texts: What did the Allied WW1 propaganda for the Germans say?

texts:
I recently came across this passage of Mein Kampf where Hitler praises the effectiveness of WW1 Allied propaganda over the German people:

  At first the claims of the propaganda were so impudent that people thought it insane; later, it got on people's nerves; and in the end, it was believed. After four and a half years, a revolution broke out in Germany; and its slogans originated in the enemy's war propaganda.

I'm assuming this refers to pamphlets delivered by planes and balloons over enemy lines; is that correct?

I searched the web in both English and French, but dedicated sites such as http://propagande1418.free.fr/index2.htm (French) only seem to mention propaganda targeted at domestic audiences.

What sort of ideas were instilled by this propaganda? Do you know of a source where I could find some translated pamphlets?

In my search I came across the stab-in-the-back myth, which makes me wonder if maybe Hitler was overstating the effect of the propaganda because he was influenced by (or wanted to exploit) a popular meme. How accurate was his statement?


texts: Why was China not colonized by any country?

texts: Why didn't China become a colony of anybody, unlike most other Asian countries?


texts: What is the current academic consensus on Charlemagne's genealogy?

texts:
Every source I have seen agrees that Charlemagne's ancestral tree begins as follows:

Charlemagne (c. 747 – 814)
Pepin the Short (c. 714 – 768)
Charles Martel (c. 688 – 741)
Pepin of Herstal (c. 635 – 714)
Ansegisel (c. 610 – 662)
Arnulf of Metz (c. 582 – 640)

Before Arnulf, there seems to be considerable disagreement, with some sources (such as Settipani's Les ancêtres de Charlemagne) claiming to have established Charlemagne's descent from the Gallic elites of the late Roman empire (Agricola and Flavius Afranius Syagrius, both from around the mid to late 4th century, being among those individuals commonly proposed as Arnulf's direct ancestors).

What is the current academic consensus on the subject of Charlemagne's genealogy? Are "descent from antiquity" ideas actually taken seriously? Is it still beyond doubt that Charlemagne is descended from Arnulf, or has even that "fact" been called into question by now?


texts: What was Wilhelm II's "book about the causes of the war"?

texts:
In Hugh Kingsmill's "Frank Harris" (1932) he describes how in the 1890s, in the Saturday Review, Harris wrote a series of attacks on the German regime and Wilhelm in particular, and then goes on to say that Wilhelm mentioned these "in his book on the causes of the war". I have been unable to identify what book Kingsmill meant, and thus locate the quote about Harris. (Part of the problem being, I think, that the automated scanning software used by online book repositories generally cannot cope with old German blackletter type).
I checked Wilhelm's memoirs and can find no mention of either Harris or the Saturday Review. I have performed searches on Google Books and the Internet Archive, all to no avail. I wonder if the book in question may have been written by someone else than Wilhelm, but I don't know the possible sources at all well, and my German is minimal, so I am now stuck.


texts: Did the Allies' attacks on Germany's heavy water supply lead to any reevaluation of its nuclear goals?

texts:
It is well-known that throughout much of WWII the Allies made persistent attacks on Norsk Hydro's Vermork heavy-water plant, and on the transportation of heavy water from there, up until the point where there was nothing more to be done in that respect. This might seem to signal that the Allies considered Germany's nuclear technology to be a major threat - more so, in fact, than the Germans themselves thought it could be. Is there any evidence that German intelligence and policy-makers made this connection, and if so, whether that led to any reevaluation of the feasibility and potential of that technology? Was there a person or faction arguing, in effect, "our enemies are clearly concerned by this, so perhaps we are underestimating its potential" or "perhaps our enemies' concern in this matter is because they have found it to be more feasible than we think?"

The question I have here is about the German analysis of the Allies' actions and their motives.


texts: What is the impact of history on food habits in India?

texts:
I have observed (although I cannot substantiate it with any complete research data as such, except for a few articles) that, an average Indian diet, especially in the rural parts of India generally consists of more carbohydrate and less protein or other nutrients. Although there are exceptions, based on geography for example, yet, on an average too, it is far less diversified in terms of all the nutrients one should consume to nourish the body well.

There could be a number of reasons why there is such a norm generally prevalent in Indian diet, but I would like to also know, whether such a change in food habits had its origins in our history of long centuries of oppression of the peasant and labor castes or in the historical caste-ism prevalent in India from times immemorial, where a significant chunk of the population sustained on bare minimum means for their sustenance

Here are some examples to narrow down my question:

1) Eating 4-6 rotis/chapatis with some dal(parts of Central and north)
2) Eating a bowl of rice with some sambar(parts of South India)

livemint:


texts: What did Frank Sinatra think of the Sinatra Doctrine?

texts: Frank Sinatra died seven years after the introduction of the Sinatra Doctrine in the Soviet Union. I'm wondering if he ever commented on it, especially since the Soviets named it after him.


texts: Why did English become Lingua Franca of the modern world?

texts:
According to a guy on Quora:

  English became the lingua-franca of the world  because of the United states and not England. But, throughout the 17th and 18th century, many Europeans (English, french, Dutch, Spanish, Scottish, Swedish) made their settlements there. But, the US speaks English.

  Why?
  Because English was more powerful than any other European nation in US at that time.

  How were they powerful?
  Because, most of their revenues they used for their military came from India. There is not enough money in the enitre England to repay India the money they looted from here. So, if France had been successful in India, I suppose even they would have been indifferent to India.

Is this true? If France had been the nation that managed to successfully rule India, would we be using French on this site?


texts: Did Napoleon Hill really have a friendship with Andrew Carnegie?

texts:
In many of his books, the positivity guru and author of Think and Grow Rich, said he was an understudy of Andrew Carnegie in which he learned his principles of business and wrote about them in his books. I can't seem to find anywhere that verifies this. Given that Andrew Carnegie was an iconic American titan, you would think it would be in his history somewhere as much as Hill talks about him.

Is this true?


texts: Were there weapons that a private citizen could not legally own in 1789 in the US?

texts:
For example: a cannon, certain types of muskets etc...

Were there laws for whether women or freed slaves could not own specific weapons?


texts: Resources on the History of African Civilization

texts: I was wondering if anyone might be aware of any good resources on the history and development of African civilizations?  I will of course be seeking council from the Most Wise and Great God Google, but if anyone has suggestions they would be greatly appreciated!


texts: Did East Asian responses to the Spanish Civil War divide along 'party lines'?

texts:
Did Chiang Kai-Shek and Hirohito, and other leaders of China and Japan, see any parallels between the Sino-Japanese war and the Spanish Civil War? Did Chiang make any message of support for the Spanish Republic, or did he not just see it as relevant to him and his problems?

NOTE: I realise that this question is 'broad', but as I was unable to find anything it seemed futile to write the question in a way that would limit its scope to one country or group of people, because information on the subject is likely to be scarce. I will be interested in an answer that tells me about the responses of even a small number of people in China or Japan, or for that matter Vietnam, Burma, Korea, Siam...


texts: Can someone identify this military uniform?

texts: I would really appreciate it if someone could tell me anything about this military uniform. Thanks so much for any help!


texts: What is "discovery" in the historical sense? How do historians today view and describe "discoveries"?

texts:
I was taught in grade school "Columbus discovered America", "Captain Cook discovered Hawaii" etc, and I imagine many of us were taught the same.

Obviously the term "discovered" here is problematic: The people living in the Americas and Hawaii knew they were there, and knew their homeland was there, so nothing was "discovered" for them - we might even say that the inhabitants of Hispaniola "discovered Europe" when Columbus arrived.  We also know that others before Columbus had been to the Americas and probably returned, the Vikings being the most notable example. So who discovered what, and when?

I suppose the answer to this question is that from a Western/Euro-Centric point of view, those places were indeed "discovered" - i.e. the Western World became aware of those places for the first time - through the voyages of Columbus, Cook, etc., and could then "put them on the map."

My question is this: Obviously the voyages and explorations of Columbus, Cook, et al had huge historical impact - but is "discovery" in the "grade school sense" a valid term for the modern historian - one who is aware of, and examining history, in the modern global sense? Do historians still use this term? How might we otherwise describe Columbus's "discoveries"? What's the best, most accurate term for historians to use when describing "discoveries" like those of Columbus or Cook, in our modern, global context?


texts: What is the name of the king whose brother has been raised as a girl?

texts: I remember reading about a prince (probably French) who has been raised as a girl to avoid him fighting against his brother for the throne, a few years ago. To be honest, the story seems intriguing and I'd like to know more about it but I can't bring myself to remember any name.


texts: Is Maxwell really owner of Maxwell's Equations?

texts:
Maxwell's equations are four equations known to Maxwell; but it seems to me that they are GFAM's (Gauss-Faraday-Ampere-Maxwell's) Equations.

Why are they then called only Maxwell's Equations!?


texts: Where can I find more information on the Katyn massacre?

texts:
I want to research the Katyn massacre; I've reviewed the Memo from Beria to Stalin, proposing execution of Polish officers.
Are other documents (e.g. protocols of NKVD, logistics) available?
Why are documents relating to this event so difficult to find?
What are the canonical primary sources for this event? (or more properly, what are the sources of canonical primary sources?

What kind of access can I get to NKVD archives?
Who published the first reports of the event?
What are the important sources that challenged the "official" records?


texts: How did Tunisia's revolution (and Arab Spring) begin?

texts:
I am asking because the most cited reasons are not that convincing:

The self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi: He was neither the first nor the last to self-immolate himself.
Poverty: Prices more than doubled after the revolution, and, as a student, I had to considerably reduce my daily food consumption. Yet, there is no new revolution.
Unemployment rate: Rose after the revolution.
Oppression: People are still being killed or abused by the police. Although, there is no more internet censorship (but you can get arrested for criticizing higher-ups).

