texts: What are these historical references (from a novel)?

texts:
I was reading Crusader's Cross from James Lee Burke when I read this :

  But airliners crash because a twenty-cent lightbulb burns out on the
  instrument panel; a Civil War campaign is lost because a Confederate
  courier wraps three cigars in a secret communique; and a morally
  demented man takes a job in a Texas book depository and changes world
  history.

My knowledge in the history of the USA being not so great, I have no idea what events or historical figure he refers to but I would be interested to learn about them.


texts: Did Hitler receive any honours outside Germany?

texts:
From this article in The Telegraph:

In a move designed to remove an embarrassing link to Germany's past Dulmen town council voted to revoke the honour its predecessor once bestowed upon Hitler.
It becomes the latest German town to erase an unwanted memory, with historians estimating that more than 4,000 German towns and cities once granted the Nazi leader honorary citizenship.

I'm curious to know if any official honours (not restricted only to citizenships), awards, or decorations were granted to Hitler outside Germany.


texts: Why was there an autumn recess in Britain in 1641?

texts:
Was it because the government just wanted to take a break in recess? Or was it because of conflicts?

Wikipedia mentions that in October 1641, the Irish rebellion occurred, but it doesn’t mention that (or why) the British parliament recessed in October.


texts: Help with identifying my great-grandfather's pre-WWI Cossack uniform

texts:
My great-grandfahter was a Cossack from "Then Russia" "Now Belarus" where the Belarus, Ukraine and Poland borders met, but I don't now which "type" like Don or Kuban etc. He fled from the place he lived about 1912-1914.

My great-grandfather is the man in the middle and his brother is sitting to his left (both are cossacks).

I think he was a Don Cossack but I can't find someone with the same uniforms.

I know almost nothing more since he never talked about what he did in the military to my grandmother.


texts: Who was Ahmad al-Barbir al-Tarabulusi, and did he write about an old number-based middle-eastern joke about homosexuality?

texts:
While reading the book From one to zero. A universal history of numbers by the French historian Georges Ifrah I came across a retelling about an old joke about homosexuality but I cannot find any references to it elsewhere. This is from the English translation, page 58-59:

  More obscenely, Ahmād al Barbīr al Tarābulusī could not resist offering his pupils the following mnemonic for the gestures representing 30 and 90: "A poet most elegantly said, of a handsome young man: Khālid set out with a fortune of 90 dirhams, but had only one third of it left when he returned!" plainly asserting that Khālid was homosexual (Fig. 3.32), having started "narrow" (90) but finished "wide" (30).

(Any typos are mine - quote is typed in from the book)

I'm trying to figure out how credible this is, and who Ahmād al Barbīr al Tarābulusī really was. He is mentioned in a chapter that talks about number systems in the Islamic world roughly between 600-1200 CE, but only as "a writer on secular Arab and Persian texts".

Googling the name does not lead me anywhere and the book only contains a list of almost 900 bibliographic references starting on page 601 - I cannot find any that matches Ahmad, al-Barbir or al-Tarabulusi.

The book is something of a "popular science" book, so it's not as well referenced as a scientific text should be. It has received a lot of praise, but also some criticism, but the criticism mostly seems to be centered around the author ignoring a lot of sources, and not obvious falsifications.

Questions

Who was Ahmād al-Barbīr al-Tarābulusī?
Did he publish the joke (or "poem") mentioned in the book? When and where?


texts: Have any armies equipped/fed their officers and enlisted men equally?

texts:
In the Soviet army during WW2 the officers had bigger food rations. They also had better boots (kirza vs. leather). The air force pilots were fed even better (but that is not very relevant).

What about other modern (in the last, say, 250 years) armies?

Which armies (and when) fed and clothed their personnel similarly?

Which armies (and when) separated officers' and enlisted men's messes?

Obviously, pilots or submariners are equipped differently than cavalrymen. The question is about people who serve together (e.g., platoon leader and his men) but are supplied differently.
Obviously, in the field (e.g., during a rapid advance, retreat, or when encircled) an army might not be supplied according to the regulations; the question is specifically about regulations and normal practice, not emergencies.


texts: Are there any sources on the Tempestarii?

texts: The Tempestarii were weather mages in the Frankish Empire Recorded and were recorded on by Agobard of Lyons. I read the text he wrote on them but I cannot find other texts on them that go into more detail. I am also having trouble figuring out their origin whether it was Germanic or Gaulish because of their similarly in weather mythology. Does anyone know information on their origin and practices? The main text I have gone through is Agobard of Lyons on Hail and Thunder along with the Wiki page and other folktales on weather sorcery such as the Solomonari.


texts: What was the Soviet reasoning for developing their Airborne Forces (VDV) into a powerful military branch?

texts:
The Soviet Airborne Forces (the VDV, or the Воздушно-десантные войска, or the Aerial Descent Force as a more precise translation) were one of the more prestigious units in the Soviet military (see 'basis' for this below). This development seems to have been contradictory to many Allied and Axis operational outcomes from World War 2 (Market Garden, Crete, etc). Similarly, almost none of the Allied/Western forces established a separate branch of their military for airborne operations (I don't know of any, but leaving this open in case Belgium or someone did this), but this was perhaps a small though specialized unit amongst the wider system. Yet, the Soviets established a whole branch, including developing specialized heavy equipment, for their Airborne Forces. Why did this come about?

While I make the statement that the VDV was 'highly prestigious' without much concrete supportive evidence as the majority of it is anecdotal (stories, etc...) but it also got the (perhaps natural) first position in combat in many theatres such as Afghanistan. Also, however, WP specifically notes it as such (also without further evidence):

  ... was a 'prestige service' in the armed forces of the USSR and Russia to reflect its strategic purpose. [here]

Yet, the specific article on the VDV doesn't note any "strategic purpose" but says its building was all up to one man, Vasily Margelov:

  The creation of the post-war Soviet Airborne Forces owe much to the efforts of one man, Army General Vasily Margelov, so much so that the abbreviation of VDV in the Airborne Forces is sometimes waggishly interpreted as Войска дяди Васи or "Uncle Vasya's Forces".

Margelov's article says (emphasises mine):

  In May 1954, he became commander of the Soviet airborne. After an incident in the airborne forces, which Schofield describes as encouraging a sergeant to wrestle a bear during a birthday party, Margelov was demoted to deputy commander in 1959. In July 1961, he became the airborne forces commander again. He initiated the mass production of parachute systems and helped to introduce the An-22 and Il-76 into service. During his tenure in command of the VDV, the PP-127 parachute was developed, which allowed BMD-1 infantry fighting vehicles to be airdropped. On 28 October 1967, Margelov was promoted to general of the army. He organized the Soviet airborne operations during the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia.

While the italicized part sounds thrilling, the bold emphasises his later services to the VDV and elaborates some on the heavy equipment dropping capacity. Yet, it doesn't describe what arguments Margelov used to enhance the prestige of the service or how he 'create[d] much of it'.

Further, one would think that the other service branches were opposed to the creation of another that would take away parts of their own funding. Given this also had to pass party hoops it sounds like a relatively complex process which should have instigated much debate at (some) levels of the Soviet government.


texts: Why have population maps indicated a stark divide in population density of the United States on either side ot the 100th Meridian?

texts:
Every time I look at a map of the United States coloured by something proportional to population density, I see a stark vertical line going from northeast North Dakota, through SD, NE, KS, OK, and finally reaching southern Texas. For instance, here it is in a map of light pollution:

Here you can see it in nighttime satellite imagery:

and even in confirmed COVID-19 cases:

Finally, here it is in terms of raw population density data by counties:

My current hypothesis is it's mostly determined by climate---for instance, here is a map of the Köppen climate types of the United States:

However, the cold semi-arid (BSk) climate only starts in the western parts of the states that the line crosses in the east. I found a slightly higher correlation by looking at a map of rainfall:

So, is this line mainly determined by climate? If so, why is the line so stark, and still so cleanly visible, perhaps a hundred years after the main wave of migration? Could this be better explained by specific historical circumstances and demarcations; for instance, a boundary between land that was ceded by the Native Americans, and land that wasn't?
For instance, the map of land cessions seems to line up pretty well with the line in Texas:

Are there any historical reasons other than "geography"for this divide?


texts: "More Frenchmen bore arms for the Axis than for the Allies during the Second World War"?

texts:
True or false?

This is claimed by Andrew Roberts in The Storm of War. Quote:

  As more Frenchmen bore arms for the Axis than for the Allies during the Second World War, it is unsurprising that there is still no official French history of the period.

Who in turn cites Max Hastings, Sunday Telegraph, 2/2/2003, p. 14, available here. Quote:

  After reading this narrative, and recalling the brutal statistic that more Frenchmen bore arms for the Axis than for the Allies during the Second World War, it seems unsurprising that France still has no plans for an official history of 1939-45.

Hastings however gives no reference for this claim.


texts: Who wrote the "Mi General Augusto Pinochet" Song?

texts:
It is available here. According to Wikipedia, mi general was a nickname sometimes used by General Pinochet's supporters.

Is it modern or contemporary? In the former case I would like to know who wrote it.


texts: Why didn't the Hungarians help the battle of Kosovo?

texts:
I am curious why the Hungarians, as the first neighbor of then Serbia and Bosnia, who sent troops to confront the invasion of the Ottomans, didn't also participate given that it was obvious that the Ottomans would target them next after defeating the Serbs/Bosnians.

E.g. were there diplomatic failures, intelligence gathering failures, or simple political misalignments that cultivated their shortsightedness?


texts: Who proposed the motion that gave Gaius Julius Caesar the title Augustus?

texts: In 27 BC, the Senate gave Gaius Julius Caesar the title Augustus. I am assuming that as the senate gave him that title, the motion must have been proposed by someone at the senate floor. Do we know, reliably, who proposed that motion? Do we know how many people opposed it and supported it and how many (if any) senators abstained from voting?


texts: What changes happened in law enforcement and criminal trials during the Nazi era in Germany?

texts:
How, if at all, did the Nazis change the approach taken to everyday crime in the time they were in power?

