texts: What did the Nazis do with proselytes to Judaism?

texts:
The Nazis categorised people on racial grounds. If someone had sufficient Jewish ancestry, they were dead. Unlike, say, Stalin's purges, it didn't matter what their opinions were: if you totally rejected all Jewish beliefs, you were still dead if you were racially Jewish.

There have always been a small number of people who converted to Judaism. Presumably there weren't many in Germany itself given the circumstances, but in countries only occupied from 1940, there may have been a relatively high number. Was there any consistent policy on what to do with these people?


texts:
Vladimir Lenin is known for promising "Peace, land, and bread!" to the peasants of Russia. I have seen this quote in many forms, though, as

Peace, land, and bread!
Peace, bread, and land!
Peace, land, bread!
Peace, bread, land!

Which of these, or none of them, is the most historically accurate quote for this slogan?


texts: Why were countries which were clearly aligned to one of the two power blocs during cold war a part of the non-aligned movement?

texts: Countries like the DPRK and others joined the Non-Aligned movement despite showing clear proofs of support towards power blocs were and still are a part of the Non-aligned movement. During the Korean war, the PRC and the USSR clearly showed support towards the DPRK which was greatly accepted by the DPRK. After the war, it is said that the DPRK got nuclear support from USSR which very clearly shows that the DPRK was aligned with the USSR.


texts: How did Nazi concentration camp staff deal with survivors of gassings?

texts:
I've read a story about a woman who was put into a gas chamber and survived it.

  In the most notorious of all, Auschwitz-Birkeanau,
  she was herded naked into a gas chamber with hundreds
  of others.

  Yet Turgel, who was 21 at the time, walked out alive.

  She had no idea the Nazis had tried to kill her
  until a woman she knew said, “Don’t you know what
  has just happened to you? You were in the gas chamber!”

Obviously, she wasn't put into the gas chamber again.

I'm wondering, why. There are several options:

The guards didn't notice that she walked away and she was dead on paper.
The guards did notice it, but decided not to gas her again.
There was a policy not to gas one person twice.
She fled from the concentration camp immediately after gassing.

Which of these options is most likely based on what we know about Nazi concentration camps?


texts: Why do we find a large number of nude male characters in ancient Greek paintings and sculptures? What was the social status of nudity in ancient Greece?


texts: Where can I find information regarding the orphanages for mixed children in Nazi Germany?

texts:
I cannot remember what they were called, and as a result I am unable to find basic information regarding them. From what I remember, a bunch of women from territories occupied by Nazi Germany were brought in for cheap, often domestic labor. A number of them became pregnant, and nearly all of their children were placed in very neglectful orphanages by the state. I want to say that there were tens of thousands of such children.

Does anyone have more information on those orphanages?

Thanks in advance.


texts: How much faster/better were European printing presses compared to Chinese block printing?

texts:
Some say China invented the printing press.
However, another says that Gutenberg invented the printing press.
Nevertheless, Western printing press is superior for 2 reasons

We know Gutenberg name. This is a civilization that remember their inventor. The name of "some Chinese" that invent printing press is much less known.
Gutenberg printing press is faster.

So, how much faster?
Is this mainly due to alphabets or different techniques?
By how much both printing press improve economy?


texts: How was beer production affected by the war during WW2?

texts:
How did the war affect beer production during World War II? This is a follow-up question to this question at Seasoned Advice, which is gathering interesting food-science answers but which are are short on historical perspective and long on historical speculation.

This source cites various brewer's almanacs for evidence that beer strength suffered during WW2, but doesn't indicate why. Of course there were supply issues, but what and why (and what substitutions might have been made) are the interesting details that would help support or discredit the answers the original Seasoned Advice question is getting. And besides supply, there could have been political, social, or rationing pressures on how beer was produced and distributed.

So speculation aside, how did the war affect beer? Lingering after-effects of the war might be interesting, but that's not the main point of this question.


texts: Did the treaty of Versailles require closure of German cadet schools?

texts: I'm hoping someone can give me a definitive answer about whether German military schools/academies ("kadettenanstalt" - secondary school level) were forced to close by the Treaty of Versailles. It seems I once read this somewhere.


texts: Was there an embargo of Soviet gold in 1932, and was grain the primary exportable good?

texts:
In this article, the author and leader of "The Great Fatherland Party" Nikolai Starikov, claims one of the causes of the Holodomor may have been that the USSR was unable to export anything other than their grain due to a western embargo.

Is there evidence to support the statement that the "Gold Embargo" existed, and if so whether it extended to 1932?

Is there evidence to suggest grain was the primary or "only" exportable good of the Soviet Union in 1932?


texts: Looking for a particular documentary about the history of long distance communication

texts:
I once watched a wonderful documentary about the history of long distance communication but have since forgotten its title, where I saw it, and how to find it again.

I really only remember two pieces of the documentary, which is why I want to find it and watch it again!

The first thing I remember is that the documentary began by discussing communication via a clepsydra (for which I found the following description from here).

  Another queer signaling device, built and operated upon a novel
  principle, was an even greater wonder among the early peoples. This
  was known as a clepsydra. Fancy a tall glass tube with an opening at
  the bottom in which a sort of faucet was fixed. At varying heights
  sentences were inscribed about the tube. The tube, being filled with
  water, with, a float at the top, all was ready for signaling any
  of the messages inscribed on the tube to a station within sight and
  similarly equipped. The other station could be located as far away
  as a light could be seen. The station desiring to send a message to
  another exhibited its light. When the receiving station showed its
  light in answer, the tap was opened at the bottom of the tube in each
  station. When the float dropped until it was opposite the sentence
  which it was desired to transmit, the sending station withdrew its
  light and closed the tap. This was a signal for the receiving station
  to stop the flow of water from its tube. As the tubes were just alike,
  and the water had flowed out during the same period at equal speed,
  the float at the receiving station then rested opposite the message to
  be conveyed.

The other thing that I remember from the documentary was presented somewhat later.  It was about the telegraph and the laying of the first transatlantic line.  If I remember correctly, it said the first cable broke while being laid, but the laying of the second cable was successful (the first user being the monarch of England and, probably, the U.S. president).  Later, this cable stopped working and another one was laid.

It would be great if someone knows what documentary I am talking about so I can both watch it again and share it with others.


texts: Can anyone help identify this soldier's uniform?

texts: The only info I have about this photograph is that it was taken in WW1. The badges were a bit too grainy for me to match them up with others that I am familiar with so hoping someone else with more knowledge can assist! Asking on behalf of a friend. Thank you!


texts: Why were battles massed until the late 1800s?

texts:
If you look at pictures of battles until the mid/late 19th century, the typical battle involved masses of soldiers advancing against each other. It doesn't seem that they tried taking cover or spreading out.

Why?

At first glance, considering the lack of aim muskets had and the amount of time it took to reload, a more spread out army should make it harder to shoot, and make cannon less effective.

Was this a "gentleman's agreement" ("Laws of war") or was there a tactical advantage in such an arrangement?


texts: Did "errand boys" really have to wear handcuffs attached to the briefcase?

texts:
In a Donald Duck comic published in 1994 (possibly conceived up to a few years prior, and possibly "set" in the 1950s), Donald Duck is forced to become an errand boy. The boss gives him a briefcase with handcuffs attached to the handle and locks the other end to the wrist of Donald. Supposedly, the purpose is for it to not get lost/stolen on the way to the customer. (Although it's not explained at all in the comic.)

Was (or is) this actually done in real life? Nothing about the episode suggests that this is made-up for the Duck universe; it's handled at something obvious and "everyday".
If this was real, how did they actually deliver the briefcase to the customer once they arrived at the destination? Donald did not get any key to the handcuffs, and if he had been given them, the point of attaching him to the briefcase would be lost.

It seems like a feasible security measure to me, but I don't understand the practicality of separately delivering the key. (If that was done.)


texts: How much did a sword cost in AD 1000 Constantinople?

texts:
Qualifications:
Obviously, swords vary in quality. Ideally, I would like to know what a standard army issue sword would have cost, if I bought it privately. But I realised we may only be able to assert what this sword cost the army. Failing that, I would be interested in any recorded sword prices.
I have access to PART of „The Economic History of Byzantium: From the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century“. Therein I found no answer.
Another paper that will help to put your answers into perspective is this one. by B. Milanovic. It asserts that:

The average “modest” salary (including benefits in kind) for an unskilled worker was estimated by Morrisson and Cheynet (2002, p. 869) at about 1 nomisma (N) per month or between 10 and 12 N per year.


texts: How is Goswami's stand on nationalism distinct from Andersons'?

texts:
Benedict Anderson in his 'Imagined Communities' argued that nationalism is modular, that is transplanted to the third world without acknowledging the agency of the intellectual elite, by simply defining the process of origin of nationalism to be passive reception by bilingual elite, who had at their disposal both western model as well of their own.

Partha Chatterjee criticized Benedict Anderson's work by showing Indian nationalism was divided into political nationalism which is outer domain where colonizers are superior while inner domain where colonized are dominant.

But Manu Goswami had problems with work of Benedict Anderson as well as Partha Chatterjee.

So my problem is how Manu Goswami's stand on Nationalism is different from Benedict Anderson. What does Manu Goswami mean by 'Socio-historical Conception of Nationalism'?

Rethinking the Modular Nation Form: Toward a Sociohistorical Conception of Nationalism by Manu Goswami

The Nation and its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories - by Partha Chatterjee


texts: May I know more about the theory of "long period" - with regard to the interpretation of historical events?

texts:
In another language than English, I read something about the distinction between the theory of periodization and the theory of "long period" (if I well translate it in English, as I don't know the technical term for it used in English).

Basically, I know what periodization is, obviously, but I read that the theory of periodization is opposed by the theory of the long period. Namely, according to a small number of historians is better to interpret historical facts without referring to periodizations but referring to a single long time.

