texts:
What was the average travel time for African slaves being moved from the interior of Africa to the coast for export?

Also, how long did they tend to wait on the coast until they were exported?

I couldn't find any references on this.


texts: Is it true that first surgeons were barbers?

texts: Talking with a friend, he told me that the first surgeons were the barbers. In part it made sense as they are used to cut and cure people as they shave them. Even the striped bar red white and blue comes because of the bandages hanging outside tinted white or tinted in blood.


texts:
Was Hitler stopped because the countries he began colonizing(called - annexing/invading by historians) were Christian and European?

Well:

When European countries invaded, plundered and murdered non European countries such Abysinnia, and non Christian countries and peoples, no other European nation/power bothered. Was Hitler stopped because he was doing the same thing to European Christian countries?


texts: What did Alexander Hamilton write about Aaron Burr's daughter?

texts:
I was told by a history-loving friend that one of the reasons Aaron Burr wanted to duel Hamilton was because Hamilton had published something rather derogatory about Burr's daughter Theodosia in a local newspaper. First of all, is this true? I've searched for it but haven't found anything- Google results are covered with "Dear Theodosia", a song from the musical "Hamilton". What did Hamilton write?
My research: Like stated earlier, I've tried searching on Google for "Theodosia rumor newspaper", "Burr Hamilton newspaper", and nearly everything I can think of. Results are dominated by the musical "Hamilton", and I'm having trouble finding any other reliable sources.


texts: What are the dimensions of the house in this picture?

texts: What are the approximate dimensions of The Yeomans' House, Bignor, West Sussex, England?


texts: How did the German royal families lose power so quickly in 1918? What happened to them afterwards?

texts:
Before 1918, Germany was a federal empire. According to this Wikipedia article,

  The German Empire consisted of 27 constituent territories, with most being ruled by royal families. This included four kingdoms, six grand duchies, six duchies (five after 1876), seven principalities, three free Hanseatic cities, and one imperial territory.

Why did these monarchies dissolve so rapidly in 1918? Wikipedia says that the rulers all abdicated. But what social or political reasons caused the princes and kings to abdicate in short succession during November?

After Germany became a republic, what happened to the former royal families? Were they able to keep their wealth? Did they attempt to restore the monarchy, and why didn't it succeed?


texts: Is the Sandracottus genus of beetles named after Chandragupta Maurya?

texts:
(I'm not sure where I should be asking this question. Please move if/as appropriate.)

Sandracottus (or Sandrokottos) is how the Greeks knew the Indian emperor, Chandragupta Maurya. But it also happens to be the name of a genus of beetle. A number of the species do reside in and around the Indian subcontinent. But I'd like to know if the beetle was named after Chandragupta and if so, why and by whom? Or is it simply a case of extreme coincidence?

(The Sharp mentioned on Wikipedia appears to be David Sharp.)


texts: What were the primary sources for interrogation of US soldiers in 1943 Tunisia?

texts:
Edwin Palmer Hoyt's Hitler's War contains this passage:

  In January General von Arnim's army in Tunisia had enjoyed considerable success in limited actions against the Americans. The Germans had encountered the American 168th Infantry Regiment and had knocked it apart, capturing more than 600 prisoners. After interrogating the Americans in some depth to find out what sort of soldiers they were, the German intelligence officers came to the conclusion that they were pretty soft. The Americans were not politically indoctrinated, said their report. They did not know what they were fighting for except such things as "Mom's apple pie." They knew virtually nothing about the geography and politics of Europe. Most of them did not like their British allies. In a crisis their morale should disintegrate rapidly.

  Field Marshal von Kesselring read this report with unusual interest. He had the overall responsibility for victory in Africa, and he knew how Hitler felt about the matter. Now he had not one but two Allied armies to combat. The best course was to take on one of them and whip it soundly. The best bet was the Americans.

  On February 9, 1943, von Kesselring called together General von Arnim and Field Marshal Rommel. They met at the Luftwaffe base at Rennouch, Tunisia. The subject was the attack to be made on the Americans.

  The senior intelligence officer of the Twenty-first Panzer Division made a report. Most important to von Kesselring was the fact that the GIs were badly led. Indeed, the French and British continued to refer to the Americans as "our Italians."

Hoyt doesn't say where he's sourcing these details from.

What were the primary sources for the 1943 capture of hundreds of soldiers from the 168th Infantry Regiment, and the German intelligence officers' reports on the Americans?

Did the two different reports mentioned survive and get collected somewhere? What are some more detailed secondary sources that cite the primary sources?


texts: Why did the Arab League re-admit Egypt in 1989?

texts:
During the years 1979-1989, Egypt was suspended from the Arab League
  in the wake of President Anwar Sadat's visit to Jerusalem and 1978
  Camp David Peace Accords between Egypt and Israel. (See also:
  Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty.) Wikipedia

Why Egypt was expelled is pretty much clear (the 3 No's and all that). But what happened in 1989 that Egypt was admitted back? Did it have anything to do with the progressive collapse of the Soviet block?


texts: Who was the American settler Tolman of Kamchatka?

texts:
In To the Pacific and Arctic with Beechey: The Journal of Lieutenant George Peard of HMS Blossom, 1825–1828, Peard mentions visiting "Mr. Tolman an American Settler" in Avatcha, Kamchatka, "7 or 8 miles from Petropaulowski towards the bottom of the bay".

I've not found anything else on this fellow. Who was he and what was he up to in Kamchatka?


texts: What is this book about the Avar and Khazar Turks from the early 20th century?

texts:
I came across a book on the internet that connected the Avars to the Khazars. It was written sometime during the 1920's-40's, I think the mid 20's, by a European scholar. It never became popular. This was a while ago, and now I can't find anything like it. It's left me with that weird feeling where I question if I'm making it up. I don't remember the language. What I remember is that I saw it on a website, along with a picture of him or his book, which was yellow and orange.

He said that the Avars who invaded Europe were essentially the same people as the Khazars. I'm interested in the possibility that there was a shared interest in the Turkic elements in the Avar and the Khazar Khaganates.

What is the book that I'm thinking of? The only way that I can think of to find it, is to sift through all of the Eastern European Turkic or Slavic scholars. Maybe the book title included Khazars, Avars, or Khazaria.


texts: What do historians do when limited sources are available?

texts:
Although my area of history is focusing on 1980s and 1990s, in general, when you're studying an era of history or a particular topic and there are little to no sources available (for example, areas of Ancient Egyptian medicine, some Roman-era politics, or certain vehicle specifications for cars of the 1980s/1990s etc.) what are good ways to deal with this?
I often tend to use compare-and-contrast and primary/secondary sources if I can; Wikipedia is a tertiary source isn't it?
In general, would a historian focusing on a topic area skip over a subtopic or continue until they find sources relating to it?
I'm not sure how to do this when researching a historical topic; no current research topics at the moment.


texts: How granting Kosovo independence was a violation of international law?

texts: I heard that at that time when Kosovo was granted independence the Russia's side said that it was a violation of the international law. How was it a violation? Which points of the law were violated?


texts: Pre-columbus, what tools did Native Americans use to shave their heads and faces?

texts:
I have read that before Columbus, the Native Americans only had stone axes to cut down trees. The Europeans traded them metal axes in exchange for beaver furs. The metal axes cut down trees much faster than stone axes and were thus greatly favored.

But the Native American traditions of shaving their heads and beards seems to go way back before Columbus. What tools did they use to do this? Stone axes or stone knives seem pretty painful to the point of impossibility.

If it matters, I'm most interested in the Native American tribes in the plains and woody areas of North America. This would be approximately the eastern half of the continent.


texts: What were the Government Press Prosecutions of 1858 and why did they occur?

texts:
In the second chapter of On Liberty, John Stuart Mill mentions in a note the "Government Press Prosecutions of 1858". He further writes that "The offence charged was not that of criticising institutions, or the acts or persons of rulers, but of circulating what was deemed an immoral doctrine, the lawfulness of Tyrannicide."

What events prompted the Government Press Prosecutions of 1858 and how did the government respond? Is this event known under any other name?


texts:
I read random descriptions of Germany's attack on the Soviet Union, and I got the impression that besides tanks, the armies carried with them millions of horses and that the bulk of the soldiers were planned to reach Moscow and Caucasus on foot (which is really a feat even for a tourist).