So, how did it actually began?


texts: Were railroads indispensable to American economic development?

texts:
In "Railroads and American Economic Growth: Essays in Econometric History", 1964, Robert W. Fogel, the father of modern econometric history, found that railroads were not indispensable to American's economic development. This claim  seems contrary to common sense.
Are there more recent studies thatconfirm or rebut Fogel's conclusion?


texts: Is Himmler's memo about genocide authentic? Significant?

texts:
In this bio of Yehuda Bauer, we see mention of a Himmler memo to Hitler (dated May 25, 1940): Himmler states his rejection of "the Bolshevik method of physical annihilation of a people out of inner conviction as un-German and impossible,"

Is this considered authentic and if so, how important is this? It would seem to indicate that pretty late in the game Himmler at least, don't know about others at that level, was against mass murder and that they changed their minds pretty fast for an apparently trivial reason -- Madagascar became impractical/inaccessible.


texts: When dubbing a knight why is the right shoulder dubbed first?

texts: There was a question on a radio quiz this morning asking which shoulder is dubbed first when knighting someone.  I was quite surprised that the answer was the right one but can find no explanation as to why.  Can anyone help?


texts: Was Napoleon's own strategy the cause of his downfall?

texts:
I've been reading Rothenburg's The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon and Parker's Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500-1800, and while I realize there were a number of factors that played into Napoleon's eventual defeat (British economic strength/naval strength, ineptitude of Napoleon's siblings, guerrilla warfare in Spain), it seemed to me as I was reading that one strength of the Napoleonic army seemed to backfire horribly.

(Perhaps simplistic analysis ahead)

The army's ability to forgo food supply trains and live off the land (though the army had to split up to make use of this) gave Napoleonic armies their mobility (allowing Napoleon to pull off some amazing forced marches on his enemies), but at the same time, I wonder if this very tactic alienated otherwise friendly "host" countries and rulers - and perhaps Napoleon's defeat in Spain can partly be linked to this strategic practice (Russia's a can of worms that I'm not going to bother trying to analyse yet)

After all, a Spanish farmer can't be too happy about a bunch of French soldiers coming in and taking his food supposedly by order of King Joseph (José I). He might later join the resistance as a result! Is there any further reading on this subject or can someone who is more versed in Napoleonic diplomacy/strategy answer if there is such a direct connection between a fundamental Napoleonic era strategy and diplomatic/strategic repercussions?

EDIT: I did say this was a simplistic analysis, and perhaps I should have used Russia as an example after all - there are few campaigns that better illustrate the importance of logistics in warfare, and perhaps the argument can be made that the practice of foraging, which had served Napoleon well in central Europe, could not be applied in Russia (scorched earth tactics along with the naturally bad pickings from the environment). So Napoleon overstretched the logistical ability of his army, assuming he could move in the same fashion as he had in Italy more than a decade ago.


texts:
Java is the most populated island in the world, with 141.4 million residents. However, it is smaller than many other islands. There are other islands, such as Madagascar, Borneo, Sulawesi, Honshu (Japan), and Sri Lanka, which I would expect to have a higher population than Java. There are many other islands which have tropical climates and similar terrain. Why don't they have a larger population? In addition, Java was ruled by the Dutch, who treated their colonies horribly and tortured natives. Why do they have such a large population?

(Edit): What geographical factors made it more likely for wet rice cultivation to be done in Java compared to other islands?


texts: Ancient Greece and the American university 'greek' social system

texts:
How did the American college fraternity and sorority system come to incorporate ancient greek?  Was this an 19th century phenomenon?  That is my question.

Any color on the following would also be appreciated.

Other than in some of the 19th century school architecture, was this reflected elsewhere in academia (or in the society at large)?

The question struck me when reading about the Spartan mess halls.  It all seemed very similar to my fraternity (dominated by athletes, mostly football), except there was no homosexual sex (that I'm aware of).  Even the game of football itself - as well as it's antecedent, rugby - struck me as a ritualized form of hoplite warfare.


texts: Are there precedents of 'I am not a racist' from US Presidents?

texts: Prior to Trump, has a US President ever explicitly denied being a racist?


texts: Why did Burgers' Transvaal try to build rail east?

texts:
According to shanskraal,

[Thomas Burgers, president of the Transvaal Republic] considered a railway link with the non-British port of Delagoa Bay (Maputo) as essential for the economic survival of the country.

This was in the mid-1870s when the Transvaal was on good terms with Britain and the Cape Colony. Later, in the early 1890s when relations had greatly deteriorated, the Transvaal under the hardline Paul Kruger explicitly sought a railway link to a port not controlled by the British, for strategic reasons. But I am surprised they would be thinking along those lines already in the mid-1870s under the moderate and progressive Thomas Burgers.
Was the Transvaal in fact already thinking about the strategic advantages of a link to the sea that didn't pass through British territory?
Or were there geographical reasons for preferring to go east instead of taking the apparently more economically useful route south through the Orange Free State and the Cape Colony?


texts: What was the meaning of Auguste Delfosse's statement "La liberté française pour faire le tour du monde n'a pas besoin de passer en Belgique!"

texts:
Auguste Delfosse, a Belgian politician, is said to have given this statement in the Belgian House of Representatives on March 1, 1848:

  La liberté française pour faire le tour du monde n'a pas besoin de passer en Belgique!

This can be roughly translated to:

  The French freedom to travel around the world does not need to pass through Belgium!

I cannot find much context as to why he gave the statement so I'm not sure what he meant by it. I realize that the French Revolution of 1848 was occurring at that time, so perhaps he is emphatically stating that the ideas of the Revolution do not need to enter Belgian politics? If so, why was he opposed to those ideas?


texts: What was the average weather during the times of the Ancient Greeks?

texts: That's the question. Was it rather warm over the entire country, in the middle, or unbelievably cold?


texts: Why were the cities of the Eastern European Plain founded much later than those elsewhere in Europe?

texts:
As site on which to found a city, Moscow seems to have a lot going for it. It's surrounded by fertile farmland - Russia produces more grain than the United States - it's located on a watercourse which provided, in the days when goods were transported largely via rivers, easy access to the trade routes of the Black Sea, and the bendy course of the Moskva River made it highly defensible, providing a number of choice spots to build fortifications. Yet Moscow was only founded in the 12th century AD, by which time many of the great cities of Western Europe were over a thousand years old, and some over two thousand. Why was Moscow founded almost two millennia after Rome?

(I'm aware that Kiev and Novgorod, to name two, are older cities than Moscow. However, as far as I have been able to find out, there is no solid evidence that any settlement on the Eastern European Plain had a population above, say, 10,000 people much before the 10th century AD. But I'm very happy to be corrected on that point.)


texts: Did Jefferson and Washington smoke weed?

texts:
According to this document (page 26, §1):

  Like all farmers, Washington probably sampled the quality and potency
  of what he grew, and he may have used this hemp to treat his chronic
  tooth aches. Jefferson (also a hemp farmer) noted in his diary that he
  smoked hemp for relief from migraine headaches.

There's a lot of dubious claims about this on the internet and some of the quotes attributed to Jefferson in particular are not always regarded as genuine.

Do we have any conclusive proof that Jefferson and/or Washington consumed hemp for recreational and/or medicinal reasons?


texts:
During World War 2 and Korean War United States Army used tank destroyer M36 (90mm Gun Motor Carriage M36).
British soldiers gave one of nicknames to it, "Jackson", after general Thomas Jonathan "Stonewall" Jackson (I think it was a kind of humor. They called American tanks after Confederate generals, for example M3 General Lee).

But sometimes M36 called "Slugger". Why it received this nickname?


texts: Why did Columbus cross the mid-Atlantic instead of exploring from Greenland?

texts:
Greenland was known to Europe since long before 1492. In fact, Leif Erikson reached modern Canadian lands around the year 1000, coming from Greenland. That journey was forgotten, but he chose a logical exploration path by starting from the westernmost land known.

So why didn't Columbus do the same? Seems a much bigger leap to try the mid-Atlantic first. Surely they knew, via dead reckoning and the like, the Greenland coasts were much more west than Portugal? In the summer and fall, the ocean around south Greenland should be ice-free enough to navigate.

In fact, in the year 1500, Portugal sent someone to Greenland to find a Northwest Passage to Asia. Why didn't they do this first with Columbus?


texts: What was the inheritance tax rate in the UK during WWI and WWII?

texts: I've read somewhere that rich people were heavily taxed during World War I and World War II. What was the inheritance tax rate like in the UK at the time?


texts: Who are all the people in this photo of the signing of the Civil Rights Act, 1964?

texts:
I've been trying to figure this out for a while, and it's really bugging me. Seeing Robert F. Kennedy (if I'm right) in the background there made me really curious about everyone else around Lyndon Johnson. The guy Kennedy is talking to could be Martin Luther King, Jr., but that's as far as I've gotten. No convenient Wikipedia article about this photo to help me this time.

Can anyone identify the people in the photo?


texts: When was the American War of Independence first called a 'Revolution'?

texts:
What happened in America seems to be nothing of the kind that happened in France a few years later.

American Independence was all about a group of Englishmen exercising their rights under the 1688 Bill of Rights (e.g. 'no taxation without representation' had been a dominant theme in the British parliament since Charles I). In the Thirteen Colonies there were no immediate changes in State laws and society after independence. The American President effectively became an elected king. Slavery continued etc. Society continued much as it had done before, but without the colonial power being involved.

In France there was indeed a Revolution. Society was turned on its head. The King (eventually) lost his. Slaves (including in the French dominions were freed), a popular assembly was set up etc.

My guess is that the term American Revolution was not used until much later, certainly not until after the events in France - after which the two became spuriously linked.

So who, and when did they, coin the term American Revolution?


texts: Did anyone warn about the potential for stock market crashes in 1929, and if so why were their warnings ignored?

texts:
I can't seem to find information about economists, or others, warning about the overheated stock market of the 1920s in the US that would culminate in the stock market crashing on Black Thursday, October 24th, 1929, and Black Tuesday, October 29th, 1929. I keep seeing general statements that "prudent experts" warned about the overheated stock market, but that is it.

If you could provide paper names, or books, published prior to those dates that would be great. If it has to be a post-event book, or paper, it needs to be one that provides the names who warned against the possibility of a crash.


texts: Was Al-Tusi's observatory (1262) the first specific-purpose-driven international research institution (like CERN)?

texts:
In the biography of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201-1273), among other sources, we learn that:

  The observatory at Maragheh (Persia) became operational in 1262.
  The Persians were assisted by Chinese astronomers in the construction
  and operation of the observatory.