I'm referring to 'normal' crime. I'm not talking about the many crimes that the Nazis committed, which are too well known to need listing here. I am also not asking about non-criminal things that the Nazis decided to criminalise, such as being Jewish, etc.

I want to know about how they dealt with theft, fraud, murder, arson, etc., committed by private individuals for private reasons. In other words, what qualifies is acts that we in the 21st century consider to be crime, that Weimar would have seen as crime, and that Germany's contemporaries elsewhere in Europe would have called crime, AND that the Nazis regarded as crime.

If all those different societies considered something to be a crime, it was a crime for the purposes of this question. I can draw a Venn diagram if you want :).


texts: What were the demographics and economics of South-East Asian islands around year 1400?

texts:
Background:

Prior to the arrival of the Europeans on the scene, the island chains in South-East Asia, specifically in the area of today's Indonesia, Philippines and neighbouring states, housed a varied and conglomerate mix of mostly Muslim and Hindu nations and city-states. Most notably, these were the remains of the once-powerful Srivijaya Empire and the vassals and subjects of the Majapahit Empire. The people on the islands had extensive trade connections with the Muslim world, India and (until the beginning of the Ming Dynasty's isolationist policies) China.

However, the Europeans didn't establish any presence in the area until later in the 16th century, so European sources for the time before are scarce to non-existent, and later sources mostly concern themselves with the European exploits in the region. Consequently, Emma Helen Blair's otherwise excellent "The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803" only starts in the year 1493.

Now, for a practical application of this knowledge, I'm researching this subject in order to create a better, more true to the real history, map of this area for the game Europa Universalis III, which starts in the year 1399 (with the current expansion).

So the question would be, what were the demographics and economics of South-East Asian islands around year 1400, give or take a generation or two? In particular, the interesting part (as it pertains to this question) is how many people lived there, especially in the Majapahit Empire, but also, how did they live, and what did they trade with each other?

I'd imagine there should be a wealth of Islamic sources, and likely some Indian and Chinese as well, but finding any of them or alternatively Western ones which translate and synthesize them is a task I have failed at so far.


texts: What is the drawing in this ekphrastic poem?

texts:
I'm trying to identify the drawing (an unfinished sketch for a painting?) described in this Donald Justice poem. Possibly an African in upper-class dress, with a horse and second person who's portrait has not been included.

Anonymous Drawing
A delicate young Negro stands
With the reins of a horse clutched loosely in his hands;
So delicate, indeed, that we wonder if he can hold the spirited creature  beside him
Until the master shall arrive to ride him.
Already the animal's nostrils widen with rage or fear.
But if we imagine him snorting, about to rear,
This boy, who should know about such things better than we,
Only stands smiling, passive and ornamental, in a fantastic livery
Of ruffles and puffed breeches,
Watching the artist, apparently, as he sketches.
Meanwhile the petty lord who must have paid
For the artist's trip up from Perugia, for the horse, for the boy, for everything here, in fact, has been delayed,
Kept too long by his steward, perhaps, discussing
Some business concerning the estate, or fussing
Over the details of his impeccable toilet
With a manservant whose opinion is that any alteration at all would spoil it.
However fast he should come hurrying now
Over this vast greensward, mopping his brow
Clear of the sweat of the fine Renaissance morning, it would be too late:
The artist will have had his revenge for being made to wait,
A revenge not only necessary but right and clever—
Simply to leave him out of the scene forever.


texts:
Reverse:

Obverse
 (click for full size)

Can anyone identify this coin?
I found it with other coin in a bag left by my father after he passed away.


texts:
I am currently studying Middle East Political history and have come to some correspondences between British diplomats and Arab leaders. The dates on these outgoing correspondences are 14 July 1915, from Cairo, (British administered) Egypt and 30 August 1915, from Mecca (modern day Saudi Arabia). My question is threefold.

How long would it have taken an official correspondence between officials  to reach one another given the above region of travel?
What would have been the means of delivery for these correspondences?
-Diplomatic Couriers?
What was the means of postage between countries in the early 1900's?


texts: When was the deadliest year in human history in absolute terms?

texts:
The global mortality rate has been falling for quite some time. It's gone down from about 17.7 deaths per 1000 people in 1960, to 7.7 in 2016.

Less discussed is absolute mortality, which I've realized may be at an all-time high right now. For one, the world population has never been higher, and also the relatively large senior population means a lot of people are dying from natural causes. The CIA reports about 1.8 deaths per second, or 57 million per year.

So, will 2018 be the deadliest year in human history? It seems plausible. Some other contenders I could think of...

1942: Height of World War II
1918: World War I and the influenza pandemic
1500s: Smallpox outbreak in the Americas
1348: Height of the Black Death


texts: How many non-partisan (independent) legislature members were in the USA compared to the USSR?

texts: How many legislature members there were who were not members of any party in the USA compared to the USSR during the Cold War and now?


texts: What was a "cable station" in WW2 Pacific War?

texts:
I'm listening to Fluckey's "Thunder Below" about the USS Barb's exploits.  He mentions a mission to shell a Japanese "cable station" in the Kuril Islands, but doesn't explain what it is for.  He does mention that the consequence of a successful attack would mean that Japanese ships would be forced to rely more on radio communications, enabling US eavesdroppers.

So I'm deducing it's a cable as in a physical cable link for communications - an undersea cable relay of some kind?  But how would that help ships?  Or is the idea that with the cable station in place, they could broadcast on a shorter-range set and then the communication would go the rest of the way via secure hardline, while without the cable station they would have to use longer-range broadcasts that were more vulnerable to eavesdropping by US codebreakers?


texts:
Currently it is legal to kill yourself in Germany, but what about in the past?

What were the laws on suicide in the Third Reich?

Was it illegal to kill yourself? What about self-maiming, like blinding yourself?


texts:
Until several years ago the eastern end of the Great Wall of China was considered to end at Shanhaiguan where the wall goes into the sea, but the Chinese have revealed (in 2009) new portions of the Great Wall that goes right up to the North Korean border at Hushan mountain area which they say are built in the Ming era (I have heard this wall referred to as the Liaodong Wall but Lioadong Wall had been known to people so not sure if this newly discovered portion actually refers to the Liaodong Wall). However, some scholars, many of them Koreans, dispute this assertion and state that much of the wall that the Chinese claim are the newly discovered portions of the Great Wall are actually walls of Koguryeo and Bohai kingdoms. Of course China is trying to assert these two kingdoms as part of Chinese history in recents years but I will leave that controversy for another time. Here are my questions:

1) Are the newly discovered walls (referring to discovery announced in 2009 and not 2012) Ming era walls or are large portions of them Koguryeo or Bohai era walls?

2) Regarding the recently announced (in 2012) additions to the Great Wall that crisscrosses into Manchuria, who built these walls and in what era?

3) And somewhat partially related, maps of the Great Wall have portions that are built in Qin and Han era extending all the way into North Korea right up to PyeongYang city, however, some Korean scholars claim that extending the wall from Qin/Han era into the Korean Peninsula is due to a misinterpretation of ancient texts. But the question of whether the wall extended deep into the Korean Peninsula could best be answered by archaeological evidence. Are there studies on this? If archaeological studies are not available what is the reasoning for extending the Qin/Han era wall into the Korean Peninsula?


texts: I am trying to identify the aircraft in the picture here.  I know it is a U.S. Army Air Corps training aircraft from World War II, and I'm guessing its an AT-6.  But I can't find a comparable photo that would show the same equipment that this photo shows.  Can anyone help?


texts: How historically correct is the Maharana Pratap serial?

texts:
My family follows the Maharana Pratap serial; I am not sure whether following events are historically correct.

Pratap and Akbar meeting when they were young.
Rao surtan surfacing multiple times.


texts: Is there any record of the premature obituary of Alfred Nobel?

texts:
It’s widely shared that Alfred Nobel, who posthumously founded the Nobel Prizes, had read a premature obituary about himself castigating him for his role in producing and trafficking deadly products, such as dynamite. The story goes that reading this as a forewarning of his legacy shocked him so deeply that he started the Nobel Prizes in order the celebrate the good in humanity.

Are there any surviving copies of this premature obituary? If not, what is known about it?


texts:
Recently I was reading Brugsch's History of Egypt and he describes the figure of Horus as being that of a "sparrowhawk". Now, I have the greatest respect for Brugsch and consider him the best Egyptologist by a margin, but anyone who knows anything about birds, can tell Horus is not a sparrowhawk. I am no serious bird watcher, but even I can tell the difference between a sparrowhawk and a falcon.

The question, however, is what kind of falcon is he? There would seem to be two candidates: the Barbary Falcon and the Lanner Falcon, both of which are commonly found in Egypt. I have three theories:

(1) The two types of falcon (Barbary and Lanner) are quite similar to each other, so Horus is considered to be indifferently either one of them and the Egyptians drew no special distinction between the two species.

(2) Horus is a Barbary Falcon because that type of falcon tends to have stronger, more distinctive facial markings and a rounder head, both characteristics of the stereotype of Horus.

(3) Horus is a Lanner Falcon, and specifically a female because the female Lanner Falcon is very large and majestic compared to all other types of falcons and hunts in a majestic way, descending from tall cliffs.

Would there be a reason for preferring one of these theories (or some other)?


texts: Was the tariff that Alexander Hamilton wanted to create (in his Financial Plan) ever put into action by Hamilton?

texts:
Hamilton's Financial plan had 3 parts:

The U.S. government would pay all debts
The U.S. government would create a national bank
The U.S. government would impose a high tax on imported goods (tariff)

I know that the tariff was originally declined by the government, but was it ever put into action? Did Hamilton convince the government to accept the tariff, or did someone else convince the government? If so, when was it put into action (the year is fine)?


texts: Did von Manstein push for mass production of late models PzKpfw IV over Panther or Tiger?

texts: I read this claim somewhere, but cannot possibly find the source of it - did Erich von Manstein prefer large numbers of medium tanks PzKpfw IV over small numbers of heavy tanks?


texts:
Can anyone identify this uniform?