Is my impression correct?


texts: Where can I find maps and other historical resources / references of Calcutta / Kolkata in the Victorian era?

texts:
I am doing some historical research on a project and need some maps, references on Calcutta in the Victorian Era, somewhere between the 1850's and 60's. Does anyone know some good sites / books where these can be found?
I tried google, but most of the references I found were from the 1900's and onward, not before.


texts: What regiment is this (~1826-1861) French cuirass cavalry uniform?

texts:
I would be grateful if you would take the time to look at the uniform in this photograph and suggest a regiment.  I have included some background information and hope you might have some ideas for me to pursue.
This is a photo of GEORGE FELIX ALIX he was Born 24 February 1808 St Germaine de Tournebut, Manche son of Martin Allix and Jeanne Marguerite Dufour and died 28 September 1877 at 40 Rue La Croix, Paris.  He married my 3X Great Aunt Susan (Suzanne) Mary Hill in Paris 10 May 1858.  Susan was born in England in 1820 her father was Charles Hill, former Troop Sergeant Major 3rd King’s Own Light Dragoons, then Deputy Governor Leicester County Gaol until his death in 1848 and said to be a relative of General Lord Hill – Wellington’s right hand man.
This photo of George was taken by Rene Dagron supposedly around 1861.  My assumption is that he was wearing his old uniform in this photo supposedly taken about 1861, and that his military service was actually in the period 1830s to 1850s - considering he was born in 1808.  Of course he may have just been in a “dress up” or pretend costume for the photographer.
It was sent to me by a relative along with the matching portrait of his wife Susan.  These photos were said to have been displayed at the London International Fair 1862.
It is said that George fled Paris on a couple of occasions to escape war – and an old letter says “they lost a lot in Alsace- Lorraine because of Bismark” around 1870 but this would have been way after he had done Military service due to his age.   I have recently found the amazing searchable records of Manche which have helped me crack his lineage but can find no military records for him.  I know he was well off because he sent a very large sum of money to Susan’s brother artist Charles Hill in Adelaide, South Australia, along with copious amounts of alcohol.  Apparently he also had something to do with the St Germain Railway – no luck in research there either.  What is clear is that he was sending his assets out of the country to avoid them being confiscated by the 3rd Republic (or something like that.) He was then a Royalist?  There was mention of a connection with the Duke du Chambord - hearsay is one thing and fact another.   I feel if I can identify this uniform that it might open another avenue.

Contents of the image: Middle aged full bearded man with long hair.  Curaiss with two light fabric sashes joined mid chest. Single breasted low hip dark jacket.  White mid-forearm gloves.  White trousers.  Black or dark polished shoe boots dull to above knee OR black or dark polished boots with black or dark boot gaiters to above the knee. Left hip straight cavalry sword. Unidentifiable soft high hat dark with white edging in background.


texts: Changing troops in first line during battle?

texts:
I remember Caesar in De Bello Gallico mentioning Romans changing fighting/resting troops in some siege defense while Celtic attackers didn't do this and lost the battle because of it. This is just one mention but I'm interrested in the whole phenomenon of changing first line troops in the battle throughout history (up to Middle Ages).
EDIT: It's much harder to change tired or wounded soldiers for fresh ones in a melee than in a ranged combat. That's why I'm interrested in periods and cultures when melee combat dominated - we all know that this tactics is quite common nowadays, but it's not so clear how common it was when mostly melee combat made it harder to use.

Are there any battles or generals that were notable for the fact that they successfully used this tactic of changing front-line troops in the middle of the battle?


texts: Were there ever actual organizations of pirates?

texts:
You can see depictions of pirate organizations in popular media a fair bit. For example, in many movies, and the Captain Morgan commercials. But I get the impression from my readings that most pirate crews operated independently from each other. Of course there were government-sponsored privateers, but their only connection with each other would be that they were sanctioned by the same country.

So were there ever actual organizations of pirates? If so, what were they?


texts:
China is the world's most populous nation. But why is it?

In other words, what historical factors made China as populous as it is today?


texts: How far would the average Silk Road caravan travel during the early reign of Justinian?

texts: So what I am asking is not the total travel distance that the Caravan would travel in a lifetime; instead I am asking how far they would tend to go one-way on a two-way trip and how long that trek would normally take. The Indian ocean trade is not included and I am only speaking of the routes that go from China to east Rome.


texts: When did the first electronic money transfer / digital transaction happen using computers?

texts:
I tried to find out when the first digital transaction using computers happened, but could not find a specific date. By digital transaction I mean a money transfer between two banks (I assume it was between banks at the beginning) involving an electronic mean, not banknotes, coins, notes of hand or similar.

According to Wikipedia, the very first electronic (wire) transfer was done using the telegraph in 1872 (or shortly before):

  The first widely used service for wire transfers was launched by
  Western Union in 1872 on its existing telegraph network.

However, I cannot find any information about using a computer for a similar purpose.


texts: How can Germany be blamed for World War 1?

texts:
I am going to be participating in a debate about who started world war one and I have been assigned the role of accusing Germany.
I do know that Germany was allied with the Austria-Hungarian empire, who were weakening at the time, and therefore Germany tried to rush other countries in to a war before Austria-Hungary became to weak to provide much help for Germany.


texts: How can I evaluate the relative fiscal burden on different groups in the US, for various periods between 1790 and 1846?

texts:
What are some good ways to evaluate the relative burden of government finance on different groups in the US, for various periods between 1790 and 1846? I'm especially interested in state and local governments and on things other than tariffs (but tariffs are cool too).
The "groups" I am mostly interested in are "class" (based on things like levels of income/wealth/education/labor status), indigenous group, industry sector, and region.
I'm not just looking for quantitative or final answers; qualitative answers and ways to approach the question would also be welcome.
related questions: here
things I have found that seem useful:

here
here, h/t to Brian Z

I chose 1846 as the breakpoint because of the Walker Tariff; feel free to critique that choice.


texts:
How the Japanese political elite has been changed after WW2?

I've read that the aristocracy was effectively removed from power, while middle ranking officials and bureaucracy have preserved their positions.
Such a removal sounds a little bit too bold to be true, e.g. in post-war Germany quite a number of members of the elite were former Nazis.

What role do descendants of aristocratic families play in modern Japan?


texts: Did the break up of AT & T in 1984 lead to technological innovation?

texts:
Are there examples of technologies developed since 1984 that would not have been likely to be developed had the Bell system stayed intact rather than being broken up by the US government?

Let's pose some specific subquestions:

(a) which post-1984 technologies have Bell Labs antecedents?

(b) What were the main topics on which Bell Labs was working in the 1970s and early 1980s?


texts: Is there evidence that scrubbing floors on one's hands and knees was a commonplace drudgery for women in the past?

texts:
Scrubbing floors on one's hands and knees is a common image used to highlight the drudgery and poor social status of women in the past.

Was cleaning floors in this way actually common in the past or is this hyperbole?


texts: What were the most common reactions to Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott?

texts:
I'm curious about the general reactions to historical events in civil rights by people wanting to keep the status quo. However, this information is hard to find. News clippings I can find are generally positive towards these figures. The opposing commentary, especially ones of very poor quality such as in tabloids, appear to be rarely clipped and digitized. This makes it hard to get a peek into the mind of the average person. In general, the climate and events in the time period between the start and end of the processes seems to rarely be discussed in the googleable literature.

So with that background established I'm curious, in relation to Rosa Parks and the Bus Boycott:

What were some general immediate reactions to this by the population, immediately following the protests? Outrage (how dare they), Apathy (who cares it's only a bus)...?
Most sources appear to be American, did this event get any attention outside of the US?
What were some common arguments and narratives in the general population?
Which arguments were used to discredit the protests, beyond the well-known allegations of the protest being planned ahead of time and Parks being a Communist?


texts: What was the average price of Škoda Favorit in Poland around 1991?

texts:
I am looking for the average price of a Škoda Favorit in Poland around 1991 (1992 would be appreciated as well)
I cannot find this information online anywhere.

I have found price of this car and other cars in the year 1994 here (although the article is in Polish) if anybody is interested.

I wonder how much the prices have changed over those 3 years.

I am having trouble finding this information and it's an interesting time period because it was right after the fall of communism in 1989.


texts: To what extent does the popular memory of Bismarck today differ from the historical reality?

texts:
I'm interested in what discrepancies there may be, between the reality of Bismarck versus the image created in the Collective Memory of Germans. In what ways does the popular impression of Bismark today differ from the actual person, according to historians?

Especially in relation to what comes later in German history: Hitler and the Nazis, Has there been any sign of Bismarck's rough edges, so to speak, being smoothened out, so that Germany can keep at least one important figure clean of the taint of National Socialism?


texts: Are there Indian accounts of the Battle of the Hydaspes Rivers?

texts:
Are there Indian accounts of the Battle of the Hydaspes River?

If so, what are they, who authored them, and how do they differ from the Greek & Roman accounts?


texts:
Dame Vivienne Westwood uses a "tank" to protest fracking. It's not a tank, but a strange Armored Personnel Carrier that I cannot identify.  The markings indicate it is the "Tank Limo" hired from Tanks-A-Lot.  It has seven road wheels, three return rollers, a front sprocket drive, a squat turret with what is likely a low velocity cannon, and a large crew door in the rear.