I would like to know more about this view from you and I am also wondering if you can indicate to me some relevant bibliography.


texts: Why didn't Japan take Pearl Harbor when they had the chance?

texts: Japan successfully wiped out America's defenses at Pearl Harbor, and they knew they were going to before they set out, so why didn't they take some paratroopers with them to seize the harbor from the US? This would have had even more of an impact than just blowing stuff up.


texts:
I am trying to find an original submarine record sent from submarine to the HQ which includes location, movement, weather, orders and details about the submarine during World War 2. I am trying to find a draft that is being used during war so that I can examine the way they were written.

What were submarine logs and records like in World War II? And is there any source where I can find a copy or facsimile of an original document? There is no specific submarine I am looking for.


texts: In WWII, how were all pilots/soldiers able to identify enemy vehicles?

texts:
After watching Saving Private Ryan and other documentaries for WWII, they made it seem like everyone was able to identify enemy vehicles very easily.  For example, in Saving Private Ryan, they were able to identify the types of tanks (Tiger and Panzer) that were coming in the final battle.
In some other documentary (I think it was Spitfire, I'm not 100% sure), they were talking about fighters they faced like the Messerschmitt 109s and Focke-Wulf 190s.
I'm trying to imagine how the Allies knew what the Germans called their vehicles and how they got clear photos of what they looked like to show other soldiers/pilots.  I don't think cameras back then were that good to take clear photos of things in motion and also if you were driving/flying for your life, I don't think you'd stand still long enough to take photos of the German vehicles.
I'm also wondering how the Allies learned the names of these vehicles.  Were the Germans announcing all their new vehicles to strike fear in the Allies hearts?  Were there spies for the Allies in Germany who learned this info and passed it to the Allies?
My guess is the documentaries I watched were made way after WWII so they were able to talk about things in hindsight and know the names of all the vehicles, have photos, etc.  Saving Private Ryan, it's just a movie and again, they have hindsight and can add all this info to make it seem more authentic.


texts: Could a person get from the outer districts of Vienna into the city center via the sewage system?

texts:
I'm writing a novel that plays in 1945 Vienna. There are characters who want to get from Währing (A in the image below) to the city center (B) undetected.

Is this realistic/believable for them to travel this route underground (in the sewage system; occasionally getting to the surface)?

My answer: Yes.

Justification #1: The modern sewage system covers most of Vienna (see below).

Source: Viennese government

Justification #2: Both the starting point and the destination of the journey are located in old parts of Vienna. According to German Wikipedia the first sewage system that covered the entire city was completed in 1739. If I assume that the building in Währing and most of the buildings in the city center were built somewhere during the 19th century, it is reasonable to assume that they were connected to the sewage system in 1945.

Justification #3: Both Währing and the city center are wealthy districts. It is reasonable to assume that people in these areas got the canalisation first, before inhabitants of poorer districts.


texts:
Inspired by this question, which asks for a list of students who were expelled from universities in Nazi Germany, I would be interested in knowing where I might be able to find more information about doctoral theses that were passed between 1933 and 1945 - specifically, those that dealt with racial science and other matters of a politically- or socially-charged nature.

Was there a noticeable increase in dissertations that dealt with the Jewish question during this period? Was there a marked rise in papers that looked at issues like Communism, the Trade Unions, homosexuality, criminality, disability, etc? I would very much like to know (assuming this sort of research has been done) by what percentage these sorts of studies increased, and whether or not (and by what percentage) they decreased again after '45.

I am specifically looking for doctoral theses, but studies that concern general academic literature during this period may be of interest too.


texts: Did the Ancient Greeks not usually carry money around?

texts:
I've heard before that the Ancient Greeks would carry money around in their mouths, due to their lack of pockets.

However, I have just come across this passage in Diogenes Laertius Book IV Ch.3:

  Polemo, the son of Philostratus, was an Athenian who belonged to the deme of Oea. In his youth, he was so profligate and dissipated that he actually carried about with him money to procure the immediate gratification of his desires, and would even keep sums concealed in lanes and alleys.

No doubt, keeping money concealed in lanes and alleys would have been unusual, but this passage suggests that the carrying of money to procure the immediate gratification of desires was also unusual.

Is it true that usually Greeks would not carry money around? Or did they just usually only carry the money they needed for specific things they would pay for that day?


texts: Why did Frederick VI claim the Haraldskær Woman was a Norwegian queen?

texts:
Frederick VI was the last king of Denmark-Norway. During his reign a woman’s well preserved body was discovered in a peat bog, and Frederick claimed it was that of Queen Gunnhild.  Frederick’s wikipedia article states:

  After the discovery of the Haraldskær Woman in a peat bog in
  Jutland in the year 1835, Frederick VI ordered a royal interment in an
  elaborately carved sarcophagus for the Iron Age mummy, decreeing it to
  be the body of Queen Gunnhild. Later this identification proved
  incorrect, but the action suited his political agenda at the time.[17]

Unfortunately that source link is dead, and the magazine it linked to has only a short article on the bog body. Frederick’s entry in Britannica states:

  Frederick, in 1834, set up four consultative provincial assemblies.
  This action marked the beginning of parliamentary life in Denmark.

Those assemblies were formed only a year before the body was found. Based on other biographies it sounds like the monarchy was in decline at the time of his reign. If the country was trending towards a parliamentary system, did Frederick claim the body was a queen in an attempt to strengthen the monarchy’s image?  What were his political motivations for this claim?


texts: How often would monks leave their monasteries in the Middle Ages?

texts:
I have been reading about medieval monasteries, and I recently read that monks could sometimes act as village priests. This confused me as I had read that monks couldn't leave their monasteries. Was this just a single school of monastacism?
According to The Daily Life of Medieval Monks, monks could leave their monasteries, how often would this have happened?


texts:
I’m talking about when a family names a son after their father, and that son names a son after himself, and so on.

For example, the King Louis’ (although they weren’t always a son, but they were directly related (I think)).

Edit:
To clarify,
I’m looking for a name that spans several generations in the same family line, like a lot of kings did.
For example, there were (if I remember correctly) around 10 King Louis(es? ‘? I’m unsure what the plural of Louis is).


texts: Does anyone know what this set of aviation wings represent?

texts:
Originally asked in the aviation stackexchange, though posted here under advice.

I stumbled upon this set of aviation wings whilst searching through a box of old things, though I'm at a loss as to their origin, and what they symbolise.

Judging from the lack of skill used to craft the item (Seems the mold had an off day), I doubt it's rare, though I could, very likely, be wrong.

Other than what you can see in the picture, the wings are roughly two inches long, and made of metal; sterling silver, perhaps?

As for background information, I did have Polish family who fought during WW2 in the west, and another who served in the RAF Regiment. There really isn't much else I can tell you, so I apologise for the ambiguity.

Still, I hope you can help!


texts: Does the Ottoman Empire count as a colonial power?

texts: Their role in the Middle East and North Africa was pretty similar to that of the French and British, who succeeded them. The French and British rule of their areas is generally called colonial rule, the Ottoman rule isn't. Why so?


texts: How did melee soldiers in the front rank of a formation fight without getting tired?

texts: The Romans used a system of rotating out the front rank through a shield push. But how did other soldiers, for example the Greek Hoplites, fight in battles which often lasted hours without getting rest? If they didn't get rest, then does this mean that being placed in the front rank is a sure death sentence since the soldier would eventually get tired?


texts: What were the effects of Bushido on Japan after the Meiji Restoration?

texts:
As part of the Meiji Restoration, the samurai class was abolished and their members enrolled as shizoku under the new regime. While their ancient privileges were lost, the former samurai continued to play a dominant role in Japanese society for decades to come.

What impact, if any, did their ideology of the Bushido have on Japanese society during this period? Was there any lasting moral effect?


texts: Was it controversial when Parliament restricted the suffrage to the Forty Shilling Freeholders in 1430?

texts:
According to this House of Commons Library research paper, suffrage in the county constituencies was initially open to every man who was head of a household, or at least that's my understanding of the phrase every free inhabitant householder, freeholder and non-freeholder. I assume that free means men who were not villeins.

Universal male suffrage had some popular support from at least the time of the English Civil War in the 1640s. Were there riots, protests, or anything of the kind when parliament took away the right to vote from all these people? 'Hundreds of thousands' is a guess, of course. According to Wikipedia's demography of England page there were under 3 million people in England at the time.

  Before 1430 there is evidence that the right to vote for the knights
  of the shires in English county elections was given to “every free
  inhabitant householder, freeholder and non-freeholder”. There was no
  requirement for freeholders to be landed freeholders; the freehold
  could relate to something other than land.

  ...

  In the late fourteenth century and early fifteenth there were calls
  for shire elections to be restricted to the “better folk of the
  shires” but the official view remained that the common assent of the
  whole county was required. Election meetings could be large and
  lively and feuds between factions sometimes spilled over to election
  meetings.

  In 1429, a petition was presented to the King by the Commons which
  expressed concern that some elections had involved “too great and
  excessive number of people...of whom the greater part are by people of
  little or no means” and that these people “pretend[ed] to have an
  equivalent voice...as the most worthy knights or esquires dwelling in
  the same counties”. The petition called for the vote to be restricted
  to those freeholders resident in a county with a freehold value of 40
  shillings a year. A freehold was not restricted to land; it could
  refer to many types of property.

  The petition led, in 1430, to such a statute being passed and all
  leaseholders, regardless of the value of their leased land, were
  stripped of the vote.


texts: Did the Kayı tribe fight the Templars at any point?

texts:
The highly popular Turkish TV drama series Diriliş: Ertuğrul has Ertuğrul and his Kayı tribe fighting the Templars based in a "castle" which apparently should be identified with the real-world Bagras.
Thing is: the Templars were only active in what is in modern terms south and south-eastern Turkey (according to wiki) while the Kayı and their successor Ottomans lived and fought in northwestern Turkey.
Am I missing some connection here or is the whole plot just pure artistic license?


texts: What is the first documented eating disorder?

texts: My question is, what is the first verified eating disorder in which the person desired to be thin- ex. bulimia, anorexia, etc. Basically what I'm asking- when did people begin to see thin as beautiful to the extent where people would essentially starve themselves to become thin, and when did people stop thinking about survival every day and focus more on appearance and other factors. Thanks!


texts: History of Raetia between 15 CE to 550 CE

texts:
I know most of the history of the area of Raetia (by which I mean the Roman province, today roughly resembling the states Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg) from the first sources we have until today, except for the time from 15 - 550 CE.

