texts: What is the history of the Roman ogee shape?

texts:
I have a small wood shop and make various tables/frames and other wood related items. A common tool I use is a plunge router which is an electric device which spins a router bit to make interesting edges, curves, and inlays in wood.

A particular router bit, which I always found interesting, is called a roman ogee. It leaves a nice pattern and I usually use it for making a roman ogee edge on a piece of wood.

I'm somewhat interested in the history of Rome (Although I haven't picked up a book in it yet) and was curious about the link between this pattern and the historical link between Rome.

I decided to educate myself in the terminology and found out that ogee actually means an S like curve. Here is the wikipedia page: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogee

Is there any evidence of a historical link, or is this just the name of it "Because reasons/marketing"? Was it actually used in roman architecture/woodcraft?

Here are some posts of the router pattern:

Unobstructed View of Roman Ogee Edge:

With Router Bit:

There Also may be a negative "Cut Out" with the roman ogee bit:


texts: Are there any surviving Tokugawa family members nowadays? From my readings, I noticed that Kikuko Tokugawa (d. 2004) was the last Tokugawa family member, who married Prince Takamatsu.


texts: Why did the population of Anchorage, Alaska, increase by so much in the 1970s?

texts:
Between 1970 and 1980, the population of Anchorage, Alaska, increased by more than 260%, around 130,000 people.  What caused this?  There had been previous increases of approximately the same in percentage terms, but not nearly the same in absolute terms.

Inspiration for question can be seen on Wikipedia.

The supposed source for the actual numbers: Moffatt, Riley. Population History of Western U.S. Cities & Towns, 1850–1990. Lanham: Scarecrow, 1996, 1.


texts: Are the Sabean people of Cushitic or Ethiopian origin?

texts:
The Sabeans are widely acknowledged to be of Semitic or south Arabian origin. Historical sources like Josephus Flavius and sections of the Bible seem to create conflicts about their origin.

There is a city bearing a similar name in modern Sudan.

  Soba is the former capital of the medieval Nubian kingdom of
  Alodia . E. A. Wallis Budge identified it with a group of ruins on the
  Blue Nile, where there are
  remains of a Meroitic temple that had been converted into a Christian
  church. This would place Soba in the modern-day Sudanese state of Al
  Jazirah. Ibn Selim el-Aswani described the city as large and wealthy Wikipedia

Below are excerpts from Book II and VIII of Josephus'  Antiquities of the Jews

ANTIQUITIES OF THE JEWS by Josephus Flavius (Book II chapter 10:2)

  The Ethiopians were in danger of being reduced to slavery, and all
  sorts of destruction; and at length they retired to Saba, which was a
  royal city of Ethiopia, which Cambyses afterwards named Mero, after
  the name of his own sister. The place was to be besieged with very
  great difficulty, since it was both encompassed by the Nile quite
  round... for the city was situate in a retired place, and was
  inhabited after the manner of an island, being encompassed with a
  strong wall, and having the rivers to guard them from their enemies,
  and having great ramparts between the wall and the rivers, insomuch,
  that when the waters come with the greatest violence, it can never be
  drowned; which ramparts make it next to impossible for even such as
  are gotten over the rivers to take the city.

Below is an excerpt of Josephus' writings about the Queen of Sheba.

The Works of Flavius Josephus,
Antiquities of the Jews
Book VIII – CHAPTER 6

  ” … There was then a woman queen of Egypt and Ethiopia; she was
  inquisitive into philosophy, and one that on other accounts also was
  to be admired. When this queen heard of the virtue and prudence of
  Solomon, she had a great mind to see him...

  So when this queen of Ethiopia had obtained what we have already
  given an account of, and had again communicated to the king what she
  brought with her, she returned to her own kingdom. …”

For clarity please note that I am the one linking Sheba, Soba and Saba using all of these historical sources.

  Genesis 10:6-7  The sons of Ham were Cush, Mizraim, Put, and
  Canaan.   The sons of Cush were Seba, Havilah, Sabtah, Raamah, and
  Sabtechah; and the sons of Raamah were Sheba and Dedan.

When all these separate bits of information are put together, it all becomes very intriguing. I need to  make sense of all these historical and contemporary connections surrounding Soba, Saba, Sheba and the Sabean people.

I want to know if the Sabean people truly existed (archaeological evidence)
Where are their descendants today?
Why does modern archaeology attribute a Semitic, Arabian and Yemeni origin to these people.
Whether or not there is any evidence for their Ethiopian origin as Josephus Flavius suggests.


texts: Did they really have automatic anti-aircraft cannons in WW2?

texts:
I tried to find it before asking, but I couldn't. A few years ago, I read in a Wikipedia article, and saw photos of, what apparently was a fully automatic anti-aircraft cannon which, if I didn't get everything confused, actually was able to detect incoming attacks, calculate where to aim the gun, and fire.

However, this feels like something I barely expect to exist today, so could it really be that with their relatively primitive computers and analogue systems were able to perform this highly complicated task automatically? With no humans needing to be there at all? Or did they have to do the actual firing still?

If this is real, how exactly did they detect where the aircrafts were on the sky and determined their direction and speed as to determine where to point the cannon?


texts: What was the combat effectiveness of German infantry in the western front of the Second World War?

texts:
I am specifically looking for statistics that estimate man for man what Wehrmacht infantry units were worth compared to allied infantry (principally British and American) after the opening of the western front with Operation Overlord.

I have received the statistic that Wehrmacht infantry was 20-30% more effective against the western Allies and up to 2x more effective than Soviet infantry overall. The source of these statistics is unreliable though. I'm providing them here as a suggestion.

I am specifically interested in a statistical analysis of the hard numbers, not a soft analysis of why some units might or might not have been as combat effective.


texts: How did Quebec transition from French Law to English Law?

texts: When Britain conquered Quebec at the end of the Seven Years War, Quebec began a transition between French law and English law. How did that transition occur?


texts: What is the current state of historical thought on the Aryan invasion/migration theory?

texts:
Recent findings in archaelogy and related fields have led some scholars to replace "invasion" with "migration" in the "Aryan invasion" theory. E.g. Romila Thapar in this edition of The Penguin History of Early India.

Further discoveries (E.g. the satellite mapping of the Saraswati river) have forced a relook at the whole idea of Aryans entering India through the North-West corridor. However, such discoveries remain confined to academic journals or remain scattered in different scholarly silos until somebody collects them and analyzes them collectively.

What are, if any, books/articles which have done this collective analysis in the last couple of years?


texts: What historical evidence do we have for the existence of Mohammed?

texts:
I have been listening to a podcast, called "The History of Byzantium" and in one of the episodes there was a discussion about the lack of reference to Mohammad or Qur'an in the century after his death, and Muslims were referred as Ishmaelites, Saracens, etc. but never any reference to the prophet. It sounded like the Caliphate from Damascus somehow created an image of Mohammad. After that period, an Islam that is more similar to our days' version emerges, with references to its prophet, and the holy text.
I haven't been able to find any sources on this discussion, what I have been able to find is a link to this book, which I haven't read yet:
Robert Spencer: "Did Muhammad exist? : an inquiry into Islam's obscure origins", Isi Books, 2014
Can someone give a modern historic outlook of beginnings of Islam, and the existence of its prophet? Also please correct if there are any mistakes in this text.


texts: M4A1 sherman vs StuG III ausf. G — what were the odds in favor of the Sherman?

texts:
We've all heard stories after stories of how a lone Tiger or Panther made a practical scrapyard of Shermans by ambushing all day.

But I can't find enough information on what happened when a Sherman would come across a StuG III G (or any other variant of it).

I have many questions regarding this, such as:

What was the survival rate of Shermans against StuGs?
What was standard practice against the StuG as it was hard to kill?
Would every shot from a StuG G penetrate a Sherman if hitting at a decent angle?


texts:
Baldwin IV was crowned King of Jerusalem, from 1174 until his death in 1186 at the ripe old age of 24. As a child, his tutor, William of Tyre, discovered he had leprosy.

Understanding that he was the heir of Almaric, still, in order to be crowned, the Haute Cour would have had to agree.

Why would they have? Wasn't a leper shunned by all?

I apologize for all of the Wikipedia links, but well, they're easy.


texts: Who were the target audiences of this propaganda lithograph?

texts:
What was the main purpose of the image below, who was the audience (except Japanese people themselves)?

It is a Japanese lithograph depicting the capture of Blagoveshchensk, Siberia, by the Imperial Japanese Army during the Siberian Intervention, part of a larger effort by the western powers and Japan to support White Russian forces against the Bolshevik Red Army during the Russian Civil War. The Allied invasion took place in August 1918, and Japanese troops remained in Russia until October 1922. (source: Wikipedia, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License)

What intrigues me particularly are the parts in English.
The strange wording and irregular spacing confirm they have been written by a Japanese author.

If the local population was also part of the audience, why not write in Russian?
If not, who was the target audience of the English-language part?


texts: How did the Russian-American Company hire serfs?

texts:
In the Russian Empire until 1861 the estate of serfdom kept most of the country's population the property of others. This cheap labor was attractive to capitalist enterprises like the Russian-American Company, but according to Winston Sarafian, the company did not have the right to own serfs. It  did not seek this right, perhaps in order to avoid upsetting its serf-owning shareholders. However, Chief Manager Yanovsky's November 1818 request for  passports identifies a third of the employees as peasants.

How did the company manage to hire but not own serfs? It doesn't sound cost-effective, but did they buy peasants' freedom in order to hire them? Or had these peasants already been freed in some other fashion?


texts: Why didn't Thailand have to pay more for its involvement in WW2?

texts:
During WW2, Thailand declared war on England and US, collaborated with the Japanese in exchange for being able to invade Shan state westwards and north as far as China. Thai soldiers were ordered to fight alongside with Japanese in Malaya and Burma. Thailand was at least "allied with the axis".

After the war they just had to give back the territory and some bags of rice I think.

How come they were let off the hook so easily? Why didn't the allies go harder on their (former) enemy Thailand?