The web site indicates it is a Cold War relic and may be a prototype.

  A bit of a special not only fitted with a turret for when it was on the Berlin wall, and one of only 13 ever made but she also had some strange mine laying or clearing gismo on its rear which we binned.

It looks like a stretched FV432, but who stretched it and why?

I found another reference to a turreted FV432 used to patrol the Berlin Wall.  It does not appear to be stretched.


texts: Are there any good histories of industrial production during WW1?

texts:
I have been reading recently about US industrial production during World War 2, and keep finding passing references to legacies of the war production effort in World War 1. I would like to get a more holistic view.

For example, I see Herman refer in Freedom’s Forge to Bernard Baruch “pull[ing] that War production effort back from the brink of chaos in the summer of 1917”. Elsewhere (can’t readily re-find it at the moment), I read a short description of troubles at the northeastern shipyards. I also read a fascinating transcript of congressional testimony on battleship design by the navy admiral in charge of procurement.

I am especially interested in the technical and project management aspects of the war production effort, though I recognize that there may not be many books which cover that angle. I am most interested in how the production was achieved, less so in the labor history or technical details of the materiel produced (though they may be closely related).

I am also primarily interested in the US war production effort, but don’t need something exclusively dealing with the US.


texts: What happened to insurance companies after the 9/11 attacks?

texts:
The insurance industry had a bad day on 9/11. Few would imagine a loss of literally everything (the office, the objects, the building and even the people). Of all possibile outcomes, this was the worst of the worst.

What was actually insured from this attack? Was the World Trace Center itself covered by insurance? If I was a business man and brought a place in the building, would I have had insurance?

In the aftermath, what happened? Did the insurance industry pay it all? Did they go broke?


texts: How much of a role did Sakamoto Ryoma play in overthrowing the Shogunate?

texts: Sakamoto Ryoma is often portrayed in the Japanese media for his role in attempting to overthrow the shogunate during the Bakumatsu period. Since he was assassinated when he was still very young, the Japanese media are very sympathetic to his cause. I wonder how much of a  role did he actually play in overthrowing the Tokugawa regime?


texts:
Why, in ancient battles, did being encircled mean defeat?

The classic example of that is the Battle of Cannae, where 80,000 Roman infantry were surrounded by 40,000 Carthaginian infantry.

Every description of the battle that I've seen talks in detail about how the Romans came to be encircled, but gives a hand-waving argument for why that was bad for them.

Wikipedia and other sources say that the Romans turned around and fought in a circle (It's not like individual Roman soldiers were being attacked from their unprotected sides or back).

Another "disadvantage" that's cited is that they were packed too tight, and didn't have room to wield their weapons. Presumably, they are saying that the Romans interlocked their shields. But couldn't they rotate their shields to create the necessary gaps between them?

Ancient battles are often described as a shield wall pushing against another shield wall. Since the Roman wall had a higher density of soldiers, wouldn't that let them push better, giving them the ability to dictate the position of said wall, expanding the circle?

One potential advantage of the encircled army is that its communication lines are shorter.

Are there any examples of ancient battles where encirclement did not mean defeat, that is, the encircled side broke out and went on to win the battle?


texts: Who built the shrine of Hilal ibn Ali in Kashan, Iran?

texts: The shrine of Hilal ibn Ali is an incredible piece of architecture but yet I cannot find any info online about who built it and when!


texts: What music did a Napoleonic era campaigning soldier hear?

texts:
I'd like to know what sort of music the common soldier would have heard while on campaign, regardless of nationality.

For instance: What was the Imperial Guard singing on entering Russia? What sort of thing did the English listen to on a night in the Spanish wilderness? What were the Bavarians singing as they marched for Wrede?

Edit

Let's make it more specific: what would a few conscripts belonging to a French line battalion be listening to around the camp fire a week before Leipzig 1813? They're camped somewhere safe and the higher officers are entertaining an adjutant that swung by on his way back to the divisional command, and are unlikely to be seen until the morning. There's a bottle being passed around and they're all in good spirits. Young Piere the drummer boy has been given a few tots of rum and someone's dragged a fife from out of their haversack.

What would they be playing, and was there much singing, either from the soldiers themselves or camp followers?

Are there any recordings also knocking around?

Edit 2

There's already been some great answers, and I've enjoyed reading them all. Thanks!

As broadly confirmed in the answers already given, I thought they'd all be singing folk songs. I'd like, if possible, to know which folk songs might be sung in my fictitious setting (or one like it).

This is a very meandering question, and I'm sorry for that. Normally I'm a little more focused on Stack Exchange sites. This is one of those questions where more than one answer deserves acceptance.


texts: Were ancient Israel's neighbors henotheistic?

texts: Chemosh seem to be the god of the Moabites. Moloch was the god of the Amonites. Do they worship only one God too, like Israel?


texts: Was the Titanic tragedy at least partly avoidable?

texts: Was there any way that Titanic's collision with the iceberg could have been avoided after the iceberg had been spotted?  Could the ship have been saved from sinking by the pilot or captain after the iceberg was sighted?  Was it possible for more passengers to have been saved?


texts: How does citizenship work during revolutions and similar upheavals?

texts:
For example, on October 1st 1949, the People's Republic of China (PRC) was proclaimed. Would hundreds of millions of people then suddenly have switched from being citizens of the Republic of China (ROC) to the PRC?

I was inspired to ask this question because Tu Youyou has been heralded as the first science Nobel Prize winner from China (presumably meaning the PRC).

But Yang Chen-Ning and Lee Tsung-Dao also won the Physics Nobel Prize in 1957. According to Wikipedia, both moved to the USA in 1946, but became US citizens only in 1962 and 1964. So what was the citizenship of these two men when they won the Nobel Prize in 1957? The PRC or the ROC or something else?


texts: Are tanks the only reason for the abandonment of trench warfare?

texts:
The First World War in the West was for 4 years restricted to trench warfare. Gaining enemy territory cost many human lives for both sides. The main (or maybe most spectacular) battles were Verdun and Somme (both 1916) which led (sources vary) to a combined loss of 2 million men.

The war was won by the Entente because of many factors, but the most important seem to be the USA joining on her side and the bad economic conditions of Central Powers. New weapons should also not be forgotten: planes and tanks.

The national catastrophe made France to adopt a defensive strategy (Maginot Line, "phoney war"). Although tanks had been first used in a battle in 1917, they did not play the main role in Entente's victory; they however did in 1940 during the German conquest of France, and later they became the main land force on flat terrain.

World War 2 battles lacked trench warfare (some exceptions are given on Wikipedia page). It was present in fortified islands on the Pacific (where terrain prevented mass use of tanks). In later conflicts it was also infrequent.

I think that the development of air forces is another form of artillery, the only reason I can think of are the tanks. A tank is a major step in a firepower-armour race, and also provides mobility to attacking forces (Blitzkrieg as the top example).

Were tanks the only reason for the ending of trench warfare or are there any other factors?


texts: Why does Latin America have a higher number of surviving Native Americans than North America?

texts:
Despite having the same disease susceptibility and technological inferiority against the Europeans, it seems that Native Americans have much more surviving descendants in Latin America compared to North America (today's US and Canada). In many Latin American countries, Mestizos (people of combined European and Native American descents) are majorities or large minorities, while in almost all of US states or Canadian provinces, Native Americans (or mixed) are small minorities.

Why is it so? This related question hints the different Catholic vs Protestant culture, tendency of the Spanish/Portuguese colonizers to intermix while English settlers brought women with them. But still, even in former Spanish territories in the US, such as California, Louisiana or Florida, there's still low number of Native American descendants.

Here is a map of the proportion of native descendants from Wikipedia:


texts: What was the first known war in history?

texts:
Not the first instance of warfare, which surely predates recorded history, but of an organized war between civilizations. For the purposes of this question I'll define a war as:

Defined scope: the war had a beginning, and end, and specific belligerents. Not an ongoing state of hostility between people groups.
Dedicated fighting force: the war was fought by a military of some kind, rather than armed commoners who skirmished when they happened to meet.
State-driven: Military action was enacted by one or more governments. (One state campaigning against disorganized tribes would count.)

