused problems with infants who are NOT covid vaccination targets.

Unlike a regular medication, it would seem to me the problems with a vaccine should become apparent relatively quickly after administration, as you don't keep on taking it.  Additionally, the medical community has been pretty clear that they don't advocate giving this vaccine to young children and are not committing much to pregnant women either.
So, historically, aside from the dengvaxia - which is not a clear-cut failure either as it seems to protect more than it hurts - do people who claim dire risks have anything concrete to back their statements?
Vaccines have been the subject of disinformation campaigns in the past, but on the other hand, there have been cases with non-vaccine medications where, in hindsight, the signs of adverse long term effects weren't sufficiently taken into account.


texts: Is Kemal Atatürk responsible for Armenian Genocide?

texts:
There is a controversy discussed here about Atatürk's responsibility for the Armenian Genocide.

However, yahoo answers says that that Atatürk actually may have ended it.

I want to know about Atatürk's private and public views regarding killing people based on religion. He seems to have been pretty secularist.


texts: Where did 15th century English serfs live?

texts: If you were a serf working the land on a Manor in England in 1400s, where would you live?  Would you and your family live separately from other serfs (on your plot of land)  or would your house be next to other serfs?  Could you leave and go to the city (London) or would there be penalties?


texts: In WWI, How were the Germans able to maintain a submarine blockade of Britain?

texts:
How come that in WWI, the Germans were able to maintain a submarine blockade of Britain when GB was clearly the dominant naval power? Did the British Empire have no subs of their own? Were they bound elsewhere?

How come that the Royal Navy routed the German fleet at Jutland, but was unable to drive the U-boats out of home waters?


texts: How did the Catholic Pope manage to become more powerful than Kings in old Europe?

texts: In medieval Europe, the Roman Catholic Pope seemed to hold more power than the European kings. This is strange because monarchs can raise armies. Pope and their bishops are not exactly military men. How did the Catholic Pope manage to become more powerful than Kings in medieval Europe without the support of guns and barrels?


texts: What was Masada's Roman ramp steep angle?

texts:
One thing that puzzled me about the story of Masada, is the ramp for the ram.

The angle looked bizarre to me. I suppose it wore out over the years by the harsh winds, and maybe floods, but from models over the web (e.g. Google Earth and other models), it should be about 25 degrees.

The Romans were indeed gifted engineers but in order to pull a tower that weighs, say, 10 tons in 25°, you need about 4.5 tons of force + friction. Not sure they had the technology for keeping it intact all the way up. Not sure we have the technology.

What am I missing?


texts: Has a sovereign Communist government ever run, and conceded loss, on a fair election?

texts:
Have there been cases where a sovereign Communist government ran in an open and fair multi-party election and conceded a loss?

The reason for the sovereign qualifier is simple.  If, for example, the Indian state of Kerala has a Communist government, it stands to reason that, as part of India, it could not (assuming it even wanted to) cancel elections or manipulate them overmuch - the federal Indian government would not let it.

Also, the Communist government in my question need not have been elected into power, it just needs to have allowed free elections once it had power.

edit:  The notion of agency, or free choice, in allowing elections is important too.  Eastern Europe in 89-90 was imploding, people were fleeing through newly opened borders and Gorbachev refused military backing.  People like Honecker deserve praise for not ordering their troops to shoot (with uncertain outcomes, cf Romania), but it's not so much that they believed in democracy, it's that they had run out of all other options.

edit #2:  for the purposes of the question, a Communist party is one which calls itself Communist or whose party manifesto explicitly indicates its adherence to Marxist/Leninist principles.


texts:
I'm trying to find an example of successful treason, but haven't found any so far.  What I'm looking for:

the treason happens at a high level: betraying a country or so
the successful side is the one the traitor goes over to
the event is documented, not simply legendary

Edit: I'm adding one more criterion:

no one knew who the traitor would be before the treason happened

The American Revolution isn't the kind of thing I'm thinking of; everyone knew where the faultlines ran before the revolution began.  Benedict Arnold, on the other hand, would be closer to what I'm thinking of; he was a trusted American officer who betrayed his own side, but unsuccessfully.


texts: When did scientists first postulate that Earth's atmosphere might have an upper limit?

texts:
In plenty of myths and stories from ancient (and not-so-ancient) history, people are able to fly or climb all the way up to the "dome of the sky," breathing all the way.  But even once science had developed enough to make it clear that there was no "dome" and that astronomical objects were an incredible distance away, people were nowhere near the level of technology to reach the upper atmosphere and see what conditions were like at high altitude.