I believe this man is an ancestor of mine, the picture was shared with me by my father 2nd cousin - whom we found through DNA matching.  She does not know his name.  I have several ancestors who were in the French military, so trying to narrow it down.

Related: Can anyone help identify this French military uniform?


texts:
What are the olive presses referred to in Gregory S. Aldrete's History of the Ancient World A Global Perspective? It mentions olive presses in North Africa  that look so much like Stonehenge they were mistaken for religous structures.

Why would a pillar of an olive press need to be 10 feet high?


texts: How did the modern hyper-appreciation of antiquities develop?

texts:
Through much of history since classical antiquity, ancient artifacts were not appreciated much. Wonders such as the Coliseum and the Pyramids of Giza were partially scavenged for building material during the middle ages. As late as the 19th century, Persopolis was "a huge pile of cuneiform clay tables" lying around in the open, apparently of interest to no one; local shepherds had even built houses from them although it was known that they were very old. In the early 20th century, wealthy British had no troubles buying ancient Egyptian obelisks and man-sized statues and shipping them to Europe; as late as the 1940s, Alfred Chester Beatty was able to purchase some of the most valuable Arabic manuscripts on the open market for his private collection.

Today, just a few decades later, the antiquities trade is highly regulated everywhere in the world, and genuine ancient artifacts of any kind are almost unobtainable for private collectors. The few that are command prices in the tens of millions, the monetary equivalent of dozens of houses, a valuation that must surely be unprecedented in all of history for any item based on its provenance alone.

How did the modern idea that ancient artifacts are "priceless" develop? Surely the obvious fact that there is no way to "make" one of them today is not enough of an explanation, for that was also true in any of the previous centuries. Equally, while classical antiquity was certainly admired also by the people of the European Renaissance and later German Classicism, I doubt any of them would have thought it conceivable that a statuette the size of a human hand can be worth the equivalent of a small town, regardless of its age.


texts: Where on today's map of India, was the confluence of the Baes and Sutlej rivers when Alexander was in the Punjab?

texts:
I am trying to understand where on today's map of the Punjab, Alexander and his armies returned after a mutiny. The historical accounts (Arrian, for example) suggest he reached the Beas River, which is in today's Indian side of the Punjab. According to historical sources, such as Arrian, he built a giant monument to mark the eastern most point of the campaign there.
It is of course possible, that the Beas River in those days ran differently than today.
Assuming that the ancient sources are correct, is anything known about where on today's map the mutiny took place and the monument would have been built?


texts: Was Classic Mayan civilization really so gruesome?

texts:
(I don't really know how to ask this question, so help in editing it to better fit the StackExchange format would be quite welcome.)

From what I can tell, Classical Mayan civilization was exceptionally gruesome.  So much so, that I have a hard time accepting it.  Reading articles on Wikipedia, this is what I see: the cities were almost constantly at war with each other, war captives were often sacrificed, kings and nobles would frequently pierce their bodies for blood in public ceremonies (in horrifying ways involving thorns, ropes, and delicate body parts), there were sacrifices of children, and I've heard there are a few examples of cannibalism.

Can that be right?  Can Mayan civilization really have been so horrifying?

I know very little about the period, and I'm hoping these aspects of it didn't really exist.


texts: What actually happened in Greek and Roman temples of healing?

texts:
Greeks first had temples of healing under Apollo, and when Apollo as the god of healing was displaced by Asclepius, these temples ended up as asclepeion. The Romans adopted this idea of temples for healing and also developed the military hospital (valetudinarium) which were stationed in their military forts.

For someone who was sick and accessed a temple of healing, what kind of service would they receive? And who had access to these services? The rich? The poor? Everyone? Did they have to pay? It's evident that one certainly had to be rich to have access to a physician, but I'm not sure how this played out in the Asclepeion.


texts: Did the "loss" of the American territories in the first third of the 19th century have any impact on Spanish intellectual discourse?

texts:
The defeat in the war against the USA in 1898 and the subsequent loss of Puerto Rico, Cuba and the Philippines had an enormous, long-term impact on Spanish intellectuals (Generation of 98).
However, the much greater territorial loss in the wars of Spanish American Independence (1808-1833) did not get even a fraction of the attention, or didn`t it?


texts: 3rd party (foreign nationality) forces active in Iran-Iraq war?

texts:
During the 8 year war between both countries many other 3rd party countries were involved too, in both supplying arms and experts, but I'm faced with claims of a major number of foreign soldiers being active in the field from ground troops to pilots and a number of them being captivated as POW.

I couldn't find a source on this and need to know the nationality and number of any major 3rd party troops in that war.

I'm not mentioning any side since I'm interested to find out about both side's possible foreign troops.
This question is not asking about a small number of foreign involvement (Tech or Intel people), I'm looking for hundreds of soldiers.

I've searched already list of POW's by both sides, and the Wikipedia page of supporters and the sources on the page but couldn't find a mention of any foreigners in a reliable source. The Iranian documentary that got me interested in finding out about the matter claimed POW's from 17 other countries both voluntary and commissioned. The mentioned list was,

Somali, Jordan, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, Lebanon, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Turkey, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Bosnia, Yugoslavia, Morocco, Yemen, Oman

Well the documentary didn't mention a source and just showed some photos, I can guess from the propaganda of Saddam in the time many Arab nations would support him against a none Arab and Shia 1 country, So that some small number of people would voluntarily take part in the war both to get paid and for religious aims. But has that number gone up to hundreds?

Interesting:
A friend also told me of French pilots bombing Iran and one of them being taken as POW, take a look at this video.

1 one of two major sects of Islam popular in Iran and the other being Sunni popular in Arab world.


texts: How did philosophical and scientific knowledge in Christian Europe in 1085 compare to the body of knowledge contained in the library of Toledo?

texts:
In 1085, Moorish Toledo was conquered by Alfonso VI.

According to prof. Robert Sapolsky (he is a primatologist and neurobiologist, but usually all information he gives is very reliable), at the time of the conquest there was more cumulative information in the library of Toledo than in the whole Christendom, especially when it comes to philosophy and science. Could this be correct? How did repositories of knowledge (libraries) in Christian Europe compared with the Toledo library in number of volumes, reputation of authors, breadth and depth of topics covered, or other measures? In particular, how about the Byzantine libraries following the Carolingian Renaissance?

The answer has to contain some objective measure to fit the format of this forum, it could be e.g. the number of prominent antique/Arab philosophers whose works were known in Christian Europe before the conquest vs the books in the library, or some very significant works that were available in the library but not known in Christian Europe at the time, or any other objective measure that is available.

This is indirectly confirmed by the existence of Toledo School of Translators, but I could not find any quantitative references.


texts: Did Britain call up veterinarians in World War Two?

texts:
My question is inspired by the final episode of "All Creatures Great and Small" where James Herriot gets his call up letter to fight for Britain in World War Two. My question is: was this realistic? I would have expected that a Veterinary surgeon such as Herriot would have been protected from call ups. Part of providing food and resources would surely have been people with the skills to keep livestock healthy. That would have been like other protected professions like my grandfather who was a market gardener.

Was the show All Creatures Great and Small accurate to call him up? Or am I right to say that he would as a veterinary surgeon have received protection?


texts:
Does someone know where I can find a list of the deliveries to the USSR by the "Lend Lease Act" of the United States 1941 to 1945 by year?

Most books like "Russia's Life-Saver" by Albert Weeks do have either a list by years in tonnage (not useful since no distinction is made between raw materials and war technology like tanks and aircraft) or a total list of all deliveries made 1941 to 1945 (again not useful because most of the deliveries were made 1944 and 1945).


texts: Why did meat and dairy drop out of the working people in Britain's diet during the industrial enclosures period?

texts:
During the industrial enclosures period (1750-1832) meats and dairy dropped out of the diet of working people in Britain.  This change was regional (oatmeal regions maintained milk consumption, bread regions didn't, Irish migratory labour didn't).  What caused this dietary change?

Sources: Hammond & Hammond, Labourers series (Village, Town, Skilled).


texts: How much money did the participating nations spend in the Napoleonic Wars?

texts: How much money did Great Britain, Russia and France collect per year during Napoleonic wars as total revenue, and how much money did each one spend in total on that war?


texts: What was the relationship between Angles, Saxons, and Jutes; and the Vikings?

texts:
I'm reading Seamus Heaney's translation of Beowulf and I cannot get my head around how Angles, Saxons, and Jutes relate to the Geats, Danes, and/or the Vikings and/or the Scandinavians generally.

From what I can gather the Jutes occupied the exact land later occupied by the Danes.  And the raid on LINDISFARNE was in 793 where the Anglo-Saxons seem to have been shocked by the existence of these Northmen.

Meanwhile, it appears that Beowulf was written sometime between 700 and 1,000 AD.  And, if I understand it correctly, the story is written in Old English, which is the same as Anglo-Saxon, but the story seems to be about the lands we now call Sweden and Denmark.  Is the story about Angles, Saxons, Jutes or Vikings?

So, what is the relationship between all these peoples?  Were Angles, Saxons, and Jutes Germanic peoples who were pushed to migrate by expanding Scandinavian pre-Viking (or just plain Viking) peoples?  Are all these distinctions just historical markers that really should be looked at as a continuum?

EDIT:

So, I've been poking around trying to find books, articles on the subject and discovered a group called the Gutes; who, according to the Wikipedia entry, are the same as the Goths.  Isn't that awfully linguistically similar to the Jutes?  Were some of these "Germanic" tribes like the Jutes and/or Gutes conquered by their Scandinavian neighbors?  Was it like Norman England where a small elite took control of the same population and was subsumed, but left a big linguistic footprint?


texts: Was it ever common practice to make "wax" seals out of bread (especially in the mid-1800s)?

texts:
In Edgar Allan Poe's short story "The Purloined Letter", there is this quote in which a seal on a letter is replaced by bread:

  D-- rushed to a casement, threw it open, and looked out. In the meantime, I stepped to the card-rack, took the letter, put it in my pocket, and replaced it by a fac-simile, (so far as regards externals,) which I had carefully prepared at my lodgings; imitating the D-- cipher, very readily, by means of a seal formed of bread.