This collaboration was initiated by Mongolians, who were ruling both China and Persia at the time.

Was it the first specific-purpose-driven international research institution (like CERN these days) or was there anything similar before?


texts: When did official documentation stop referring to black people as Negros in the States?

texts:
Watching Why does the US have so many child brides?, there was an interesting part where marriage licenses were shown:

where under race, in two places, it is clearly written as:

  Negro

The specific date is not clear but it is most likely '71.

When did official documentation stop referring to black people as Negros?

I would have thought before '71, surely...


texts: What steps did President Herbert Hoover take to reduce unemployment during the Great Depression?

texts:
I am mainly trying to remember the name that was given to the jobs that he created that were rendered 'worthless', and paid a very low wage. Such examples were scaring away pigeons and selling apples. This was all to make the unemployment figures look better, and to give people purpose.

However, what other strategies did he create to soften the blow of the Great Depression?


texts: Why and when did countries develop long names that include the form of government?

texts:
Every country has different names, for example “China” vs “People's Republic of China”. But when I look back into history I see that countries in the past only had one name. For example the ancient name of Egypt did not include the form of it’s government, the legendary ancestral home of the Aztec peoples was named only "Aztlán" and I sure that a lot of similar examples can be found.

For some reason people started adding words like "Kingdom" and "Empire" to the official name of their country. My understanding is that this was due to their ego at first and only that later it began to have more practical purpose.

Can you give more light on the subject?

Thank you for your time


texts: How long did it take for a diplomat to travel between Berlin and Vienna in the 1770's?

texts:
I was reading the Wikipedia entry for the War of the Bavarian Succession, and it said (my emphasis):

  For some historians, the War of the Bavarian Succession was the last
  of the old-style Cabinet Wars (Kabinettskriege) of the Ancien Régime
  in which troops maneuvered while diplomats traveled between capitals
  to resolve their monarchs' complaints.

I am curious about the emphasized information, how long did it take to travel, for example between Berlin and Vienna for a diplomat? What mode of travel was likely taken by a diplomat? It seems to be a high-ranking position, so maybe they took the convenient (but not fastest) mode of transportation. I imagine it was very difficult to conduct diplomacy when it takes days (or weeks?) to send diplomats and get feedback.


texts: Where and how did the allies scrounge enough food for the Soviets AND the British?

texts: In many ways Hitler's push into the Soviet Union was similar to Napoleon's into Imperial Russia. Britain was happy a war was fought abroad, not on home soil and this sentiment was shared by the US. Roosevelt was happy to help Stalin. But unlike Napoleon's push towards Moscow, Hitler wheeled south-east, trying to deprive the Soviets of food and oil. In light of food shortages in Britain, meaning the British could not scrounge enough food for themselves, how did the US and the other allies manage to save both the Red army and the British from hunger? Particularly in the light of post-WW2 Soviet famine and near-famines and, of course, importation of wheat to prevent them. Where did the food come from?


texts:
Do they just run into a phalanx, breaking it up? Do they lift their front foot and then crush enemies below?

What do elephants do?

Or do the fighters on top of it just shoot arrows?


texts: How (and why) did Hitler create "the world's largest traffic jam?"

texts:
This is not a reference to "current events" but to Fall Blau the 1942 attack on the southern Soviet Union by Army Group South. The campaign started smoothly enough, with the approach to (and capture of Vornezh) by Herman Hoth's 4th Panzer Army. Then Paulus' Sixth Army followed with an advance in the Don bend. So far so good.

The two armies mentioned were later grouped into Army Group B. At the extreme south, Army Group A captured Rostov-on-the Don, crossed the river, headed south for the Maikop oil fields, and found its way blocked, not by the Soviets, but by Hoth's 4th Panzer army, which had been ordered by Hitler to support the thrust to the Caucasus. Moreover, Hoth's troops would not yield the right of way to Army Group A, creating a massive snarl at a time when fuel was a scarce commodity.

How did this come about? Even if Hitler wanted Hoth (and the 4th Roumanian army) to support Army Group A, why didn't he subordinate Hoth to Army Group A instead of letting him operate independently? And why would Hoth be allowed move in the same direction, south, and ultimately over the same roads as Army Group A instead of e.g. "east then south," like the 4th Roumanian Army? (This would have put Hoth parallel to Army Group A, protecting its weak flank and would have created a broader front that would have improved the Germans' chances of success.)

(Note: I am not asking why Hitler attacked in the south or why he sent Hoth's army to support Army Group A. The question is why was the tactical execution of his directives so poor, resulting in a major duplication of effort.)


texts: How many officers on board Type VII-C U-boat?

texts:
As the topic states I am curious of how many offiers were on board a type VII-C U-boat during WW2. I know the crew size was typically 42 to 48, but what was the breakdown of the crew?

Bonus points for explanation of each officer's duty.


texts:
First of all, I must apologize for my bad English as it is not my first language.
So first, a bit of background. I'm doing a project on J. Stalin, A. Hitler, P. Pot and M. Zedong and why did these people become so cruel. Why, when presented with the opportunity, did they order the deaths of millions of innocent people. The project is based on the assumption that the huge majority of people if given absolute power, would not start a genocide even if deep down they would want to, that there is something not allowing us to commit such crimes. So why could these four people do it so casually? So the question is - Is there some major event or turning point in the lives of any of these men that could be pinpointed as the start of their madness? Are there any similarities between these 4 men in this regard?


texts: Do Real Roman and Greek warriors have big muscles and six-pack abs like in the movie?

texts:
When watching movies like Spartacus (2004), Gladiator (2000), etc, I often see Roman or Greek warriors have a lot of big muscles and six-pack abs.

What about real Roman and Greek warriors in real life?

Do they also have big muscles and six-pack abs like in the movie?


texts: What pharaoh did Cambyses defeat in the invasion of Egypt?

texts:
According to currently accepted history, the Persian king, Cambyses conquered Egypt in 525 BC.

According to Herodotus, the pharaoh of Egypt at the time was "Psammetichos", whom modern historians sometimes name "Psamtik III." However, according to the epitome of the Persica by Thotius, it was "Amyrtaeus" that Cambyses defeated, and moreover the actual general was a certain eunuch named Bagapates, not Cambyses himself.

Which account is correct?


texts: How did the generation who elected Rutherford B. Hayes and Benjamin Harrison feel about the electoral college?

texts:
In 1824, John Quincy Adams became the first president to win the presidential election, but lose the popular vote. It would not be until 52 years later in 1876 with Rutherford B. Hayes when this would happen again. Then, it would happen again 12 years later in 1888 with William "Benjamin" Harrison. A president would not lose the popular vote again for more than 100 years when in 2000 George W. Bush lost the popular vote to Al Gore. Then, just 16 years later, the elected president Donald Trump would lose the popular vote to Hillary Clinton.
I was just about to turn 12 in 2000, and while I had heard of the electoral college before, I never understood it until then. Then, in 2016, Hillary was the first candidate I ever voted for in an election, and while 2.9 million more Americans voted for her than Trump, she lost the election. So, twice in my generation the electoral college has gone against the popular vote subverting the will of the people. I have also noticed that it has become popular to question the usefulness of the electoral college. The New York Times has run an article on it after the 2016 election. The Washington Post ran an article on it in 2020. The Wall Street Journal ran an article. The Los Angeles Times also ran an article. As did the Chicago Tribune on several occasions, and here's a third. And if you still don't believe me that the issue is actively debated the Houston Chronicle, the Philadelphia Inquirer, the Miami Herald, the Star Tribune (Minneapolis), the Tennessean, the Statesman (Boise, ID), the Albuquerque Journal, the Denver Post, and even the Herald Dispatch out of West Virginia have all posted articles on the electoral college.
So, if this issue is so hotly debated in my lifetime, after two presidents lost the popular vote, I think it's probable it was debated back then. What was the public's general feel towards the electoral college? Were their arguments any different from today's? For an added bonus, include some old newspapers from back in the day.
To be clear, I am looking for any sort of debate on the electoral college, whether for or against, in relation to the elections of Rutherford B. Hayes and Benjamin Harrison. This could come in the form of old newspaper articles from the era, congressional debates, speeches from prominent people, even diary recordings. I'm sure most of you reading this are clever enough to think of more possible avenues of evidence, so don't limit yourself to those mentioned. ANY evidence is better than what I currently have. Thank you.


texts: What property relations existed between peasants and those who took from peasants in early Ottoman rule in Anatolia?

texts:
What property relations existed between peasants and those who took from peasants in early Ottoman rule (1300-1450) in Anatolia?

How was social surplus extracted from peasants, by who, with what conception of property?  Was property extraction ethnically or religiously different?  Was there a concept of legality?  Were there extra-legal extractions?  Was extraction as cash, crops, or labour?  Were peasants here free or unfree, in what way?

I'm following Banaji (citation below) on peasants as:

Agricultural producers, including husbandry
With some level of social autonomy: land-boundness perhaps as demonstrative of the difference between a peasantry and a slave, peasants aren't unencumbered property
In marxian "Feudal" or "Tributary" societies
Involving self-reproduction through subsistence
(I've not got up to Banaji on what he considers distinctive in peasant relations of labour and relations of exploitation; but, he is very strong on something approximating a Marxist conception of peasantry as being present across feudal and tributary ("Asiatic" despotic) relations of extraction post-antiquity; including early capitalisms.)


texts: End of WWII: potential U.S. atomic bomb production rate

texts:
Inspired by Did the United States have a third atomic bomb to drop on Japan?. Imagine Japan did not surrender after 2 bombs (just preferring to die), or a war with the Soviet Union breaks out, or for any other reason: what could be the potential sustained rate of nuclear bomb production by U.S. say, through the end of 1945? How soon it could be significantly increased?

It obviously depends on the supply of plutonium (uranium-based Little Boy-type bombs could not be produced in any significant quantity for sure).


texts:
Economics teaches that faster economic growth leads to higher inflation and slower economic growth leads to lower inflation. In the 1970s, United States suffered high inflation and slow economic growth at the same time. This contradicts economic common sense.

What were the factors that led to stagflation in the United States during the 1970s?