This area used to be settled by Celts, but most of them migrated for some reason (Germanic raids?) before the Romans conquered it. I read that most Romans there were Foederati garrison troops.

What I would like to know is, what happened? Did Rome make no attempts to settle this area? If they did, with who? How did the population change after they retreated from the northern Limes? Did all the Romans (including the Romanized Celtic population) retreat?

Basically I would just like to get as much information about this period as we have available to us.

Researched sources:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raetia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limes#Upper_Germania_and_Rhaetia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Bavaria
(other similar sources about the Goths, Vindelici, etc.)
Several books about Bavarian history (I forgot the exact titles)


texts: Did ancient Romans have a religion that involved a "fish hat"?

texts:
This question is related to the Mesopotamian god "Dagon" and how he may have been represented in ancient Rome.

According to some sources, gods and goddesses that were worshiped in ancient Mesopotamia were also adopted by subsequent civilizations based around the Mediterranean. We have for example the goddess Inanna about which this article says:

  Inanna is the ancient Sumerian goddess of love, sensuality, fertility,
  procreation, and also of war. She later became identified by the
  Akkadians and Assyrians as the goddess Ishtar, and further with the
  Hittite Sauska, the Phoenician Astarte and the Greek Aphrodite, among
  many others. She was also seen as the bright star of the morning and
  evening, Venus, and identified with the Roman goddess.

Reference from ancient.eu shown below.

In a similar vein we have the god Volturnus which for Romans was a god of the Tiber river. This Wikipedia article says about Volturnus:

  Although he was originally an Etruscan god, his worship spread to
  Rome, and appears to have replaced or co-incided with the Roman god
  Tiber.

Reference from Wikipedia shown below.

That the same deity was worshiped by subsequent cultures under different names is probably not so unusual. When people received a new political authorities, and through that a new lingua franca, they likely just continued worshiping the gods and goddesses they had grown up with worshiping. And their children continued the same traditions so in that sense nothing much changed.

When it comes to "Dagon" there is this article in the Jewish Encyclopedia, showing below picture of a priest of Dagon wearing a "fish hat".

Above image is also in this Wikipedia article discussing the term "Apkallu".

What I was curious about is whether there was deity or religion in ancient Rome that had priests wearing a head covering like that?

Update: the deity or religion would not have had to be named "Dagon" or to be obviously connected to Dagon as I am interested in continuity and adaption of religious beliefs. As stated in above sources, deities and religious customs were in the past often assimilated in other religions.


texts: Which months were added during the Roman Empire?

texts:
I was recently reading a book when I came across a line

  Two months were added in our calendar today for the Roman empire.

I did some research on
Wikipedia
and concluded three months were added because of the Roman empire. July, June, and August. Is this correct? If so, perhaps the book was referring to two months added for Julius Caesar?

Thanks!


texts: I'm looking at clothing and dress from the period during the crusades and I suspect that buttons might have been something the crusaders took back with them from the Levant. They start popping up in the 12th and 13th century, yet I'm not sure because I cannot find any comprehensive book on buttons and their history (the Big Book of Buttons is only to be found in US libraries).


texts:
I take part in arranging a medieval fair. As part of that I have the task of creating a pair of moneyboxes for use at the counter of the main place where the visitors can buy something to eat and drink.

I have searched, but I have not been able to find any images or illustrations of how something like this might have looked. My guess is that it would more often have been a pouch of some sort, but that solution cannot work here for various reasons.

So I am just going to build a couple of boxes as best I can. I would like to carve some symbols into the boxes and ideally they should represent what they purpose of the box is.
Thus I am looking for any symbol the might have been used in medieval times to represent money or trade or even banking.

Alternatively I could also use the symbol for hospitality which I have found some images of here:
http://www.schlenkerla.de/biergeschichte/brauerstern/html/ausschankzeichene.html

Looking at Abb 28 on that page there is a fairly nice symbol for use.

Also I would very much like some information on why a suggested symbol was used and how it came about if possible, but on the other hand I am not a historian so a short summary will do. I have boxes to build, after all :)

Any input you may have will be greatly appreciated.


texts: Financial ramifications of peerages created since the 19th century

texts:
I once (quite naively) thought that those who were awarded titles of nobility in olden times would henceforth life charmed lives in their splendid houses, etc.: until I noticed e.g. in several biographies of British statesmen of the 19th and 20th centuries that financial wealth may (at least by that time and in that country) have been a prerequisite for rather than a consequence of noble titles.

If I remember correctly, friends of Benjamin Disraeli (made 1st Earl of Beaconsfield) had to contribute to a fund so he could fulfill the prerequisites for accepting a relatively minor title. Both Lord Salisbury (3rd Marquess of Salisbury) and Winston Churchill (made Sir Winston Churchill) were offered dukedoms by their grateful Queen and King respectively, but both declined evidently for reasons of cost.

I'm not sure whether the latter two where coy for other reasons, but the cost of maintaining the lifestyle esp. of a Duke (who is perhaps reasonably expected to maintain a grand country estate as well as a residence in the capital) must indeed have been and remain huge. Some of the old peerages were created together with sufficient territorial designations or other significant resources to bear this cost, but maybe by the 19th century there was not enough "white space" left (conceivably so in the case of the Dukedom of London that was offered to Churchill; perhaps not so in the case of Dukedoms created for the House of Windsor since 1890; theoretically not so in the case of the Eardom of Kandahar in Afghanistan) and there were now rich industrialists around who presumably did not mind the expense, if they only got the title.

So I am wondering what were the exact financial ramifications of becoming a member of the aristocracy (esp. the higher aristocracy, in the UK, and by the 19th century). For instance, were there set rules as to the funds that candidates would have to have acquired (next to the merit, of course :) and for mandatory representation, and could titles be lost e.g. if money ran out?


texts: Why was the World Trade Center selected as a target by Al Qaeda?

texts:
In 2001, the terrorist organization al-Qaeda attacked a series of targets inside the United States. The Pentagon was the symbol of America's military strength, and the second planned DC target (presumed to be either the White House or Congress) represented the seat of the U.S. government. But what I've never understood was, what was Al Qaeda's motivation for selecting the Twin Towers as a target, not once but twice?

It seems like there is no shortage of prominent and impressive skyscrapers in the United States, or even just New York. If their motivation was to terrorize, destroy an iconic landmark, or just kill thousands, it could have been accomplished just as easily with the Empire State Building, the Chyrsler Building, Sears Tower, George Washington Bridge, the Statue of Liberty, etc. In fact, al-Qaeda could have hit two two targets with the planes they used to destroy the Twin Towers.

Has anyone ever shed any light on the decision-making at the highest levels of al-Qaeda when selecting the World Trade Center as a target on either occassion?


texts: How did CGP Grey get his hands on old New York Times papers?

texts:
In CGP Grey's video "The Race to Win Staten Island", he manages to open old copies of the New York Times for his research (around 1:20).

Where are these available? Can I also get old copies of the New York Times?


texts: How did Helen Keller understand English?

texts:
Helen Keller has fascinated me for quite some time. What she achieved in her life time, being both blind and deaf.

One question though, how did she begin to comprehend the English language being both blind and deaf?


texts: What was the strategic importance of Judea?

texts:
I'm interested in ancient Judea, from the dissolution of the monarchy to the beginning of John Hyrcanus. It was a small wedge to the west of the Dead Sea. What was the strategic significance of this region? Has the region had a similar significance in other periods, like the Egyptians/ Hittites, Romans, or Crusaders?

Edit: Thanks for the answers. I'm still looking for its strategic value for the Levant, which was a major commercial thoroughfare. It appears to be a stronghold of some sort.


texts: What position did the government of Surinam take during the Second World War?

texts:
Holland itself was overrun by the Germans, Indonesia by Japan. Suriname was the only large Dutch posseession that remained free (I think, couldn't find a map of Dutch Empire in 1939/1940).

Did they communicate with the Dutch government-in-exile, and contribute anything to the war effort? Or did they collaborate with the Germans in some way, or just stay out of it altogether?

Update

I missed it before as was looking at a different article, but in the wiki article for Dutch government-in-Exile, it says that the Americans occupied Surinam from November 1941. Would still like to know what happened 1940-1941.


texts: What happened to the overseas wealth of the Holocaust Jews?

texts: Hitler confiscated the wealth of Jews in his conquered territories. But what happened to the overseas wealth of the Holocaust Jews? Were they swallowed conveniently by foreign banks/countries pretending to help but could not help? Were they honorably returned to the descendants of the victims? It will be interesting to know which country or bank was most honorable in handling their troubled clients' money.


texts:
I was surprised to learn the following about the Japanese and Korean languages:

Japanese used a lot of Chinese characters in their language and had no phonetic system, until around the year 800 when they made their first kana. (They still use a lot of Chinese characters, but the point is they originally had no phonetic system, then made one.)

Korean also used a lot of Chinese characters in their language and had no phonetic system until around the year 1443 when they made Hangul. (I'm not sure if they still use a lot of Chinese characters, but the point is the same as Japan.)

So you can see how this brings up my question. Did China ever consider a phonetic writing system? In other words, are there any emperors, scholars, court eunuchs or other offices, or just wise men of some school like Confucianism or Daoism or something... who wrote down some thoughts on considering a phonetic writing system?

Did any of them at least note what Japan and Korea did, and explicitly reject it? And most crucially, did they state their reasons for rejecting it?

The time period I'm interested in is pre-modern China. In other words, ancient times to 1912.