At a certain point, measurements of air pressure could indicate that the higher you go on a mountain, the thinner the air gets.  Such a measurement could easily lead to the deduction that at a certain elevation the air would disappear entirely, but was such a connection ever made?

When was the first time that scientists (or philosophers, etc) suggested that the air surrounding the world might only go so high, and that beyond it was an airless emptiness or void?  And when it happened, what was the discovery or deduction that led them to believe that was the case?


texts: What is the first example of a Western government passing a sin tax?

texts:
What is the first example of a Western government passing a sin or vice tax -- that is, a tax passed primarily to discourage consumption of certain goods due to moral, not economic, concerns? Protective tariffs and mercantilist policies therefore don't count.

States have a long history of directly regulating consumption, but I'm curious about when states first began to indirectly regulate consumption. The first formal treatment of using taxes to reduce "externalities" that I know of comes from Arthur C. Pigou in 1920, but obviously statesmen had long known that taxes have the power to discourage targeted behaviors. I think that Hamilton's Whiskey tax was overwhelmingly a fiscal measure, but he was at least aware that it had a moral angle:

  The consumption of ardent spirits particularly, no doubt very much on
  account of their cheapness, is carried on to an extreme, which is
  truely to be regretted, as well in regard to the health and morals, as
  to the economy of the community.

So I'm inclined not to count the Whiskey tax. What is the first example of a Western government passing a tax primarily to discourage "immoral" behavior?


texts: When were swords last used in European warfare?

texts:
Specifically, I'm interested in the last documented occurrence of swords (of any sort) being used as a primary weapon by infantrymen or cavalrymen in Western warfare. That is, when did any European or North American army last combat with swords in live battle?

I think I am safe to say that by the late 19th century swords were overwhelmingly ceremonial items, harking back to the earlier days of warfare. No doubt, even in the 17th century when gunpowder and indeed muskets were being increasingly starting to be used in battle, the sword would have played a diminished role compared to that of the High Middle Ages (12th century). However, I am tempted to think the sword lingered on in usage for centuries afterwards. Does anyone have any historical evidence to suggest when this usage finally stopped for good?


texts: Is there any footage of the Chernobyl explosion?

texts:
I know there is a lot of footage of the aftermath of the Chernobyl accident, but is there any footage of the explosion itself?

In a documentary about the Chernobyl disaster it was stated that there were in fact a couple of persons close to the power plant at the time of the explosion, but did anyone actually capture it?

I'm also aware that back in 1986 not everyone was walking around with a camera in their pocket.


texts: Did the chronicler William of Malmesbury write that William Adelin threatened to make Anglo-Saxons 'draw a plow like cattle' when he became king?

texts:
In the Bohn's Antiquarian Library 1847 edition of William of Malmesbury's 'Chronicle of the Kings of England', there is a footnote which says another translator (Brompton) wrote:

  'Willelmus Malmesbiriensis dicit,
  quod ille Willelmus regis primogenitus palam Anglis fuerat comminatus,
  quod, si aliquando super eos regnaret, faceret eos ad aratrum trahere quasi
  boves : sed spe sua coruscabili Dei vindicta cum aliis deperiit.'

Roughly translated, I think this says that Henry I's son William Adelin was rebuked for threatening to make the English (i.e. Anglo-Saxons) draw a plow like cattle if they gave him any trouble when he became king. However, the Bohn's edition says there is no such statement in William of Malmesbury's chronicle.

My question is: Is this statement about William Adelin in William of Malmesbury's chronicle? It seems to be far too large a discrepancy to be a translation error.


texts: Why is the consensus that WW2 started on September 1, 1939 and not July 7, 1937?

texts:
Looking at Wikipedia, dates given are 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945, which end in the defeat of Japan.