The earliest war I can find a description of is Sargon's conquest of Sumer at the Battle of Ur in c. 2271 BC, which led to the establishment of the Akkadian Empire. I suspect there were earlier documented conflicts in Sumer or other very early agricultural civilizations.


texts: Was Russo-Polish of 1919-1920 a war of independence?

texts: What evidence is there to call the 1919-1920 conflict between Poland and the Soviet Union a "war of independence"?  As for a definition of independence, I would say it is a full political, legal, and military independence from another state -- for example, a vassal becoming independent in a war. Note this is based on a comment on this answer.


texts:
The Swiss region of Upper Valais is a German speaking region which is physically isolated from all other German speaking regions. The dialect spoken there is so different from other Swiss-German dialects, that they can only communicate in Hochdeutsch with other Swiss Germans (as a comparison, normally Swiss Germans from different regions speak different dialects but they are mutually intelligible for them). (I do not have any written proof, it's just what some Swiss-German friends told me)

The region of Upper Valais is only connected to the region of Berne through the Lötschberg pass and to the region of Uri through the Furka pass, both of those are very high and were difficult to come across before railways tunnels were pierced. On the other hand, the region is physically connected to the French speaking Lower Valais and the remaining of Romandie.

It makes sense that is would have been much easier for French speaking people to settle in that region than from Germanic tribes. Even after Germanic tribes would settle there, the intense contact with French speaking people and isolation from Germanic world should logically have taken effect.


texts: How many tons of bombs were dropped on Britain between 1940 July 10 and September 7?

texts:
1940, July 10 to September 7, was the part of the Battle of Britain before the Blitz. In other words, it was the part where the Luftwaffe primarily focused on airfields, factories, and if I'm not mistaken, major ports.

I would like to know how many tons of bombs the Luftwaffe dropped all over Britain during this time?

(I do not want to include the Blitz, starting on September 7, because the Luftwaffe switched targets to mass area bombing, primarily targeting housing. If you're interested in just the Blitz, I did find this article which says 50k tons of HE bombs and 110k tons of incendiary bombs were dropped from September to May.)

I did also stumble across this archived letter which claims that Germany dropped a total of 74,172 tons of bombs on Britain. But it does not explicitly give a time range for that. The context of the letter seems to indicate that it was for the whole war, but in that case 74k tons seems impossibly low.

Besides those two things, I did not find any numbers to answer my question during my internet searches.


texts: How did nobles upon the Grand Tour evade or mitigate the danger of banditry?

texts:
The era of the Grand Tour was rife with banditry; and yet the rite of passage remained popular amongst the aristocracy.

What reported methods did nobles use to either evade banditry or mitigate the outcome?

Popular route for 18th century English nobles:

Source: Indiana University

Example of rural banditry:

Source: William Powell Frith's 1860 painting of 17th century highwayman Claude Duvall


texts: What did the technologies of von Braun and other members of the Third Reich contribute to America's lead in the race to moon against Russia?

texts:
Wernher von Braun was lead constructor/technologist for the Apollo missions, and provided his knowledge about rocket science, which he used/learned during WW2 when constructing the V2 (along with some other german rocket-scientist which emigrated also to the United States and worked on projects there after WW2). So, this is maybe a hypothetical question, but would the Americans have been able to reach the moon without him or the other German scientists? (And if so, would it have been at 1969 or years later?)

How important was his role, and how good was the american knowledge about advanced rocket science without including the knowledge they gained from the germans after winning WW2? I have never heard about advanced american rocket-technology before von Braun emigrated there, did they even engage with this topic before 1945?

Wikipedia only states that he had the leadership in several projects including the Apollo Mission and the Saturn V rocket.

Edit: i changed question. They could have reached the moon anyway, but more interesting is, if they had a chance to beat russia without the third reich technology. I guess america would have done the same as russia did when they lost the race. Stop the program because it was to expensive and they already had lost.

Also removed the word Nazi, because this lead to discussions which are not on topic of the question.


texts: Is there a complete list of German cities bombed by the Allies in WWII?

texts:
I was doing some reading on the Allied Bombing Campaigns in WWII and found it strange that I couldn't find a specific source that listed all of the German cities bombed in WWII.  I had found numerous references for a dozen to two dozen major cities, but other sources said there were 60 and some said 100.

I don't believe that would be classified information as it was over 70 years ago.  Is there some reference that lists all of the cities?


texts: Was Byzantine land incredibly cheap compared to bread?

texts:
I am reading the fascinating THE ECONOMIC HISTORY OF BYZANTIUM, available here.

I gather that 1 modios of land was something less than 3000 square metres and for the best land was worth about 1 nomisma. (p. 821).

The price of bread is not known, but is estimated at 5-8 folles per Kg “second quality bread” (p. 829)

As far as I know, the nomisma is the 24 carat solidus, worth 420 folles! Can it really be that you got 3000 m2 of excellent land for 50-80 loafs of bread?! If we adopt Mr De Bernhardy’s estimate in the comments, it would mean the value of land compared to bread is 10 times lower than now in France.

Edit:
If we assume an alternate modios mentioned in the comments, it’s 50-80 Kg of bread for 890m^2.
This would mean, if we adopt Mr. De Bernardy’s estimate, that the value of land as compared to bread was 3 times lower than now.

Edit

In response to the clever comment about other meanings of „modios“, it seems certain from their tables (p. 818) that they mean a unit of area:


texts: Were the arches on medieval bridges large enough to permit river traffic?

texts:
I’ve been looking through the Civitates Orbis Terrarum to get a sense of the way Medieval cities and their surroundings were organized, but there are some questions I haven’t been able to answer about the logistics of river trade.

Were the arches on any bridges large enough to permit river traffic to pass under them? If not, would a river boat simply ferry up- and downriver between bridges? (i.e., would goods commonly have to be loaded and unloaded multiple times along the same river?)

Is this bridge, for example, large enough to accommodate a barge? (Lincoln High Bridge, built 1160 CE) Where I’m from, they need to raise the bridges to let barges pass.

(Edited to narrow scope)

EDIT 2: Thanks to everyone who’s responded so far. I know there were some bridges clearly able to accommodate river traffic, but a river is only as navigable as the smallest bridge along its course. If there is any single bridge your boat can’t fit under, it’s an impassible barricade, no matter how many other bridges will let you pass. If they ran into a bridge like that, did they haul the barge over land? Or, per my original question, did a barge only travel as far as bridges would allow it, requiring goods to be transferred between multiple boats over the course of their transport?


texts: Have any large scale cultural or ideological shifts ever been successfully reversed by those who opposed it?

texts:
Looking at the current political and cultural scene in many societies, one sees a pattern of tension between on one hand modernists and progressives, who see themselves as moving forward and being on the right side of history, part of some Hegelian historical process that is almost inevitable.

And on the other hand conservatives and traditionalists who see the new values and cultural norms being imposed on them as aberrant and irrational, and wish to return their society or community back to the way it was decades or centuries before.

Consider for example gay marriage, there are those who ideally would like to go back to where marriage was between a man and woman, i.e they want to reverse the changes that were brought about by the LGBTQ movement. But I wonder, has any such reversal ever been achieved before?

Are there any historical cases, were there was a definite move towards a new ideological or cultural direction, which then got reversed by elements of the society which wished to return the "old ways"?

I'm tempted to say that the decline of various empires (Roman, Persian, Arab, etc...) might be interpreted as such reversals, but upon further thinking, I don't see anything specially ideological about those declines, nor was any particular group pushing for some sort of reversal at the time (were there such groups?).


texts: Under German-Nordic heraldic tradition, can arms pass through the female line?

texts:
My understanding of German-Nordic heraldry is that the arms belong to the family name, rather than the person.
So with that in mind, let's say the original armiger has a daughter. Is she entitled to inherit, and use, and pass down the arms to her children? Would the children's arms be quartered with her husbands? (For simplicity, imagine a matrilineal marriage where the female name persists in the cast of this part of the question.)
I am referring to the 19th century; that I should included. In heraldry Germanic-Nordic refers to German, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish, Finnish, and Icelandic heraldry. I am interested in an answer pertaining to this; as my post is about Germanic-Nordic heraldry... not Gallo-British nor Latin nor Eastern heraldry.


texts: The role of the two world wars in the evolution of Fordism

texts:
What is the role of the two world wars in the evolution of Fordism ?

I've read that Fordism entered Europe due to the WW I, but I've also read that the Fordism began to be effective after the WW II. Because in the 1920s and 1930s, there were too much inequalities and so Fordism led to surproduction. But this was not the case after the WW II.

Is it true ? Have you further information on the role of the world wars, even in the U.S. ? Is it the "militarization" of the society that permitted to give to Fordism a stature ? Thank you very much.


texts: What is the earliest known reference to the phrase 'water of life'?

texts:
In many languages, the general term for distilled spirits (whisky, brandy etc) translates in modern English to 'Water of Life'.

Latin - Aqua Vitae
French - Eau de Vie
Gaelic - Uisce Betha

As a hobbyist in fine alcohol I'm curious of both the earliest known reference to this phrase, as well as it's likely origins, but the best I can come up with is 'likely much earlier than the Medieval period' from Wikipedia.


texts: Why have Polish kings been such a "mixed bag?"

texts:
"Mixed bag" is an American term that might be translated as "apparently random." I'll date the question from the mid-16th century Union with Lithuania until 1795.