EDIT: The analyses are fascinating, but they're not what I'm asking. I'm just asking for examples of some written record of some Chinese person, writing down his thoughts on a phonetic system, why he considered it and why he rejected it... if such a record exists. I would really like to see what were his own thoughts.


texts: Did the Germans "mix up" Army Groups A and B during Fall Blau?

texts:
Fall Blau was the 1942 campaign conducted by Germany's Army Group South. This was subdivided during the campaign into Army Groups A and B.

I was surprise to read that Army Group A was sent to the Caucasus with something like 170,000 men and 1100 tanks, while Army Group B, with something like 270,000 men and 500 tanks went after Stalingrad. I would have thought the reverse.

The reason is that Army Group A, with its more numerous tanks, would probably have been more useful in the plains around the Don and Volga Rivers, while the Caucasus campaign probably needed more the greater number of men of Army Group B and had less need for tanks. In fact, General von Kleist complained that the road south to the Caucasus had too many vehicles, that were hard to refuel, rather than too few.

Did high ranking military men (other than Hitler) think that the actual dispositions were a good idea? Or do military strategists and historians think that the German forces were misaligned, even allowing for the manpower restrictions that were in place?


texts: What lead some nationalities to be the butt of bestiality jokes?

texts: Some nationalities (for example New Zealand and Wales) are the butt of jokes about bestiality, especially with sheep. What lead to this?


texts: Reference request - Books on Israel-Palestine conflict

texts:
I am searching for a good even-handed account of the Israel-Palestine conflict. I read James Gelvin's book which was ok but I found lacking in detail when it came to the situation in more recent times. What I would like to read is a readable yet detailed book that documents how each side approached the conflict. As an outsider you hear both sides claiming that at different stages the opposite party was not really in for peace or that they missed a chance by having unreasonable demands. I think the best way to approach such hot topics is to establish the facts all parties agree on and then slowly evaluate each sides's claims where they differ, that is what I want. A maximally factual account of the situation that stays clear of ramblings (I guess no Finkelstein or Blumenthal) and also highlights when equally reliable sources make different claims.

One book that caught my eye is Ian Black's "Enemies and Neighbours", your thoughts?

All the best!


texts: In Mongolian Conquests, how did they screen the population for engineers?

texts:
I just read this from Wikipedia's article on Mongolian military tactics:

  When Mongols slaughtered the whole population from settlements that resisted or didn't opt to surrender, they often spared the engineers and other units, swiftly assimilating them into the Mongol armies.

"Engineers" in this case meant people who could build trebuchets and catapults and other siege machines. (It might also mean metalworkers, woodworkers, glassworkers?)

How did they screen such people from the population? Did they have translators who could speak their language, and if so, where did they get those translators?

And especially, how did they test liars (I'm an engineer, don't kill me!) from truth tellers?


texts: Is there a global foot race among religions on the most beautiful churches and when did this start historically?

texts:
When you visit multicultural and -national big cities, it often becomes apparent to me how churches of different religions seem to compete on beautiness, height, materials used like gold or colourful windows.

Historically, has this strong and expensive highlighting of churches rather have been a matter of strategic advertising and competition among different religions in the same region or do we see not much beautiful and expensive churches in religions with less financial means like, e.g. the Catholic church. I have seen very beautiful and big Indian churches in Dublin, so I doubt this. How big has this self-advertising historically been and developed over the centuries, did this start after the crusades of the Catholic church? Have their been even policies by the Pope to erect only beautiful churches worldwide?

In Germany we had some scandals among bishops spending far too much on churches and their private domiciles.


texts: Why didn't all non-Russian states become independent during the collapse of the Soviet Union?

texts:
There are so many sub-divisions in the country who are not Russian in their language and ethnicity, Tuva, Dagestan, Chechnya etc.
When states like the Baltics, Ukraine, and Central Asia were gaining their independence, why did they also not leave?


texts: Why didn't the USA move to the left after WWII?

texts:
After the second world war, and after the full impact of what the Nazis had done became clear, it seems like international politics moved to the left: in the east and far-east, support for communist movements rapidly rose; in the west, Socialist, Labour, and Trade-Unionist parties saw a sudden surge in support. The largest swing in UK electoral history, for example, was to the Labour party in the 1945 general election.

The US doesn't seem to have experienced this. Instead, if anything, it lurched to the right.

The Nazis are and were demonised as much in the US as in any of the other 2nd world war allies. Why didn't they experience the same political shift away from that direction as most other involved countries did.


texts: What caused the decline of Buddhism in Japan?

texts:
I'm trying to find fairly detailed information on the causes of the decline of Buddhism in Japan. The most detailed information I could find so far is Wikipedia, but it doesn't appear to go too in-depth. I have a feeling you could write an entire book about it.
In the Wikipedia article on Buddhism in Japan, it says:
"With the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the new government adopted a strong anti-Buddhist attitude, and a movement to eradicate Buddhism and bring Shinto to ascendancy arose throughout the country due to the strong connections of Buddhism to the Shōguns.
During the Meiji period (1868–1912), after a coup in 1868, Japan abandoned its feudal system and opened up to Western modernism. Shinto became the state religion. Within the Buddhist establishment the Western world was seen as a threat as well as a challenge to stand up to. Buddhist institutions had a simple choice: adapt or perish. Rinzai and Soto Zen chose to adapt, trying to modernize Zen in accord with Western insights, while simultaneously maintaining a Japanese identity. Other schools, and Buddhism in general, simply saw their influence wane. The edict of April 1872 ended the status of the Buddhist precepts as state law and allowed monks to marry and to eat meat. This "codification of a secularized lifestyle for the monk coupled with the revival of the emperor system and development of State Shinto were fundamental in desacralizing Buddhism and pushing it to the margins of society"."
That's one reason why Buddhism declined in Japan. What did they have against the Shoguns?
Also from Wikipedia: "After the Sengoku period of war, Japan was re-united in the Azuchi–Momoyama period. This decreased the power of Buddhism, which had become a strong political and military force in Japan." It doesn't say why the reunification decreased the power of Buddhism. It's not a very detailed description of the decline of the religion.
Are there reasons that Wikipedia does not mention, because it's meant as a general-purpose knowledge site.
Also, Buddhism is often associated with funerals, which is likely a reason why some Japanese may shun it.


texts: How did the election of one-third of Senators every two years stay in sync with addition of new states?

texts:
The Constitution says:

  The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from
  each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years.
  Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first
  Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three
  Classes. [U.S. Constitution, Article I, section 3, clauses 1-2]

My question has two parts. First, how were the initial Senate classes selected? Logically, some would only be elected for two- or four-year terms, right?

Second, once the Senate classes were divided, how did the U.S. Senate maintain fairly even thirds as the country grew to 50 states? Presumably, the states were not all admitted in nice even intervals, and each state would want both Senators to start immediately so were there some Senators who took truncated terms?


texts: Are there any records of ancient people looking for the misdirect in a prophecy?

texts:
Ancient prophecies, especially those of ancient Greece and the Oracle of Delphi, were famously tricky.  There are dozens of stories of great leaders being tripped up by double-meanings and misinterpretations, usually to their own destruction.

Now, obviously hindsight is 20/20, but some of those twists and tricks seem painfully obvious to modern audiences.  For example, when the Oracle tells you "If you go to war, a great empire will be destroyed," even a schoolchild will recognize that that might be your empire, rather than the enemy's...

And yet, over and over, great leaders and terrible generals misinterpret their prophecies, and go to meet their doom.  Which fits wonderfully with the ancient preoccupation with hubris, so I'm sure they had no problem with it as they retold the story, but it does raise the question:

Did any ancient prophecy-seekers recognize the tricky nature of prophecies, and make decisions or take action based on the possibility that the Oracle's words may have more than one meaning?  Do we have any records of people trying to outsmart the Oracle?


texts: Does (or did) any monarchy have a limited length of tenure?

texts:
Wikipedia's page about monarchies states that they might have "predetermined limits on the length of their tenure". However reading the page there is no mention about any current monarchy who does that.

So, do any current monarchy have such a system, either a simple "time limit" or something more complex? Voluntary abdication doesn't count, obviously.

If not, are there any (recent or ancient) notable examples of monarchies with such a rule?


texts: What's the story behind the making of the Complutensian Polyglot Bible?

texts:
The Complutensian Polyglot Bible was the first printed polyglot of the entire Bible and was, from what I can gather, a pretty complex scholarly effort in which many different scholars had to come together in Alcalá de Henares (or Complutum in Latin) and needed to work for 15 years. This all had to be financed, the scholars had to work together, the produced manuscripts needed to be printed and so on. This immense scholarly research project, maybe the first of its kind after the invention of the printing press, probably needed a lot of organisational effort.

I was wondering if it is known how this early project of biblical philology was practically carried out. I'm basically interested in "scholarship in the making" with this one, if that makes sense.

How did the scholars work?
Where exactly did they meet?
Who was in charge?
What technologies besides the printing press were used?
How did they keep track of their efforts?


texts: Who owned the ship Ensayo, and what were they doing near Baja California in 1842?

texts:
According to Plummer's The Shogun's Reluctant Ambassadors, in 1842, sea drifters from the Eijū-maru were picked up and  by the Ensayo, a "Spanish pirate ship" with a Philippine crew. It was "carrying illegal goods between Spain or Mexico and Manila," and "[b]ecause it was on a 'wanted list', it could not enter any harbors freely." The Japanese men were treated badly and forced ashore on a beach in Baja California.

I found the description confusing. Of Pacific ports, only the Philippines were still Spanish. The Manila galleon system had been over for decades. During Mexico's first twenty years of independence, as far as I know, it didn't trade with East Asia. The Spanish were a minor presence in the Pacific even when they controlled a lot of its coastline.

Who owned Ensayo and what was it up to?


texts:
I am reading about the First Barbary War from both Swedish and American perspective. I have what I believe to be a very reliable source in Swedish, and it says that the Pascha of Tripoli declared war upon the USA on 9 January 1801. But when you read other sources, such as Wikipedia, it claims that the war was declared by the Pascha 10 May 1801.