However why is the starting date when Germany invaded Poland and not when the Japanese invaded China in the Sino-Japanese war on July 7, 1937, which then ends on 2 September 1945 (same) date as WW2?

Why is it considered that WW2 started on September 1, 1939 and not July 7, 1937?

EDIT: (As per request by @sempaiscuba) Another argument that could be put forward for 1937:

China was first to sign UN charter as first victim of aggression by an Axis power

So it could be argued that at the time of signing in 1945 consensus was that start was 1937... Otherwise, it should be Poland.


texts: How did the USSR manage to innovate in an environment characterized by government censorship and high bureaucracy?

texts:
Despite the high bureaucracy in the Soviet Union, some design bureaus still achieved spectacular feats in science and engineering (mostly in defense and aerospace) e.g. Mir space station, Soyuz rockets, Mil V-12, Caspian Sea Monster, Antonov 225 Mriya etc.

Free flow of ideas and criticism are important for innovative ideas to be realized. How did the scientists in these bureaus manage to innovate despite Soviet censorship and bureaucracy?

Take for example a scientist disagreeing with the head of a design bureau on a certain design prototype. How was such criticism handled? Or was the best design prototype chosen from a scientist who had more political connections?


texts: Were any German cities spared by the Allies for personal or idiosyncratic reasons?

texts:
Histories of the bombing campaign against German cities in WW2 often mention that German civilians towards the end of war were prey to fantastical rumours that such-and-such a city "is being spared" because a senior Allied leader once holidayed there, or has a distant relative there or plans to set up his post-war HQ there. Such stories speak of the ignorance and fatalism that prevailed in the late phase of WW2 Germany. The most famous and deluded example is Dresden, supposedly spared (up till the point when it was firebombed) because Churchill's aunt lived there.
But were there any genuine cases of German cities receiving specially lenient treatment by Allied bombers for personal or other unusual reasons?


texts: Where can I find the history of military uniforms?

texts:
Is there any web resource that talk about the history and evolution of military uniforms?

For example, development, history and evolution of uniforms of various Muslim, European, Asian, Indian empires.


texts: Why was Tsesarevich Alexei's hemophilia a state secret?

texts:
Alexei inherited hemophilia from his mother Alexandra, a
  condition that could be traced back to her maternal grandmother Queen
  Victoria. In 2009 genetic analysis determined specifically that he
  suffered from hemophilia B. He had to be careful not to injure himself
  because he lacked one of the clotting factors necessary to prevent him
  from bleeding to death. According to his French tutor, Pierre
  Gilliard, the nature of his illness was kept a state secret. His
  hemophilia was so severe that trivial injuries such as a bruise, a
  nosebleed or a cut were potentially life-threatening.

The question that puzzles me is: why was this such a secret? There was no shortage of male Romanovs for a succession so even if the Tsesarevich died of his illness the future of the dynasty would not be in jeopardy.

Was there a particular reason to keep this secret or was just the usual Russian preoccupation with secrecy?

Quoted from wikipedia.


texts: How can one reliably date a carved stone item or structure?

texts:
This is what I've read in an article (won't share it here out of fear of attracting several downvotes just for posting a link of that kind) that raises some questions:

Carbon dating is carried out on organic matter found around, inside or near the stone object. Based on that organic material's dating, the date around which the item was carved, is estimated.
The problem with this approach: Suppose a museum in the present day has several stone monuments from varying dates. And they're cleaned and maintained quite well by the curator; there is no organic material on them. One day the whole museum is suddenly buried under enormous amounts of inorganic material, with the curator trapped in and crushed to death. 2000 years later a team of archaeologists uncover this place. The only organic material they find is the remains of the curator. They date it, and from that, peg all the stone sculptures found in the museum at 2000 years old. But the items were actually much older than even the curator. So isn't that a wrong dating?
Inspecting the handiwork on the sculpture itself is subjective to assumptions about possession of skills at different time periods. That's not linear. Take one present day example : Utensils from 1000 years ago in a museum can have exquisite artwork, embellishment, detailing. Imagine someone comparing it with a utensil being ordinarily used today having no artwork, with both items being made of the same material. They would assume that today's utensil is older than the one from 1000 years ago, on the basis of handiwork.