The story is set in Paris, France, sometimes in the mid-1800s. (The story was published in 1845.) Over on Literature.SE, we were able to find out that it was part of an elaborate set of puns, but I'm wondering about the literal usage of bread as a replacement for a wax seal and if this was ever actually practiced.

Are there any records of bread being used as a replacement for a wax seal, even as a forging tactic?


texts: What religions did Constantine convert to?

texts:
The Roman Emperor Constantine the Great was the first Emperor to legalize Christianity. He also converted to Christianity, from his deathbed.  As I remember 40 years ago from theology studies Constantine covered his bases.  He not only converted to Christianity, but also Judaism and a few others too. I can't remember these other religions.  My original source for this was a text on the early Christianity, which I have long ago lost track of. I've informally looked several times over the decades and have never been able to reconfirm Constantine's multiple conversions, much less name those chosen religions.  I did once find a source describing Constantine's death as a prolonged process lasting weeks perhaps even months.  That Constantine traveled for much of his rule.  That he was traveling when he was struck ill, and continued to travel as he lay dying.

My Question:  What religions if any did Constantine the Great convert too from his death bed other than Christianity?  Please source your answer.


texts: What is the basis for the argument that the true believers in Juche died in the N. Korean famine?

texts:
I have just read an article (in Russian) about the most recent weird news from N.Korea: women are (again) not allowed to ride bicycles.

After you've finished splitting your sides with laughter, allow me to explain why this is not as ridiculous as it sounds. Every town in North Korea has a "black" marketplace where people buy and sell stuff. This is the best way to obtain food, but also products such as radios or TVs.

Now, the authorities are very much against the practice, because it undermines their ideology (free enterprise - how gruesome!), but even more importantly, because people who have radios or TVs that are not government-rigged to receive only one official channel can and will use them to find out what's life like in South Korea.

So, the authorities do their best to hinder and limit this practice (for example: they have decreed that only women can trade stuff in markets; then that only women of 49 years of age or more; and then that the trade can take place only during 3 designated days a month). Of course, most of the regulations get bypassed with the help of some bribes.

Seen in this light, the anti-bicycle thing makes sense. As women are the ones who trade in the black markets, and as petrol is a rare commodity, they use bicycles to get the goods around. Without bicycles the black market sector will diminish greatly.

Okay, that was all just background. Here's the actual question. The author of the article remarks that the authorities have also tried to send teams of ideological agitators to explain to the women in the markets that private trading is bad. But he says that very few care about that argument, because "most of those who were really loyal to the [party] leaders and socialism have perished in the famine of the 90s when the food stamp system collapsed".

  My question is: what is the basis for this argument? Is it indeed
  known the true believers in Juche were disproportionately
  represented among the victims of the famine? (Presumably because they
  were waiting for the leaders to save them, which they never did.)


texts: Why didn’t the Franco-Belgian accord of 1920 lead to extending the construction of the Maginot line along the Belgium-Netherlands border?

texts:
The Franco-Belgian Accord, which lasted from 1920 until October 1936 when Belgium declared itself neutral, included an article which 'discussed greater integration of frontier defenses' (according to Wikipedia).

The Maginot line was started in 1929 and covered only the France-Germany border. The Ardennes forest was considered impenetrable and was thus not protected.

The reasons why the French didn't extend the line (initially at least) along the France-Belgium border are clear enough (they didn't want to offend their allies the Belgians). The belief was that the French army could defend the shorter (non-Maginot) area, but this seems to be contradicted by the extension of the line after the Franco-Belgian accord fell apart (though the extended section was not of the same strength as the original section).

Prior to Belgium's withdrawal from the accord, was there ever a plan to extend the line along the Belgium-Netherlands border as part of the aforementioned discussion of 'greater integration of frontier defenses'? If not, was this because of the cost? Or was it because the Belgians (especially the Flemish population) didn't want too much French influence? Or was it because the Belgians didn't want to offend the Dutch? Or perhaps a combination of all three?


texts: How accurate is quantitative evidence included in Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico?

texts:
Two pieces of evidence in relation to Caesar's Comentarii de Bello Gallico currently seem to suggest two different conclusions as to the authors veracity in reporting numbers.

One is from a comment posted on this forum:

  Remember that Caesar's claims of building 25 miles of fortifications
  at Alesia (in barely 30 days) were regarded as hopeless exaggeration
  for nearly 2,000 years; until 25 miles of fortifications were
  discovered by archaelogists, just as described by Caesar.

The other is from German historian Raimund Schulz' book Feldherren, Krieger und Strategen: Krieg in der Antike von Achill bis Attila (see also here). Here is the relevant excerpt (translation by Google):

  After a victorious battle against the Veneti - the first naval battle
  of the Romans in the Atlantic (footnote. W. Will, Caesar, Darmstadt,
  2009, p 107) - he sailed in the year 54 with 600 load and 28 warships
  across the channel to a island called Britannia, from the
  contemporaries knew not much more than the early-modern Europe from
  Mexico or Peru before the conquest of Cortes and Pizarro. Even if the
  ship numbers are exaggerated - and 1944 has seen a larger fleet of the
  English Channel. It was the first amphibious expedition to the North
  Atlantic (footnote: W. Will, Caesar, Darmstadt, 2009, III the kind of
  ships of the fleet).

I assume that Wolfgang Will is citing further (primary) sources, but currently have now means of identifying those.

So here is my question: do we know the accuracy of quantitative evidence e.g. as to the size of battle groups or the circumference of protective walls as included by Caesar in his Comentarii de Bello Gallico? In particular, do we know the actual number of ships that he employed during the invasion of Britain in 54 BC from any independent sources? And is it plausible that Caesar would have helped his political causes substantially by inflating the size of opposing armies or (perhaps less likely) the size of his own fleet?


texts: How did people count before Fibonacci published Liber Abbaci?

texts:
Counting as we know it, including zero as a number, was brought to the traders and merchants of Europe by Leonardo of Pisa (whom we now know as Fibonacci) by his book "Liber Abbaci" in 1202. This system was already used by academics for mathematics, but was not known to the majority of the population. (ref: "The man of Numbers" by Keith Devlin, ISBN 978-1-4088-2248-7) My question is how did common people here in Britain count before that, for instance the year, day of month, hour of day: how were they counted, if at all?

I was seduced by the simplicity of Cominterm's comment/answer, but what happened when they got to "ten", and "eleven" and "twenty" and "one hundred" without knowing about a zero digit?

Regarding the "put on hold" this is not a trivial question that can be answered fairly easily -- I spent a lot of time trying to find out before I posted it here, and surely it comes well within "Cultures and historical practices" as listed in "What topics can I ask about here?" I am interested in the evolution from Roman numerals to Indo/Arabic, particularly in how people described dates, especially days of the month.


texts: When is the first time any variation of the name Misraim is used to refer to Egypt?

texts:
I asked a question here previously related to this, and I would like to be more specific in this question. There are numerous ancient records such as the Ugaritic tablets, the Assyrian & Babylonian, the Amarna tablets and so forth. So what I would like to find out, is what known record contains the first appearance of this name, in any kind of variation (Misri, Musri, Masri, Msrm etc.)

For instance, the Amarna tablets have correspondences from 1300 B.C., and they contain Misri. So basically the oldest ones we have, would be considered the first. I don't have all the texts or knowledge at hand so it would take quite some time for me to find out this by myself. Thanks for the help.


texts: How was Hoche and Binding's text, arguing for the murder of certain disabled people, received within eugenics movements worldwide?

texts:
In 1920, Alfred Erich Hoche and Karl Binding published  "Die Freigabe der Vernichtung lebensunwerten Lebens" - "The permission to destroy life not worth living" (my translation). The main point that certain disabled people are a mere "ballast" on society and that there should be a mechanism to legally kill these people. They argued from an economic standpoint, not from a true eugenics standpoint - heridarity of conditions was not their focus. Still, this text was widely and positivly received by the eugenics movment in Germany. The economic argument for murder was later used by Nazis in implementing the euthanasia murders.

during the 20ties and 30ties, there where eugenics movements in many countries around the world, and not all of them associated with the far right. Was the proposal by Binding and Hoche discussed in these movements (in their own press, at conferences etc.)? If so, can we say that the reception was rather critical, or approving of the proposed murders?


texts: Has a book ever caused the ousting of a dictator?

texts:
The new book, The Man Without a Face, by Masha Gessen is at least partially intended to humanize Russian leader Vladimir Putin in hopes that it will eliminate the power he appreciates by maintaining a fearful reputation (as is discussed in her interview on The Daily Show here).

Has a book ever been so incendiary, so revelatory that it resulted in the leader it criticized being removed from power?

I acknowledge that there are likely many factors contributing to the downfall of an oppressive leader-- what I am after here is an instance where a book can be cited among the causes of a leader being removed.


texts: What was the medium for Marcus Aurelius's Meditations?

texts: I imagine Romans using papyrus and quills on a still table, allowing time for the ink to dry, which may not be possible in a battlefield. I once saw a documentary which depicts him walking off in solitude to write on something handheld. What was the actual medium of the battlefield manuscripts and where did he sit to write them? Did he transcribe them to better media later?


texts: Are the swords in the Oath of Horatii all Roman?

texts:
In looking at the Oath of Horatii image

I can see three swords in the hand of the father, I see what looks to be a gladius in the center, but the two swords on either side of it do not look to be Roman swords.  They resemble scimitars or some such similar sword, not what I would consider Roman.  My impression of Roman swords tends to be the gladius and if they used other types I am not aware of them, so are the other two swords Roman?

I realize this painting is Neoclassical, although with many of the details look to be very accurate the swords stick out to me as being a sort of artistic license here; but I would like to confirm with anyone who has more knowledge of Roman swords.


texts: Were slave rowers ever chained to the ship?

texts:
UPDATE

I want to know whether there is any evidence that rowers were ever chained to the ships or oars in Ancient Greece and Rome. In my view it could be too expensive to chain people at that time, even if the crew were slaves.

In many historical paintings one can see slave rowers chained to the ships.