And also the leader Phibun just resigned. (To compare Quisling was shot.) (Personally I would just say that Buddhist mentality does not have death penalty as an easy option.)

My account of the history is highly simplified and may be wrong in some parts. I am a traveler and have seen these areas first hand and heard the stories, so therefore I am interested. I am no historian, I hope possible faults in my account will be corrected.


texts: Why is China a member of the UN Security Council?

texts:
The United Nations was formed at the end of world war II, to maintain peace throughout the world. Within the structure of UN, Security Council is ranked above all.

There were only five permanent members selected. These nations includes US, UK, USSR(now Russia), France and China.

I don't know what criteria was used for this selection, but first four seems obvious to me. US & USSR were two superpowers emerged after war. UK & France were victors and former superpowers, and were still controlling many colonies at that time. But China doesn't fit in picture anywhere. It was not a superpower at that time, neither it had a strong economy or military as of today.

Is it because China fought from victor's side or is it due to it's large population, or is it selected as representative of Asia.


texts:
I am a collector of World War ll memorabilia. I have one piece called a short snorter. They were done in both the pacific and european theatres. These were usually bomber crews or groups of men in battle that signed a piece of currency. Well sometimes these got very large and they would just keep on taping notes together and adding signatures. I have a piece of one because of the tape stain. I don't know if this is the right place to ask this, but I figured someone out there knows more than me about World War 2 in the pacific. I literally have spent hours trying to find the location of where this took place. I am into history anyway so it was time well spent trying to figure this out. So here is what it says, the question marks is the answer I am looking fo. "Taken From Jap Army Sgt. at ???????. May 3rd. Bumped off by Mike Council". If anybody can help me out that would be great. I do appreciate your time.

Here is the note


texts: What happened to Dyson's CoVent ventillators?

texts:
At the beginning of the first Covid-wave in 2020, the UK government asked industry to offer medical ventilators, as it was feared that the NHS might exhaust their stock of medical ventilators.
By the end of April 2020 it was clear that these additional ventilators were not needed, and the order was cancelled.
In April 2021, it came to light that there were some prospective tax dealings between Dyson and Boris Johnson.
When I search the internet for Dyson's CoVent ventilators, I basically find reporting on both stories. However, what I don't see are any sales to other countries.
If a viable product has been designed, and the original contractor jumps off, there is nothing to stop Dyson to sell the ventilator elsewhere.
Were there any sales of Dyson ventilators to other countries?
Was there mass production in the first place?

Sorry for posting a quite contemporary question. Politics does not seem to fit, and Skeptics only seems right if I suppose the ventilators being a case of vaporware, which right now I do not.


texts: What are the capabilities of a warhorse?

texts:
I am really curious about the capabilities of warhorses that the military used  before the combustion vehicle came and mostly replaced them on modern battlefield.
I had read a bit about warhorse, but many of those article didn't really explain the horse's capabilities.
To put it simply:

What is the most powerful warhorse breed in history?
What is the fastest warhorse / messenger horse in history?

As the other had pointed out, I more interested at time where heavy cavalry is the main battle tank of medieval warfare. Maybe 14-15th century? When Cavalry was a heavy factor for the army.

By "most powerful" and "fastest," I mean more specifically:

How far can they march in one day at war and at peace (if there is difference in marching speed)?
What is their usual (or maximum) 'operational range'?
For a charging warhorse, what is their maximum/heaviest rider carrying capacity?
Also, how long can they hold their full charging speed?


texts: When was it first noticed that airplane passengers really seemed to like tomato juice?

texts:
There is this observation/theory that during flights, people really like to drink much more tomato juice than while on the ground.
"A small study" (as Wikipedia calls it) from 2015 tries to analyse this alleged phenomenon:

This result was, however, more attributed to pressure change than to sound condition. More recently Spence, Michel, and Smith (2014) suggested that perhaps it may be the interaction of cabin noise and umami taste transduction that is responsible for the demand for umami-rich tomato juice in airline cabins.
— Kimberly S. Yan and Robin Dando: "A Crossmodal Role for Audition in Taste Perception", Observation of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 2015, Vol. 41. No. 3, 590-596. (link)

But when was this alleged phenomenon was first noticed?
It was noticed many times before that referenced analysis started, and analysed multiple times previously. This went back about 40 years in my research.
This "small study", however, references a much earlier study, trying to explain the 'thing':
— Pettit, L. A. (1958). The influence of test location and accompanying sound in flavor preference testing of tomato juice. Food Technology, 12, 55-57.
Limiting subsequent search results to 'before that' produced no meaningful results.
Disregarding any effect, real or not, about tomato juice taste or preference effects while in-flight:
When was it first noticed/claimed that inflight tomato-juice consumption was significantly higher than otherwise?
While it will be most interesting to know the first mention of real-world statistics, acknowledging an increased consumption across the board. It would be even more interesting to correlate that with early testimonials from passengers reporting this alleged effect.


texts: What was the first assassination/murder recorded on film?

texts: Was it the murder of Archduke Franz-Ferdinand?


texts: Which of Ben Franklin's grandsons was blessed by Voltaire?

texts:
I've seen this image and I was curious if anyone knows which grandson of Ben Franklin's this is receiving Voltaire's blessing:

https://www.wikitree.com/genealogy/Franklin-Descendants-1


texts: Can anyone help me identify this Coat of Arms?

texts:
Can anyone help me identify this coat of arms?
As far as I can identify, there are 2 Lion Rampant regardant.
A Pelican in her nest, a crown, a shield with stars.
It is on a small galleried tray that I purchased in France.
There are no markings on the back.


texts: The manuscript Summa Logicae (William of Ockham)

texts:
The Summa Logicae (Latin, in English it's the Sum of Logic) is a textbook on logic by William of Ockham (1323). There are articles about the Summa Logicae in Wikipedia  and in Logicmuseum.

It was published in Paris in 1488. There are different typed variants of this textbook, for example here (in English).

But I can't find any scans or photos of the original handmade manuscript or the original (first) edition. Do you know any links or libraries or museims, where I can find it?


texts: What light machine guns did the imperial Japanese army use in ww1?

texts: I would love to more about Japanese weaponry in the Great War and, more specifically, about their use of light machine guns, and did they use things like a c96 Mauser or a Madsen LMG. Also, did they use Russian weaponry in any way? People have been trying to convince me that they did but there isn't sufficient evidence, that I found, that they did.


texts: Which SF author was unable to check his own work out of the library due to insufficient security clearance?

texts:
Following up on the question Public knowledge of hypothetical nuclear weapons before Hiroshima?:

I recall reading (many many years ago) an autobiographical anecdote by a science fiction author who was unable to check his own work out of a public library due to insufficient security clearance. I seem to recall that this occurred during World War 2, but it is possible it happened in the late 1940's or early 1950's.

Does anyone recall who this author was, and which story or novel was involved? Most of my once extensive SF collection disappeared with my ex, which inhibits my research on this.

Update - from my comment below

  Okay - I implied (through the attached question) but failed to make explicitly clear that it was a story/novel involving knowledge of nuclear fission - yet not any of those stories currently referenced in that question.


texts: Samuel Pierpont Langley was an American astronomer and physicist who competed early on with the Wright brothers in the race for flight.  Langley being a credentialed scientist beat out the Wright brothers for an important military contract designed to develop a usable airplane.  Langley used the U.S. military seed money to build an "airplane" called the Aerodrome which crashed every time it flew.  It was launched on the cliffs of Virginia overlooking the Potomac river,  which was lucky for the pilot because that's where he ended up on each of the "flights".   My question is,  what is so special about this failed never flew scientist / airplane that it hangs today prominently in the Smithsonian Air and Space museum?  (Dulles annex).   There was a long period in the 1960's and 70's when the Aerodrome hung in the DC location and the Wright Flyer was not displayed.   What gives?


texts: Are there primary sources about Jinnah's vision for Pakistan?

texts:
Pakistan fell, a few years after independence, into military rule. I remember reading a few years ago that this was because of the deaths of its founding father and first prime minister (which is echoed in this answer). Also, the country did not become an Islamic republic until years after these deaths. That has made me look into what the founders originally wanted Pakistan to be.
Of course, it was intended to be a Muslim-majority country. However, I cannot find many primary sources into what kind of policies they wanted to enact with the exception of the Objectives Resolution of 1949. However, people present at this assembly, like Sris Chandra Chattopadhya, said that Jinnah had wanted a secular government. That seems to be somewhat supported by Jinnahs constitutional reform plan. However, it's quite unclear there if he wanted Islam to be a state religion for the country or not.
When searching up Jinnah's name, I discovered texts where he is idolized by Pakistanis and demonized by Indians. However, I am having a difficult time finding what the man actually believed in. I found this BBC article in which they are referring to a speech from the 11th of August 1947, in which he explicitly states that he wants a nation in which religion is a personal rather than political matter. However, according to the same article, no known recordings of that speech exists. That leads to the question, are there any other speeches or writings of Jinnah which can elucidate what kind of nation he envisioned Pakistan as?


texts: What was the fastest military draft in the United States?

texts:
In the United States, men aged 18-25 are required to register for a possible military draft.  The original argument was that the country would need large numbers of troops in a hurry, and (back then) there were otherwise no databases to locate eligible men.

In practice, troops don't magically appear on the combat field the day after a draft is declared.  It takes time to notify possible recruits, confirm their eligibility, induct them, provide basic training, identify their aptitudes and skills, organize them into units, perform additional training specialized for their role, and transport them to a combat zone.  Regular and reserve forces do the combat until conscripts are ready.

So, what was the shortest amount of time between when a military draft was announced, and when the first conscripts were deployed to a combat zone?

Clarification: I am principally interested in the answer applied to the United States / CSA; however, I can appreciate those respondents who may want to reach a wider audience.  I have therefore removed the [united-states] tag, but ask that answers identify the applicable country.