It's an important difference since Jefferson was inaugurated 4 March 1801. That is, either the war was declared before Jefferson became president, or Jefferson had it declared by refusing to pay as president.

It seems to me that it was actually John Adams who ceased paying the tributes? The story that some authors seems to convey is that Jefferson had waited for a chance to defy the Barbary states for a long time, and took the chance as soon as he got it (as he was strongly ideologically opposed to their behaviour). But at the same time the demands from Tripoli were becoming ridiculously high, and a war was more or less a matter of time?

Was the start of the First Barbary War a result of John Adam's presidency, or a decision made by Thomas Jefferson once he was president? Where can I read more about these crucial months late 1800 - mid 1801?


texts: Why did the US release the Phillipines as a colony?

texts:
The whole reason that the US ended up being dragged into WWII was that Japan wanted their colonies in the Pacific, including the Phillipines. And yet in 1946 the Treaty of Manila was signed, granting independence to the island nation. It's not like this made people happy, either - hundreds of thousands of Filipino servicemen lost the benefits they would have been entitled to as US nationals.

So why did the US do this, and not keep the Philipines as a territory or integrate them as a state, as they did to Hawaii in 1959?


texts: What was (if at all) Hitler's Plan B if Molotov-Ribbentrop had not worked out?

texts:
As we know, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union amicably agreed to attack Poland and to share it between themselves.

Did Hitler and his staff have a detailed or formal contingency plan in case the Nazi-Soviet talks failed and no agreement was reached? Would they have gone on with the invasion of Poland on their own anyway?

I am asking not for counterfactuals but for documented evidence of either contingency plans of staff work on such plans.


texts: What was the primary motivation for a historical figure like Xenophon to create an extensive collection of written material?

texts:
Xenophon of Athens created a large amount of written material even by today's standards. Did he create this work knowing it would be read by future generations, or was it for his own satisfaction? I could imagine figures like Socrates, Aristotle, or Herodotus might expect their work to be copied many times, but maybe not?

Is this similar to academia, where a document or book might be highly useful to a smaller audience? Even in this case, the physical effort to create and copy the work seems trivial compared to the same with Papyrus and copying by hand.


texts: Why did the political parties in the US give up power to run primary elections to some states?

texts: In the US, it seems that in certain states, the political parties have allowed the state to prescribe the manner in which delegates are selected to the party's national convention. This includes things like setting the requirements for a candidate to appear on the ballot and party affiliation requirements for the voters. Since this all really seems like internal party matters, how did it come to be that the states have so much say over how a political party selects its delegates to their national convention? Did the parties willingly give this power to the states? (Could they take it back? ... this part is less history related, so feel free to ignore)


texts: Who accompanied Canónigo Fernández to Mexico City in 1822?

texts: After Iturbide became President of an independent Mexico, the Canónigo Don Agustín Fernández de San Vicente was sent to Alta California to support the transition from Spanish rule and to relieve the last Spanish governor, Pablo Vicente de Solá. He met with officials throughout the state, including those at Fort Ross. At the end of 1822, Canónigo Fernández and ex-governor Solá traveled to Mexico City via San Diego, Tepic, and Guadalajara. Several others from California seem to have accompanied them; who were these other members of the party?


texts: What coin is this and where is it from? Thai script, Thai arms. Rev: left facing portrait

texts: here is the front and back of a coin which I would like to find out about. Anyone know which country this is from? Thank you very much!


texts: What did English people really say when knighting someone?

texts:
A while ago I curiously looked up this question and found out that people did not say "I dub thee..." or "Arise..." to him who was being made a knight, but instead used a Latin phrase which I forget. It translated to something like "knight advance in God's name" – something like that. I really want to remember now, but I cannot find any website anywhere that says anything like that again.

What was the phrase?

I've asked before at English.SE, but I was directed to ask it here, so I hope this works and I will very much appreciate an answer.


texts: Why do land mines seem to be a more serious problem in the Balkans than the Alps?

texts:
The last war in the Balkans finished around 2000. Until today, land mines are a big problem, especially in Bosnia. There are huge regions where you shouldn't leave paved terrain.

Since I love hiking, this posed a serious threats during my stay in Bosnia. At the same time, I asked myself whether this is no problem in the Alps. Granted, the war in Central Europe ended ~50 years earlier than the Balkan war, so maybe, the mines in the alps are already removed. So I asked my parents and grandparents, whether mines were a problem in Central Europe shortly after the second world war. All of them couldn't remember that it was a particular problem.

So why is this the case? Weren't mines just not used that often during the second world war? Or are there other reasons?


texts: This image is located in Windsor, Colorado(40.4526°N -104.9273°W) and it continues to puzzle me. There is a high fence surrounding the about 5 acre area. I looked up who the land is owned by and the town of Windsor currrently owns it, however is it possible to be a ex-military complex of some kind? I thought this because of the American flag on what looks like a launch pad


texts:
In 1798 Napoleon invaded Egypt and in 1799 he invaded the Middle East. The only thing that stopped him from going further was the fortifications of Acre which he could not take. What was his plans if he actually took Acre.

Much I read were only theories. He would take the great cities of Jerusalem and Damascus. What was the plan to go further?

Another theory is that from there he would conquer Persia and India - but is this true or is it pure theories and gossip?

I read in the letters of Napoleon that he talk about two generals before him: Alexander the Great who marched through Persia and reached India and Nader Shah - a general from Persia who took Delhi and Baghdad.

So is it likely that he truly wanted to go in their footprints?

Also, I read that Sultan Tipu of Mysore wrote a letter to Napoleon which reads he waited for him to come and liberate Mysore from the British.


texts: Was the Earth's sea-level significantly lower in ancient times?

texts:
A lot of times, ancient artifacts or even whole ancient civilizations are found buried very deep into the ground surface of the earth.

Entire civilizations that had high buildings have been found many meters below the earth.

Does that mean the earth's sea-level was much lower than it is now? If this is true, then are we experiencing a lower level of gravity?

How can just sedimentation of sand, bury big building to such depths?

If lack of habitation by humans eventually results in burying of things, then what about the places like Chernobyl, which has not been inhabited for a long time?

I am not a physics grad or anything, just a curious guy.

Any help is much appreciated.


texts: When did tea become "a thing" in England?

texts:
Tea was certainly available to the aristocracy from at least the mid 18th century, but the concept of "tea" (as in tea break, afternoon tea, high tea, etc.) didn't become prominent until its adoption by the middle class. Around what time (decade, if possible) did the English tea tradition start to appear?

Edit: I understand that there is ample information regarding the history of both tea consumption and the tea tradition of England. The issue isn't a lack of sources, but rather an excess of very general information. Sugar and Sweetness (Mintz, 1985) chapter 3 offers a sizable sample of historical accounts of tea drinking by the middle class in the late 18th century, but these accounts vary in the populations which they address (some referring to the "middle class", others the "poor") and time period (1750s-1800s).

What is unclear is when tea went from being a popular beverage to a social ritual. Implicitly, the consistent descriptions of tea consumption with bread would place the first "tea time" somewhere between 1780 and 1830, but primary accounts don't start calling it "tea" (referring to the meal) until the mid-19th century (though, I still can't find the earliest attested usage - I would guess somewhere around 1840 or so).

The distinction between drinking tea (as in tea is being consumed), and having tea (as in setting aside time to consume tea), really doesn't become clear until the mid-19th century. However, it is obvious that the social aspect tea predates the recognition of tea being "a thing".


texts: What was meant by "Palestine is not Rhodesia"?

texts:
While reading about the Israel/Palestine conflict, I found this 1927 statement by Chaim Weizmann  (emphasis mine):

Palestine must be built up without violating the legitimate interests of the Arabs not a hair on their heads shall be touched. The Zionist Congress must not confine itself to platonic formulae. It has to learn the truth that Palestine is not Rhodesia and that 600,000 Arabs live there, who before the sense of justice of the world have exactly the same right to their homes in Palestine as we have to our National Home.

What is meant by "Palestine is not Rhodesia?" It seems like Weizmann was referring to Britain's then-recent (1923) colonization of Rhodesia, and warning that creating a Jewish state in Palestine would not be as straightforward due to the 600,000 Arabs living there. But there were also people living in Rhodesia before colonization, so it is not clear to me what distinction he was trying to make.


texts: What was the timetable for Germany's Invasion of the Low Countries (Fall Gelb) in WW2?

texts:
I was watching the 1969 classic movie 'Battle of Britain' the other day and noted numerous scenes where the British were very concerned about a German invasion; "what are they waiting for?" was a quote which stuck in
my mind.

In Führer-Directive Number 6 (October 1939) Hitler calls for the invasion of the Low Countries as soon as possible although there was no direct mention of an invasion of France immediately afterwards.  Indeed in this document it seems that a long war in the west was assumed.

History records that the resounding success stunned everyone, including Germany.  This victory also led to the success of Fall Rot (the Fall of France) in an overall timeline of six weeks.  I did a bit of research on
Fall Gelb (the Manstein Plan) online but was wondering, just what kind of timetable did the German planners expect?


texts: What impact did the Seven Years War have on the American Revolution?


texts: In some books I saw the Ottomans invented Tahtelbahir in 1719. Is it true ?


texts: What were the potential consequences of Israel's strike on the Osirak reactor?

texts: Was there any plutonium at the plant at the time?


texts:
Today British Prime Ministers are elected by the party that forms the government, having won a majority of votes. It seems this was not always so. How we got here, however, seems to be by convention.

We know that George the III was able to select his own Prime Minister, William Pitt. This appears to be the result of a Constitutional Struggle.

Details on this Constitutional struggle are unclear. Was it decided by a High Court? Where were the precedents established?