I wonder whether this practice was indeed widespread?
Were the chains permanent or allowed quick disconnection?
Were the rowers allowed to walk in a port when the ship was staying a long time or was reloaded? Or were they used to help reloading?
How would they go to toilet if the chains were permanent?
Was serving on a ship a normal slavery or was it a kind of punishment?


texts: Why were universities created in the 11th-12th century?

texts:
I am specifically interested in information related to: the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and the University of Oxford.

From what I have been able to find so far universities were created as an extension of the learning tradition embodied in monasteries. However, this doesn't really get to the why of the question. That explanation just seems to assert that they were a continuation of that sort of tradition.

My question then is, what was the demand during this time period for these institutions of higher learning to be erected? Did the sovereigns of the time period wish for their to be a more educated class? Was there some source of demand for a degree as proof of one's education? I'm looking for academic sources that can shine light on these questions.


texts: From where does the superstition about Friday the thirteenth originate?

texts: There are several interesting stories about this, but what historical information do we have that would indicate the correct one?


texts: Does any culture have a native food that is objectively bad?

texts:
This is more of an anthropology question. Lots of different cultures have many different cuisines based on the animals and plants available.

Is there any culture that developed anywhere and lasted many generations where the food was objectively non-nutritious or bad tasting, where even the natives don't find it appetizing?


texts: Was the 1959 Tibetan Uprising really an uprising?

texts:
Was the "1959 Tibetan uprising", sometimes called "1959 Tibetan rebellion" really an uprising/rebellion?  Why is it called "uprising"?

"uprising" to me signifies something violent, but the events in Lhasa in 1959 started with artillery towards Tibetan protesters in an area that was controlled by the Tibetan government. There were very few attacks against PRC forces. It seems to me that it was for the most part resistance to China taking over full control of their county (Which they didn't have according to the 17 point agreement)?

It was connected to violent resistance in other parts of Tibet,  but these didn't start in 1959.

Perhaps for Tibetans, it was when they stood up to China taking over their country?  And this has then become "uprising" in English?  (They are referring to the start of it as the  "Tibetan Uprising Day")

(I am writing about this in my own language, and I am not sure what I should call it)


texts:
Woody Woodpecker "with his innate chutzpah and brash demeanor, ... was a natural hit during World War II. His image appeared on US aircraft as nose art", Wikipedia says.

Why was Woody Woodpecker a "natural" hit during WW2? (Note that the word "natural" is used on Wikipedia.) Reading "natural" along with "Bugs Bunny" and "Daffy Duck," "Woody Woodpecker" was a "screwball" or "comic relief" character that Hollywood produced for children in the early 1940s.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Pajaro_Loco

I understand that the character had or represented something that people felt at that time. What was it, and why did Hollywood produce such characters for American children during this era?

(Bonus question) Can someone show a picture of a US aircraft where, during WW2,  Woody Woodpecker was painted? I see "nose art" on Wikipedia but haven't found one.


texts: Why did Confederate General Forrest leave the KKK?

texts:
I've watched a video with a simplified version of General Nathan Bedford Forrest's history. It was in the context of contemporary pressure to remove statues of Confederate leaders.
I did some fact-checking and found that many points were misleading or incorrect, for example:

He started the Ku Klux Klan.
Actually he was only its first Grand Wizard, it had already existed for two years.
His army had massacred black Union soldiers after the surrender at Fort Pillow. (half truth) Edit: Also mentions Southern whites fighting for the Union, not sure if this included northern Union troops.
Actually the Union troops at Fort Pillow consisted of black and white soldiers. Accounts from the time state that:

The whitte [sic] men fared but little better.
Achilles V. Clark, survivor of the massacre

The reason he left the KKK was because its members "weren't disciplined enough".  (To me this sounded to insinuate that he didn't believe they were racist enough, or something like this.)

Number 3 is the main part of my question. I've read from this source that after only a year in the Klan:

After only a year as Grand Wizard, in January 1869, faced with an
ungovernable membership employing methods that seemed increasingly
counterproductive, Forrest issued KKK General Order Number One: “It is
therefore ordered and decreed, that the masks and costumes of this
Order be entirely abolished and destroyed.”
Huffington Post article

And that he disbanded it (Ibid.).
In 1868 he denied ever being part of the Klan.
Wikipedia KKK membership
It seems also that he had a change of heart about his views, at least ostensibly. The Huffington Post article includes an excerpt from "Nathan Bedford Forrest: In Search of an Enigma":

on page 464 and 474-475, you can see that Forrest not only publicly
disavowed the KKK and worked to terminate it, but in August 1874,
Forrest “volunteered to help ‘exterminate’ those men responsible for
the continued violence against the blacks.” After the murder of four
blacks by a lynch mob after they were arrested for defending
themselves at a BBQ, Forrest wrote to Tennessee Governor Brown,
offering “to exterminate the white marauders who disgrace their race
by this cowardly murder of Negroes.

So in case anyone lost the original question from reading the context I provided, my question is what is the reason this man left the KKK?


texts: Who is responsible for the oldest known calendar?

texts: What is the oldest known calendar? Where exactly was it developed? Who was responsible for its creation?


texts: Which parts of the Townshend Act were repealed in 1770?

texts:
The Townshend Acts were passed in 1767 and partially repealed in 1770. Which clauses were repealed at that time?

I've looked around and found the original text, but I cannot find specifically what parts were repealed in 1770 and which parts stayed in act.


texts: When has a military force used their own people as human shields?

texts:
I am looking for instances/examples (and sources) throughout history of times an army used it's own people as a buffer between itself and an opposing force.

While it is fairly common for an army to use enemy civilians or unarmed soldiers as shields (implicitly sending the message to the opponents that they will end up killing their own people), have there been any documented cases of an army using the very people it officially is defending as a line of protection?

I'm specifically looking for an army, militia, or national fighting force.


texts: Did Joseph II introduce the presumption of innocence in his legal code?

texts:
The Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II has pushed through some important reforms. E.g. strongly reducing death penalty or abolishing serfdom. His legal code (Josephina) was in many ways revolutionary, one of which should be the presumption of innocence.

I am writing this question because I need some source to backup this information.


texts: When and where were the first coins made showing the currency or a face value?

texts:
According to this article Origin and Evolution of Money, coins

  ...for many centuries...were guaranteed by their intrinsic value, that is to say, by the trade value of the metal used in their production.

This made putting the unit of currency on coins unnecessary, though that is not to say that none of these had a face value indicated. However, if this page on Roman coins is anything to go by, it seems the Romans never indicated a currency or face value on their coins, and it seems that British coins from, for example, the reign of Henry VIII also did not.

Despite extensive googling (including several Wikipedia pages and also this timeline), I've been unable to find out when coins first showed currency or face value. The above cited article (Origin and Evolution of Money) mentions 'the end of the last century' (by which I take it to mean the end of the 19th century), but there is a Louis XVI coin from 1791 which shows a face value of 30 sols. This British coin from 1798 (George III - farthing) also suggests otherwise:

Source: http://www.colincooke.com/collections/the_douglas_collection.html

Of course, there is the possibility that, for centuries, most coins did not have a face value while the occasional one did. For example, unlike the 1798 coin above, this more recent Queen Victoria 1839 coin has no face value.

What is the oldest known coin in the world which shows a face value or currency?


texts: What status and rights did a Roman freedwoman have?

texts:
When a slave was freed by a Roman citizen, he became a Roman citizen himself, although with certain legal disabilities: eg, he could not stand for public office, he could not join the army, and was generally required to take certain oaths to support his patron (former master), by voting for him, not getting richer than he, etc.

Obviously, many of these do not apply to women, who could not vote, hold office or join the army. So - did a freedwoman have obligations to her former master/mistress, and how did her rights/status differ from that of a freeborn Roman woman?  Also, as a woman, was she still subject to her master's potestas? And, if she should subsequently marry a Roman citizen, did she take her husband's status, or remain legally a freedwoman as opposed to freeborn?


texts: What was the personal relationship between Benito Mussolini and Hitler?

texts: Their nations were allied, but what did they personally think of each other? Is there anything based on documentary evidence that could give us some insight here?


texts: Did Goebbels realize that his wife used to know Arlozorov?

texts:
One of the versions for Arlozorov's 1933 murder (not solved to this day!) is that it had something to do with his early friendship with Magda Goebbels. This is what wikipedia says, soberly hedging its description:

  During the first world war, Magda Behrend, who later became the wife
  of Joseph Goebbels, met and became close friends with Lisa Arlosoroff,
  Haim Arlosoroff's sister. The nature of her relationship with Haim
  Arlosoroff is unknown. Magda married Goebbels on 19 December 1931,
  with Adolf Hitler as a witness. A year and a half later, Arlosoroff
  went to Germany to negotiate the Ha'avarah (transfer) agreement with
  high Nazi officials. The theory is that with Haim Arlosoroff's
  personal involvement in the negotiations, Goebbels took notice of his
  wife's former Jewish friend and sought to erase what might have been
  an embarrassment for the Goebbelses.

This is actually a very murky issue, so I'd like to try and take a baby step here - is there documentary evidence that Goebbels actually knew his wife used to be friends with Arlozorov? Or did she hide this fact from him?

I am thinking that perhaps diaries and/or memoirs might be able to throw light on this angle.


texts: From whom did Gandhi learn his protest technique of non-violence?

texts: I know that Gandhi was involved in the civil rights movement in South Africa during he beginning of the 20th century, but was there a specific person, or group, that he learned how to protest through non-violent means?


texts: Did North African countries have a police in the 18th/19th Century?

texts:
This is just a derived question from my other question about firefighters.

I wonder if there have been special forces for security like what we call police nowadays or at least nightwatchmen in Muslim Countries and how they were organized and what were their duties later in modern times (I'm thinking of 18th till the turn of the 20th Century, but with the focus on the time before these states have been colonized):

And how modern were they especially as influences from modern Europe may come into account.