Wikipedia's answer is a bit daunting; is it possible to provide a succinct answer?


texts: Did ancient peoples ever hide their treasure behind puzzles?

texts:
I just saw the film Dora and the Lost City of Gold, in which there is a somewhat meta running commentary over whether so-called "jungle puzzles", intellectual challenges typically requiring explorers to push the right buttons, pull the right levers, step on the right tiles, make the correct offering to an idol, etc., and that stereotypically guard large caches of treasure in treasure hunting films, actually exist.

Did ancient peoples ever actually guard their treasure behind intellectual puzzles? To be clear, it seems to have been extremely common for treasure to be guarded by security through obscurity solutions, with passages hidden behind fake walls, stuff buried in the middle of nowhere, and decoy artifacts and rooms, but I'm having trouble finding any instances of actual puzzles of the kind that appear in H. Rider Haggard novels, Indiana Jones films, and Dungeons & Dragons adventures, where the original designers seem to have intended that the puzzle be solved at some future time by persons deemed worthy enough by possession of the correct skills or knowledge.

The critical difference between a "puzzle" and ordinary hidden or buried treasure is the apparent intent that a future quest for the items would involve significant intellectual efforts, such as applying knowledge of traditional lore, recognizing obscure grammatical quirks, solving math problems, using lateral thinking skills, applying steganographic analysis, recognizing out-of-place elements (e.g. all these symbols are of animals that lay eggs except this one, so this is the correct lever to pull and none other), and otherwise performing cognitively significant tasks beyond bare memorization. Cases where a treasure was apparently hidden or secured without eye to a puzzle but where the effort was concentrated on making it hard to find and/or especially difficult to penetrate (secured against brute force solutions) don't count. Drilling through 10 meters of rock or searching every tree in a forest for the one that has a symbol carved into it is not a puzzle, but a chore. Having to recognize that a "star chart" is actually a map of a forest with a rectangular->polar coordinate transform and that the tree with the symbol is the one corresponding to the center of the galaxy on the map is a puzzle.

If a puzzle was actually solved in modern times by chance or brute force, but significant evidence exists that it was originally intended to be solved via a puzzle process, that can count. For example, if an ancient tomb on the side of a mountain was accidentally rediscovered when a World War One fighter pilot was shot down near it, but a later generation discovered that a 3000 year-old painting in a nearby downtown temple steganographically encodes hiking directions to the entrance, that counts. Similarly, if 18th century scurvy pirates (arr) encountered an Ancient Greek "push the button that doesn't trigger a trap" wall but decided to bypass it with explosives because they were all illiterate and had minimal knowledge of Greek lore, that would also count as long as sufficient evidence exists to reconstruct what the original puzzle configuration probably was.


texts: Why so many old remains of different animals and almost no remains of humans

texts: There are so many fossils of dinosaurs 70, 100, 200 million years ago, and no remains of human ancestors like Orrorin. If we assume that is size, but there are plenty of other examples of much smaller size than humans. What is the common explanation for this?


texts: Why did the British take Hong Kong instead of any other of the later treaty ports?

texts:
The aftermath of the first Opium War declared that Hong Kong and the island of Kowloon should be ceded to the UK as a port for refitting ships and storing cargo. It also meant there was easy access for British traders to the Chinese economy.

My question is, why exactly was Hong Kong chosen over any other port in China?
What attributes made it more valuable and what made them so?

There were many ports in China declared treaty ports and used by western powers as means of accessing the Chinese economic sphere. The most famous of them was the British possession of Hong Kong and the Portuguese possession of Macau, which are still semi autonomous today.

Different Chinese provinces had designated ports for this access, famous are Shanghai, Kwantung, Weihei, Qingdao, Guangzhouwan. Those are listed as leased territories.

The initial question just had in mind to clear, why Hong Kong was chosen in the treaty of Nanjing to be annexed by the UK as colonial possession and not one of the others.


texts: Did soldiers ever use wooden pillows to hear attacks?

texts:
I remember reading somewhere that since sound travels way faster through the ground as compared to air, soldiers back in the day used wooden pillows that were hard. So if the enemy started marching in a surprise attack at night. The sound would reach them in their sleep. The vibrations in the ground would shake the pillow.
Is there any evidence for anything like this?


texts: Were there farms in the early 19th century in England, which only focused on agriculture?

texts:
I think back in the day most farms consisted of both agriculture and livestock, but I think, there must have been exceptions.

I'm also especially interested in small-scale family-based farms.
The period of time I am most interested in, is the early 19th century (let's say from 1800-1820).

While I'm mostly focusing on England, situations in other locations will also be helpful.

Researching, I found that the prices for cereals went up quiet high around that time and it seems, that there was a lot of agriculture as I found that fallow land decreased a lot from the late 18th century on.

But all studies I found about farming, only focused on agriculture without paying attention to farm animals or did not go into detail about the types of farms at that time and delivered only a general overview.


texts: Identify male uniform 1860-80 north Central Europe single breast trouser boot round cap

texts:
This photo is believed to be from 1860-1880 Poland/Lithuania, as the house behind them looks like a Polish thatch house. The man in question is in the center back of the photo.

Uniform is single breast metal buttoned with matching trousers. Soft shoulder tabs. Small round lapels with marking or insignia. Boots and a round cap are present. The round cap has a double dot and narrow round peak.

The photo was found in collection of family photos. It has a border on the top and bottom. No marking on the back. The size is approximately 3 x 5. I will edit the post with a better picture. The only person I can identify is the young boy, whose name is Piotr Kananowicz. He was married and had 3 sons. The oldest being born in 1882 and the youngest in 1889. I have no further information on Piotr. His oldest son Alexander claimed he was from Soboleik. Other documents he just said Poland or Russia


texts: Was rape common in Europe during the Middle Ages?

texts:
I recently read an article (in Norwegian) claiming that rape was much less common in the Middle Ages than what is commonly believed and, more specifically, that it was much less common than what is depicted in G.R.R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire books.

It seems to mainly reference three sources:

Fredrik Charpentier Ljungqvist: "Rape in the Icelandic Sagas: An Insight in the Perceptions about Sexual Assaults on Women in the Old Norse World", Journal of Family History, 2015.
Hans Jacob Orning: Kvinner og politikk på Island i senmiddelalderen, Tidsskriftet Fortid, 2012.
Hans Jacob Orning: "Feuds and Conflict Resolution in Fact and Fiction in Late Medieval Iceland", in Steinar Imsen (ed.)'s Legislation and State Formation: Norway and Its Neighbours in the Middle Ages, Akademika Forlag, 2013.

Please note that I have not read any of these studies or articles myself, just the originally linked article.

Its main claim seems to be that "the Middle Ages seeming dark is an misconception created in Italy in the 15th century" and that "the Middle Ages are often depicted as being rife with sexual assault".

Some key points it brings up, which it claims make it likely that sexual assault or rape was fairly uncommon during the Middle Ages:

If rape was common, historians would have found more references to it in the literature from the time.
Many medieval societies put great truck in honor, which would have made rape a grave offense. This is reflected in the punishments for rape. In Scandinavia, you'd have been named an outlaw if convicted for it, one of the strictest sentences at the time. There is also a story in the Bagler sagas in which a man is killed for something which may have been a rape, even though he was from the higher echelons of society.
The Catholic church had a very prominent place in society at the time, and it also had a very non-compromising view on extramarital sex.

The article also mentions some reasons why rape could have been more common:

It may have been used to dishonor and demoralize opponents during wars or feuds, but there are few accounts of this happening in literature describing such events.
Having sex with slaves against their will may not have been considered rape. Slaves were not common in Scandinavia during the mid- to late Middle Ages though.

There is of course quite a lot more in the article itself, but I am afraid I don't feel up to translating the whole thing. :) Furthermore it, and some of its arguments I have paraphrased here, relate mostly to Scandinavia, but in potential answers I'd be very interested to hear of potential differences across Europe.

Anyway, as I ask in the title: Was rape and/or sexual assault common in Europe during the Middle Ages?


texts: Libya: Did Gaddafi forbid locks in private homes and order people to swap jobs?

texts:
After reading "The Arab of the Future", which I enjoyed and recommend.

The author mentions two unusual things about his childhood in Libya.

1) Gaddafi forbade private property and locking home doors. Any house that was empty could be taken, and doors could not be locked. The only way to keep property on a house was to stay inside and to politely inform people that the house is populated.

2) Gaddafi ordered people to swap professions, so that teachers would become agriculturists and agriculturists would be teachers.

Is any of these true, at least to some extent? Or is it just the subjective memory of the author.


texts: Why did Odoacer choose to be king Instead of emperor?

texts: After deposing Romulus Augustulus in 476 AD, Odoacer became the king of Italy. Why did he choose not to be the next emperor of the Roman Empire? The Roman people were still around, and the Senate still existed. In fact, he had the backing of the latter to rule Italy.


texts: Why was the knitting needle or the distaff a symbol to show contempt in the Middle Ages?

texts:
From Charles MacKay's Extraordinary Popular Delusions, the chapter on the Crusades has the following section:

In most cases, the laugh was turned against them, for when it became known that a man was a hesitating (to join the Crusades), his more zealous neighbours sent him a present of a knitting needle or a distaff, to show their contempt of him.

Why a knitting needle/distaff? What were they supposed to represent?


texts: Do we know if Patton ever said "l'audace l'audace toujours l'audace"?

texts:
Do we know if George S. Patton said that even though George C. Scott quoted Frederick the Great in the movie?
If Patton did, what does the quote actually mean in the situation?
Related question


texts: When and why did war chariots stop being used?

texts: Many cultures (Egypt, Celts, etc...) had war chariots either as mobile platforms or as troop transport.  What other advance in warfare made them obsolete?


texts: Was Charles V of France opposed to commoners learning?

texts:
Was Charles V opposed to commoners learning? If so, why?