My question is: How was George III able to appoint William Pitt as his Prime Minister?


texts: What was the impact of Fischer vs. Spassky 1972 on the relationship between the USA and the Soviet Union?

texts:
In 1948, the Fédération Internationale des Échecs (FIDE) organized the first Chess World Championship after WW2. Its winner was Mikhail Botvinnik. Further Chess World Champions were Vasily Smyslov, Mikhail Tal, Tigran Petrosian and Boris Spassky. All of them represented the Soviet Union.

But in 1972, Spassky faced Robert James Fischer in the Match of the Century and lost. In the middle of the Cold War, with the Vietnam war still raging.

In an interview with Bill Kristol (I. Chess and Politics in Soviet Russia, Conversations with Bill Kristol, 2016), former Chess World Champion Garry Kasparov said

  That’s why the Spassky defeat – Boris Spassky’s defeat in 1972 when Bobby Fischer took the crown from the hands of the Soviet Chess School. Since 1948, you know, chess title was firmly in the hands of Soviet players. This event was treated by people on both sides of the Atlantic as a crushing moment in the midst of the Cold War. Big intellectual victory for the United States, and you know, a hugely painful, almost insulting defeat for the Soviet Union, because Bobby Fischer was a great player but he was like a lonely warrior. A guy from Brooklyn taking on the mighty Soviet Chess School.

Kasparov calls it a crushing moment.

That's also quoted by Wikipedia, speaking of the "global significance of the match". And the Cold War timeline also includes it. But there's nothing further on it in the match article's section on the Aftermath (just about chess). So Kasparov's quote is all we got and he was born in 1963, i. e. was 9 years old when Fischer won the match.

Did the 1972 Chess World Championship influence the relationship between the USA and the Soviet Union and if so, how?


texts: Can someone tell me more about this dagger with a bronze hilt?

texts:
I found this dagger whilst cleaning up. It used to belong to my father I believe; he used to collect old things. It appears to have a bronze hilt (?).

I don't see any lettering or marks on it.

I live in Belgium - this might be useful information. I am not sure if this is a real dagger (an original) or a replica of some kind. Any information would be welcome.

Edit: More Pictures.


texts: In this letter from the English Civil War, what does THO stand for?

texts:
(Not sure if this should be on the English.SE. I ask here since it is quoted from a historical document.)

Sir,
I do by these summon you to deliver up the City of Oxford into my hands, for the use of the Parliament. I very much desire the preservation of that place (so famous for learning), from ruin, which inevitably is like to fall upon it, except you concur. You may have honourable terms for yourself and all within that garrison if you reasonably accept thereof. I desire the answer this day, and remain
Your servant
THO: FAIRAX.

(FAIRAX appears to be a typo for Fairfax, a commander in the English Civil War)
Source
What does THO stand for? Usually I would expect a Google search to easily find the answer, but THO appears to be a rather rare acronym, and none of them seem appropriate. The most "sensible" appears to be "The Holy Observer", which nonetheless sounds like nonsense.


texts: What was the origin of the roles of "lieutenant" officers?

texts:
A "captain" is a commander of a basic unit, a company in the military. As such, it makes sense that he will have one or more "lieutenants," first and second lieutenants that is.

A major commands the next higher level unit, a battalion. But there's no such thing as a "lieutenant major."

A colonel commands the next higher level unit, a regiment. He is two ranks above a major, with the intervening rank being a "lieutenant" colonel.

So why isn't a "first lieutenant" (second lowest commissioned officer) a captain, while a "captain" (the third lowest commissioned officer) a lieutenant major?

A "major (two star) general" commands the next higher unit, a divison. A one star general is a "brigadier general," who used to command a brigade, when there were four regiments in a division, meaning two regiments to a brigade and two brigades to a division. But when brigades were abolished, "brigadier general" lost its original meaning. Is he now a "lieutenant" major general?

A "lieutenant" (three star) general is one level below a "full" (four star) general. And a five star general is a "general of the army." Does this mean that a five star general is an army general, a four star general is a commander of a corps (the unit between a division and an army), and a three star general is a "lieutenant" corp commander?

Was it the original intent of the Anglo American armies to have "lieutenant" and then "full" officers at each level (captain, colonel, general, etc.)? Or if the ranks "evolved" over time, what was the history of the evolution?


texts: Were there actually slaves in Georgia while slavery was banned there?

texts:
Wikipedia reports that "The Georgia Experiment [from 1735 to 1751] was the colonial-era policy prohibiting the ownership of slaves in the Georgia Colony," and that this was done in order to "minimize the slave presence in Georgia."
So, did Georgia law "prohibit" all slavery during that time, or did it only mean to "minimize" slavery?  Details are very hard to find on line, beyond this puzzling summary from Wikipedia.


texts: I recently came across an image of the well known daguerrotype of President Andrew Jackson taken in 1845. It lead me to wonder what is the earliest born photographed person. Andrew Jackson was born in 1767, but I am sure there are people born prior to this date who lived long enough to be photographed. Is there a definitive answer to this question?


texts: Was coat of arms of Afghanistan of 1928 influenced by Soviet symbols?

texts:
This is the flag of Afghanistan with a coat of arms as of 1928:

As you can see, it includes a wheat wreath, red star and the sun, all elements typical for Soviet-style coats of arms. Yet the state regime at the time was monarchy. As such, I wonder whether the regime at the time conducted or proclaimed any policies that could be interpreted as stepping in the direction of socialism, or if not, what otherwise is the story behind the emblem?

There is some difference in the sources though as to how the flag looked like, another variant being:


texts: Did archers ever shoot over the heads of their allies at enemy cavalry? Did they ever do this during a melee?

texts:
Did archers ever shoot over the heads of infantry to hit enemy cavalry? Did they ever do this while the enemy cavalry were engaged in melee with their friendly infantry? Could the archers do this?
A horseman is something like 2 to 2.5 meters tall sitting on a horse, about half a meter taller than the average infantryman, as I understand? So I wondered if archers would shoot at enemy cavalry from the back line, over the heads of their infantry.


texts: Meaning of the words "Wanted Dead Or Alive"

texts: What is the meaning of the famous words "Wanted Dead Or Alive"? Did they mean that it was for some reason legal for ordinary people to kill the fugitive described on the poster? Is there still this power in the world, for someone to declare that other people may legally be killed?


texts:
Is wikipedia correct to say:

  The original form of "lead pencil" was the leaden stylus used by the ancient Romans, who also used it to write on wood or papyrus by leaving dark streaks where the soft metal rubbed off onto the surface. The concept has been revived in recent times as the core of the "inkless pen": a lead-based metal alloy that leaves dark markings on paper by abrading small pieces of core onto the surface.

I cannot find any good google results, and this Wikipedia article contains zero citations. I also question the physically possibility; Lead is soft, but the idea that you could write with it seems absurd.

If so, is this why they thought graphite was lead, as graphite is also good for writing with?


texts: Why didn't Germany attack US ports with U-boats during WW II?

texts:
During WW2, Germany owned ships along the eastern US coast with U-boats pretty much unopposed.

So... why didn't Germany head into US ports and destroy infrastructure?  Why did they keep their actions out at sea (for the most part)?

If I were calling the shots, I'd be trying to be as distracting as possible by attacking high visibility targets all along the coast -- not modded shipping boats.  What gives?


texts: Who revoked their signatures from the union agreement at the Council of Florence?

texts:
In many Byzantine history books, a general statement is made that from the 700 strong delegation to the Council of Florence, "many Orthodox bishops revoked their signatures" after the council concluded. However they don't seem to be named. Individuals who are usually named are those who kept their signatures such as Cardinal Bessarion, Dorotheos of Mytilene and Isidore of Kiev. Of course there is the necessary mention of Mark of Ephesus who refused to sign.
I am interested in knowing if we know exactly who revoked their signatures. And what was their reasoning. Did the majority of Orthodox delegates who attend the council revoke their signatures? or was it just a few.
I have so far been able to find a few names including Isaiah of Stavropolis, Sylvester Syropoulos (whose memoirs are a source on the council), George Scholarios.
Other than those, I have been told that there where a few whose reluctance to sign was known including the metropolitans of Heraclea, Trebizond, Anchialos.
All up I've been able to find no more than 10-11 names out of the 699 people who signed the Laetentur Caeli. So my question is, how do we know that "many" if not "most" of them signed? Who where the other guys?
Also as a follow up question, as we know, the pro-unionist delegates who returned to their respective cities were met with furious opposition. As we know, Isidore was thrown in Jail and we know that the patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem all anathematized their prelates who signed on their behalf. Does this suggest that pressure from the Catholic side was the main reason these people signed? If it was out of authentic religious conviction I would have thought the patriarchs would have welcomed the union.


texts: How did World War I affect women in Italy?

texts: I’m writing a paper on fascism and the ideology of women.  One of my topics I plan in discussing is World War I and how it impacted women both during and following the war.  I wanted to write 5 pages on this specific section and have trouble reaching the page count. I wrote about how it gave women unprecedented access to jobs they otherwise never had.  Then when the men came back from the war things reverted back to the ways of the past which showed Italy’s views on women.   Additionally, I mentioned how this showed mobilization and the importance of national unity. I need 2 more pages double spaced.  Can I get any suggestions on what else to talk about to fill the one count?


texts: There are two restaurants (one in Saigon, one in Hong Kong) called "全記". Where does that name come from and what does it mean?

texts:
Name seen at 0:07
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-kyqE2Nq3pc

Second restaurant comes up with a google search for "全記".

Have no idea how to proceed from here.


texts: Why did the pre-Islamic Arabs identify themselves as descendents of Ishmael?

texts:
There's a tradition that the Arabs are descended from Ishmael, son of Abraham. Before Islam, the Arabs did not believe in Yahweh but had their own, polytheistic religions. So why did they have a legend that they were descended from someone from the Hebrew scriptures?

It doesn't make sense to me that they claimed to be part of the Hebrew tradition if they didn't believe in the Hebrew religion. I wonder if someone can explain that.


texts: Are there examples of well known medieval battles with very little archaeological evidence?

texts:
When I was researching the history of The Battle of Kulikovo (битва на Куликовом поле), I was struck by the seemingly complete dearth of available archaeological evidence at the site of the battle (considering the size of the forces - 60-100k by latest estimates from Mamai and 50-60k from Russians).