As a focus on location I would choose North Africa/Maghreb states, as they were divided into states which were ruled by ottomans (for whom @Luboš-Motl already provided some useful links) and "interdependent" states i guess there could be a difference, so if necessary i would focus more on what we now call Morocco!


texts: Why was the Mughal Empire Persian oriented?

texts: I have read that Mughals were used to Persian traditions. They used Persian language as the language of administration under their rule. I have also read that they were the descendants of both Timur, who was a Turko-Mongol, and Genghis Khan, who was a Mongol. So, why did they follow Persian culture if they were not related to Persia at all?


texts: Could the Russians Have Done Better at the Battle of Tsushima Straits Than They Actually Did?

texts:
In 1905, during the Russo-Japanese War, a Russian fleet sailing all the way from the Baltic was annihilated by the Japanese fleet in the Tsushima Straits. The Russian fleet was larger, with thirteen battleships (five of them "second line') to four for the Japanese, but the Japanese ships were more modern and faster, and their crews better trained, to give them a technological superiority.

The Russians nevertheless tried to outmaneuver the smaller Japanese fleet with two "line ahead" formations, only to find themselves in the unfortunate position of having the Japanese fleet "cross their T," (a highly advantageous position for the Japanese). The alternative would have been to charge en masse in a line abreast formation, which would at least have the advantage of keeping the Russian fleet together instead of having the pieces "picked off" one by one, by the superior Japanese fleet. (Most survivors of the first day's battle surrendered the second day.)

About Naval Formations?

With a numerical superiority and a technical inferiority, would the Russians have done better to opt for a battle of attrition instead (in the manner of America's Ulysses S. Grant vs. Robert E. Lee), perhaps using a line abreast formation?

Does Grant's use of attrition tactic support his reputation as a general?

Supposing that they could have made it a battle of "trading shots," could they possibly have sunk the four Japanese battleships for four of their own, or even all thirteen, instead of zero versus thirteen?


texts: Is Lady Arabella Stuart wearing a Jewish symbol?

texts:
In this portrait, Lady Arabella Stuart, a member of the Tudor royal court, is shown wearing a hexagram, presently known as the Star of David. It is unclear from the highest resolution photograph available, but it looks like the hexagram may contain a cross as well.

There are also references to her studying, among many other languages, Hebrew. Lastly, she is described as possessing a Hebrew bible, which she used in church. Does her necklace represent a connection to Judaism, the old testament, or does it have another significance altogether?

(PS: If you have seen or live near the original portrait, could you describe the necklace in more detail?)

Can anyone shed more light on this piece of jewelry? Are there any 16th-century English portraits or documents that refer to this symbol? Or any modern historical articles that explain its appearance here?


texts: How did Castro gain control over the Cuban military and police?

texts:
The Cuban revolution was won by only a few hundred revolutionaries. But to run a state, especially an undemocratic one, you need to have control over the monopoly on violence.

But enforcing a monopoly on violence in a country with several million people can not be done by just a few hundred revolutionaries, so Castro must have gained control over the military and police rather quickly.

It seems unlikely to me that the military and police would just unquestionably accept Castro's authority, especially when he quickly stopped all process towards public elections. So I wonder how he gained this control, but I have not been able to find any sources on this.


texts: Did the Nazis doctor photos in order to make Hitler look as good as possible?

texts:
There are people online who swear these photos of Hitler with kids, dogs and the like are real and were covered up.
https://donotlink.it/EXJq

Now I already know that Imperial Japan used censorship and doctored photos during the war.  So I am wondering how bad was it with the Nazis?


texts: Why was the Ottoman flag changed from an eight-pointed star to five-pointed in the 19th century?

texts:
According to Wikipedia, alongside the crescent, the flag of the Ottoman empire had an eight-pointed star until 1844 or so, when the star was changed to five points.
It seems the eight-pointed star was of Byzantine (and before that Hellenistic) origin as it showed up on Byzantine coinage and some earlier coins.
Was there some kind of official reason provided or some (more or less official) debate recorded on the matter of the Ottoman change to five points in the 19th century?


texts: Is there any way to link John Marshall to Andrew Johnson's impeachment?

texts: I'm desperately attempting to find a way to link John Marshall to Andrew Johnson's impeachment. I'm looking for specific events, and not just his separation of powers either. I've already used the Marbury v Madison case, so I cannot directly link that either. Please help.


texts: What did the battle order of a deployed Roman legion look like?

texts:
I am currently reading Gibbon's "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire". In Volume 1, he describes - from a high level - the daily discipline and activites of a Roman legion, the recruitment etc. etc. Although as a former professional soldier I am already acquainted with Roman military history, I have never seen a film or animation that is more or less widely accepted viz. canonical, and depicting what a fully deployed, post-Marian reform Roman legion acies must have looked. The only thing I know is that, for sure, it must have been a formidable sight. Gibbon gives a rather abstract description of the battle order:

  "Besides their arms, which the legionaries scarcely considered as an encumbrance, they were laden with their kitchen furniture, the instruments of fortification, and the provision of many days. Under this weight, which would oppress the delicacy of a modern soldier, they were trained by a regular step to advance, in about six hours, near twenty miles. On the appearance of an enemy, they threw aside their baggage, and by easy and rapid evolutions converted the column of march into an order of battle.  The slingers and archers skirmished in the front; the auxiliaries formed the first line, and were seconded or sustained by the strength of the legions; the cavalry covered the flanks, and the military engines were placed in the rear."

(Gibbon, "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire", Vol. 1, Chapter 1 part III).

Hence, my question: any visual resources ? I am specifically after what an enemy commander would see, briefly before engaging a Roman legion on the battlefield.  I mean: as seen through human eyes, on the battlefield, by someone facing a Roman legion, not a drawing or schematic.

PS I am not referring to the "small" legion of the Western Roman empire, but to the "classical" legion of 5000-6000 men


texts: Did any part of the Netherlands ever use this flag?

texts:
Was there ever any part of the Netherlands which had this flag?

Guilherme Paula - Public Domain


texts: How did the Japanese treat captured "Flying Tigers" in World War II?

texts:
When the Japanese took eight POWs from the "Doolittle Raid," ("Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo"), they executed three and one died of maltreatment, a 50% death rate.

The "Flying Tigers" were an even greater thorn in the Japanese side; some of their B-29s repeatedly bombed Japanese cities, long range. And of course, their fighters shot down hundreds of Japanese planes.

How did the Japanese treat the Flying Tigers that were shot down and captured over Japanese territory or otherwise taken prisoner. Were they treated "normally," or were many tortured and executed?


texts: Battle of Vienna & Morean War : what was Russia's position?

texts:
Russia doesn't appear in wikipedia's accounts of the Morean War or of the preceding Battle of Vienna. I find that mildly suprising.
Perhaps the reason is that before Peter Russia was less active with her southern frontier?

Question: Is there a recorded Russian position on this conflicts?


texts: What "class" of soldiers were these soft targets?

texts:
In "The Battle for Stalingrad," Russia's Vasily Chuikov wrote that to the extent possible, Russian guerrillas and snipers tried to avoid "duels" with enemy fighting men, instead seeking out "soft" targets like the following:

Favorite targets included men carrying food and water to others (and therefore no arms). Killing or wounding one of them meant depriving other German soldiers of this nourishment. In one instance, Russian patrols captured a telephone "lineman" who was able to hook them up to staff headquarters, allowing the Russians to eavesdrop.

What kind of class were these troops? Were they regular soldiers on "special" duty, or were they specialized logistical troops that were spared from "normal" fighting. If a German division had say, 12,000 men, would these kinds of men be counted among a division's 12,000 strength, or would they be accounted for separately?


texts: How accurate is Karl Heinz Frieser when he said that the blitzkrieg was a myth?

texts: In his book, The Blitzkrieg Legend (original title Blitzkrieg-Legende, der Westfeldzug 1940), Karl Heinz Frieser wrote that during the campaign in France, blitzkrieg was just improvised, and that even the HQ was concerned about Rommel's position, since most of the generals had a classic conception of war operation, due to their experience in WWI. So was the blitzkrieg a true doctrine or was it just a myth to establish the legend of the invincible Wehrmacht?


texts: Why Marcus Aurelius did not restore the Roman Republic?

texts: I'm wondering why Marcus Aurelius, who could be considered as one of the most wise emperors of Roman Empire, did not restore Roman Republic constitutions? I read somewhere that the functionality of Roman Republic were quite lost at that time but I think it's not convincing cause some imperial era historians such as "Suetonius" were quite familiar with Roman Republic history and its constitutions. I appreciate any suggestion or recommendation.


texts: Connection between U.S. entry into WW1 and Germans sending Lenin back to Russia

texts: The Germans sent Lenin back to Russia ten days after U.S. entry into WW1. Does anyone know of primary source evidence that the Germans thought of Lenin as a possible way to counter U.S. entry by removing the Russians from the war?


texts: When was the last coal mine in Germany established?

texts:
Recently, the last German coal mine (excluding brown coal) was closed. For more than 50 years, German mines were struggling because their coal was too expensive.

I wonder when and where the last German coal mine was founded.


texts:
The Khmer Rouge killed about 25% of the Cambodian people. They become aware that only an external force could change the power structure, and this happened with the Cambodian–Vietnamese War.

If they continued killing people, then less people would produce food (they used low tech for farming). Starvation would increase, and the cycle continue.

Is there a study about what would have happened if Khmer Rouge remained in power in Cambodia? Would the country have descended into chaos, and become a failed state?


texts: Are there military commanders other than Khalid ibn al-Walid who have never been defeated?

texts:
I was reading about Khalid ibn al-Walid, a commander in the Muslim's era. What is interesting about him is that he was never been defeated in any of the hundred battles that he encountered. Are there military commanders similar to him fought hundred of hard battles and wasn't defeated?

From Wikipedia:

  Khalid is said to have fought around a hundred battles, both major
  battles and minor skirmishes as well as single duels, during his
  military career. Having remained undefeated, he is claimed by some to
  be one of the finest military generals in history.