I read in the acknowledgement section of this book that "The Bibliothèque Nationale was extremely kind in allowing me to use its marvelous facilities and incomparable collections—although I am sure that Charles V might have been upset if he knew that a commoner would be allowed to use some books and manuscripts from his library."


texts: Did the Germans occupy Kiev or Odessa in WW I?

texts: A small portion of a historical novel I'm writing concerns a German Reichswehr officer meeting and falling in love with a Ukrainian girl during the First World War. I just need to know a few "everyday details" about the German army's penetration and involvement in Russia ... specifically, whether they occupied Kiev and/or Odessa in Ukraine. Hoping someone can refer me to a condensed source of information on the subject. As mentioned, this will occupy no more than a chapter in my book and I hope to avoid extensive reading on the subject.


texts: Were life imprisonment and mental insanity the only reasons a divorce couldn't be granted in early 20th century England?

texts:
I was watching a Poirot TV movie which was set to England somewhere around 1930s, and one plot point was that the only reasons a divorce couldn't be granted were that either the husband or the wife was serving a life sentence in prison or was committed to an insane asylum.

Is that true, and if it is, what's the reasoning for such a law? From a modern perspective something like the spouse being an imprisoned felon would make for a very good grounds for a divorce.


texts: What is a common reason that Empires fall or collapse and can they be corrected?

texts:
Possible Duplicate:
  Are there any similarities in what happens when Empires collapse?

The question I have is 2 fold what causes most Empires or Nations to fall other than over powered by a superior foe?  Is there anyway to prevent an empire or nation from falling once events are set in place?

Pretty much the main reasons for a nation or empire falling is civil strife, economic collapse, population collapse or cultural shock (and any others). I want to know what seems to be the most common.

The second part is more once a nation/empire begins to fall is there anything to stop it or is it human nature to accept the destruction as a unchangeable event.


texts: Have atheists ever been persecuted in India? Wikipedia article on persecution of atheist has nothing about India, and google did not throw up anything useful.


texts:
It is a commonly cited fact that Plato was held prisoner and sold as a slave. Later in the tale, a friend recognised him and paid for his freedom.

My question is, did Plato ever work as a slave for anybody or was he rescued by a friend before any other master acquired him?

I would appreciate if you can cite the source of the information.


texts: What was the population of the Umayyad Caliphate in 750 CE?

texts:
What was the population of the Umayyad Caliphate at its greatest extent (750 CE)?

According to Wikipedia it was 22 million.

According to other various sources / websites it was 62 million (wikipedia archive).

According to McEvedy & Jones it was somewhere between 20–30 million.

I personally think 62 million is a pretty stiff/high estimate and those who claim it tend to be sourceless. However, given that M&J usually provide us with a low-end estimate, 22 million seems to be a very frugal claim. Any thoughts? I appreciate your input, thank you.


texts: What were Aurangzeb Alamgir's motives for reversing much of the religious tolerance in the Mughal Empire?

texts: Aurangzeb Alamgir's great-grandfather Akbar the Great (1556-1606) was famous for being religious tolerant, for abolishing the jizya tax, and attempting to end the ritual of Sati (where a wife must throw herself onto the funeral pyre of her husband if he dies). His grandson Shah Jahan continued these social efforts. What were his great-grandson Aurangzeb's motives for reversing many of these social improvements and reinstating religious persecution?


texts: In ancient Rome, did a lot of people feel guilty about owning slaves?

texts: Do we have historical evidence which shows whether significant number of people felt guilty about owning (without necessarily abusing) slaves in the ancient Roman era, e.g. 1-2 century AD?


texts: Was the attempt to take Stalingrad a distraction to the original objectives of the German Sixth Army during Case Blue in 1942?

texts:
If the objective of Sixth Army was to close the Volga to Russian shipping while simultaneously protecting the left flank of the Caucasus forces, then attacking Stalingrad could be seen as a distraction.

If the attack was a case of a change in the objectives on the fly, is there any information explaining the particulars and what objections (if any) were voiced when it came up?

Site member "Oldcat" gave me one source (David Glantz' Books) which I intend to follow-up on. However, that will take awhile. Anyone know of internet sources, readily available that shed light on this?


texts: Did ancient Egypt gain any significant cultural influence from other states/regions?

texts:
Western cultures, to the best of my understanding, can trace their roots back to Ancient Egypt. Many modern day Western cultures took influence from Rome, which in turn took influence from Greece, which in turn took influence from Egypt, but did Ancient Egypt (3100 BCE to roughly 400 BCE) take influence from another as well?

Thank you to those that take the time to answer!

Roman influence on the modern West

Greek influence on Rome

Egyptian influence on Greece


texts: Why is the name "Tecumseh" used for US Navy ships?

texts:
It is common practice to name warships after historical heroes of a nation. The US Navy had four vessel named USS Tecumseh Two of them were tugboats, but the other two were a then-cutting-edge ironclad monitor and ballistic missile submarine.

Yet Tecumseh was never the hero of the US. He was a bitter enemy, allying with the British in the War of 1812, and trying to establish a Native American state, halting US advance to the West forever.

Why is he then so honored by ship-namings? Is he deemed so gallant and cool to warrant this?

Side question: Were there other US ships named after vanquished foes (other than Confederate generals), and especially Native Americans?

PS.: I do not wish in any way suggest, that I am not OK with the ships so named, just curious. I could definitely not imagine an USS Lord Cornwallis or USS Santa Anna.


texts: How did Tenochtitlan's Templo Mayor disappear for centuries?

texts:
According to Wikipedia (amongst other sources), after the Siege of Tenochtitlan, the Templo Mayor was dismantled and a church was built over its ruins. This church would eventually become Mexico City Cathedral.

However, the Templo Mayor was there all the time, with its main building just 25-30 meters away from the Cathedral side.... only that its top was (is) 2 or 3 meters below ground. This is easily verifiable by anyone going to visit the Templo Mayor ruins, so no argument about it (other than Wikipedia's article being wrong about it being dismantled and the church being built exactly over the temple).

I always wondered about this. I know Tenochtitlan was built using the chinampas system and that Lake Texcoco doesn't exist anymore, causing the terrain to be very unstable even to this day. As an example, here's a picture of the Palacio de Bellas Artes and a very good explanation on why Mexico City is sinking into the ground (sorry, it's in Spanish) and why the Cathedral itself has sunk 12 meters to date.

To add more data to this: Templo Mayor was 60 meters high at the time of Hernan Cortes, which is around the same size as the Cathedral's towers. Yet the Templo Mayor sank at least 65 meters in less than 50 years, while the Cathedral sank 12 meters in 5 centuries.

Finally, the Codex of Tlatelolco is a depiction of a ceremony including the King of Spain. The ceremony took place at the Zocalo, which is just in front of Templo Mayor, even to these days.

  This pictorial codex was produced around 1560, showing royal
  ceremonies involving Spanish monarchs Charles V and his son and
  successor Philip II. The pictorials show the ‘’jura’’ (oath) ceremony
  of swearing the oath of allegiance to the new Spanish monarch, Philip
  II following the abdication of his father in 1556, performed in the
  Plaza Mayor of Zócalo in 1557. There are depictions of Charles V and
  Philip II, as well as the indigenous rulers of Tlatelolco and
  Tenochtitlan, (former altepetl and now parts of the Spanish capital of
  Mexico City), who along with all officials took the oath of
  allegiance. There is a written account in Spanish that differs from
  that depicted in the pictorial. The pictorial account omits the
  presence of the Spanish cabildo members.

This ceremony was only a few years after Tenochtitlan's Siege, so it's very unlikely that nobody noticed a huge pyramid with pagan statues and symbols within a few meters distance

On to my question:

If the Templo Mayor sank... why didn't all the surrounding Hispanic buildings sink at the same rate? And how did it disappear, both physically as well as  from Mexico's inhabitants' memory until it was re-discovered in 1978? How can this be explained? Is it possible that rather than disappearing, indigenous people were forced to "not to see" the building? If so, is there any documentation on this? Alternatively, is it possible that the Templo Mayor's construction (made of rocks and built and re-built 7 times, layer over layer) caused it to sink at a really high rate?


texts: How and why did trade unions in America become influenced by organised crime, but unions in Britain didn't?

texts:
There is plenty of organised crime in Britain, and there always has been. People have slandered the unions in Britain with almost every foul name under the sun, but one thing I have never heard is someone calling the unions here fronts for the mafia.

However, it's a matter of public record that some unions in America have been tainted by organised crime. Why there, and not here?

I'm making a direct comparison between Britain and America for the sake of simplicity. I believe what I've said about unions in Britain also applies to unions elsewhere in western Europe and probably other advanced economies such as Japan, but I don't know for sure.

Some people have asked how I know British unions aren't tainted by organised crime. I found this: http://www.bunker8.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/orgcrim/potter.htm

A thorough contrast between British and American underworlds can be noted in the area of labor racketeering. The contrast can be simply put: several American labor unions have along record of organized crime activity, to the point of thorough penetration in sections of the Teamsters and Longshoremen (truck drivers and dock workers -JL). However extensive charges have also been made in recent years against sections of unions like the Roofers, Carpenters, Laborers International Union, and the Hotel Restaurant Employees and Bartenders. There is no labor racketeering in Britain-a categorical statement that can be justified with amazing ease. In their 150 years of existence, British unions have been accused of many things, plausible or implausible; but to our knowledge they have never been accused of being allied with crime…

I realise that this is only one article, and I couldn't find the unabridged version, and it's from a journal I've never heard of... but really if you are asking me to prove a negative that's the best anyone can do. The article offers an answer to my question, but I'm open to others.


texts: Before 1982 the federated kingdom north of the 48 contiguous states of the U.S.A. was "the Dominion of Canada". In 1982 the basic constitutional law of Canada ceased to be an act of the British parliament, which could be amended only by the British parliament, and came entirely under Canadian control. This step is called "patriation". Did some other word replace "Dominion" after patriation?


texts: What sorts of games of chance/skill and other events would a Middle-ages/renaissance festival have?

texts:
I am a DM/GM for a role playing game, and I want to plan a large festival for the game.  I want to have it as authentic as possible, but don't know where to start.  From the various fiction sources I've read I have thought of the following:

Jousting
Archery
that strength thing at carnivals today where you hit the lever and it sends the thing up to hit the bell
?

Any others that would have been at a "typical" festival ranging between about 1000AD-1600AD?


texts: Why Californian Indian leader Estanislao was named after Polish martyr?

texts:
Researching for Polish people dealing with Indians during 19th century, I've found out about Estanislao, one of Yokuts' leaders, who led different groups of Californian Indian rebels against Mexican Government.