Clarification #2: The question is specific to conscripts who have received zero training prior to recruitment.  In other words, this excludes regular troops, reserves, and peacetime mandatory military service (e.g. the Israeli model).


texts: When were the different stories of Hindu gods written?

texts: I'm a Hindu by religion. And I really respect my religion like I respect others. But from my childhood, I'm listening a lot of stories about Hindu Gods and Goddess which are interrelated to each other. But I'm thinking who wrote these stories, and any man/woman who first knew these stories, how did he/she get to know, because he/she was not God. So I want to know how and from where these stories came to mankind from God.


texts: Why was King Leopold III so hated in Belgium after the Second World War?

texts:
Did the Belgians resent him for surrendering or was it something he did during occupation? His decision to stay with his soldiers instead of flee seems extremely admirable.

Wikipedia says that after the war there were mass protests and a general strike to keep him from returning to the throne but I don't see anything he did that was bad. Were people just mad that he made the decision to surrender instead of the civilian government?


texts: What did the British Empire mean by "Free Trade" in reference to the colonies?

texts:
Background: This feels like sort of a silly question for me to be asking after reading about the Victorian Age and the British Empire for several months, but here goes.

As I've read about the British Empire, a pretty clear tend has emerged; when the British open China to the opium trade, export food out of Ireland during a famine, squelch Indian weavers beneath the weight of British manufacturing, or otherwise exert economic influence and naval muscle abroad, they usually justify their actions, at least in part, as being in the interests of free trade. The same when they repeal the Corn Laws, or otherwise act more beneficently.

I understood Free Trade to mean the idea that trade between nations should not taxed or restricted, and that in the long run free markets operate to the benefit of all. But at the same time, I've read that the British empire was in many ways a closed system, one that restricted and taxed the trade of the colonies, both to weigh the benefits of trade in favor of the mother country, and to prevent them from trading with other European powers.

I don't expect any society to be free of contradiction, but this seems like a big one, and I'd like to understand it better. Was there a more of contest between Free Trade and mercantilism after 1800 then I'd believed? Or does the British regulation of her various overseas possessions represent more of a pragmatic, ad hoc, system of compromise to financial problems? Or have I just completely missed something really basic?

Question: What did the politicians and industrialists of the British Empire, after 1800, mean when they spoke about Free Trade? Especially in reference to the British colonies?


texts: Did Serbian businessman Tadija Sondermayer serve in French Air Force Escadrille 3 during WW1?

texts: Can somebody confirm that Tadija Sondermayer (founder of Aeroput, predecessor of Yugoslav Airlines - JAT) was member of this elite unit of French Air Force in WW1 ?


texts: How did different asset classes perform during the Weimar hyperinflation?

texts:
I read many years ago a story about someone in Germany in the 1920s who had been tipped a US dollar immediately seeking investment advice presumably because it was so valuable. Now, this did not make a lot of sense to me since ultimately it would still have the buying power of a dollar although perhaps with hyperinflation the situation is more complex.
Did stocks simply skyrocket as the value of a company's hard assets go up astronomically (in marks)? If you were a landlord, did you do well or at least do okay because rents went up or were you wiped out because of something like rent control/leases which meant that your tenants were paying you almost nothing for an apartment and you could not evict them?
In general, what sort of assets (besides gold and similar valuables) were good to have had during the German hyperinflation?


texts: Why did Hitler not order the use of poison gas in combat?

texts:
From what I know, Hitler wanted Germans to fight, quite literally, to the last, and he wouldn't have minded terribly if every last German died fighting the enemy.

So why did he never use poison gas in combat, especially in the closing months of the war? It seems like this would have at least significantly slowed down the Russian onslaught.

Even Churchill, it is said, was prepared to use poison gas had the Germans landed in Britain earlier in the war.


texts: What did Buddhism vs. Hinduism mean politically?

texts:
I am just starting to study the history of Hinduism and Buddhism.  This question is strictly about the objective outer trappings of the religions, not their spiritual teachings.  Popular literature on the subject generally tells us that Buddha was a Hindu reformer, but I can't discern strong differences between the essence of Hinduism vs. Buddhism.  This leads me to suspect that it was a sociopolitical split just as much as scriptural.  Just as it is enlightening to study Jesus in the context of Roman-occupied Israel, I am curious about the historical Buddha.

One source, Haywood's Atlas of Past Times, briefly refers to Buddhism as a reaction against the Brahmin class.  I note that Buddha was from the Khattiya caste, which is regarded as second to the Brahmins.  I also note that Buddhism has done away with the entire caste system.  Hmmm ...

Is there evidence that Buddha was something of a caste revolutionary?  Was there a power struggle going on between Brahmins and Khattiyas in the 5th century BC?  Buddhism was adopted by Emperor Ashoka; did he have political incentives for making the conversion?


texts: Did Germany have enforced conscription in 1944?

texts:
My grandfather was a german soldier during the second world war.

He was born on March 22, 1926 in Schwabach, Germany.

At the age of 18 he enrolled in the german army.

There is one detail i would like to understand better of his story.

Nowadays germany has a voluntary military service.

In 1944 when he reached the age of majority, did Germany have enforced military conscription?


texts: What happened to Saxe Altenburg circa 1827?

texts:
I have a dataset that says that Saxe Altenburg was part of some other entity (simply coded "263") until 1827.

I have been trying to figure out what the entity "263" is, but have not been able to do so.

I am thus posting this question here in the hopes that some history buff here might know more about what may have happened to Saxe Altenburg circa 1827.

Some details about the dataset:

It is oldish (metadata says 2003) and seems to be connected to the Correlates of War (COW) Project.

I can't find any accompanying documentation.

I have emailed lots of folks at COW but so far have gotten absolutely nothing. I have also emailed who I think might be the author (the metadata says the Author is one "dbennett" and I guessed that this was D. Scott Bennett at PSU), but haven't gotten a reply.


texts: When did last names start being used, and who introduced the concept?

texts:
It's interesting that people from long ago were often only known for their only name, such as Socrates, Jesus, and Constantine I.   But in our current society, almost everyone has a first name and a last name, with some having a middle name.

I'm curious what culture first brought forth the concept of last names. I've heard that last names were used to identify people who worked specific positions in society, like the last names Carpenter and Smith, but what about many other last names which bear no resemblance to jobs that may have been held by people?  Examples, last names like Parker (was it a person that parked carriages/cars?).


texts: Has the USA ever taken unilateral military action?

texts: In the post-American Revolution era, has the United States ever taken unilateral military action against another country besides during the Civil War?


texts: Was the Iraqi Mukhabarat modelled on the German Reichssicherheitshauptamt, and in what ways?

texts:
In Charles Stross' (urban fantasy-ish) novel "The Atrocity Archives", it is claimed that the Iraqi Intelligence Service Mukhabrat was modelled on the Nazi-German Reichssicherheitshauptamt (RSHA).

The Wikipedia article about the Mukhabarat does not go into it's history that deeply. The german wiki article states that the first Iraqi Intelligence service was modelled on British examples, and was later reformed with the help of the KGB - both facts would make the claim that the RSHA was a signifcant model for the Mukhabarat dubious. Lacking an article going into the history of the Mukhabarat, I can't know.


texts: How did Chinese triads with the slogan "oppose the Qing, restore the Ming" adapt ideologically to the fall of the Qing and the rise of republicanism?

texts:
Clearly triads didn't disappear, but how did they react to this part of their raison raison d'être slipping away?

Edit: I went through the first five links searching this on google and couldn't find an answer. My question asks how they adapted ideologically. The only thing I could find was the Yellow Sands apparently just plowing on through keeping it as their slogan, with no clear explanation as to why.


texts: When did songs extolling leaders of companies go out of fashion?

texts:
When recently visiting Computer History Museum in Mountain View, CA I came across an exhibit called "Songs of the IBM". It's from 1930s and has a song called "Ever onward" which extols then IBM President T.J Watson. It was regularly sung by IBMers.

This seemed very strange to me because the only current leader I can think of having songs extolling his virtues would be "Dear Leader" from North Korea.

So my questions are:

Was it common in the beginning of 20th century for companies/organizations to have songs extolling their leaders?
If yes, when did this go out of fashion and why?


texts: When did people first recognize the estimate sizes/scales and nature of celestial bodies?

texts:
In the ancient times, planets and stars were just thought to be some distant lights; various beliefs and theories ascribed them various properties and meanings, but the concept of planets being spheres of rock of size comparable to Earth, stars being distant Suns, and Sun being as huge as it is, and burning with (at the time unknown) heat and light source, was rather alien.

Obviously, in times of Newton, no enlightened man believed Moon to be an incarnation of Osiris, or anything along these lines. I have some decent estimates on when Earth size (and confirmation of its spherical shape) were found (Herodotus, 431–425 BC), and the geocentric concept was challenged (Copernicus, ~1514), but I can't place in time, when planets and stars were recognized for what they factually are - like when planets were understood to be spheres of rock of size comparable to Earth.

Can you give me preferably a timeline of the discoveries; if that would be too hard, a rough time estimate?


texts:
How many Axis troops fought in Normandy, in the vicinity of the beaches, on D-Day?

I've tried many sources and they have focused primarily on the Allied Forces.


texts:
This question is highlighting something I have been meaning to ask, but haven't known how to go about it: What is the contemporary knowledge of the theoretical history?

I'm particularly interested in learning more about what the author of that post referred (@Gangnus) to as "theoretical history".  I'm very unfamiliar with larger research methods in the field of history and would like to learn more.

P.S. - Someone capable of answering this question may also wish to provide an explanation on the as-of-yet nondescript "theoretical-history" tag as I get the feeling many (if not most) visitors to this forum are in my camp of being completely unaware of this topic.


texts: Did US propaganda change eating habits in Turkey post WW2?

texts:
There is a story going on here in Turkey about propaganda efforts by the US to change eating habits of the population to sell surplus US corn and corn products to Turkey. Is it possible to find legal documents to corroborate these stories?