It's a side question, but how did he accomplish to win all of these battles without being defeated? In the article it is explained that he was smart and brave, but Napoleon was also considered a smart general with new tactics, yet he was defeated in his battles.


texts: What other countries besides the US participated in keeping African slaves?

texts: The question is pretty much in the title, but I am really seeking countries which kept slaves around the same time the US did, and where it was just as prominent in said country as it was in the US.


texts: Can anyone tell me if this is legit WW2 Nazi ring?

texts:
My little ten year old brother found a rusted can that had this 925 prooved silver ring  in it, with a small note/letter that only said some numbers, which he said looked like born/died dates. He only brought the ring home, so we actually did not see the note.

The can was found in a place that just had an old building torn down. The place was an old and abandoned building right next to a railway station and the tracks in a small city called Tukums. Our home is not far from the railway station, so kids used to hang around there.

It definitely looks like a ring from WW2, when Nazis occupied Latvia for some years.
The German Nazi occupation of Latvia happened from 1941–1945. Plus, during the occupation, the Germans looked to recruit Latvian units for their armies.

Does anyone know if this ring is actually from that period?


texts: What education was required for a woman to become a teacher in pre-WWII Germany?

texts:
When a woman wanted to become a teacher in Germany of the first half of 20th century, she had to

attend a preparatory school for 2 years (Präparandenanstalt), and then
spend 3-6 years at a female teachers' seminary (Lehrerinnenseminar).

What requirements did a woman need to satisfy in order to be admitted to the preparatory school? Could a homeschooled girl from the upper-middle class become an elementary school teacher, if she wanted to be independent? I'm interested in Saxony during the Weimar republic period.

According to German Wikipedia

there was no requirement of having secondary education (Abitur) for people who wanted to become elementary school teachers until 1919, and
thereafter schools of education were introduced, in which a degree of secondary education was required.

These statements apply to male teachers. I'm not sure whether or not they are true for female teachers.


texts: How did residents of Estonia and Latvia prove that their family settled in the country prior to 1940, in order to become citizens in 1989?

texts:
In a related question, @defaultlocale posted this excerpt:

Article 2. Possession of Latvia citizenship Citizens of Latvia are:

persons who were citizens of Latvia on June 17, 1940 and their descendants who have registered according to the procedures established by law, except persons who have become citizens (subjects) of another state after May 4, 1990;
persons who have obtained the citizenship of Latvia through naturalization or another manner according to the procedures established by law;
children found within the territory of Latvia whose parents are not known;
children with no parents who live in an orphanage or boarding school in Latvia;
children both of whose parents were citizens of Latvia on the day of birth of such children, regardless of the place of birth of such children.

Law of citizenship, Latvia, 1994

But how would a person living in Estonia or Latvia prove that their family settled in the country over 50 years ago? Both countries were occupied by Nazi Germany in 1941, so presumably many documents were irrevocably lost during the war. Was it based on knowledge of the local language? Based on names and surnames? Or is my assumption incorrect and everyone's family history was available in government records?


texts: Did the Balkans campaign delay Operation Barbarossa for the Nazis and was it therefore an important reason why they lost against the Soviets in WWII?

texts:
I have heard it previously that the Balkans Campaign delayed Operation Barbarossa, but I found out that Antony Beevor wrote in his 2012 book "the Second World War" the following:
Hitler was relieved to have secured his southern flank, but just before
the end of the war he attributed the delay in launching Barbarossa to this
campaign. In more recent years, historians have argued over the effect
Operation Marita had on the invasion of the Soviet Union. Most accept that
it made little difference.
Is that the actual consensus among historians? I hold no strong opinions on this. I'm just curious why most historians believe it made no difference, if most do actually believe that.


texts: What is the historical significance of spoilt votes?

texts:
In discussions about voting, it is often claimed that voting with an intentionally spoilt ballot sends a message to the candidates while not voting at all signifies indifference and your concerns as a group will probably be ignored.

However, in history I wasn't able to find a case where a high number of spoilt ballots were used to send a definitive message. It seems like whenever voters are disillusioned, they simply don't show up (e.g. low voter turnouts during French revolution) and the voting minority acquires all the power, at least in the short term.

Were there cases where spoilt ballots were used as a political instrument by the masses to any effect at all?


texts: Why is the city of Armenia in Colombia so named?

texts:
One of the medium-sized cities in present-day Colombia, with a population of around 300 thousand, is called Armenia. According to its Wikipedia entry, some people believe it was named in memory of the Armenian victims of the Hamidian massacres of 1894–97 and the genocide of 1915–23, but this cannot be true since the city's name was decided by a vote held on 30 November 1889, little more than a month after foundation and five years before the first-mentioned massacres began.
So how come this city in South America has exactly the same name as a country in the Caucasus?


texts: How did the Supreme Court case Lochner vs. New York influence the U.S. economy?

texts: In 1905, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that laws limiting the number of hours bakers could work was a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment. After this, there was a time when a series of labor laws were abolished by the Supreme Court on the same grounds (the Lochner Era). From what I understand about the consequences of these decisions, the working classes were not pleased at all with the situation, but how did the Lochner vs. New York case affect the U.S. economy at the time?


texts:
What were China's thoughts on the possibility of a nuclear exchange, during the Cold War?

We know, sorta, what the Soviets, and Americans thought, what about China?


texts: At what point did Soviet armored units have qualitative parity with Wehrmacht armored units?

texts:
Was the T-26 a match for the Panzer II,III, and IV in the early stages of Barbarossa?

The T-34 has been given a lot of credit as the tipping point where Soviet technology created a weapons platform that was as good as if not better than Wehrmacht armor, but how much of the hype is true?

I understand that you can approach this from a purely technical perspective (based on armor, armament, deflective armor, did it have radio communication, etc.) But I'm interested in considering armored doctrine a factor as well.

I want to compare unit for unit parity, let's say at the platoon or company level.


texts: What led some people to (correctly) believe that there was no land under the ice cap at the North Pole?

texts:
In the 1595 Map of the Arctic, Mercator shows the North Pole as having a substantial landmass surrounding a rock.

Source: Wikipedia

A little over a hundred years later, Guillaume de L'Isle's 1714 map (updated 1741) of the Arctic regions shows no land beneath the polar ice cap.

Source: Wikipedia

Apparently, Guillaume de L'Isle was not the only person to believe there was no substantial landmass under the Arctic ice cap. Wikipedia's article on the North Pole states:

  As early as the 16th century, many prominent people correctly believed
  that the North Pole was in a sea

In the absence of solid proof provided by modern scientific techniques such as bathymetric measurements of the sea floor, what led de L'Isle and others to believe there was no land under the Arctic ice cap?


texts: Were taxes from senatorial provinces and imperial provinces sent to their respective treasuries in the Roman Empire? (Under the rule of Augustus)

texts:
I read that Augustus imposed a rule that revenue from imperial provinces went to the imperial treasury, and the revenue from senatorial provinces went to the senatorial treasury.

Is there evidence to suggest that the Roman government under Augustus had two separate treasuries and, if so, how were these revenues collected and separated into their respective treasuries?


texts: Were there elections in France under the absolute monarchy?

texts:
I was wondering, if any elections allowed in France during the period of absolutism. In the Middle age, people with civil and political rights were allowed to elect some kind of city council (also in France) (wiki). After Louis XIV became king, he ruled as an absolute monarch.

But did people with civil/political rights continue to elect anything despite the absolutism? If "yes", what was it?


texts: What would've been the outcome of the Yom Kippur War had the UN not intervened?

texts: As a kid growing up in Egypt, we obviously had things in our official history textbooks that said that we "totally won that war", and I'm very sure that it's the exact opposite in Israel. So please, I want the answer to be completely objective. I want to know what would have been the logical outcome based on the forces at hand for both armies at the time. Would the destruction of the trapped Third Army by the Israelis prove to be the winning move? Would the Soviets have gotten aid to Egypt in time?


texts: Is there support for the theory that the 1918 influenza resulted from churning up microbe-laden French soil?

texts:
Margaret MacMillan's The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 contains the following:

  In the first years of the peace, fresh afflictions fell on European
  society: the influenza epidemic (perhaps a result of churning up the
  rich microbe-laden soil in the north of France and Belgium) which
  carried off some 20 million people around the world ...

This attribution of the flu epidemic's (perhaps) origin to the mixing of soil made me curious, so I was looking around for further sources. Here is one that is freely available (without PubMed subscription): Anton Erkoreka, Origins of the Spanish Influenza pandemic (1918–1920) and its relation to the First World War, J Mol Genet Med. 2009 December; 3(2): 190–194; and it says (notice on  soil):

  Many factors contributed to it, such as: the mixing on French soil of
  soldiers and workers from the five continents, the very poor quality
  of life of the soldiers, agglomeration, stress, fear, war gasses used
  for the first time in history in a massive and indiscriminate manner,
  life exposed to the elements, cold weather, humidity and contact with
  birds, pigs and other animals, both wild and domestic.

Now the words are similar (both citations mention French soil) but the arguments made are quite different. Since MacMillan's appears to be the unconventional one, I am wondering whether I just wasn't able to uncover the right source (the book does not provide any references at this point) or whether it is a glitch in her book. Who knows and can point to specific references that can support the author's argument?

For what it's worth, I've noticed also other (minor) editorial issues, e.g. contradictions as to whether Salisbury may have lost sleep over issues ...


texts: What is the name of this hat and the function of those wearing them (worn by Nansouty's French Guard cavalry)?

texts:
Horace Vernet's painting "Battle of Hanau", held at the National Gallery in London. This scene depicts the Austro-Bavarian cavalry charge on the French Grand Battery and the countercharge of Nansouty's French Guard cavalry.

Right next to General Nansouty (with his back to the viewer with the powdered wig) at the Battle of Hanau there is a cavalryman with a red hat that starts round and ends square on the top.
What is this hat called and the function of this individual?


texts:
After my mother passed away, I found this sword. I'm trying to get any information on it. It's one-piece, and appears to be brass under all the erosion but I could be wrong about the metal. I think it's oriental but have no basis for thinking that. It's about 19 1/8" long, and a bit past 1 1/2' wide. There are faded markings and some striations on the hilt. I have photos of it but they're too large to upload. I'd be happy to send them to someone. I appreciate any help you can provide. Thanks!