Name Estanislao is Spanish version of Stanislaus, chosen after St. Stanislaus, 11th century Bishop of Kraków, who was killed by Polish king Boleslaw II (the reasons for what were connected with Investiture Conflict).

The name was chosen by a missionary at San José, who baptised Estanislao when he was around 28 years old. Many sources confirm that choice, but not of them that I was able to find, speak of why this particular saint was chosen as his patron.

Is anybody interested in Californian Indian history and could put more light on that topic? What was the usual reason for choosing the patron for a person at Mexican missions?


texts: What are the counterarguments to calling German nazism a right-wing movement?

texts:
I notice that the media routinely refer to Hitler's politics as "extreme right-wing". "extreme right-wing" and "neo-nazi" have become practically a synonym.

Is this accurate?

The obvious "but" is the "socialistic" part in NSDAP name. The second would be the prosecution of Christian clergy. The third - public works program and other examples of state involvement in the economy.

What are other characteristics of Hitler-era nazism that make it wrong to call it a right-wing movement?


texts: Are there any examples of soldiers faking their death a combat before the modern era?

texts:
Let me give you a simple scenario, let's say two huge armies are attacking each other, thousands of soldiers are attacking, one of the armies starts to have a lot of casualties and begins to retreat (maybe surrounded), making soldiers escaping hard. What would prevent a normal soldier(not a king) to fake his death then escape when less troops are there?

Yes, I know it's too risky, but are there some incidences fake death happened?

(I am imagining a combat before cannons and rifles)


texts: What are the root causes of modern anti-Mexican sentiment in America?

texts:
From reading Wikipedia's Anti-Mexican Sentiment Article, it appears that America's modern Hispanophobia stems from

  [The] Texas Revolution and Texas annexation, [where] the United States inherited border disputes of the [[Republic of Texas]] with Mexico.

So, did American Hispanophobia start due to the aftereffects of the Texas Revolution and Texas annexation over 150 years ago?

Or is modern Anti-Mexican Sentiment not primarily a continuation of those aftereffects? If so, what is the root cause of Anti-Mexican Sentiment, then?


texts: What is the origin of recieving coal in a Christmas stocking?

texts:
Most of what I can find online suggests that children are threatened with having coal in their Christmas stocking if they are naughty. I'm sure that's correct in the modern day.

However I've also read that in Victorian times, a piece of coal was a normal gift to include in a stocking (perhaps for luck). Is this true? If so, when did it start to be considered a bad thing to receive coal and why?


texts: Is there contemporary evidence for the Roman Kingdom?

texts: The early history of Ancient Rome is notoriously poorly documented. The Gaul Sack of Rome (390 BC) has destroyed much early written records. What evidence do we have that remains of the Roman Kingdom? I am no expert in Roman history, but is it even certain that the Roman Kingdom existed?


texts: Did America help the Chinese nationalists to repel the communist advance?

texts:
As an answer said in this subject (What are some major military successes the Soviet Union achieved against the Western World?), it seems that the politics of USA had a great issue on the help of Tchang Kai Chek against Mao Tse Tsoung after the world war 2.

However, the nationalists lost continental China, so my question is did the Americans help Chinese, and how?

I am doubtful there was no help as the Americans had, at the end of the WW2, the entire 14th Air Force based in China.

From comments:
I am also interested in how this help was effective in fighting the communist troops and why, considering the 5th comment and the 50 000 US soldiers sent there, no more help and no more involvement was made by the USA into the fight.

Side note, I am well aware of the help given by the USA during WW2, but I am also aware that the Chinese nationalist army was not that much efficient, even in 1945. So did the American government understood this situation, and did it measure how much the Kuomintang was in danger of being defeated?

Edit:
I am interested in:

On tactical point, with the American hardware and the American advisors of WW2, did the Nationalists have a chance to win?
How have or could have the Americans help the Nationalist army in the fight against Mao's?
On strategy and politics, did the USA and USSR oppose themselves on an intervention in this war and did one of them envisage and could have made an intervention (such as reinforcing with US/USSR soldiers the Nationalist/Communist army)?


texts: What was Singapore's population in 1290-1396, 1511-1699?

texts:
Michael Barr calls 1290-1396 and 1511-1699 Singapore's first and second periods of prosperity.

Are there any estimates of Singapore's population during these two periods? (Even rough orders of magnitude would be helpful.)


texts: In WW2, what was the first employment of the VT Proximity Fuze?

texts:
The VT Fuze was a proximity fuze developed by the UK and USA for artillery shells and AA guns during WW2. They detected range to the target by radio signals using vacuum tube technology. The purpose of this was to detonate the shell at the best distance, so that the explosion and shrapnel cover a greater effective area.

I would like to know when was the first time they were used in combat?  The wiki article surprisingly has no say on this, only mentioning in passing a few uses in 1944.

The closest I've found so far is this Google Book result where it says

  The proximity fuze was first successfully emplyed in June 1943, in
  5-inch shells fired by the U.S. Cruiser Helena to shoot down a
  Japanese bomber.

However, that's the first successful use rather than the first use.  It reads as though it was the first VT Fuze that scored a kill.

I want to know what was the first actual combat that saw use of the VT Fuze, whether for regular artillery or anti-aircraft artillery.


texts: Has any country ever voluntarily admitted to genocide?

texts:
I am curious if any country has ever admitted to genocide of their own volition without being diplomatically pressured to do so, as a matter of losing a war, sanctions or other not-so-voluntary means?

E.g. the public admittance (for which I am not sure what the proper legal format is) in Germany over the Holocaust as well as other Nazi war crimes didn't even start until about 1970 when Willy Brandt went to the Warsaw Ghetto.  In addition to the long term issue of the Turkish denial of the Armenian genocide, a less conspicuous is the avoidance of Serbia (and its big brother, Russia) to acknowledge the genocide in the Bosnian war of the 1990s.  Other examples include the massacres of the Natives in the Americas etc etc, none of which have, I believe and correct me if wrong, have been acknowledged as "genocide".


texts: Why did John Ganson vote contradictorily on the 13th Amendment?

texts:
The House of Representatives originally did not pass the 13th Amendment, and on January 1, 1865 it was reconsidered and passed.  Evidently, the House first voted that day on whether to reconsider the original vote, and then voted on the amendment itself.  Here are the roll calls for the two votes:

TO RECONSIDER THE VOTE BY WHICH THE HOUSE REJECTED S.J. RES. 16. (P. 530-3)

TO PASS S.J. RES. 16. (P. 531-2)

The individual votes in the two roll calls are similar, mostly differing in predictable ways.1  The curious exception is John Ganson, who voted "nay" to reconsidering the amendment, but voted "yea" on the amendment itself.

Why did Ganson oppose reconsidering a failed vote when he wanted the amendment to pass?  If there is no evidence to come to a conclusion or conjecture in his case, what explanations could there be for anyone voting this way?

1 Schuyler Colfax, the Speaker, is absent on the first roll call (likely due to custom) but did vote on the passing of the amendment, which immediately followed.  The other differences are several members who did not vote in the first roll call but participated in the second.


texts: Why didn't the Romans set up breeding mechanisms as a main source to supplement their population of slaves instead of relying on defeated enemies?

texts: By the time of the Flavians there were large reductions in the supply of slaves, both those peacefully imported from outside the Empire and those captured in military campaigns. It was a time of decline for every large latifundia farm-households and, a little bit later, during the Antonins' rule, slaves became purely luxury items, not a source of profit. So, I'm interested: if the Romans noticed the shortages in slave supply, why didn't they set up some sort of breeding centers for slaves in order to maintain their population?


texts: When did the US adopt a special way of folding the flag?

texts:
In the US, there's a proper way to fold the flag.  From what I can tell, there is no equivalent method in the UK.

When did the US adopt this special method for folding the flag?


texts: Why did the coins of England minted under Richard I and John bear the name of Henry?

texts: From the middle Anglo-Saxon period until the reign of Edward I, England's coinage mainly comprised silver pennies bearing the monarch's portrait and name on the obverse side.  These were frequently cut into halves and quarters (farthings).  The dies for stamping the coins were had to be replaced frequently, and at least one major recoinage is known from 1205.  Why were the new dies still made with the legend "HENRICVS REX" for nearly three decades after Henry II died?


texts: What's the story behind this photo from WWI?

texts:
Warning:  the photograph below is very graphic and may disturb some viewers, hence the spoiler tag.  Click at your own risk.

The picture shows the  skeletal corpse of a dead German infantryman (the helmet is clearly German) outside a dugout shelter. It has become fairly famous, and is featured in the opening credits of the classic BBC documentary series The Great War.
The fact that the body was left in situ long enough for the flesh to decay completely suggests to me that it may be from one of the most lengthy engagements on the Western Front - perhaps  the Somme Campaign or the Battle of Verdun, either late in the battle or shortly after it ended, but this is just an informed guess.
Do we know who this man was, where and when the picture was taken, or anything else about it?


texts: What's the earliest researched based evidence for Holi?

texts:
Holi is an important festival in Hinduism, generally falling between the months of February to April, as per the relevant calculations of the Hindu Luni-solar calendar.
I'd like to have an account from some of the earliest known research based references and works, for this festival.
How has the said festival developed and evolved, over time until present?

I'd like an account not from within the Hindu scriptures cannon basex research, but through the research lenses of sociology and/or anthropology culture based relevant studies.


texts: What was the death toll of Plague of Justinian?

texts:
I am looking for approximate number of people that died in Europe during 541–542 Plague of Justinian.

All wiki has is Modern scholars believe that the plague killed up to 5,000 people per day in Constantinople at the peak of the pandemic and Frequent subsequent waves of the plague continued to strike throughout the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries, with the disease becoming more localized and less virulent. One high estimate is that the Plague of Justinian killed as many as 25 million people across the world

If I would say that it killed 5 mil how wrong would I be.


texts:
I told by my Auntie that she had a Masonic ring that came from my Great Grandfather from my mum’s side of the family and I’m skeptical if this ring she sent a photo of is really a Masonic ring. I asked her who told you this is a Masonic ring and she said my Uncle told her this. Unfortunately I can’t upload the photo due to some errors I keep coming across. But I’ll bulletpoint on what it looks like.

it has a crown
background black
shape of ring oval
has funny writing on it
it looks like an old British royal ring

That’s all I can pin down. Is there anyone that is a Masonic scholar or has Masonic knowledge about this?