It is said that the US commissioned a folk song that told people not to eat olive oil. They made this song very popular and people started to eat more margerine made with the US corn. The folk song in question is still popular and can be heard in radios even today.
Is there a way to find documentation that the US public relations departments indeed was able to create a successful folk song in Turkish. Sounds a little outrageous to me.


texts: What were Germany's long-term aims in World War I?

texts:
In World War I, according to the Schlieffen Plan, Germany aimed to defeat France in several weeks, before freeing up soldiers to fight on the front against Russia.  Suppose their plan would have succeeded — then what was next?  What were their long term plans?
In World War II, Hitlers long term plans for the Tausendjährige Reich and Lebensraum are well documented: an empire from the Atlantic to the Ural mountains, enslaving or eradicating all Untermenschen, and dictating puppet states elsewhere where Hitler didn't hate the people as much or at all (such as Vichy France or in the occupied Netherlands).
But World War I was not World War II. What did Germany aim to do with France and in the east, supposing their plan would have succeeded and they had won World War I?  Did they even have a long term plan?


texts:
Juan Bautista de Anza made an exploratory expedition to Alta California in 1774, then was sent again to take colonist families with him. As the expedition moved north, he recruited them in Culiacán, Guasave, and Horcasitas, which were among the only principal towns of the internal northwest (today's Sinaloa and Sonora).

The trip across the desert is reasonably well documented with three diaries surviving (those of Anza, Font, and Garcés, all of which are published at "Web de Anza"). However, those diaries all begin much farther north. The main part of the expedition got going after its stop in October of 1775 at the Presidio of Tubac, today in Arizona.

So when in 1775 was Anza's recruitment stop in Culiacán? I can accept circumstantial evidence or a range of possible dates.


texts: Are Western European countries more ethnically heterogenous than 100 years ago?

texts:
Many people claim that Western European countries get more and more ethnically diverse, i.e, that Western society is getting more and more heterogenous with regard to ethnic groups.
According to Wikipedia, for instance, in Germany live 81% "ethnic Germans", and in Austria 81% "ethnic Austrians" (note that I'm just quoting the term used on Wikipedia, not making one up myself).

That means that roughly 1 out of 5 does not consider herself or is not considered as part of this respective group.
For me, it's not hard to imagine that this number has increased over the past 40 years or so.

But how do these numbers compare to some 100 years ago? 200 years? 500 years?


texts: How much did Native Americans steal from the Pilgrims?

texts:
In Of Plymouth Plantation, William Bradford mentions one instance of Native Americans stealing Pilgrims' tools while they were eating dinner. The tools were later returned after negotiating with Samoset, a member of an Abenaki tribe, who could speak broken English.

Does anyone know any other instances of Native Americans stealing from the Pilgrims around 1620-1630?

I can find plenty of cases of the Pilgrims stealing from the Native Americans, but no more of the contrary.

Thanks!


texts:
In Châtillon (near Paris in France), one can find today this tower. Before this, there was the Biret tower, built in 1870.  Before the Biret tower there was the Croy tower (tour de Croy). A short history of the towers
The 18th century Tour de Croy tower was used in the meridian measurements
by Delambre and Mechain from 1792 to 1799.
Does somebody know anything about the original "Tour de Croy" tower?
When was it built? How tall was it? Is there a drawing of it in some book?


texts: What hard, physical evidence is there that Davy Crockett actually died at the Alamo?

texts:
It's often stated (perhaps correctly) that Davy Crockett perished while defending the Alamo in Texas during the revolution against the Mexicans. Many legends about this hero of the West, however, say otherwise and state that Crockett escaped from the Alamo somehow and lived out his days performing feats on the Great Plains.

Of course it's almost universally accepted that Davy Crockett lost his life gloriously defending the Alamo, but I'm wondering whether there's any hard, physical, historical records of witnessing his death at the Alamo.

Basically, my question is, could someone give me the most reliable HISTORICAL (like, the 1830's) records of Crockett's death at the Alamo?


texts: What did Russia do about Caucasus oil after the collapse of the Soviet Union?

texts:
During World War II, something like 72% of the Soviet Union's oil came from Baku, Azerbaijan, in the Caucasus. More like 86% if you count Grozny (Chechnya), and other Caucasus territories, leaving maybe 14% for Russia.

Russia at least nominally lost those Caucasus sources of oil when the Soviet Union broke up in 1991. How did she manage without them?

Did she sign treaties with the new republics to secure the oil she needed? Had Russian "domestic" supplies increased beyond the World War II percentage of 14% in Russia itself?  In a pinch, she could import oil, but that would be hard on her foreign exchange. Or was it a combination of these or some other factors?


texts: Why didn't the Chinese or Indians recapture Malacca in 1511?

texts:
Portugal took Malacca in 1511 and took control of the spice trade between China and India. They seem to have met little effective resistance and no other state seems to have done anything about it.

The Chinese actually did contest control of the Indian Ocean and were successful for a long time, easily defeating the Portuguese when they tried. They just never attacked Malacca with a serious force.

What was stopping China, or other Indian sultans, from recapturing the city? It seems that they had access to good quality steel at the time - Indian steel was actually superior - and would have much shorter lines of supply than Portugal. Was there some logistical reason why the city was not retaken, or was there no interest in the first place? Why did Asia sit passively by while Portugal was taking control of the spice trade?


texts: A zoo during the rule of Omayyad or Abbasid dynasty?

texts:
I recall that when I was in high school that I read a text -which sounds more like a legend- about an Arabic Sultan/Caliph who on a trip trough his empire passed by an injured (wild) animal (don't recall what it was maybe a Lion?) and he decided to care about it in his Palace and later he established the first Zoo. I assume that the Capital was either Damascus or Baghdad, but I'm sure that that happened during either the Omayyad or maybe early Abbasid Dynasty!

History tells us that there definitely have been Zoos long before, but that is what I read in that text.

I would like to know whom that Sultan/Caliph was and whether this story has some back up and if so to what extend we might call this a Zoo?


texts: What was the Nature of Resistance in 1938 Czechoslovakia?

texts:
I wonder if someone might help me. I'm writing a novel. My protagonist is a dual national (English born, German parents) bio chemist contracted to work for Freiburg University 1938. At the time science is deemed useful only if it is practical and he is ordered to travel regularly to Malacky, Slovakia to oversee the development of chemical warfare. His allegiance to the Reich is pragmatic and following one such trip he fails to return to his family in Freiburg. I must decide what happens to him! Or at least I must allude to what might have happened to him given his daughter returns in the 60's to retrace his steps.

I need some background on the Czechoslovakian resistance circa 1938.  Specifically any information related to the structure of the resistance, notable leaders or events, any significant connections between the resistance and/or other groups such as allied intelligence agencies or governments.


texts: Need help to identify this circa WW1, American uniform

texts: My great grandfather disappeared in 1930 and the only record I have of him is these photos. He fathered my grandmother in 1914 in Australia and had a second family in the late 1920's. I have only just discovered his second family via ancestry DNA testing. His grand daughter provided me with the photos. I can tell that he's a musician but I don't know what branch of the services he was in. I can only assume that it's a US uniform as it appears to resemble a First World War uniform.


texts: Did America ignore British patents during Industrialization

texts: I remember reading a Noam Chomsky book where he stated that America simply stole British patented ideas, claiming that British laws did not apply to her. Chomsky's argument was that America is criticizing China for the same thing America did when it was industrialising. I was wondering if there is any truth to this. If so, could someone provide me with a link please.


texts: What would be the GDP of the Roman Empire?

texts: I understand that this particular question is hard to answer. However, do there exist any historical record to how much was the GDP of Rome at some period? If not, could you give me a speculation or a guess of how much it was during the height of the Empire?


texts: What was life like for Victorian linen weavers in Scotland?

texts:
I'm doing my family history and have found people who worked as linen weavers in Angus, Scotland.

I'd like to know more about what life was like for them. Were linen weavers well-off? How much money did they make? How did they sell their goods? Were they unskilled or highly skilled and if so were their skills appreciated or were they part of lower-class, unlike other craftsmen?


texts:
According to Wikipedia, concepts superficially similar to the modern system of hours have been around since at least ancient Egypt c. 2800 BC.  But their system divided "daytime" (after dawn and before sunset) and "nighttime" (after sunset and before dawn) into 12 hours each, whose length would of course vary at different times of the year.

At some point in the intervening ~5000 years, we moved to a system of a day being composed of 24 equal hours that daytime or nighttime could take up a varying quantity of at different times during the year.  But I'm having trouble determining at what point this concept first took hold.

There's a related question on here that was closed for being confusing and unclear what exactly was being asked, so to avoid the same fate, here's exactly what I'm asking: when (and by who) was the system established in which each day has 24 hours, each of which are supposed to be of identical length rather than being dependent on varying values such as the length of time that the sun is in the sky?


texts: Have there been any great female military commanders?

texts:
From Alexander the Great to Saladin, from Muqali to Horatio Nelson, from Napoleon I to Winfield Scott, history is loaded with great male generals.

Have there been any great female generals? Warfare certainly relies heavily on physical strength, making it a male-dominated discipline, but commanding doesn't seem to be physically intensive, which should superficially make female generals just as effective as male ones.

The closest I can think of is Catherine II of Russia, aka. Catherine the Great, who was sovereign of the nation and so technically the commander-in-chief. However as far as I know, she did not personally command troops in battles.

Edit: To clarify, I'm looking for those who 1) commanded armies in the field multiple times and 2) won much more often than they lost. I am not interested in those who fought but did not command (such as Hua Mulan), commanded only once (e.g. Albia Dominica), or did not win (e.g. Cleophis)


texts:
Towards the collapse of the USSR, nationalism rose in Moldova. Nationalists proclaimed the linguistic and ethnic identity between Moldovans and Romanians. It seems that they strove toward unification of their country and Romania. Besides, Moldova (except for Transnistria) had already been part of Romania before Soviet annexation.