I'd thought about cleaning the sword but decided against it. I played with different photo options and was able to get a good close-up:

This is my first time on this web site, so please excuse my confusion and frustration on how to go about dealing with protocol. My sincere apologies.
In WWII, my dad was stationed in Guam. I'm assuming that is how the sword came into his possession. While I like watching archaeological programs on TV, they aren't very educational. I know next to nothing about swords.
If possible, I would like to sell the sword.
@kimchi Thanks, that's was a great idea. Unfortunately, the letters are either too faded or too shallow as it didn't work.
@dROOOze I hope this helps.

@dROOOze Thank you so much for all you've done. It took awhile before I understood what you were saying.
As I closely looked at the photo you very graciously provided, I noticed a couple of differences.

It looks like the "X" has at the bottom a small "" on the left, and a small " /" on the right. I don't know if that changes the translation.
This one is minor so probably doesn't change anything. The second to last symbol/word on the left side, it flares out more on the left side than the example. Suspect it's a matter of style for the writer but thought I'd mention it.

Would cleaning it help? If so, what do you suggest I use?
Again, I am very grateful for all of your efforts on my behalf.


texts: Was every Roman citizen part of a curia?

texts:
In a book by German historian Klaus Bringmann, I read that during the regal period, the whole population was divided into three tribes.
He furthermore states that each tribe was divided into 10 curiae and plebs.
So my first interpretation was that a Roman citizen was either part of a curia or he was part of the plebs. But in either way he belonged to one tribus.

However, the English Wikipedia article about "Curia" says that "later every Roman citizen was presumed to belong to one".
Was that something that changed during the republican period or was every citizen part of a curia from the beginning?


texts: Why didn't the participants of the Korean War also fight in the Vietnam War?

texts:
In the Korean war from 1950 to 1953, a lot of countries including the U.S., the U.K., France, Canada, Australia, and even Colombia, the Philippines and Ethiopia participated in the war under the U.N. resolution. However, those countries didn't participate in the Vietnam War. The two wars seem to have similar characteristics, i.e. a war caused by (fought for) an ideology, a proxy war between the U.S. and the former USSR.

Was there any particular reason that the U.S. couldn't get necessary supports from its allies such as the U.K. and France for the Vietnam War?
France colonized Indochina and controlled it until they (Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia) became independent after the First Indochina War. France helped the U.S. in various wars including the American Revolutionary War, but didn't in the Vietnam War. Was there any particular reason?


texts: What was the mortality rate of the Black Death?

texts:
There are primary sources indicating high mortality in Italy. But that's it. The 1m+ death estimates seem to all originate from a single person writing in the 19th century (Gasquet). Gasquet has been criticized for poor methodology. The high death rate among nobles could be due to inbreeding and may not correlate with the overall population.

Are there are any  primary sources indicating that the black death had a 1m+ death toll ?


texts:
I've always read that the typical roman legion composition had the first line covered by the hastati followed by, in order, principes and triarii. Any sources I've always bumped into, and, of course, wikipedia report this composition.

Recently I started reading Vegezio's De Re Militari (Italian / English) which is a compendium of the military art in the roman period written by Vegezio around V d.c. and I found that he repeatedly says that the legion was formed by principes, hastati and triarii.
For example:

  "Sic erant muniti illi, qui in prima acie pugnantes principes, in
  secunda hastati, in tertia triarii uocabantur"

which roughly translates into

  "This was the armor of those who were called principes, hastati and
  triarii, and they fought respectively in the first, second and third
  line".

And, again:

  "Prima acies principum, secunda hastatorum armis talibus docetur
  instructs"

which is

  "we know that the first line, composed by principes and the second,
  composed by hastati, were given these weapons".

[all the quote are from " L'arte della guerra - Vegezio, ed. Oscar Mondadori and found at page 43 and 85, respectively].

Since this is my first time that I found someone who presents a different composition of the legion and since it seems a somewhat authoritative source I wonder: why there seems to be this discrepancy?


texts: Why was Franklin D. Roosevelt pro-intervention?

texts:
In the lead-up to WW2, most Americans were in favor of neutrality and isolation. President Roosevelt, however, was privately in favor of intervention.

One paragraph from Wikipedia summarizes it pretty well:

  Roosevelt used his personal charisma to build support for intervention. America should be the "Arsenal of Democracy", he told his fireside audience.[211] On September 2, 1940, Roosevelt openly defied the Neutrality Acts by passing the Destroyers for Bases Agreement, which, in exchange for military base rights in the British Caribbean Islands, gave 50 WWI American destroyers to Britain. ... Hitler and Mussolini responded to the deal by joining with Japan in the Tripartite Pact.[213]

He also pushed for the Lend-Lease Act that passed in March 1941.

So why was Franklin D. Roosevelt pro-intervention? Was it ideological or something else? Was it some realist belief that the balance of power needed to be preserved? Was it a belief that it would bring America out of the depression?

Another way of asking this is, Why was Franklin D. Roosevelt not isolationist?


texts: How did Zheng He's treasure ships solve the problem of vitamin C supply?

texts: Scurvy was the number one disease that plagued sailors. How did the Zheng He treasure ships prevent scurvy in their sailors?


texts: Were there any non-Afrikaner apartheid supporters in South Africa before 1994?

texts: In South Africa before 1994 (i.e., during apartheid), were there any non-Afrikaners who were so racist as to supporter apartheid? I'm wondering about individuals of British Isles descent, or other white ethnic groups: Portuguese ancestry, maybe, or Greek, etc....


texts: Why is this Roman bust identified as Arminius?

texts:
Wikipedia and Britannica show this bust in their articles about Arminius:

The caption in Wikipedia says:

  This Roman sculpture of a young man is sometimes identified as
  Arminius.

The description in Wikimedia Commons is this:

  German, so called Arminius. Cast in Pushkin museum after original in
  Dresden

Besides being found in Dresden (I guess), What reasons have led some historians to identify this as Arminius?

Doesn't look much barbarian to me (what, no moustache?)


texts: How heavy was the taxation in Ming China?

texts:
I often read that the Ming dynasty taxed heavily, and that this is one of the reasons it failed.

For example, this says that: "Corruptive officials levied heavy taxes on peasants, triggering countless uprisings".

But how heavy was this tax, really?


texts: Which lover of a Russian Empress obtained the highest rank?

texts:
There were numerous well-known male lovers of Russian Empresses, particularly those of Catherine the Great. Such a role often meant receiving sumptuous gifts such as beautiful apartments, the status of minor nobility, and grants of serfs.

Some of these men got appointments in the government bureaucracy as well. Which of them was placed highest in the Petrine Table of Ranks?


texts: In Canada, is it true that when Mormons first arrived (1887) they weren't allowed to settle within 50km of Lethbridge?

texts:
In 1886, a Mormon named Charles Card was directed by the then President on the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, John Taylor, to go north and find a suitable settlement site in Canada. In 1887 he chose an area which later became the town of Cardston, then began recruiting settlers from Utah. Apparently the Canadian government was thrilled that so many skilled agricultural workers were settling in an area where the mining industry was settling down.

According to the LDS Church website:

  The favorable reception of the Canadian government to the member-settlers was a reflection on the times. At a moment when Ottawa’s national policy was to seek new settlers to populate the almost endless stretches of the Canadian West, immigration—particularly of skilled and seasoned farmers—was strongly encouraged. With both Church directives and government incentives as impetus, President Card returned to Alberta and in time organized the villages of Mountain View, Beazer, Leavitt, and Kimball.

And the Canadian Encyclopedia:

  Irrigation played an important role in the evolution of Lethbridge as agriculture displaced coal as the key local resource and the main source of jobs. Between 1898 and 1900, Mormon migrants from Utah built a 185-kilometre long system of canals to divert the St Mary River, the first large-scale irrigation system in Western Canada.

With that background in mind, here is a rumour I often hear floating around about later settlements of Mormons that moved both east and west:
Near all of these settlements was the new and growing town of Lethbridge (which now has a massive Mormon population). According to the rumour, when Mormons started arriving nearby, a law was passed that no Mormon was allowed to settle within 50km of Lethbridge.

This is used as an explanation as to why there are so many little, predominantly Mormon settlements surrounding Lethbridge. I've heard this rumour for years. I've even said it to people before. However, the only source I've ever been able to find that this may have been true is this quote from the LDS website (same link as above):

  What animosities nearby neighbors and fellow settlers may once have harbored against the Mormons gradually gave way in the face of the Manifesto of 1890 and the growing reputation of the Latter-day Saints for industry, thrift, integrity, obedience to law, temperance, strong family ties, and an enthusiastic loyalty to Canadian institutions and traditions.

"The Manifesto" is a name that has been given to the LDS Church's direction to its members to stop practicing polygamy.

So my question is: Is this rumour about Lethbridge true?


texts: Who are the possible models for Munch's Puberty?

texts:
Puberty by the Norwegian painter Edvard Munch is certainly the most uncomfortable viewing experience I've ever had in the realm of fine art. There's also a kind of psychological complexity to it, and, in spite of myself, it's a painting I find myself coming back to every couple of years.

I was curious about the identity of the model. All the articles I could find through Google just said that there was a great deal of interesting speculation about her, but nothing was ever established beyond doubt. But because of the detail around her collarbones, it is likely Munch used a live model.

I think I can remember reading, a few years ago, one theory that the model was Munch's landlord's daughter, and another theory that she was Munch's younger sister. (I couldn't find anything to back up either of these theories when I searched just now.) Does anyone have anything more solid in this regard?


texts: Which 11 countries were democratic in 1941?

texts:
Relistening to the BBC's History of Democracy broadcast in July 2011. The historian on the show talked about the low point for democracies being 1941 when there were just 11 parliamentary democracies remaining across the globe.

So, there was Britain and the US of course. Then there were the European neutrals, Ireland, Switzerland and Sweden. That's five. The commonwealth democracies: Canada, Australia and NZ. Let's add South Africa too (they had a parliament).

Maybe Finland (even though allied to the Nazis, possibly still
democratic?) Ten?

So, I only make that nine or ten. Which country or countries am I missing?