I’m not saying that the picture I got from my Antie is an actual Masonic ring. The ring looks very royalist like. It has the words ”RE ME” It also has a symbol of a horse under the crown and the horse is chained to a ball.


texts: Why didn't Afghanistan accede to Pakistan in 1947?

texts: The A in Pakistan stands for Afghanistan and dates to at least 1933. When the British were quitting India in 1947 and Pakistan was forming, why didn't the Afghani's join with Pakistan. Afghani's readily supported Pakistan's interests in Kashmir and shared at least some culture. As far as I can tell, little to no effort was taken to roll any of Afghanistan into Pakistan. Why didn't the A in the vision of Pakistan not materialize?


texts: Old audio recordings showing language change

texts:
Languages change with time and pronunciation is one of the things that changes. What is interesting about pronunciation is that direct evidence of this change exists only since we invented audio recording (XIX century).

I was looking for audio evidence of pronunciation change in various languages. In particular I'm interested in finding speeches, conversations, etc. that show how a language used to sound.

What kind of people are the most likely to have such recordings? For USA, president speeches seem to go quite back (Benjamin Harrison). For France oldest president speech I found was from much later (Paul Deschanel). For Russia I found Lenin.

I'm making the assumption that a person's accent is formed in their youth which means that Grover Cleveland is likely to have morn "modern" accent than Benjamin Harrison even though the former became president first. Is this assumption correct?


texts: The Penny Wedding - what are the items in the bottom right corner and why are they there?

texts:
The Penny Wedding by Sir David Wilkie

In the bottom right corner of a painting there is a set of items - a basin, a plate... - I wonder what are these items for (the basin especially) and why are they standing there, on a floor, far away from a dining table.

UPDATE

After some googling I've found a comment on the painting at "Bride Ales and Penny Weddings" by R.A. Houston - and these items are mentioned:

  Originally entitled "The Scotch wedding", David Wilkie's painting , "The penny wedding" (1818), was geographically vague, though the Highland piper in the centre background looks decidedly out of place. Wilkie had toured the Highlands in 1817 before he painted "The penny wedding" and was particularly influenced by Perthshire. but he chose to fudge the geography of the celebration. If anything the costume is Lowland and the earlier Dutch-genre paintings of Scottish weddings on which his work drew, such as Emanuel De Witte's "The village dance" or "Lowland wedding", were explicitly Lowland, The clothing is at least a generation out of date. From this and the even older still-life artifacts in the immediate right foreground, we must conclude that the artist sought to suggest to his primarily English audience that this was something from the past. As articulations within a recognized order of symbols, clothes signified both time period and political orientation, here perhaps suggesting that Scottish society was moving on. Similarly the token Highlander indicates that the Highland threat had long passed and that Highlanders should be derided, pitied or romanticized. In Scotland itself a process of displacement was also taking place - perhaps perceptual, perhaps real - for contributory bridals became generically known during the eighteen century as "country weddings" where before they were prominently urban. Thus Wilkie drew on the ideas of the Romantic movement to give his viewers an image of what they wanted to believe about Scottish society.


texts: Why were there "Tributary States" to the Ottoman Empire?

texts:
Here's something that's always puzzled me:

Whenever there was agitation for independence in the territories struggling for independence from the Ottoman Empire, a lot of times the places concerned were granted autonomy, but not sovereignty - and the Ottoman Sultan became suzerain and the state in question had to pay tribute to the Porte.

This was true of Serbia 1817        -1878, Romania 1859-1878, Bulgaria 1878-1908, Samos 1832-1912, Crete 1898-1912, Moldavia and Wallachia 1500s-1859, Tunis 1500s-1881. In addition, there were other territories that were de facto controlled by other powers, but were de jure part of the Ottoman Empire: Bosnia 1878-1908, Eastern Rumelia 1878-1908, Crete.1878-1914, and Egypt and Sudan to 1914.

My question is, why was this done? Why was so much effort taken to accommodate and not offend the Sultan? Why did the great powers not simply annex these territories, and why were the tributary states not just declared independent?


texts: Why would high-ranking officers wear a helmet exhibiting their rank near the enemy?

texts:
Buckner had arrived with his standard three stars showing on the front of his steel helmet and a nearby Marine outpost sent a signal to Buckner's position stating that they could clearly see the general's three stars on his helmet. Told of this, Buckner replaced his own helmet with an unmarked one.

Wasn't Buckner foolish to wear a helmet with his rank anywhere near the enemy, let alone anywhere? He oughn't need to be warned not to do this, as a GFO. A GFO can (relatively) effortlessly be identified by military, but even if challenged, can have her identity effortlessly be double-checked.

Thus I spot no noteworthy advantage to wearing a helmet with rank.

Are there other GFOs killed similarly? I read this, and read that BG Dalton, BG Easley and BG Wharton were killed by enemy snipers. Were they wearing helmets with their ranks?


texts: What did Russia do in 1848 that could make the Austrians seek "brutal revanche" towards the Russians?

texts:
In the first volume of the Thalerhof Concentration Camp Almanacs (Russian title: Талергофсiй альманахъ, пропамятная книга австрiйскихъ жестокостей, изуверстствъ и насилий надъ карпато - русскимъ народомъ во время Bceмiрной войны 1914 — 1917 гг., Выпускъ первый., Терроръ в Галичине въ первый перiодъ войны 1914 - 1915 гг.), on p. 13 I read the following text (partial translation, my emphasis):

  [...] when countless armed German peasants came to Russian Galicia from Alpine regions of Austria and with a burning desire of brutal revanche towards the Russians for the year 1848 [...]

Full Russian text:

  И поэтому то въ началЪ войны, когда на русскую Галичину надвинулись несмЪтныя толпы вооруженныхъ НЪмцевъ-крестьянъ изъ альпiйскихъ краевъ Австрiи и сгорающихъ желанiемъ жестокаго реванжа по отношенiю Русскихъ за 1848 годъ — Мадьяръ, въ высшей степени возбужденныхъ своей патрiотической и „украинской" прессой протнвъ „преступнаго москвофильства" русскаго Прикарпатья, какъ общаго и преобладающаго явленiя, — трудно было бы ожидать отъ свирЪпыхЪ пришельцевъ, чтобы они были въ, состоянiи, въ тЪхъ, конечно, случаяхъ, гдЪ "украинцы" почему-либо не могли непосредственно руководить терроромъ и влiять на него, — строго различать въ толщЪ нашего народа „москвофила" отъ ,,украинца"

What exactly did Russia do to Austria in 1848 to warrant the "burning desire of revenge" on the side of its (Austrian) troops?

In Wikipedia I read that some political changes occurred in Galicia (see below), but I fail to see what it has to do with Russia.

  Galicia

  The center of the Ukrainian national movement was in Galicia, which is today divided between Ukraine and Poland. On 19 April 1848, a group of representatives led by the Greek Catholic clergy launched a petition to the Austrian Emperor. It expressed wishes that in those regions of Galicia where the Ruthenian (Ukrainian) population represented majority, the Ukrainian language should be taught at schools and used to announce official decrees for the peasantry; local officials were expected to understand it and the Ruthenian clergy was to be equalized in their rights with the clergy of all other denominations.

  On 2 May 1848, the Supreme Ruthenian (Ukrainian) Council was established. The Council (1848–1851) was headed by the Greek-Catholic Bishop Gregory Yakhimovich and consisted of 30 permanent members. Its main goal was the administrative division of Galicia into Western (Polish) and Eastern (Ruthenian/Ukrainian) parts within the borders of the Habsburg Empire, and formation of a separate region with a political self-governance.

I always thought that in 1848 Russia was Austrohungarian ally. The aforementioned Wikipedia article supports this view:

  The Hungarian revolution of 1848 was the longest in Europe, crushed in August 1849 by Austrian and Russian armies.


texts: Examples of censorship causing economic decline

texts:
I am writing a blog post about knowledge banning, either by state censorship or by self-imposed censorship, like the US Comics Code Authority of the 20th century.

My focus is moral censorship, driven by cultural and religious taboos, and not military censorship defending state secrets.

Are there any good examples of moral censorship causing a dramatic economic decline on the imposers?


texts: How prevalent was torture by the regular police force and the army in 19th and early 20th century in the US and Western Europe? When it was practiced, are there documented instances of it being effective?


texts: Proportion of footmen and soldiers to knights in battles

texts:
Im looking for some scientific articles/expert opinions on the typical proportion of footmen and soldiers to knights in small and big scale battles in the 14th and 15th century.

A summary for pretty much any region would be gladly received, but a summary for Poland, Lithuania and the Teutonic Knights would be even more welcome.

Information and statistics on knights fighting on foot (not mounted, as cavalry) would also be welcome.


texts: Did civilian cold war bunkers plan for inclusion of family pets?

texts:
At the height of the Cold War, total extermination was considered a possibility. In which case any beloved domestic pets like dogs and cats would presumably die unless included in the civilian bunker with the family.

Source: Fallout Shelter Handbook by Chuck West, 1962.

Do we know from any sources if pets were accommodated for in US, European or USSR fallout shelters?


texts: Why did the Renaissance Italians paint (pagan) Greek myths?

texts:
The Italians were very religious Catholics but why did they paint/sculpt heroes from Greek mythology? Weren't the Greeks considered pagans?

In the examples below, some artists like Michelangelo were considered to be very religious.

Years 1400-1600

Examples:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_Venus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perseus_with_the_Head_of_Medusa

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacchus_(Michelangelo)


texts: Which epidemic involved children passing notes window to window?

texts: I remember seeing some documentary footage showing children who were required to stay home during an epidemic, passing notes and small toys back and forth with a string that was strung over a street, from window to window.  I suppose it might have been in the U.S., possibly the U.K.  Which epidemic could that have been?  I would like to show some of that footage, or read a verbal description, to my son, to help him understand the current situation.


texts: Are there any details available on 1954 Afghan proposal for a merger with Pakistan?

texts:
I found a shocking declassified CIA NSC briefing on the alleged proposal here.