During this time, there was a French noble who later became a king of France, a Hungarian named Stepan Batory, some heirs to the Swedish throne, and a couple of kings from Saxony named Augustus. Plus a collection of the "usual suspects," [Casablanca], that is high-ranking Polish nobles.

Why such a disparate collection of rulers? Did Poland have an electoral system instead of a hereditary monarchy? And if yes, did such a system mean that at least some rulers were "nobodies" like America's Warren Harding?

(Warren Harding, a very mediocre President, was chosen BECAUSE of his mediocrity. That is, there were three strong candidates at the Republican convention, none of whom would  yield to the others. So Harding was chosen as the "least common denominator" acceptable to everyone. Once nominated by the Republicans, he was a heavy favorite because "sectionalism" meant that the only Democrat who had a chance of being elected President from 1860-1932 was the Governor of New York.)


texts: Was Haile Selassie the world's only involuntary messiah?

texts:
History is full of supposed Messiahs and Saviors who founded religious movements and/or identified themselves as saviors (e.g. Joseph Smith and Raël). (By contrast, some messiahs were only venerated posthumously, possibly obscuring their actual wishes and intentions.)

Haile Selassie is a possibly unique example of an involuntary living messiah. Rastafarians considered his ascension to the Ethiopian throne to fulfill predictions of Marcus Garvey and the Book of Daniel. Selassie treated his unorthodox adherents respectfully, meeting them when he visited Jamaica in 1966 and allowing some to move to Ethiopia. He arranged to send an Ethiopian Orthodox mission to Jamaica and had no direct involvement in the Rastafarian movement.

Did anyone else happen to find themselves identified as a messiah for thousands of believers during their lifetime? Of course, a similar story was the premise of the comedy film "Life of Brian". Let's exclude quasi-religious subjection in the form of the divine right of kings or celebrity worship syndrome.

Or was Haile Selassie the world's only involuntary messiah?


texts: What is the history behind Library of Congress becoming/being the world's biggest library?

texts:
What is the history behind Library of Congress being the world's biggest library? It is rather new because USA is a rather young country. One would expect some library in Paris or London, or maybe the Vatican library, to be bigger, simply because they have been going on much longer (and should have had more resources up until WW2 or so).

(There was no Library tag available, could someone add that?)


texts: Is the argument for a means test on public education a new one?

texts:
In the United States, the last Democratic debate a widely discussed proposal for free tuition for all students who attend public Universities ( State and Land-Grant Universities ) came up.

Democratic Candidates Spar Over Free College at Debate

Not to get into the merits of the issue or who supports what position; broadly most of the Democratic Candidates on the stage support this plank.  Some disagreement still exists on the universality of the program.   A few supported extending the policy to all students independent of means.  Most on stage wanted to exclude wealthy families from the program.  ( only the lower 90% of Americans, by household incomes should benefit from the program ).

It occurred to me this might not be the first time such a discussion was held.  Given distinct universal elementary and high school debates have already taken place historically.

My Questions are:

Was this argument to exclude people of means used in the elementary or high school public school debates in the 19th and early 20th centuries?
Given the Elementary School and High School movements spanned centuries and decades respectively in the U.S., How popular were they?   Did they have broad support among the populous or were they more a pursuit of a handful of supporters who gradually moved them into law?

I framed these questions with regards to the United States history but any country's historical perspective pertaining to the above issues should be well received, and interesting.

Short History on the Century long Public Elementary and High School reforms which went on in the United States.

Public Elementary School Timeline in the US (1635 - 1918):

April 23, 1635, Boston Latin opens, becoming both the oldest public school in America and the first public school in the United States
1642, Puritan Massachussets passes the "Old Deluder Satan Law" becoming the first colony to have compulsory public education, “It being one chief project of that old deluder, Satan, to keep men from the knowledge of the Scriptures, .... “it is therefore ordered … that everie Township [of 100 households or more] in this Jurisdiction" be required to provide a trained teacher and a grammar school, at taxpayer expense.
1840s, education crusaders Horace Mann of Massachusetts and Henry Barnard of Connecticut began calling for free, compulsory school for every child in the nation.
1852 Massachusetts passes the first compulsory school law
1918 all American children were required to attend at least elementary school.  In 1918, Mississippi was the last state to enact a compulsory attendance law.

Public High School Timeline in the US (1910 to 1940):

  The American High School Movement
  In 1910 18% of 15- to 18-year-olds were enrolled in a high school; barely 9% of all American 18-year-olds graduated. By 1940, 73% of American youths were enrolled in high school and the median American youth had a high school diploma.


texts: How do Tamahagane, Damascus, and Toledo Steel compare?

texts:
Has a comparison been made of the qualities of Samurai (Tamahagane), Damascus and Toledo steel (rather than the swords)? I've seen claims for each being better than the others.

If it's on topic, I'm also interested to know how they compare against modern steel.


texts: Why were Arians outnumbered on the First Council of Nicaea?

texts:
Constantine was baptized by an Arian bishop a few years after the Council of Nicaea. His sons were Arians. At least the leadership of the Visigoths that sacked Rome where Arians. That was in 410, only 85 years after Nicea (325).

Yet there were only 2 Arians of 300 Bishops in the Council of Nicea that was convinced enough of Arianism to refuse to sign the Nicene creed.

So why were there so few Arians on the First Council of Nicaea?

In quora people said that the majority of "Arians" were in the west of the empire and hence too far from Nicea. So very few of Arians were in Nicea. Another theory is that Arians were a new idea. I want to know which one is true.

Here are similar questions in quora:

Why were Arians underrepresented at the First Council of Nicaea?

How was the representation of bishops at the Council of Nicea determined?

Note: I've heard a theory that most Arian supporters were in the west and Nicea is far away in the east. Also, most Christians at that time, did not consider the Trinity/homoousion a "big thing". They did not think it would concern them. I forget the source.

That is why very few western bishops came in and that explains why Arians were outnumbered. Still, I want to know more about this aspect of history.


texts: Could the Soviet Union have supported Czechoslovakia primarily by air in 1938?

texts:
The Soviet Union was bound by treaty to support Czechoslovakia in 1938. One "sticking point" was that the Soviet Union would have to cross Polish and/or Romanian territory to do so.
Was there a possibility that the Soviet Union would had been able to obtain permission from one or both countries to use their airspace only? If so, under the circumstances:

How did the Soviet air force of the time "stack up" vis-a-vis the German and Czech air forces (assuming that the Soviets and Czechs would be fighting side by side)? How much damage could such air units do to German ground forces?

How possible was it to for the Soviet Union to airlift troops and resupply them over such distances?


texts: Is any telegram from the Pacific Scandal preserved?

texts: Are there any existing telegrams of communications between the various members of Canada's Pacific Scandal? If so, where can I find them? I want to know how all the different players acted, and what they did once the allegations were made.


texts:
Throughout the first millenium of Japanese history (and before that even) the Japanese rather steadily expanded up Honshu.
Once they had taken the whole of Honshu however they seemed largely to stop. Throughout the Edo period their dealings with Hokkaido were very limited to just small scale trading posts, there was never any serious attempt to actually expand there until the 19th century.

Why was this?
I don't think the Edo period and the need to keep the clans within reach of Tokyo was the whole story as this behaviour predates that too.
I've also heard the story that it was down to Japanese rice-based agriculture not working in Hokkaido...but the weather of south Hokkaido isn't all that different to north Honshu.
Any ideas?


texts: How to translate runic text not knowing the origin?

texts:
I found a runic text (See chapter two of Jules Verne's Journey to the Center of the Earth) and I want to translate it, but can't find the symbols in any charts of any bigger runic language.

What is the easiest way to decipher it?


texts: Why was the capital of Poland moved from Krakow to Warsaw in 1595?

texts:
This question is a follow-up to the question Why did Poland keep Warsaw as its capital instead of returning it to Krakow in the 20th century?

In particular:

  Now as for Warsaw becoming the capital. The court of Sigismund III Vasa was moved to Warsaw in 1595 from the highly interesting reason including the results of alchemical experiment, which is unfortunately not a matter of this question. But it was only short, temporal change

Please write more about these reasons for moving the capital from Krakow.


texts: Why did Paul von Hindenburg wrongly call Adolf Hitler "Bohemian corporal"?

texts:
Paul von Hindenburg didn't like Adolf Hitler because he was a low-ranked individual from the poor/low class. He called him mockingly "Bohemian corporal".

However in reality Adolf Hitler was not Bohemian, but Upper-Austrian, also if I'm not mistaken he was not corporal, but just a soldier which never promoted.