So why didn't the two countries unite?


texts: Wendell Phillips Quote that "Revolutions Never Go Backwards"

texts: What did Wendell Phillips mean when he said, "Revolutions never go backwards."? I believe that Abraham Lincoln also used this quote as a means of promoting the Republican Party and anti-slavery sentiment for the election of 1860.


texts: Why were the Yellow River dyke repairs delayed?

texts:
In 1938, in a desperate bid to slow the Japanese advance, Chinese forces breached the Yellow River dykes at Huayuankou, killing hundreds of thousands of civilians and displacing millions more. The event was politically toxic to the ruling KMT regime and taken advantage of by the CCP as recruitment propaganda.
After Japan's withdrawal, repairing the dykes became a priority, but it seems that repairs were delayed and not complete until 1947. Wikipedia has this to say:

The breach in the dam [sic] became such a major rallying point for the Communists that they actually tried to halt an attempt by the Chinese Government, with the assistance of the UN, to seal the breach. Their armed resistance ultimately failed and the dykes were rebuilt in 1946 and 1947, and the Yellow River returned to its pre-1938 course. The point was nevertheless made; the breach had in the end given the Communists a huge political boost in the North.

This implies that the Communists purposefully delayed repair efforts, up to armed resistance, because it was politically useful. This sounds very Machiavellian but not entirely out of line with the worst of what people like Mao were capable of.
But I also checked the Chinese Wikipedia, which had more details, references, and painted a somewhat different picture. From one of the references:

1946年中共为何反对国民政府堵花园口使黄河归故道？
...中共中央发言人也指出：“坚决反对国民党政府此种蓄意淹我解放区的恶毒计划，要求国内外人士主持正义，制止花园口堵门工程，彻底实行《菏泽协议》。”
In 1946 why did the CCP oppose the KMT on sealing the Huayuankou breach and restoring the Yellow River's original course?
...A CCP spokesperson stated, "We strongly oppose the KMT's hidden agenda to flood our liberated areas with this evil plan, and ask people at home and abroad to uphold justice, halt the repair of the Huayuankou breach, and completely follow the Heze Agreement.

That is, the CCP had other reasons to delay the repair:

They wanted the breach to be sealed only after downstream dykes were fully repaired, otherwise premature sealing could result in a newer breach
They controlled territory downstream of the original river course; restoring the course would split this area in two and weaken their control

Unfortunately a lot of the better references are behind paywalls, so I can't fairly judge the competing narratives.
Why were the dyke repairs delayed? Were there negotiations and agreements, if so when were they made, and what did they agree upon?


texts: The link between Kaiser Wilhelm I. and the city of Bonn

texts: To be more specific, I need to know the link between Kaiser Wilhelm I. and Bonn. Why was the monument placed there? Was it because of his glory or where other factors taking place?


texts:
I am looking for information about Viking feasts.

The only information I found, was about their food, what they ate and so on.
But are there any sources of information about the typical schedule of a feast? What did they usually do apart from eating and drinking?

Did they have rituals? Did they speak about mythology?

Is the feasting presented in the Vikings Series an accurate representation?


texts: Why was Pah-Ute County transferred to Nevada?

texts:
In 1866, the US Congress transferred the majority of Pah-Ute county from the Arizona Territory to the state of Nevada.  This was done against the wishes of the territorial legislature of Arizona.

Why was the county transferred?


texts: How Likely Was a French Alliance with Italy or Japan in World War I?

texts: My World History class is re-enacting World War I and I have been assigned France. I'm looking for countries who allied with France or were potential allies. Please help if you know any good alliances France could, or did make during World War One. I already know Great Britain is a good one, but are there any more?  Was there any possibility of France allying with Japan or Italy?


texts: Were slaves allowed to use the Roman baths?

texts: Or to quip: could slaves be patrons of baths?


texts: Why is Pompei Magnus' name not lauded as much as Caesar's is as a Roman ruler ,considering Magnus was the one who ran Rome in the first place ?


texts:
I've found that speaking of the first woman ruler in history, most common materials (like Wikipedia or Britannica) point at the Egyptian pharaoh Hatshepsut, living in the 16th century BCE. As a source at Wiki there's provided an American archaeologist James Henry Breasted, who established the study of Egyptology in the United States.

But he died around 80 years ago. So is that still accurate to our knowledge of ancient history? Who was the first woman ruler in history, according to current scientific researches?


texts: What are the historical inaccuracies in Repin's "Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossacks"?

texts:
Russian Wikipedia says this about "Запорожцы пишут письмо турецкому султану" ("Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossacks to Sultan Mehmed IV of the Ottoman Empire") painting by Ilya Repin:

После первого публичного обозрения художника критиковали за то, что по мнению многих картина была «исторически недостоверной».
After the first public viewing, the artist has been criticized because by many opinions, the painting was "historically inaccurate"

Moreover, it confirmed that assertion when discussing a second decade-later, smaller version of the painting that Repin started in 1889:

Второй вариант «Запорожцев» художник попытался сделать более «исторически достоверным»
the artist tried to make the second version of "The Cossacks" more "historically accurate"

Neither of the two statements in Wikipedia is referenced, in either Englisgh or Russian versions.

What specifically were the historical inaccuracies in this famous painting according to 1891 viewers?

Bonus question: Is the list of inaccuracies accurate in light of how we changed our historical knowledge in 2014?


texts: What does the skull and crossbones on the Nazi uniform represent?

texts:
I was watching The Boy in Striped Pyjamas, and I saw this skull and crossbones on this Nazi's cap.

Why is it there? (That is, what does this represent?)


texts: What were the characteristics of the earliest varieties of European cattle, "bos tauros", and how were they kept?

texts:
I know that all modern cattle, whether they are bos tauros or not, are descended from aurochs, and that aurochs were allowed to mix with early domesticated cattle several times. I want to know more about how Neolithic herdsmen cared for these early bos tauros and the characteristics of these early cattle.

Here are some questions you could answer. How large were they? How much milk did they produce? How aggressive were they? How did herdsmen prevent the cattle from escaping? Could nomadic societies keep these early cattle? Are there named varieties of these cattle?

I understand this is a complex topic, and a general answer is fine. I would really appreciate links to various resources on the subject as well.

What do you think?


texts: What are the dates of these panoramas of Paris?

texts:
As part of a personal project I've been looking for period etchings, engravings, and black and white illustrations of Paris as it might have looked during the French Revolution of 1789. Those who are familiar with the period will know that shortly after the revolution Paris was rebuilt and modernized several times by different governments, changing the cityscape forever.

The Europeana image archive has three panoramas that, unusually, are not credited to any artist. This makes them difficult for me to date. (I also don't speak French.) I was hoping someone with a better knowledge of the history of Paris could take a look and tell me if there are any telltale signs that might tell me what period they were made in. There may also be something in the French notes written below the drawings.

Because the images are quite wide I've linked to the archive rather than posting them directly. Europeana is an historical archive, and should be a pretty stable site to link to.

First Panorama.
Second Panorama.
Third Panorama.


texts: Why is Madame Roland considered a heroine during French Revolution?

texts:
I'm working on an assignment about Madame Roland and Olympe De Gouges, and a question says:

  What is their common position on the political regime in France? Which ones do they support? Which party do they belong to?

I know that Olympe De Gouges wants equality between women and men, however in the documents related to the homework there is this about Mme Roland:

  She wanted to put her knowledge and ideas at the service of the Republic, without claiming a leading political role for women. ... Destined to put women "in their place"

So I guess she didn't want equality between men and women. I read in different articles that she is considered a heroine during the Revolution, I guess she contributed to other things.

Back to the question, I know that Madame Roland and Olympes De Gouges belong to the Girondins party, but I can't find what they have in common and which one they support. (The first two question marks of the question).

If you think I shouldn't seek an answer here, just link some documents if possible.

Hope you can help me.

link to document related to assignment (In french so you might want to translate if you are interested)


texts: How did the Nazis view Dickens' Oliver Twist?

texts: After reading Oliver Twist, I note that Fagin is referred to as 'The Jew' and is portrayed quite negatively, especially in his appearance.  Nevertheless, there is a certain feature of Fagin that we, as the reader, are positioned to like about him - he's not completely bad like Bill Sikes.  Hence, my question is how did the Nazis view (by view, I mean was it banned, or strongly recommended etc.) the text Oliver Twist?


texts: What was the name of the man who was beaten by a crowd for tearing up a war poster during WWI?

texts: I remember learning in high school about an incident occurring (I think) in America during World War I in which a foreign man (I remember as Turkish) who did not read English, having seen a war poster featuring the Kaiser and thinking it was pro-German, tore up the poster and was subsequently captured and beaten by a crowd of people who mistook his actions as those of an enemy agent. However, I can't remember his name and I can't seem to locate him on Google. Did this actually happen, and if so, what was the name of the individual?


texts: What role did War elephants play in the battle of Thermopylae?

texts: In the battle of Thermopylae between the Persians and the United Greek Forces, what role did the mighty war elephant play? The Persians threw Immortals and archers at the United Greeks on the narrow cliff-side but the Greco-Persian wars don't describe how or if the war elephants played a decisive role in the major battles.


texts: Historical examples and numbers for the value of ‘Jizya’ levied by Muslim states

texts:
Context
From the early Islamic conquests in the seventh and eighth centuries, down to the nineteenth or early twentieth centuries, under Sharia law, Muslim rulers generally allowed non-Muslim subjects (‘dhimmis’) to practice their religions on certain conditions. These included being disarmed, not serving in the army and paying a tax called the ‘Jizya’.
The Jizya was abolished as a result of Western influence or pressure, or Western colonial rule, in most Muslim countries during the nineteenth or early twentieth centuries. More recently e.g. the so-called ‘Islamic State’ in Syria reportedly demanded payment of a ‘Jizya’ from non-Muslims, although whether that was a proper use of the practice is I believe disputed.

Question
Can anyone provide any figures or examples, with sources and preferably some idea of what it was worth compared to present day prices?
Most of us do not know off the top of our heads what, say, 1 dinar would actually buy in Eleventh Century Aleppo, and how much of a hardship it was to have to pay it.

Sources examined till now

A number of books and websites mention the ‘Jizya’ e.g. Lyn Julius’s book ‘Uprooted’ about historic Jewish communities in the Middle East, who historically were of course subject to the Jizya.

The Wikipedia article on ‘Jizya’ gives a few examples, but beyond that I have  found no information on the actual amount that had to be paid.