It claims:

  Afghanistan Foreign Minister requests U.S. aid to bring about
  Afghanistan-Pakistan merger. He claims this is the only way to keep
  Afghanistan out of increasing Soviet economic envelopment and a matter
  of life and death for his country. However, Pakistan Prime Minister,
  Mohammad Ali, who has already been approached, reportedly suspicious
  of this plan.

The document goes on about talks in Pakistani-Afghan circles on even the possibility of a confederation if not a full merger. It also claims that the Agha Khan was using his influence on Pakistan to make it happen. It also correctly assess that such negotiations were unlikely to yield any results due to internal complications (Economic differences, Pashtunistan controversy) and expected foreign opposition from Soviet Union and India. One thing is clear however that Afghan foreign ministry had already proposed it and was rebuffed quietly by their Pakistani counterparts, which is why they sought American aid in bringing the Pakistanis to the table.

I can understand why the Pakistani PM Mohammad Ali Bogra would be skeptical of any such Afghan proposals due to Afghan-instigated (Quoting CIA here) Pashtunistan controversy, Afghan refusal to acknowledge the border between the two states, Afghan close ties with Pakistan's arch rival India, Afghan-Pakistan border skirmishes and Afghan support for Faqir Ippi rebellion. But the proposal, if accepted, could also have meant an entirely alternate world in which, potentially,:

There would be no Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan
No consequent creation of Mujahideen and radicalisation of the region.
No American support for the notorious dictator Zia ul Haq.
No rise of terrorist organisations such as Al-Qaeda, Daesh, Taliban etc and therefore no 9/11 or war on terror.
Soviet Union may have survived and the World wouldn't have become uni-polar.

That's why it intrigues me. But I can't find the exact details of the proposal. Was it just an abstract idea? Or were there at least some details attached to the proposal e.g. hypothetically the Afghan King becoming the Head of State for the United Afpakistan and Pakistani government assuming all other roles or Afghanistan retaining most of internal autonomy but delegating Defence and Foreign affairs to Pakistan.


texts: I would like to identify the airplane in this photo

texts:
My Grandfather was an airplane owner in the early 1940s.  This picture was taken between 1941-1946 from what we believe.  I would like to know the make and model of aircraft so I can model it.  Any help would be wonderful
Thanks


texts:
I stumbled upon this word in one of my anthropology readings. Here's the excerpt.

  The robbers were from a tribe which had not yet submitted to French authority and were in open rebellion against it, and he wanted authorization to go with his mezrag-holder, the Marmusha tribal sheikh, to collect the indemnity that, under traditional rules, he had coming to him.


texts: Why, in old movies and TV series, do they always use such extremely exaggerated wheel turns when driving a car?

texts:
In old movies and TV episodes from the 1950s (for instance), they would frequently have a car in a studio with a background consisting of a screen showing a pre-recorded sequence of somebody driving a car. The driver always seems to be turning the wheel wildly to the left and right, without this being reflected in the background "layer".

Why do they make those exaggerated wheel turns? Surely people don't drive like that, and never have? Maybe it's supposed to show the driver correcting the course? But it seems almost like they are trying to turn the entire car.

This really bothers me. Surely an actual driver mostly keeps the wheel steady when going (seemingly) straight forward, only making small adjustments due to natural drifting, etc.? So who instructed them to make random spins of the wheel while talking? I just don't get it.


texts: Names and Genealogy of Hephtalite rulers?

texts:
Based on the data I have been able to piece together, I have found the following 3 names:

Khingila, reigned from the mid 5th century. Established the Hephtalite dynasty.
Toramana, reigned end of 5th/early 6th century. Son of Khingila.
Mihirakula, reigned 502-530. Son of Toramana.

What are the names of the kings who reigned after Mihirakula? In particular, what is the name of the Hephtalite king who was defeated by the Turco-Sassanian alliance in the 550s? By the way, were there one or several Hephtalite kings at that time?


texts:
I'm not sure but my grandfather says that it is from time of first world war. As his father served in British army during 1st world war. He(great grandfather) has done some kind of modification on it. can you guys tell all about it which can be identified through its current form.

Well i didn't mention height because as i said earlier it is modified but dimension are:diameter-7.8cm appx ,height- 11 cm appx


texts: Was there ever a case where *physically* exporting fiat money caused severe damage to an economy?

texts:
For those people who did not experience it:

During the Cold War most countries of the Warsaw Pact had ridiculously high sentences for exporting their own money. That means that if you have some coins/notes (or even stamps) left, forgot them and the border police caught you, it was entirely possible that you ended several years in prison.

This was especially annoying because the money was essentially worthless abroad.

IS there any historic case where evildoers exported huge amount of cash out of a country and were able to cause noticable damage to the economy?

Bonus points if someone can explain what the government of the countries exactly feared, or aimed to achieve, by prohibiting exporting money ?

I do not count as currency money which is like exporting goods (gold and silver from the colonies in South America): only fiat money.


texts: Did Marco Polo write about or bring back fireworks from his travels?

texts:
I have read a lot of anecdotal accounts claiming that Marco Polo was "impressed" with fireworks he saw in Cathay, and other stories that he "brought back fire crackers" or "introduced gunpowder" to Europe. For example, on the page History of Fireworks, it says "Marco Polo is credited with bringing gunpowder to Europe in the 13th century." (without any reference). Yet, when I have read the Travels of Marco Polo (in English translation), I did not see any mentions of fireworks. At one point he says farmers heaped up bamboo stalks and set them on fire to frighten animals, but this seems to refer just to the normal crackling and popping noises bamboo makes when it is set afire in large quantities, not to actual fireworks (bamboo makes a very loud cracking sound when it is set on fire, check out this video: bamboo on fire or this one (at 5:55) bamboo popping in a fire pit).

So, did Marco Polo write about or bring back fireworks from his travels, or is that just a myth?


texts:
Here is an image:

(image source)

From what i have read, the Romans never conquered Hatra yet the monuments are disinctly Hellenistic in design. Was it built by the Seleucids?


texts: Which 4 states were not present to ratify the treaty of Paris on January 14th, 1784?


texts: About what percent of people died on the Oregon Trail?

texts: On the Oregon Trail, how many people died? Or if this counts too much as trivia, about what percent died?


texts: Income versus living expense in USSR during the 1980's and 1990's

texts:
My understanding of life in the USSR was that both the salaries and living costs were more or less state controlled and fixed with very little variation.

I wanted to ask about the sizes of peoples salaries and how those compared with the living expenses.

Knowing that USSR itself was very large and had a lot of local variation on some living expenses (e.g. perhaps people on the countryside owned their homes and did not pay rent?), approximate ranges or localized examples would be sufficient.

What kind of salaries did people have in USSR in the 1980's and 1990's (before it collapsed) and how was the income allocated between the different expenses (rent, food, transportation, etc)?


texts: Did Ancient Roman insulae reach more than 10 storeys?

texts:
High-rise apartments flourished in classical antiquity. Ancient Roman insulae there and in other imperial cities reached 10 and more storeys. Beginning with Augustus (r. 30 BCE-14 CE), several emperors attempted to establish limits of 20–25 m for multi-storey buildings, but met with only limited success. (^) [Reference: Gregory S. Aldrete: "Daily Life in the Roman City: Rome, Pompeii and Ostia", 2004]

  The insulae could be up to six or seven storeys high, and despite height restrictions in the Imperial era, a few reached eight or nine storeys. (^) [Reference: http://heritage-key.com/rome/roman-living-inside-insula [dead link]]

While both above quotes are quoted from Wikipedia, it seems there is no concordance between the two in reference to how tall insulae were.

In fact, whereas the first quote refer to '10 and more storeys', the second  claims as  exceptional the case that insulae were made up by 'nine storeys'.

Can anybody shed a bit of light on this matter, possibly explaing how tall insulae were and the reason why these divergences exist?


texts: What made California Indian baskets so good?

texts:
"California Indians were among the world's most sophisticated basket makers", according to Steven Hackel in Children of Coyote, Missionaries of Saint Francis. Descriptions of the baskets emphasize the skill and the knowledge of materials that were required to weave them. One principal collector, the California State Parks, has an Indian basket collection of over 3,000 examples, and another, the Phoebe Hearst Museum, has 8,000. Basketware seems to have been a principal artistic endeavor of California natives even between faraway groups speaking unrelated languages.

I gather that in basketry, very tight weaving is a desirable feature. Some of the Californian baskets were even watertight, both for water carrying and for boiling food. Watertightness may not be limited to California, but most references I saw to waterproof baskets in other cultural contexts involved sealing the basket with pitch or urethane. According to the State Parks web site, "The ability to weave a watertight basket demonstrates the sophisticated technology and plant knowledge possessed by many California Indians." That technology is not specified.

I'm curious how these Californians managed to make such great baskets. Now, perhaps there are some native peoples of the Pacific Northwest who are in the same league, using spruce roots, and the question should apply equally to them. Since traditional techniques continued long after the contact period, it seems key materials continued to be available despite the ecological changes attendant to colonization.

These native societies valued basketware enough to devote substantial resources to making decorated baskets. But can their dedicated artistry alone explain the great results, or did they also rely on special techniques or materials that were not available elsewhere?


texts:
The Wikipedia entry about Abane Ramdane says:

  The National Liberation Front (FLN) had killed him because he was
  supposedly creating a cult of the individual rather than the
  collective leadership.1 Wikipedia (Emphasis added)

But the article is entirely based on a single reference which makes me question its authenticity.   I would like additional information to support or rebut the assertion made in this quote (that the FLN killed Ramdane because Ramdane was creating a cult of personality).


texts: Does Jewish history record Jesus's saying "I am God" or similar utterance?

texts:
I came here searching for a question regarding ancient Jewish rabbis view regarding Jesus. Are there any Jewish sources or authoritative ancient texts that show that Jesus never claimed divinity (saying "I am God") but rather only claimed to be messiah, or not even that?

Update :

As the question has migrated to history from Judaism i would like to re formulate my question for History.SE as follows:

What are the historical accounts preserved and authenticated which indicate Jesus's Claims about himself and not what others think or ascribe to Jesus.