So is the part about the carbon dating of nearby organic material true? Or does stone have its own ways of finding age of carving that is independent of nearby organic material?


texts: What stood behind Maria Theresa's forestry policy?

texts:
Maria Theresa of Austria established laws that determined how many trees you have to plant for every cut-down tree. Why?

Did the industry need so many trees because of the industrial revolution?


texts: Are the traditions of Ground Hog Day connected to those of Candlemas Day in Europe?

texts:
Today, the 2nd February was Ground Hog Day. In Europe it was also Candlemas Day (the Feast of the Presentation of Jesus in the Temple).

Now there is a tradition in America that if the humble ground hog emerges from his burrow in sunshine, he/she quickly returns and winter too will return. But if it is a dull day, he/she remains outside on the basis that winter has ended.

Very similar folklore surrounds Candlemas Day, though it does not involve any rodent. It is expressed in England in a rhyme:

If Candlemas Day be fair and bright,

Winter will have another fight;

But if Candlemas Day be dull and drear,

There'll be no more winter in the year

So Ground Hog Day, and Candlemas Day are both celebrated on 2nd February, and in both cases, the weather is seen as being a pointer to the continuation of, or end to the winter.

What is the connection between them?


texts: What was clothing in ancient Palmyra like?

texts: What is known about what people used to wear in the city of Palmyra during the third century AD? Was it more similar to Roman or Persian fashion of the period?


texts: Historically, how come we have 7 days in a week?

texts:
I know jewish culture tend to like number 7. What about other cultures? Do we have 7 days in a week from bible?

Why do we derive 7 days a week from jews? Why not from more prominent culture, like roman, greek, etc.


texts: When were the first heating apparatus used for bathing?

texts: If in the Odyssey they already washed themselves with warm water prepared on fire, why didn’t the athletes in the loutrons of the palaestrae do the same? They used cold water, which is ineffective for cleaning themselves from the oil and dust.


texts: What caused the rapid African population growth in the last decades?

texts:
Wikipedia states:

  [African] population doubled in the period 1982–2009[4] and quadrupled from 1955–2009, according to United Nations estimates.

Is there a consensus on the causes behind this rapid growth in Africa? Specifically, I am interested in potential global and political factors and policies that (may) have impacted this phenomenon.


texts: What is the technical term for a head on head battle?

texts:
I am writing an essay about how accurate the film "Braveheart" is. In the film Braveheart, the battle of Stirling Bridge is shown with the two armies facing each other. I would like to know what the technical name for this is if there is one. I do believe that there is a one-word term for it.

Thanks in advance!


texts:
What are examples of official documents or speeches composed in verse? What is the most recent example of such document or speech?

One of the recent examples is Edmond Pope's attorney Pavel Astakhov who addressed the court in rhymed verse speech spanning 12 pages: http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/136839

I would like especially examples from politicians though.


texts: How was Germany involved in the Russian Civil War after the Paris Peace Conference?

texts:
What was Germany's involvement in the Russian Civil War after the Paris Peace Conference? After signing the Treaty of Versailles, Germany's economy was pretty much in ruins, but which side of the Russian Civil War was Germany on after the Paris Peace Conference; did Germany support the Red Army or the White Army?

The White Army was supported by the Allies, which was an enemy of the Allies, so one would think Germany supported the Red Army. However, Germany didn't want Communism in it's country after the Paris Peace Conference, so it couldn't have supported the Red Army either. So which side did it support and what did Germany do to support that side in the Russian Civil War?


texts: Was the Jewish population expelled from the Jerusalem after the siege of 70 AD or after the Bar Kokhba revolt?

texts:
The Wikipedia article on Bar Kokhba revolt says :

  and Jews were forbidden from entering it, except on the day of Tisha
  B'Av.

I was under the impression that the Jewish population had already been expelled after the siege of 70 AD. Or was it, that they were heavily persecuted, but not expelled in 70AD ?


texts: In Great Britain, did the Liberal Unionists and Conservatives ever compete for the same seats in elections?

texts: The Liberal Unionists fought elections against the Liberals. Did Liberal Unionists ever stand in the same seats as Conservatives too, or did they have a pact right from the beginning?