One Muslim website I saw said that the Jizya that non-Muslims had to pay was less than the ‘zakat’ (annual donation of 1/40th part of their personal wealth for Muslim charitable and religious causes) that Muslims are expected to give. It suggested that non-Muslims were therefore not oppressed by the Jizya and if anything better off than Muslims. However, it provided no figures to back this up.  My understanding is that the Jizya and Zakat are not directly comparable as the former was a ‘head tax’ and the latter a wealth 'tax', so which was greater would depend on individual circumstances, although Wikipedia cites one example when the amount of Jizya payable was set in bands according to social class. The fact that in many countries, including the whole Middle East, Sudan and North Africa, following Muslim conquest, the majority, sometimes all, of the population eventually converted to Islam suggests that being a Jizya-paying non-Muslim under Muslim rule was not usually advantageous. Otherwise, fewer would have given up that status by converting.

On the other hand Bostom & Warraq (editors, who are critical of Islam, but that does not prove that what they say is untrue)’s book ‘The Legacy of Jihad’ suggests that the Jizya was a heavy burden on Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians and others ‘dhimmis’ under Muslim rule, although again they provide no statistics to show this. They also say that it was collected in a way intended to remind non-Muslims of their inferior status e.g. only announcing the amount shortly before it was due, to maximise the anxiety and inconvenience it caused, and even striking the dhimmis in the face to humiliate them as they handed over the money. That book includes an account by an Italian businessman to whom this happened in nineteenth century Morocco.

The words like “Islam” and “Sharia” are emotive these days. Some things I have read about the Jizya seem to be coloured by the authors’ own views for or against Islam. I am grateful for all answers, but please keep your answers moderate in tone, open minded and based on evidence, rather than setting out to attack or defend Islam.


texts: Why during the colonial era were Berber countries referred to as “Arab”?

texts:
I can cite an example: in Dumas’ “De Vicomte de Bragelonne”, Athos’ son (the Vicomte) decides to go to war in Algeria, where he fights against the Arabs:

  “The vicomte was summoned to surrender by the Arabs, but he made them a negative sign with his head, and continued to march towards the palisades. This was a mortal imprudence. Nevertheless the entire army was pleased that he would not retreat, since ill-chance had led him so near. He marched a few paces further, and the two regiments clapped their hands. It was at this moment the second discharge shook the walls, and the Vicomte de Bragelonne again disappeared in the smoke; but this time the smoke dispersed in vain; we no longer saw him standing.  He was down, with his head lower than his legs, among the bushes, and the Arabs began to think of leaving their intrenchments to come and cut off his head or take his body—as is the custom with the infidels. But Monseigneur le Duc de Beaufort had followed all this with his eyes, and the sad spectacle drew from him many painful sighs. He then cried aloud, seeing the Arabs running like white phantoms among the mastic-trees, ‘Grenadiers! lancers! will you let them take that noble body?’”

As far as I understand (it’s hard because there are no reliable statistics), Algeria is a majority-Berber country. Now my impression is that in literature, Berber countries such as Algeria and Morocco are referred as Arab countries. There is (almost) no trace of fights between colonialists and Berbers in North Africa. How can this be explained?


texts: Was the flag of Iceland originally fimbriated in silver?

texts:
The flag of Iceland, shown below, is described blazon as "Azure, a cross gules fimbriated argent", indicating that the fimbriation is silver. Argentum means silver in Latin.

Does this mean that originally the flag was fimbriated in silver, or was it always white?


texts: How long did it take to build siege engines in the middle ages?

texts:
How long did it take to build various siege engines? I understand this can vary widely based on the size of the engine etc., but I'd be interested in somewhat average values. Let's say a stationary trebuchet, a normal siege tower and a ballista. What would be the time (man-hours or something) to build each of these?

I'm primarily interested in the (early) middle ages, but ancient time or renaissance answers are also welcome.


texts: Was Kandhar/Gandhar renamed Afghanistan?

texts:
In ancient Hindi literature, Gandhar or Kandhar was used many times like Mahabharata, etc.
Is it Afghanistan which was called Kandhar in ancient (like Iran was called Persia)? Also, is there any specific reason to name it like Persia-Iran?


texts: Why did the Germans fall behind the Americans in the development of the atomic bomb after an initial lead?

texts:
I actually know certain facts about this matter, but am seeking guidance in interpreting these facts into "theories."

1) Theory 1, Economic: The Americans spent something like $2 billion (in money of the time) to build the atomic bomb. Germany simply did not have that level of resources, meaning that her initial lead in atomic understanding was moot. Like other areas (e.g. tank production), American economic power "swamped" Germany even though Germany had superior quality.

2) Theory 2, Scientific: The balance of (scientific) power was held by Jewish scientists like Einstein, Fermi (his wife was Jewish, not Fermi himself), and Bohr, meaning that Germany could have built the bomb if it had stayed on good terms with these people. Fermi and America's Robert Oppenheimer were referred to as the "fathers" of the atomic bomb. Einstein was the "grandfather" insofar his atomic theories paved the way for the others' work. Bohr was notable for what he DIDN'T do (correct the mistakes of his former student, Germany's Werner Heisenberg).

Do either theory alone or both theories together explain why America took the lead in atomic development? Are there other reasonable theories that I may have missed?

I am trying to check the validity of the comments I made in answering this other question. At the end of WWII, were nazis working on any other super weapon besides V-2?


texts: Why didn't America "rent" parts of China?

texts: After the Opium War, Britain and France signed treaties with China that said they could establish "spheres of influence" over parts of China. Britain and France went this way, but why didn't America?


texts: Did the Safavid rulers require all subjects to convert to Shi'a Islam?

texts:
On one hand I've read that Shi'a Islam was the only religion allowed in the Safavid empire. On the other hand, the empire contained parts of Armenia and Georgia, but Armenians and Georgians are Christian to this day.

So, in what cases/times were other religions tolerated in the Safavid empire?


texts:
On the cover of the Paris edition of Raymund Martin's Pugio Fidei, it states,

  "AD SERENISSIMUM REGIÆ STIRPIS PRIMUM PRINCIPEM LUDOVICUM BORBONIUM CONDÆUM BURDEGALÆ ET AQUITANIÆ PROREGEM OPTATISSIMUM."

(My apology for the caps, but that is how it is actually written on the cover, and so, it is how I copied it into a Word .doc I am using for translating the Pugio.)

My question is, who is this individual "Ludovicum Borbonium"? My guess is that, in English, we would say it as "Ludovico Bourbon." I did an exhaustive search of the Bourbon family, but I cannot find anyone who lived during that time (17th century) with the name Ludovico Bourbon. He appears to be a "premier prince" (princeps primus), perhaps referring to the title premier prince du sang royal. Can anyone help?


texts: Why were Royal Navy ships forbidden to attack the ARA Veinticinco de Mayo in Argentinian waters?

texts:
I watched this video on the British hunt for the Argentinian aircraft carrier ARA Veinticinco de Mayo, during the Falklands war.

Involved, among other ships, was the Royal Navy nuclear submarine HMS Splendid. The narrator relates that the carrier Veinticinco de Mayo...

  "[...] had crossed into Argentinian territorial waters. [HMS] Splendid was forbidden, under the rules of war, to attack this close to the mainland."

(You can find the quote around 10 minutes 30 seconds into the video.)

Can someone explain to me why the "rules of war" were somehow prohibiting the British from attacking enemy combat vessels in the enemies territorial waters?

The Wikipedia articles for the ARA Veinticinco de Mayo doesn't mention the incident. The article for the HMS Splendid mentions an "exclusion zone around the Falklands", but I don't understand what this actually means.


texts: For the French Army under Jean Martinet (d1672) how and why were cavalry used instead of infantry?

texts:
For France's army of the period of Jean Martinet (d1672) in the Early modern, how and why were cavalry used instead of infantry?

In European warfare the default company is the infantry company. This may be of varying grades of weight from royal guards through militia. But regardless of grade the infantry face the campaign and engagement in a common form. ^1^

In contrast cavalry squadrons face the strategy of campaign and the tactics of engagement quite differently from infantry. ^1^

How and why were cavalry employed differently to infantry?

The ideal answer will cover differential strategic mobility, independent march columns, screening scouting and anti-civilian actions; social policing and class; tactical mobility, manoeuvre, shock, lance armour and sword; and, cost of mobilisation, training and deployment.

^1^ with the exception of the dragoons


texts: When was the White Feather first used as a symbol of cowardice?

texts:
During WWI in Britain (and in some British colonies), a white feather was commonly given to men who were seen as cowards for not enlisting. The idea of using a white feather comes

  supposedly from the sport of cock fighting, with the belief that
  cockerel’s [sic] sporting these white feathers were poor fighters

This propaganda campaign and method of shaming began in 1914 when the Order of the White Feather was started by Admiral Charles Fitzgerald and used women to shame men into enlisting as, at the time, there was no conscription. In what became a controversial campaign, women gave men who they thought hadn’t enlisted a white feather as a mark of shame or cowardice for failing to perform their duty. One problem was that some recipients were in reserved occupations while, in one case, a man received such a feather on the same day as the Victoria Cross.

The inspiration for this campaign seems to have come from the novel The Four Feathers published in 1902 and set in the late 19th century but, according to both Wikipedia and this article The Order of the White Feather, the tradition dates back to the 18th century. However, neither source gives any further details.

Are there any recorded incidences of white feathers being used in this way in the 18th century?

EDITED QUESTION

If not, when is the first recorded incidence of someone being given a white feather?


texts: Why did Virginia let Kentucky become a separate state?

texts:
Much later, West Virginia broke off from Virginia as a result of the Civil War. Earlier than that, Maine became "independent" from Massachusetts as part of the Missouri Compromise.

But during and after the Revolution, Virginia claimed Kentucky as its "backland." In 1795, it relinquished this claim to let Kentucky split off to become the 15th state. (Vermont had just done that from New York to become the 14th). Why was that?