Why didn't he call him correctly "Upper-Austrian soldier" ?


texts: Fermat's statement about the ancients: How serious was he?

texts:
I am extremely interested in the idea that there was a period in time when, at least in the west, people looked upon the ancients (Romans/Greeks) as possessors of wisdom that had been lost. Fermat near the end of his life told someone that he had done math to show that "the Ancients did not know everything" (not sure of exactly what he said).

But it seems to me that by the 1600s it must have been clear to educated people that many inventions existed (guns and gunpowder, for example) in their time that the Romans did not have. Or was it the case that people in the 1600s did not really know the level of technology in ancient Rome?

EDIT: I wanted to emphasize that this happened in the West -- I suspect in China and India, this was not a common belief at all or am I wrong: Did they too feel that ancients had knowledge that they did not?


texts: Who was the first head of government to support same-sex marriage?

texts:
Earlier today, Barack Obama declared his support for gay marriage. He told ABC News:

  "...for me personally it is important for me to go ahead and affirm that I think same sex couples should be able to get married."

Gawker claims he is the "first US president to openly support gay marriage."

But who was the first head of government to do so in world history?


texts: What made the English the dominant power of the British Isles?

texts:
Recently, I've been searching a lot about Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and England. One after the other, England vassalized its neighbors and became the head of Great Britain.

I can understand that Wales, which was really decentralized, couldn't really stop the English. But for Scotland and Ireland, how was it done?

In history lessons, we learn that Ireland was effectively separated into many fiefdoms (4 before the British invasion) but supposedly united against invaders. Thus, how could they lose their lands so easily? Was their army too old? Was there no will to keep their lands?

For Scotland, they indeed often fought against England and often allied with France for protection. They were nonetheless crushed by the English. Why is that? Was their economy too bad to sustain their army? Supplies trouble?


texts: Did the early Christian community on Iceland require the import of wine for liturgy?

texts: Roman Catholic liturgy requires wine, which cannot be produced in Iceland. Did the Christianisation of early Norse settlers entail a need to constantly import wine as a result?


texts: Where can I find a historic recipe for red cherry-onion jam?

texts:
A while back, I had duck with red cherry-onion jam at a medieval restaurant. Allegedly, it was a historic recipe, originally prepared in 1445 for the wedding of one of René d’Anjou’s daughters.
Does anyone have an idea where I can find the recipe, or where to start looking?


texts: Was Marine Corps B. Gen. Evans Fordyce Carlson -- leader of the Carlson Raiders -- suspected of being a communist?

texts:
Brig. Gen. Evans Fordyce Carlson is known in history as a three-time awardee of the Navy Cross, a Marine who had served in several wars as an enlisted man and officer, the co-founder of the Marine commando organizations in World War II, the man who populized the phrase "gung ho," and a close friend of Jimmy Roosevelt, son of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. See Wikipedia and this recent article in Naval History Magazine, Tesluk, Michael, "The Marines Commando Experiment" (Aug. 2014).

The Naval History Magazine article compares then Maj. Carlson, who commanded the Marines 2nd Raider Battalion, to Lt. Col. Merrit Edson, who commanded the 1st Raider Battalion:  Whereas Edson was "orthodox" and "conservative" and a "tried and true professional Marine officer, Carlson, in the words of an officer who served in both units, "Carlson was extremely liberal. . . . [He] picked up a lot of ideas in China that weren’t too popular with the establishment. He arranged daily meetings with his men to preach his version of Oriental philosophy, the gospel of “gung ho” [Chinese for “work together”]. Any enlisted man had the right to see Carlson without going through the chain of command. Rank had no privileges."

Have any historians, writing about Carlson or the Raiders, discussed just how unpopular was Carlson with the establishment, or whether senior commanders may have suspected him of being a communist? Have any historians discussed why Edson received a Medal of Honor for his unit's heroics at Guadalcanal whereas Carlson's award for that battle was a step lower?  Note, Carlson died in 1947 three years before McCarthyism took root.


texts: During the execution of the internment of Japanese during ww2 in the USA, did any other Asian Americans have to prove descent?

texts: I just wondered if the equivalent of nazis researching baptismal records, etc.  occurred in the USA with Chinese Americans being forced to find proof of their national origin or face being interned; indeed, are there any incidents of Chinese Americans actually being interned? I would guess there were very few, I mean literally only hundreds, of mixed-race children in the USA at that time, but how were such children treated? Were there any laws analogous to the nazi Nuremberg laws applied -- for example, Jews who actually practiced Judaism fared worse than Jews who were merely "racially" Jews -- did Japanese Americans who actually spoke Japanese have more problems than more assimilated Japanese Americans?


texts:
I have seen a claim in some English online encyclopedias claiming that LT vz. 38 was originally supposed to have a crew of 3 and only after it fell into hands of Nazis was it changed to 4. However, I failed to find any mention of that in Czech sources. Is this a mistake by confusing LT vz 38 for LT vz 35 or did I just not look well enough?

I saw the original claim at tanks encyclopedia

Also, the same claim was sort of repeated at Chieftain's video about tank types participating in battle of France,  although there, it was rushed over and mentioned in one breath with LT vz 35.

As for where I've been searching for confirmation, I went to Czech wikipedia, some news articles and blogs of czech WW2 enthusiasts/amateur historians, but unlike with LT vz 35, nowhere did I find claim of crew of 3, only claim of crew of 4. I know that Germans later used it with 4 crewmen, but I can't find any reputable confirmation source confirming Czechoslovakia planned to only use 3.

Found a Czech bachelor thesis on LT vz. 35 and 38 (yeah, I know, very weak source, at best as good as that encyclopedia online) which claims exact opposite, that unlike LT vz. 35, LT vz. 38 was constructed with 4 members of crew in mind. It then, on the same page, describes original LT 38's internal communication module for commander and (three coloured lights), which proves it is talking about before Germans took over, because those did replace it with normal radio communication. Still it's just a bachelor thesis and thus, not too trustworthy source.


texts: When has the Tory party split over trade issues?

texts:
Today in a leaked UK Government memo it says the UK Tory Party has split 4 times in last 200 years over global trade.  When were these 4 splits and over what?

Here is the Reuters link to the memo itself.

I can definitely think of one split over trade, the Corn Laws.  I was wondering what the other 3 were.  I suppose today's Tory party is split over the EU so that must be a second.  Anyone else got the other two?


texts: What was the name for a group of 12 men in old England responsible for each others actions?

texts: I remember learning in school about how men in England were grouped together in a group of 12 or so and were responsible for eachothers actions (breaking law, debt, etc). What was the name of this practice?


texts: Why did Homer’s Greeks sack so many cities in the Trojan War? Does it make them mostly pirates and slave raiders?

texts:
Homer’s Trojan War is not strict history, but generally taken to derive from a core of history and to have historical value as one of the few direct sources to survive for the values and behavior of Mycenaean and/or Dark Age ‘Greeks’ (as we now call them in English; ‘Achaeans’ to Homer).

The War as portrayed by Homer was caused by the ‘theft’ of the Greek King Menelaus’ beautiful wife Helen by a Trojan prince. After a long war the Greeks sack Troy in reprisal and get Helen back, restoring Menelaus’ family honour.

However, in the course of the war the Greeks sacked numerous other cities. Achilles boasts of sacking twenty-three cities (Iliad Book 9: twelve taken in seaborne raids and eleven by land) “and took much fine treasure from each”; slaying the townsmen and enslaving the women.

Perhaps attacking other towns in the region served a military purpose towards capturing Troy and getting Helen back. However, Homer’s Greeks (e.g. the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles) seem far more interested in how to share out loot and captive girls from the towns they capture than in any strategic purpose.

Odysseus sacks Ismaros on his way home, after Troy was already reduced to ashes and Helen returned to her husband (Odyssey, early Book 9), so even if the people of that country had been allies of Troy there was no longer any apparent military need to attack them.

So, was the Trojan War, for the Greeks who Homer treats as heroes, a glorified excuse to behave like pirates and rob and enslave a whole country, not minding that they left thousands dead in the process?

If so, I understand that such things attracted less disapproval 3,000 years ago than now.


texts:
Was the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan one of the major reasons that led to the fall of Soviet Union?

That is what the world history teacher told me.

Please show your sources.


texts: Why didn't Emperor Gaozu of Tang let Crown Prince Li Jiancheng command battles more often?

texts:
When Emperor Gaozhu of Tang (唐高祖） was reigning, there were a number of battles that were helmed by his second son, Li Shimin（李世民） instead of the crown prince Li Jiancheng(太子李建成), such as:

The campaign to reunify the empire
Battle of Hulao
and so on..