Here's interview with the guy doing the most recent excavations (in Russian)
From what I could see, they found couple of hundred/thousand metal fragments that are deformed/hard to identify, a very few - explicitly listed - identified ones (a bushing/bearing; a pike base; a ring from chain mail; a broken piece of an axe; brass pieces from sleeves and chainmail hem; and a piece of an armor plate with holes for tying to a leather base).

Given that the battle took place in 1380, and people have presumably lived/farmed in the area since (but NOT built habitats), the reasons for lack of more finds that are usually given are the cost of metal military equipment at the time (meaning great pains may have been taken to collect whatever they could recover after the battle); and the supposed use of ammonium nitrate for fertilizer that is claimed to be detrimental to artifacts.

I have two questions:

Are the explanations presented to explain the lack of artifacts something that sounds legitimate from the point of view of archaeological research of the period?
Are there other examples of well known battles from a similar period where the event is 100% certain to have happened based on historical sources, yet there is almost no archaeological evidence of the battle (obviously excluding battles that happened in places that later had human habitations built over them).


texts: Excluding style obsolescence or any type of advertising, when was the first form of planned obsolescence concerning shortening the life of a product by making it break sooner or forcing a consumer to purchase a replacement sooner due to the design of the product invented and by who?


texts: Why did the southern states have to be readmitted?

texts: If the fed gov't said that the southern states Secession ordinances were illegal & therefore void why did they have to be readmitted after the war?


texts: What was the impetus for some African nations to participate in the slave trade?

texts:
I know that some African nations participated in the slave trade by providing captured enemies as slaves to Europeans, but what are some of the reasons they did? Was it simply a new economic opportunity that they took advantage of and sought to use to gain advantage against their rivals?

I'm looking for a nice synthesis of the issue and some decent sourcing to other materials, or book recommendations.


texts: What is the earliest recorded female name in history?

texts:
There is already a question that gives various possibilities for the first name that we have record of in Who is the earliest recorded person?, but most seem to be male figures. What is the first recorded (and confirmed to be) a female human name? (aside mythological figures)
I have seen a single mention to Neithhotep being the "earliest named woman in history" in 10 Oldest Known Names in the World (from oldest.org), but Wikipedia just says that she is the earliest known female monarch in history.
I am looking for some kind of academic confirmation. I know from the same question for male names that there are various names in Ancient Sumerian tables but I do not know how to find if there is a female one. Also I haven't found a keyword that provides more search results about name research.
Pages like Wikipedia's List of queens regnant do not include Neithhotep so are probably incomplete.


texts: How long would a letter take to arrive in England from America in 1890?

texts: As part of my story, a letter is sent from England to America in 1890. I was wondering if there was a way to work out how long it would take and perhaps the cost of writing and sending letters.


texts: When did the Soviet Union stop blaming the Entente for WW2?

texts:
In the fall 1939 the SU blamed Britain and France for starting WW2 exclusively (i.e., no blame was put on Germany).
It shifted the blame to Germany after 1941-06-22 (obviously).
When was the last time before 1941-06-22 that the Soviet leadership publicly blamed the Entente for WW2?

(this is a follow-up to Soviet reaction to Battle of the Denmark Strait)


texts: Why was the Russian Federation Military expenditure cut in 1998-1999?

texts:
I am looking into the Military Expenditure Data provided by SIPRI.

Interestingly through 1998-1999 Russian Federation's Military Expenditure was cut down to 14,000 almost half of 1997 which was 23,540 (million dollars, 2015 constant).

What happened?


texts: What did Moshe Dayan say about fighting Arabs?

texts:
I am looking for the details of a quote that goes something along the lines of "It is easy to look like a great general when you fight Arabs" by Moshe Dayan (or maybe Golda Meier).  I believe the context was in reply to some comment about how he was such a great general.

Who said it?
When & where was it said?
What is the exact quote?
Where is the original source/citation?

I did a few Google searches but couldn't find the quote. Even if apocryphal, would appreciate the scoop on how it came to be.

Note: Although the quote may seem to indicate an anti-Arab sentiment, it is a quote; it represents the speaker's opinion, not the original poster's.


texts: Why did Roosevelt and Truman change the usual switch date of presidency? (4th of March to 20th of January)

texts:
Before Roosevelt, all Presidents started and ended their time in office on 4th of March (excluding, of course, deaths). Roosevelt himself took the office on March 4, 1933.

I don't understand why Truman became Vice President on 20th of January, and he left the office (as President) on 20th of January. I couldn't find any explanation of this switch of dates, logically this should be 4th of March. Is it coming from the extraordinary circumstances of Roosevelt's 3rd and 4th term because of the World War? Or was it only because of Roosevelt's declining health?


texts: What was the first successful mass tank battle of WW1?

texts:
What was the first big scale (over 50 tanks used) battle with the use of tanks in WW1?

Please note that the typical examples don't constitute good answer:

Battle of Flers-Courcelette (Somme) was the first use of tanks but definitely not >50.
Battle of Cambrai (November 1917) - which seems to be the standard answer on Google search - appears to be incorrect: as per Wiki, there were earlier battles with over 50 tanks fielded, though there were no good details/references.
Second Battle of Villers-Bretonneux, France (1918) is notable for being first tank-vs-tank battle, but it was mere 3 against 3 quantity-wise.


texts:
My question on Authenticity of the Russian birch bark manuscripts prompted me to think about the problem that one of the commentators called "state sanctioned truth"*

These are historical events, characters, old books or anything the official history has built upon, and which are wrong, fake, never existed, never happened, happened in another country and another time - you get my point. But these things are so important for current political régime, national pride, sense of unity etc that they are still alive in history textbooks and conventional wisdom of the country.

Do such things exist/existed? If yes, what are the examples of such "deceptions"?

*The manuscripts we spoke about not necessarily belong to this category


texts: Did migrating people ever maintain contact across the Bering Strait?

texts:
The Inuit ranged from Alaska to Greenland. The Yupik were in Alaska and Russia. Would peoples have kept in contact across islands in the Arctic but not across the Bering Strait? This question could be expanded to include whether any humans have lost contact from where they came from ever, and how much certainty there could be about that one way or another (like I have read contact to and from Australia was maintained by one island to the next, I don't have a good online reference for this though). But the Yupik are one of the best examples of a people extending across a region that seems to be considered out of contact (by many, at least during pre-columbian times), with the possibility even that Yupik in Siberia back-migrated from Alaska. One could argue that the migrations were the only time any sort of contact occurred though (and that it was one way), and aside from those occasions the peoples remained unknown to each other, or only in stories. So was there possibly contact maintained across the Bering Strait, at least for certain peoples at times (precolumbian)?

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yupik_peoples


texts: What military power would ever pre-announce an attack to give the enemy time to work up a defense?

texts:
The attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike by the
  Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service against the United States naval
  base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii Territory, on the morning of December 7,
  1941. Newspapers.com

I'm very aware of the fact that "the winners write history", but still, this is something which used to baffle me even as a naive child. Why on Earth are they emphasizing the fact that the Pearl Harbor strike was a "surprise" or somehow "cowardly"?

Am I still naive? Has any military power in the history of mankind told the enemy in advance about their plans to attack them, so that they would get a "fair chance" to defend themselves? I cannot imagine that this has ever been the case, but who knows? Nothing about this world surprises me anymore. Maybe that was considered some kind of "code of honor" for hundreds of years or something.

It just sounds ridiculous to me. Of course a military strike would be kept secret for as long as possible. Ideally, from the attacker's point of view, they (the enemy) would never have a clue about their impending attack until the bombs actually started falling.

So why, specifically in relation to Pearl Harbor, do they make it out to be such a big deal that it was a "surprise"? What did they expect? A telephone call from the Japanese general in charge, saying:

  Oh, yes, by the way: tomorrow at so-and-so time, we'll be air-bombing
  Pearl Harbor, so make sure to regroup and wait for us so that we can
  be shot down before we reach your base!

? I don't get it.

(Sorry if this is somehow offensive to somebody. Whenever anything related to WW2 or other recent wars is mentioned, there's always the risk of upsetting people.)


texts: What was this major foreign policy reversal by the Vatican in the Middle Ages?

texts:
I made a note about something, but now I can't find it. It was a major shift in the political situation of Europe in the late Middle Ages. Initially one country was the hegemon and the pope organized all of the others against it. Then another country became hegemon, and all of the powers were organized against that one. I think it was Germany, and then France, but I'm not sure when. It was sometime from 1250-1450.

I could be confusing it for something much later, but I don't think so.

Update: I suspect it may have had to do with the lowland countries, aka Holland, Belgium and Flanders. Western powers were allied against one country to prevent it from gaining control of it, and then against another country.


texts: What was the currency in use in Palestine shortly before and during WWI?

texts: Wikipedia lists the following Ottoman currencies: Akçe, Para, Kuruş, Lira, Sultanî, but I would like to now which were prevalent in actual use (or, rather, uses). Also, such a variety suggests that perhaps different geographical areas saw the use of different currencies. Another aspect that occurs to me is: how prevalent was the use of European currencies, in comparison to Ottoman currency(ies)?


texts: Why was Germany unified in Versailles not Berlin?

texts:
Why did Wilhelm I (or Bismarck) decide to perform official Germany unification in France?

In my opinion, if the ceremonial was to honour the Prussian king and be a tribute or allegiance to him, it should be held in Berlin/Potsdam (like cardinals honour new pope in Rome).

Of course, capturing Paris in 1870 war was a spectacular event showing the Prussian dominance, however (as it seems) the French capital was not considered to be kept by the Prussians (or Germans) forever.

I performed some research, however I couldn't find any detailed information, nor any trustworthy sources.