Apparently, there was pressure from the other states. Was it because they wanted all the states to be about the same size in area and population, or because they wanted to prevent an "arms race" of superstates like Virginia-Kentucky, North Carolina-Tennessee, Pennsylvania-Ohio (in today's terms) etc.?


texts: This video says  scribes read letters to the king as the king was not literate. Can anyone comment on this


texts: To what extent is a coincidence that the Dec. of the Rights of Man and the Citizen and the USA Dec. of Independence were approved so close in time?

texts:
France helped North Americans revolutionaries during the Independence War. The USA Declaration of Independence (USA, 1776) and the US Constitution (USA, 1787) influenced the content of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (France, 1789). But I do not think that the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen was motived by (that is, a consequence of) the Declaration of Independence.

Given the crucial importance of these documents in modern Western democracies and societies (materialized or established in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights), I feel that there has to be something else that I ignore and that explains why they were approved so close in time, even when both countries are not close to each other and the French did not colonized North America.

I am so intrigued by why modern democracies (with their civil and social rights) were born nearly at the same at both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. The question should perhaps be why the French Revolution (1789-1799) and the USA Independence War (1775-1783)  along with why the desire and conquest of freedom and human rights happened at nearly the same time in France and North America.


texts: Which nations have armed prisoners and sent them to war?

texts: I'm looking for examples of countries that have armed prisoners and sent them to war? Were the prisoners coerced, or were they offered amnesty should they survive?


texts: What are some other celebrated military failures, besides Gallipoli?

texts:
The Gallipoli campaign in WWI is a hugely important event in Australian and New Zealand history. 2015 is the 100th anniversary of the landings and there are huge commemorations planned to mark the occasion.

This seems quite odd to me as the campaign was a complete failure. Even stranger still is that Australian accomplishments on the Western Front such as the Battle of Hamel are barely mentioned despite it being a brilliant victory that had a huge influence on Allied tactics for the rest of the war.

My question is are there any other famous defeats celebrated with a similar enthusiasm?

It seems for the most part they tend to be swept under the rug such as when I visited the Naval museum in St. Petersburg and saw how little space was allotted to the catastrophe that was the Battle of Tsushima.

The only two that spring to mind are the Charge of the Light Brigade which didn't strictly end in defeat for the British and the Battle of Thermopylae which some have considered a Pyrrhic victory for the Persians (though this interpretation appears to have fallen out of favour).


texts: How was Lübeck involved in the Danish Civil War, 1534-1536?

texts:
The Civil War in Denmark, Count's War, in 1534-1536.

The free City State of Lübeck was involved in the war. I can't find maps that shows all the territories Lübeck control, such as the Island of Bornholm was under Lübeck's control in the war. Is there information on available on this?


texts: Was any war started by a country (both of its people and leadership) knowing defeat was inevitable?

texts:
Most Japanese people today wonder why Japan started a war against USA because it seems to them that it had no chance of winning. Susumu Nishibe, who died suddenly last month, often said in his TV program that at that time there was an atmosphere where everyone felt a war with America was unavoidable and that they had to fight anyway despite the fact that they didn't believe they could win. To support his argument, he cited diaries of writers and critics of that time.

I'm not sure whether he is right. But if he is right, surely there had been that kind of war before that, a war which a country began when its people was aware of its inevitable defeat.

I edited the title to clarify the question.

If I understand Nishibe's words correctly then he meant that the Japanese leadership was forced to start the war by the public opinion under the influence of jingoistic mass media. If he is right, it means Japan launched the war against USA when both Japanese people and its leadership knew they could not win.This goes against the conventional view that (as mickeyf says in his comment) Japan went to war in the hope that it could bring the war to a ceasefire during a six-month period in which America was still not ready for a counterattack. It's difficult to believe. That's why I'm curious to know if there was a similar case in the world's history.


texts: Why did Austria cede Venetia at the end of the Third Italian War of Independence?

texts: Looking at the wikipedia articles, they seemed to be winning (the Battle of Custoza and the naval battle of Lissa), and the war against Prussia was already finished. So why did it still cede Venetia to Italy?


texts: A source for Gerald Goodlake's exploit during the Crimean War

texts:
I was reading up on trench coats for the winter and came upon this passage about Gerald Goodlake:

  He [Goodlake] wore this coat during the Crimean war, in which he commanded a force of sharpshooters. On one guerrilla sortie behind the enemy lines, Goodlake, and a sergeant were cut off by a large body of Russian troops. The two British soldiers fired, gun-clubbed their nearest attackers and ran into a nearby ravine. However, the ravine filled with enemy soldiers. To their surprise, the British found they were ignored because of the gray raincoats they wore – they had been mistaken for Russians. This camouflage enabled them to march along in the ranks of the enemy until they had an opportunity to escape and rejoin their own men.

Naturally, I wanted to learn more about this amazing event. Lt. General Goodlake's Wikipedia page points to an 1857 issue of The London Gazette, but neither Wikipedia nor the Gazette make any mention of the event above. Even searching the book Sharpshooter of the Crimea, which used Goodlake's personal correspondence and regimental records as source material, didn't reveal any hints about the above event (granted, the search was cursory).

Where is that event documented?


texts: How likely was an enlisted man to have fought at both Falkirk and Bannockburn?

texts:
A heroic Scottish song begins, "Scots who have with Wallace bled, Scots whom Bruce has often led..."
William Wallace's most famous battle was Falkirk (1298). Robert Bruce's was Bannockburn (1314). That is sixteen years apart.
How likely was a Scottish (or English) enlisted man (not noble or officer) to have fought in both battles, say as a teenager in 1298 and a thirty-something in 1314?
Edit: In response to a comment, I refer to earlier "enlisted men" who might have risen to "non-commissioned officer" at Bannockburn (or even Falkirk) or any other rank that a poor, rural uneducated "enlisted man" might normally aspire to.


texts: What was the importance of the patrician class in the Roman Empire?

texts:
This is a question that has puzzled me in my research of the history of the Roman Empire.
During the Roman Republic the Patrician class was obviously of paramount importance, & history of the Republic is often taught in terms of the Plebeian class wresting political power from the Patricians. However, following the establishment of the Empire, being a member of the Patrician class was less important than being somehow aligned with the imperial family -- be it the Julio-Claudians, the Flavians, or Antonines.
Augustus had reordered the Roman establishment so that he had some form of control over every possible threat to his rule: over the Senate, the priestly colleges, & especially the military. Moreover, the Patrician class had dwindled in numbers by that point to being as few as 16 in the first century BC (if I remember correctly), & most of them had become relatively impoverished & no longer had members in the Senate. For example, Augustus subsidized the Quinctilii, a Patrician family that had lost its relative wealth over the generations; this was the family the general Varus, who lost the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, belonged to. Almost all of the major priesthoods were staffed mostly, if not entirely, of Plebeian families; not much later, these priesthoods drew from non-Italians to fill out their ranks. Being a Patrician had come to be of marginal importance.
Yet not only Augustus, but later emperors such as Claudius, Vespasian & others, made an effort to replenish the numbers of the Patrician class. For example, the Acilii Glabriones who were Plebeian in the 2nd century BC, had been adlected/elevated into the Patrician class by Marcus Aurelius' time.
So, what practical purpose did the patrician class have in the Empire? Or were the Emperors simply trying to preserve some relic of the Republic for antiquarian reasons?


texts:
Do any writings about Saint Patrick written while he lived survive, other than what he wrote himself? Is he actually known to have died on the 17th of March? (I'm guessing he didn't write that himself.)

When Patrick was first taken to Ireland as a slave, how much communication and commerce existed between Ireland and the rest of the world? Did that substantially increase with the conversion of the Irish to Christianity?


texts: What was the troop ratio between the Reds and the Whites in the Russian Revolution?

texts:
I am making a game over the Russian Revolution for English class. I want to make this game a somewhat accurate representation of the Russian Revolution. I have been able find the answers to all of my questions except for a very important one:
What were the troop ratios between the Red and the White armies in the Russian Revolution?


texts: When did it become openly known that Wilson supported the Balfour Declaration?

texts:
According to this source he agreed with the declaration about one month before it was published.

http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/1878450?uid=3738984&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&sid=21104407900711

My question is was it known to the Arabs that the United States supported the declaration when it was published? If not, when did this become known?


texts:
According to  Benjamin Ginsberg's book How the Jews Defeated Hitler:

  Jews in the Soviet Union, United States and Great Britain were very important in the realm of intelligence and espionage. The Soviet Union's major - and very effective - spy rings, including the Red Orchestra, were led by Jews ...

Was Red Orchestra led by Jews? And how significantly did they contribute to the defeat of Nazis?


texts: Was there a belief that the poor could steal thoughts from people's minds?

texts:
The Portal Wiki's list of Fact Sphere's Partially True Facts...

In Victorian England, a commoner was not allowed to look directly at the Queen, due to a belief at the time that the poor had the ability to steal thoughts.

Is it true Victorians believed the poor could steal thoughts?


texts: Was the Church of St Simeon the Elder at Aleppo built while Simeon was still alive or decades after his death?

texts: I recently read in Diarmaid MacCullochs 'A History of Christianity' that the pillar dweller and hermit, Simeon had a church built around him, almost like a "living exhibit in a Christian zoo". However this contrasts other sources which have the church as being built decades after his death (his death being in 459 AD and the church being built in 475 AD). Which of these correct? Any help most appreciated.


texts:
The Wikipedia entry about Dalits has no section regarding how many Dalits are adherents of Islam  (though it has extensive information regarding Hindu, Buddhist and Sikh Dalits). It has a table that shows:

My question is: How many Dalit Muslims were there in India in 1900 AD? (or in the early 20th century if exact data is not available)


texts: Where did tree spiking prevent the most logging?

texts:
Old growth trees can be very valuable as lumber. Tree spiking, a form of ecotage or monkeywrenching, is driving a metal or ceramic rod into a living tree. This discourages logging by marking trees or stands as dangerous to cut and mill.

Although it is sometimes possible to remove the spikes, spiking has deterred logging: "prudence directs that in most cases spiked trees be left alone". For example, in 1982, some 2000 trees at the Grouse Mountain Ski Resort in North Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada were reportedly not logged after being spiked.