Li Shimin did well in winning the battle, and collected one win/royal title after another, thus greatly expanded his influence and ultimately gave him the confidence and power to slaughter his brother Li Jiancheng ( the crown prince) and Li Yuanji（李元吉）, and forced his father to relinquish the throne in the Xuanwu Gate Incident (玄武门之变） on 2 July 626.

As a seasoned politician, Emperor Gaozhu must have seen this day coming. But my question is, why the Emperor Gaozhu was still insisting on sending Li Shimin into one battle after another despite knowing the consequence of doing so? Could he not let his crown prince Li Jiancheng command instead?

After all, Li Jiancheng was also a great warrior in his own right and participated greatly in Tang's dynasty founding.


texts: Did Muslims swear by "the beard of the Prophet"?

texts:
In Western historical fictions, Muslims (from the Middle East) are often depicted to swear by "the beard of the Prophet".

"By the beard of the prophet, we will not offend you; but unless you
withdraw from the bars and allow us to drop the bridge, your lives
will not be safe many minutes."
-- a Corsair in Isidora

or,

the Caliph likewise swore by the beard of the Prophet that the slave
girl would be his personal property that very night.
-- attributed to work of playwright Friedrich Dürrenmatt

or,

I'll drop it down to the bottom and they can fish for it themselves,
which they can't do. Tell him I swear that, by - by the Koran or the
beard of the Prophet or whatever they swear by!
-- British naval captain Hornblower sending a message to a Turk in Hornblower and the Atropos

and more. Is this mode of swearing supported by historical evidence at all? I haven't heard a modern-day Muslim did it, and according to this Islam StackExchange question it's even prohibited in Islam.


texts: Were there any Ancient Greek theatres not built on a hill/slope?

texts:
I was wondering the other day whether there were any Ancient Greek theatres that weren't built on the side of a hill. Normally we associate them with having a curved, raised seating area. The purposes are threefold, so far as I can tell: Auditory - people at the back need to hear the actors and chorus clearly.Visual - people at the back need to see the actors and chorus clearly.Beauty - somewhat more vague; the seating channels the surrounding beauty of the location so people don't miss it. (Standing on a hill, for example, gives a wide panorama of beautiful things to see. Delphi is particularly beautiful to stand at the top of. That sort of idea.)
The original Greek theatres, from my research, probably had little more than a raised hill at the back for standing on and looking down at the actors. Over time this developed into wooden benches, then stone etc.

Now I know that Greece is a very mountainous place, but there were Greek speaking peoples spread all around the Mediterranean. There must presumably have been places they settled in that were not mountainous or hilly. So my question is - did the Greeks ever build a theatre where they provided the 'lift' (i.e. Instead of building on a hill, they built their own structure), or did they develop a theatre which didn't rely on this elevation, and therefore is a completely different design?


texts: Before WW2, how did Japan pay for imported US oil?

texts: Related question that brings something up. Japan was importing most of its oil from the USA, until the oil embargo was imposed in summer 1941. Before this embargo, how did Japan pay for this oil? What did they trade for it? Gold or silver?


texts: How did the US vet Soviet refugees for possible spies/infiltrators?

texts:
According to White House tumblr, Google co-founder Sergey Brin's family were refugees from the Soviet Union, coming to the US when Brin was 6. Researching further,

  Since 1975 more than 500,000 refugees, large numbers of whom were
  Jews, evangelical Christians, and Catholics from the former Soviet
  Union, have been resettled in the United States. (wikipedia)

How did the US ensure that no infiltrators, saboteurs or other security threats blended in with this large number of refugees from a hostile country? How successful were they?


texts: Has historical revisionism ever led to problems in history?

texts:
Just came across a post from a Jesuit claiming

Historical revisionism is one of the worst, and dangerous, mistakes
one can make.

It appears to be with regards to the latest news of Jesuits in US pledging USD100M in reparations to descendants of slaves.
Are there problems related with revisionism of history in the past?


texts:
The range of the medieval weapon is not accurately known, with estimates from 165 to 228 m (180 to 249 yds)

So says Wikipedia. I did read, however, in a semi-fictional, semi-historical work of Bernard Cornwell that bows could fire (and hit targets!) over a further distance. Now, unfortunately I cannot find this quote, but I am looking for other quotes and/or experiments that show better proof than Wiki.

Another thing that bothers me is that most sources say "an archer could shoot this far", but does that mean that he could shoot that far effectively, or just that the arrow would land there? In other words: are the ranges that are mentioned the distance over which an average archer could hit a target, or not?


texts: In what European countries did non-hereditary nobility exist? (XVII-XIX centuries)

texts:
In Imperial Russia a person of simple birth could be granted "personal nobility"(non-hereditary), by state service or even by some noble deeds out of it (traders got it this way).

The whole system of ranks was copied by Peter I at the beginning of the 18th century, as far as I know. The rank system set a range of ranks at which a person was granted personal nobility automatically. (English wiki article on the subject is very weak)

But what countries served as the source of the system? In what European countries (and where) did such "non-hereditary nobility" exist? What terms were used for it?

I am not talking about the difference of titled aristocracy ( with hereditary titles or not) and non-titled nobility, but about the border between the lower layer of nobility and simple people.

Edit.
It seems, the Persönlicher Adel, mentioned by @nvoigt, is the most close term. But what was the first? And Germany was not a single state then. Where exactly that term appeared? Or was Peter I the author of that social invention?


texts: Fate of Latvian Jewish population sent to gulags in June 1941?

texts:
Some of my ancestors were Latvian Jews who came to the U.S. in 1904. I'm trying to figure out whether any part of this branch of my family might still exist in the eastern hemisphere. After the Hitler-Stalin pact, Latvia became part of the USSR. The Soviets probably deported about 5000 Latvian Jews to the gulags, and about half of those are believed to have survived. The Germans invaded in July 1941, and of the approximately 75,000 Jews who were in Latvia then, probably only about 1000 survived. Of these, apparently most remained in Germany, Austria, or Italy, rather than returning to Latvia.

Based on these facts, it seems likely that most eastern-hemisphere descendants of Latvian Jews today would be the descendants of those who were deported to the gulags. Where would these people probably be now? People who were sent to the gulags apparently did not have full rights to live where they wished, even after their terms were up, and some were deported multiple times. Is it likely that their descendants would now be living in places like Novosibirsk and Krasnoyarsk, or more likely that they would have moved to places like Russia or Israel?

There do, for example, appear to be communities of Jews in  Novosibirsk and Krasnoyarsk.

Here are the sources of information I've found so far:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latvia#Soviet_occupation.2C_1940.E2.80.931941

https://latvianhistory.com/2012/06/14/soviet-mass-deportations-of-14-june-1941/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Priboi


texts: Why was Salzburg called „Stadt der Lebensforschung“ by the Nazis?

texts:
Wikipedia states, that the city of Salzburg (Austria) was called „Stadt der Lebensforschung“ as honorary city title.

Is there any source that describes why?


texts: Linen doublets around 1380-1410, middle and eastern Europe

texts:
Most people agree that doublets and hose were made with wool on the outside and linen on the inside.

Are there any evidence that confirm such belief? Any guild documents, findings, etc? Do we have any evidence contradicting this theory, allowing linen-on-linen doublets and hose?

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doublet_(clothing)


texts: Were there witch-hunts or witch-trials in China or Japan?

texts:
Witch trials in medieval and early modern Europe / America are well documented, well known. I am curious if similar existed outside of Christian countries, especially in China and Japan. Both China and Japan have rich mythology about supernatural beings, who often discuss themselves as human and commit smaller or bigger harm to people. One would assume that similar fear among the common folks from these beings existed, and also neither the Chinese nor Japanese were shy if someone had to be tortured to death. So in principle, one would expect that incidents similar to witch trials might have occurred there, too.
I am looking for incidents that:

formal trial or some other ways formalized (supervised by some laws, authorities), not just lynching or spontaneous violence of a mob;
not a one-time occasion, but at some extend typical to the region;
has a mythical or religious motivation (at least officially), and the victim  is accused to be a supernatural being or possessing supernatural powers, but it doesn't need to be a witch;
it doesn't need to be gender-specific (ie not only women).

As per request about prior research:

"Asian_witchcraft" of Wikipedia (same as linked in the comment) mentions that folklore indeed has witches both in China and in Japan. No info about law-enforcement or trials or other "non-which-like" candidates.

"Which hunt" of Wikipedia almost exclusively focuses on European / American cases, without a word about China or Japan. Briefly mentions some very recent (post2000) cases around the world. This lack of information is kind of strange, considering that the second sentence of the article is "The belief in magic and divination, and attempts to use magic to influence personal well-being (to increase life, win love, etc.) are human cultural universals." and even explicitly states: "Reports on indigenous practices in the Americas, Asia and Africa collected during the early modern age of exploration have been taken to suggest that not just the belief in witchcraft but also the periodic outbreak of witch-hunts are a human cultural universal" with a reference to "Behringer, Wolfgang (2004). Witches and Witch-Hunts: A global history."