  Bismarck's final step to complete unification was to challenge the power of France on the southern border. Since Richilieu and Louis XIV, France had made a divided Germany a prime component in French foreign policy.  Bimarck would have to tread carefully if he were to unify the scattered Germans.  [source]

This above suggest it was to show France that "what Richelieu and Louis XIV did" was now aborted. The best place to show something to France would be Paris.

This paper in some way suggest the creation of the German Empire is related to Charlemagne:

  The Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 was reflective of the conflict between the western part of the Charlemagne Split (France) and the eastern
  part of the Charlemagne Split (Germany). The powerful German state of Prussia unified all of the German states and built the Second Reich (...)

Maybe it was because everyone was in hurry, and Wilhelm was visiting the General Staff. The idea might be backed by the webpage of the Versailles palace:

  On 16 December 1870, a delegation from the Parliament of Northern Germany arrived in Versailles. It came to beseech the king of Prussia to accept the title of Emperor of Germany. The Confederation was dissolved on the 20th. The proclamation of the Empire was fixed for 18 January 1871 in the Hall of Mirrors. An altar was set up here for the religious ceremony. A stage was installed along the side next to the Salon of War, facing the spot where the throne of Louis XIV stood. 600 officers and all the German princes were present except Louis II. After the Te Deum, Bismarck, in his cuirassier’s uniform, read out the proclamation. When he had finished, the Grand-Duke of Baden shouted “Long live his Majesty the Emperor William!” The room rocked with the assembly’s “hurrahs!”. The Chancellor had finally made his dream come true under the paintings of Le Brun glorifying the victories of Louis XIV on the Rhine. He had also achieved his revenge for the defeat of Iena in 1806. The Germans soon left Versailles to the elected representatives of defeated France.


texts: Is the killing between communists and Muslims in Indonesia during 1965 mutual?

texts:
During 1965, there was an anti-communist purge in Indonesia following the 30 September failed coup.

There are claims that the killing is mutual. There are claims that it's one sided.

Which one is right?


texts: Why didn't the Japanese develop air defenses after the bombing of Tokyo?

texts:
So, I was reading some WWII questions, and a couple of them mentioned the bombing of Tokyo. I had never heard of it before, so I decided to read up on it.

What I don't understand about it is Japan's response. Let me explain what I mean (all emphasis mine).

There are some parts I do understand, like this:

  The Japanese government initially attempted to suppress news of the extent of the 10 March raid, but later used it for propaganda purposes.

That part makes sense, as does this:

  In a break from the usual practice of downplaying the damage caused by air attacks, the Japanese Government encouraged the media to emphasize the extensive scale of the destruction in an attempt to motivate anger against the United States.

Given that the Pearl Harbor attacks was used as motivation for the US to enter war with Japan, it seems reasonable that Japan would do the same for attacks on them.

Here is what I don't understand: why didn't it do more to mitigate future attacks? For instance:

  Few steps were taken to improve Tokyo's defenses after the raid.

Also later:

  From April, the Japanese reduced their attempts to intercept Allied air raids to preserve aircraft to contest the expected invasion of Japan.

And again:

  The Japanese military never developed adequate defenses against night air raids, with the night fighter force remaining ineffective and many cities not being protected by antiaircraft guns.

After an attack like Tokyo, wouldn't you think that they would want to deter future air attacks? It's not like the low-flying, night attacks didn't keep coming:

  From 11 May until the end of the war the B-29s conducted day precision bombing attacks when weather conditions were favorable, and night firebombing raids against cities at all other times.

Why didn't Japan up their air defenses to deter future air strikes?

Note: I should mention that Wikipedia does say that reduction of intercepting raids was to preserve their aircraft, it doesn't fully explain their other actions, such as never developing better night defenses.


texts: What is the largest hoard of coins ever found?

texts:
According to Guinness world records, the largest coin hoard ever found is one of 80,000 Roman coins in Brescello, Italy, in 1814 (coinsweekly says 1714). However, I stumbled across this Independent article from 1994 which refers to the Mirzakah II find of 1992-94:

  A MILLION ancient silver coins - the second-largest hoard ever found -
  is likely to be melted down to make tourist trinkets because nobody
  wants to buy them.

  It is understood that it consists of three tonnes of mainly silver
  coins, and 100 kilos of solid gold plates and jewellery.

Confirming the accuracy of this report is difficult; this is Afghanistan, so it's very complicated (warlords, plunder, illicit trading etc.) and I doubt if anyone will ever know how big this hoard is, or how much of it has been destroyed. Nonetheless, this UNESCO report by the numismatist Osmund Bopearachchi does seem to confirm that the find is much bigger than the Brescello one:

  This is one of the largest ancient coin deposits ever attested in
  the history of mankind....According to my inquiries, it must have
  consisted of three to four tons of gold, silver and bronze coins,
  in other words about 500,000 specimens.

The number of coins can only be guessed at which probably why (as Orangesandlemons points out in his comment) Guinness world records doesn't acknowledge it.

In 2017, another huge find was reported in China:

  A staggering 5.6 tons of Song Dynasty coins...

  ...the total number of coins was tallied at approximately 300,000
  pieces.

If correct, this is bigger in terms of weight but smaller in terms of number of coins.

Both The Independent and Bopearachchi reports state that the Mirzakah II find is not the largest ever; these reports pre-date the China find so they must be referring to something else.

As Brescello doesn't seem to be the answer, what is the largest ever coin hoard or deposit found? Is there anything that surpasses any of these finds either in weight of coins or the number of coins found?

I am particularly interested in the large find (or finds) which The Independent and Osmund Bopearachchi alluded to (i.e. pre-1994).

All highlighting is mine.


texts: What was the general altitude towards alchemists? Were they respected? Who funded them?


texts: How long did it take mail to get between Madrid and Mexico?

texts:
Spain administered its main colony Mexico from across the Atlantic. Ships crossed regularly between Cadiz or Seville and Vera Cruz (both capital cities are inland). At the time of Mexican independence, the transport link with Spain had been in place for three hundred years. It moved materials of such importance as communications between the king and viceroy.

How long did it take mail to get between Madrid and Mexico, and did it get faster over time? Information about how often Spanish ships traveled the Spain-Mexico route would also be welcome.


texts: What were traffic lights like in the USSR?

texts:
I'm interested in the design of illuminated traffic lights (for automobiles) in the USSR, especially the old history.

I tried to google this for what year the first illuminated traffic light was installed in the USSR, and could not find anything about it. So I cannot even put a bound on the timeframe. I suppose its possible that the first illuminated traffic light came before the Bolshevik Revolution.

Anyway, I'm interested in the design details. Did they use green, yellow, and red for the same purposes, or some different colors? Did they hang vertically in the same order, or some other pattern, or horizontally? Did they have a circle shape, or something different?


texts: When did the Russians first employ a successful envelopment tactic?

texts:
Greetings fellow history buffs.
I read a book on the Soviet Army called, not surprisingly, Inside the Soviet Army. The author, Victor Suvorov (note this is an edit as there was confusion with the soviet general from 1700s), mentions how Soviet doctrine of attack/envelopment came from Russian doctrine which was adopted from the one the Mongols used in the 12th century. Seemed like a long time ago so I started looking into Russian engagements from the past (by that I mean country of Russia post say 1300) and saw a lot of instances when that tactic was used against them (Finland WWII, Germany WWI, Swedes in 1700s, French in 1800s).
However if Suvorov is correct, then there must be at least one example of the Russians employing these tactics successfully against somebody over the past 700 or so years, otherwise, why would it be doctrine? Looking back, I haven't found anything that would indicate the Russians employed this strategy prior to WWII.
Were the Russians themselves ever successful enough in using a Mongol-style envelopment to crush their enemy (pre-WWII presumably with cavalry) such that such a tactic would become doctrine?
Thanks


texts: How did confederate banks deal with loan defaults?

texts: Okay, so I know that when the confederacy was established, they printed new money and gave out bonds in that money. My question is, if you were to take out a house loan in confederate money at the beginning of the war, how would you pay off the loan once the confederacy fell?  Would the bank have to just default on the loan as it was issued in a currency that is no longer valid?


texts: Can you help identify a pistol believed to be Ottoman Empire (Turkish)?

texts: Trying to identify a pistol believed to be Ottoman Empire (Turkish


texts: Why didn't "Europe" support the Byzantine Empire against the Turks?

texts: Why didn't Catholic Europe support the Byzantine empire against the Turks? Or did they? How? Yes, there were some differences between the Catholic and Orthodox interpretation of christianity but the Turks were Muslims and should have been considered much worse (c.f. the "reconquista"), shouldn't they? They co-operated during the Crusades and the European empires (Franks, Habsburg) "Catholic Europe" should have appreciated Byzantium as a buffer towards the Muslim world?


texts: Why did everyone try getting to the Pole via the Ross Sea, not the Weddell Sea?

texts:
For a long time, the South Pole was one of the last great targets of explorers on Earth.  There were a number of expeditions to explore the region, but for some reason, everyone who tried to reach the pole did so from the Ross Sea (towards New Zealand), rather than from the Weddell Sea (towards the South Atlantic).

Why did all the South Pole attempts use the Ross Sea instead of the Weddell?


texts: What does Spivak mean by "epistemic violence" in her paper "can the subaltern speak"?

texts: What does G. Spivak mean by epistemic violence in her essay "Can the subaltern speak"? Does she mean that intellectuals in Europe and first world countries are prolonging and fixing the neo-colonialism by producing post-colonial studies? Does she mean that the very postcolonial studies by Europe maintains and prolongs imperial control over the subaltern? How is it similar to the what Said wrote in Orientalism?


texts: Has there ever been a non-rectangular banknote?

texts:
You all know that every national flag but Nepal's is rectangular. Most coins are roundish. These are some old norms.

What about paper money? The rectangular form is close to universal. After poking around numismatic resources on the web I didn't find a single historical example of a bill that either wasn't rectangular or had a hole (like many coins). Good reasons for this shape include maximizing use of stock and aligned stacking. Nonetheless...

Has there been any banknote that was not a solid rectangle when issued?