In terms of the number of trees left standing, what was the largest single logging project derailed by spiking?


texts: Technology and status symbols that predate language

texts:
I remember distinctly reading about peoples and cultures - in, I believe, the Caucasus - that used to knap large flakes of flint into spearheads and would use them (instead of actual tools) as status symbols of how well they could hunt; the most important part of this being that this pre-dates language.

For starters, could anyone tell me of the culture I'm thinking of? And for second, does anyone know of any technologies that pre-date language?


texts: Did c.1900 France have a law against foreign government resisting its conquest?

texts:
I found this picture in Wikipedia (its copyright expired so it can be reproduced here):

The caption says:

  Execution of Prince Ratsimamanga and the Minister of the Interior
  under order of General Galliéni for having resisted France's
  annexation of Madagascar. Picture published in the French magazine
  L'Illustration, November 22, 1896.

This seems to be the aftermath of the Second Madagascar Expedition (1894-1895), a French conquest of the previously independent Madagascar.

Interestingly, the execution seemed to be carried out openly, a depiction of it is published in French magazine, and under official orders. The victims were a prince and a minister of a previously sovereign country, and the crime was "resisting France's annexation".

Did the French consider this execution legitimate? Were there laws against resisting France's conquest? How did the law get introduced and how were they applied? For example, France also conquered a lot of countries under Napoleon and it didn't execute their governments for resisting it.


texts: Which military commanders burned their own ships?

texts:
I understand it happened more than once where a general arrived by sea and shortly after landing ordered the ships to be burned, so that retreat would never be an option.

Which military commanders/generals did this, and under what circumstances?

EDIT: From searching online, I've found : Agathocles of Syracuse in 310 BC, Emperor Julian in 363, William of Normandy in 1066, and Cortez in 1519; I don't if any of these are accurate.


texts: How did production of grain change with Hellenistic Egypt coming under Roman rule?

texts:
As far as I know Egypt, under the Ptolemies, became famous in Hellenistic world for vast agricultural production due to the strict and harsh administration installed there by Greeks.

Still I wonder - was the Roman administrative system different enough from the previous Greek one to cause changes in economy of Egypt? Was the Roman economic system in some ways more effective in the short- or long-term?

Of course, there must be some complications to that question posed by some level of political disturbance of Ptolemaic Egypt in II-I centuries BC which, I guess, coupled with the economic blunders of policy by the first Ptolemies, somehow affected productivity in general. But to keep things simple, let's compare production of main agricultural staples (grain) during relatively peaceful times (let's say III century BC for Hellenistic Egypt and I-II centuries AD for Roman Egypt).


texts: Why the Siege of Sevastopol (1854–55) was "the last of the old sieges"?

texts:
During the Crimean War (1853–56), Charles George Gordon took part in the Siege of Sevastopol (1854–55), calling it "the last of the old sieges".

What made Sevastopol so "old fashioned" for a comment like that?

I can think of two reasons:

Development of artillery at the time made obsolete the idea of fortresses (although the Russians held Sevastopol for almost a year).
The Charge of the Light Brigade, which took part along the siege, in the Battle of Balaclava.

Another possibility, of course, is Gordon was just being romantic, but I would like to know if Sevastopol really marked an era in siege warfare, and if so, why.

From the Wikipedia article about the siege, linked above:

  Sevastopol is one of the classic sieges of all time.


texts: What is the difference between a Russian serf and an American slave?

texts: What were the legal and practical differences between say a Russian or Hungarian serf in the 18th century and an American Slave at the same time?


texts: Are there examples of encrypted messages with deadlines?

texts:
I'm looking for historical records showing that parties using coded messages (from the Egyptians to the Romans to actors in the American Civil War, etc) would sometimes stipulate deadlines by which a response must be received.  The encoding of messages needs to be by hand (so no computers/machines involved).
I know there is a project to decode thousands of Civil War telegrams, but I have been unable to find a collection of the decoded messages to read.  And no history books I've encountered that describe ancient military protocols include a description of deadlines for replies.
The famous Zimmerman Telegram (captured and decoded by the British in WW I) makes an offer to Mexico, but does not appear to have an expiration date attached to it.
Surely if a message is sent to (say) a general in the field and no response is received by some preordained deadline, an action is taken, right?  No one will just wait forever?
I would appreciate any examples you know of, or suggestions on where I might look to find examples.  I have already reviewed David Kahn's book "The Codebreakers."
Amended to Add: It's fine if the time limit was not explicitly stated in each message as long as it was well-established somehow. For example, if say a Roman War Manual stated that "if no response is received within 3 days, we assume the courier was lost and send another message." That would be enough for my purposes. But I'm unable to find records of such policies in historical records (for military, diplomatic or other secure-messaging settings).


texts: Were some categories of French-Jewish people treated better by Vichy anti-Jewish laws

texts:
Even during WW2, some German Jews managed to stay in Germany without being imprisoned (although they were forced to live in special housing for Jews under uncomfortable circumstances) for example those who had "Aryan" husbands.

Were there categories of French Jews who received analogous treatment? Did having a French Catholic spouse matter? Did being "of Jewish extraction" but practicing Catholicism matter?


texts: Have there been any nuclear accidents in the US at nuclear facilities which were not "commercial"?

texts: In a feature called "On This Day," the March 28th, 2015 issue of the New York Times recounted how "On March 28, 1979, America's worst commercial nuclear accident occurred inside the Unit Two reactor at the Three Mile Island plant near Middletown, Pa." But why does the paper specify that this was the worst "commercial" nuclear accident in US history? Was there a worse non-commercial nuclear accident?


texts: Has Matéo Maximoff's book Die Ursitory been translated to English?

texts: I've been unsuccessfully searching for a book called Ursitory by Matéo Maximoff. From what I have gathered so far, it seems to only be available in German (Die Ursitory) and in French (Les Ursitory). Please, if anyone has any knowledge on where to purchase or rent an ENGLISH version, I would be very grateful. I (THINK) it was written in 1954.


texts: How were back copies of newspapers viewed in England in 1923

texts:
I am writing a story set in London in 1923. One of my characters goes to a library to research old copies of newspapers (dating back to 1918). As microfiche was not invented until much later, does anyone know how this could be done. It seems unlikely that the original newspapers would have been stored on site (he is in a local reference library). Was there some technology before microfiche to view old newspapers?

Thank you in advance for any help.


texts: Can anyone tell me information about this uniform?

texts: This is my Great-Great Grandfather during WWI in the Royal Italian Army. Looking for any hints that his uniform could tell me about his type of service


texts: What is the historical significance of pottery?

texts:
Pottery is often portrayed as being a landmark in the evolution of humanity. But do we just see it that way because it is one of the few things from those times that has survived in a tangible form? Before pottery did people have a more difficult time transporting liquids? Or were the containers before pottery inherently dirty and so the invention of pottery both cut down on disease and provided a medium on which art could be passed down to the modern day?

So was pottery an important functional part of society or do we just overfocus on it because it's one of the few things left around?


texts: Why couldn't the Weimar Republic peg their currency to another one?

texts: My dad and I recently thought of something. Pegging a currency to another, at least in the modern-day world, helps to keep it stable. So why couldn't the Weimar Republic peg the Mark to another currency, for example the Dollar, to fix their hyperinflation? Was it because of the reparations they needed to pay, or part of the Treaty of Versailles, or something else?


texts: How common were private bathing facilities in Late Republican Rome?

texts:
For example, there are small private bathtubs in Pompeii, but this is about 150 years later and in a period that practices were changing, as more people became wealthy enough to have such things.

My impression is, that they had ways of washing at home, provided their house had water supply, and public baths were the more luxuriant and effective solution, frequented less often, as you went down the income scale.

This, to me, explains the problem of bathing for slaves. Rich people would expect their slaves to be well groomed and clean but I doubt if they would be pleased to encounter them at the baths. I also think that people living in houses, not the ones in upper insulae floors, would have their own private latrine. Am I right?

Does anybody know of any references for private washing from this era?


texts: Were sanctions used against East Germany?

texts:
North Korea has survived as an independent state for a lot longer than East Germany did. I am wondering. Did any country, such as the United States, use sanctions against East Germany, and if so, were they anything like the sanctions that the United States is using today, against North Korea and other nations?

For instance, did the United States try to implement sanctions against East Germany in order to influence its politics or ideology?


texts: What were the needs of the US Navy that resulted in the production of both the Arleigh Burke class and Ticonderoga class in the 1980s?

texts:
In the 1980s the United States Navy introduced both the Arleigh Burke class and the Ticonderoga class.

Wikipedia pages on them:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arleigh_Burke-class_destroyer#Development
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ticonderoga-class_cruiser

The length, beam, and tonnage of these vessels is all similar. The Arleigh Burke class is considered a destroyer, whereas the Ticonderoga is considered a cruiser. The top speed of the vessels is also similar. Neither possesses a novel form of propulsion, such as nuclear propulsion.

The armament of the vessels is incredibly similar, notably both carry the Mk 41 vertical launch system. I do notice that Wikipedia lists the "cruiser mark 26" of the Ticonderoga class as having the "Mk 26 missile launcher". This is not part of the Aegis system, which is the modern missile combat system used by the United States Navy.

It seems that these vessels are almost identical in their capabilities and construction.

What were the needs of the United States Navy that resulted in the acquisition of such similar classes of combat vessels? I'm interested mostly in the mindset or "perceived needs" of the Navy. Why would the Navy introduce and continue to construct such similar classes of vessels? Do they differ somehow in their operational capability that is not evident?


texts: What was the attitude of the Scientific community when Hitler accessed power?

texts:
What was the attitude of the scientific community when Hitler accessed power, between 1933 and 1939 ? Did the scientists boycotted the meetings (if any ?) in Germany ?

Update: I don't imagine that the whole "scientific community" had one unified reaction.  I'm looking for any concrete examples of scientists that declined to attend a meeting in Germany, or on the other side, scientists  who have said that boycotting a meeting was worthless.