"List of people executed for witchcraft" of Wikipedia (strangely ambitious title, to be frank) almost exclusively European / colonial. The only possible candidate on the list is Zhang Liang (Tang dynasty), who was technically trialed for witchcraft. Based on related wiki article Zhang Liang was a general/chancellor to the imperial throne and his trial is primarily politically motivated. While the wiki article mentioned that witchcraft was a major taboo in ancient China, it doesn't mention any similar other cases.

Google search brought up some online articles about which crafts accusations in present China, mostly from gender/patriarchy angle  (eg. https://theconversation.com/why-are-women-accused-of-witchcraft-study-in-rural-china-gives-clue-89730; https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2128393/witches-are-banding-together-after-rural-chinese-communities).

In summary, I haven't found any information about regular, formal, or semi-formal prosecution of witches in this region, though similar characters of folklore exist.


texts: Did British soldiers in WWI on the Western Front get paid in foreign currency?

texts:
Did British soldiers in WWI on the Western Front get paid in foreign currency or in sterling ?

Some years ago, I saw a TV programme in which it was stated that when British soldiers went to France, they were given some French money so that they could make purchases on the way.

Is there any evidence of this ?
How much was it and was it different for different ranks ?

Was the allowance later deducted from the soldiers' pay ?


texts:
I'm trying to get an understanding of how trade worked in the 18th century. I'm trying to learn how trade was conducted so I can make a realistic game. I'm struggling to find a good source for the questions that I have. Specifically, I'm trying to understand how trade agreements were reached. For instance,  could goods be contracted for transport? If so, how did such agreements work? Was there fixed cost transportation? Percentage of cost of goods sold? Delivery on success only? Any other interesting details relating to transporting others goods, or your own goods on another person's ship?

To start with, I'm most interested in European trade, especially the British Empire, with its territories and other countries.

I'm most interested in smaller traders, not large companies.


texts:
I have encountered several references to Nassadista in a 16th century Latin manuscript. As far as I can tell the noun is masculine, first declension (nominative plural Nassadistæ).

Context implies that apparently this was some sort of naval or seafaring force or group that was present in the Holy Roman Empire and participated in the war with the Turks, but it is not explained exactly who/what they are or even what side they were on.

Google returns relevant references in a few other sources, but they are obscure and do not contain much detail or clarity.


texts: What was the aftermath of a battle in the Middle Ages? How did wounded soldiers proceed?

texts:
The Red Cross was founded by 1859 over these circumstances:

Until the middle of the 19th century, there were no organized and/or well-established army nursing systems for casualties and no safe and protected institutions to accommodate and treat those who were wounded on the battlefield.

And then:

(...) Jean-Henri Dunant, in June 1859, (...) arrived in the small town of Solferino on the evening of 24 June after the Battle of Solferino, an engagement in the Austro-Sardinian War. In a single day, about 40,000 soldiers on both sides died or were left wounded on the field. Jean-Henri Dunant was shocked by the terrible aftermath of the battle, the suffering of the wounded soldiers, and the near-total lack of medical attendance and basic care. He completely abandoned the original intent of his trip and for several days he devoted himself to helping with the treatment and care for the wounded. He took point in organizing an overwhelming level of relief assistance with the local villagers to aid without discrimination.
International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, Wikipedia

Also, I have read useful questions (and its answers) such as How did ancient armies keep the route of supplies to their battlefield?.
Still, I wonder: what was the usual aftermath of a battle during the middle ages? How would wounded soldiers proceed afterwards? Was there any group of rivals executing the survivors or were they just left behind? Was part of citizen's duties to go and 'clean' the battlefield once the battle was over?


texts: Did Britain bill Poland for maintaining Polish Air Force that fought over Britain?

texts:
After the war, a bill for over 68 million pounds sterling, covering the equipment and operating costs of the Polish Air Force in Great Britain, was paid from the Polish gold reserves deposited in Canada.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Bank_of_Poland

This is an uncited claim in wikipedia; the claim is repeated word for word on multiple sites, but there is no source or reference for this claim.

Is there evidence to support or rebut the claim?


texts: Which English ship was in Kamchatka in 1793?

texts:
In 1795, Alaskan colonial supremo A.A. Baranov sent a letter to his bosses in Irkutsk. The text in Tikhmenev's History, Volume II, Documents, says:

  An English ship wintered in Kamchatka in 1793.... The English were well-armed....

If Baranov was correct, what ship was this, and where did it spend the winter?


texts: Was Rudolph Hess a moderating influence on Hitler?

texts:
Looking at the War Diary of General Franz Halder, on page 114 of Volume VI., concerning General Halder's activities on 13th May 1941, it states:-

  Radke:
  a) Rudolf Hess affair. Political blow of the first order. Danger of
  an extremist political course.

I believe the Radke mentioned was SS Lt. Col. Radke of the Das Reich division, who appears many times in the Diary and seems to be an advisor to Halder on matters relating to propaganda and morale issues. I'm curious about their discussion that day over the possibility that there could be a "danger of an extremist political course" following the flight of Rudolf Hess to England, which occurred a few days prior to their meeting. Was there a general belief that Rudolf Hess was a moderating influence over Hitler? Is there any evidence that there was in fact a noticeable change in the "political course" towards a more extremist position which could be attributed to Hess's departure? Or are there other possible explanations for Halder and Radke's concerns?

I'm aware that Martin Bormann assumed most of Hess's duties, and that he was regarded as a conniving and brutal extremist himself, but Bormann had already been serving alongside Hess as his secretary for many years, and had established himself fairly well within the inner circle already in his own right, so the transition from Hess to Bormann at Hitler's side, does not in itself seem a dramatic or obvious change of course at first glance. The Wikipedia entry states:-

  "Bormann was invariably the advocate of extremely harsh, radical
  measures when it came to the treatment of Jews, the conquered eastern
  peoples, and prisoners of war. He signed the decree of 31 May 1941
  extending the 1935 Nuremberg Laws to the annexed territories of the
  East. Thereafter, he signed the decree of 9 October 1942 prescribing
  that the permanent Final Solution in Greater Germany could no longer
  be solved by emigration, but only by the use of "ruthless force in the
  special camps of the East", that is, extermination in Nazi death
  camps. A further decree, signed by Bormann on 1 July 1943, gave Adolf
  Eichmann absolute powers over Jews, who now came under the exclusive
  jurisdiction of the Gestapo."

So it appears that Bormann wasted no time in putting his name to an extension of the Nazi Nuremberg racial laws just weeks after Hess's departure, and that he was central in signing off many of the most brutal Nazi policies over the following years.

Hess, on the other hand, is mentioned in Alexander Dallin's, German Rule in Russia 1941-1945, as a member of "the loyal opposition":-

  "The loyal opposition saw the danger clouds gathering -- clouds that
  were of Hitler's own making. But -- except for Hess, who removed
  himself from the scene -- the critics were no more than meteorologists
  who could record and sometimes foresee the change in political
  climate. Their concept of duty and patriotism paralyzed those among
  them who were in a position to act."   (p.17).

The question I'm asking is to what extent was there a real change of course after Hess's departure. It seems that the Nazi regime was on a trajectory towards a more extreme outlook with the decision to embark on a War of Annihilation in the Soviet Union, but to what extent was this policy made worse by Hess's absence, and more interestingly, to what extent was this change predicted and acquiesced by the German leadership? Was Hess's departure a ripple in a rising pond of increasing extremism, or is the correlation between the ascendancy of Martin Bormann and the accelerated darkening of the soul of the Nazi regime in mid 1941 more than a coincidence? Were Halder and Radke alone in their concern about the political consequences of Hess's departure, or was there a more general awareness and/or concern that a significant political shift was taking place at that moment?


texts: What was the basis of the calendar during Japan's Edo period?

texts:
I couldn't find a proper answer on the internet, every article refers to the timeline using the Gregorian calendar.
But I'm guessing Japan didn't use this method given the fact that they weren't christian in any way. So what did they use ? Did they say something like "year 3 of the Edo period" ? Or "year 5 of the Tokugawa shogunate" ?
I'm trying to get some historical accuracy in a story I'm writing and this would be really useful for me.
Thanks in advance for any kind of answer !
(also, I am sorry if my question lacks in clarity as English is not my main language)
EDIT:
It seems the most common way used to keep track of the years at the time was the Era system, which is actually still used in certain situations today. Thanks to Lucian for this clarification!(see the comments for more info)


texts: Under European feudalism, were the distribution of armies (vassals and fiefdoms) based on a coherent idea?

texts:
The context is High Medieval, (c. 1001—1300). The concept of feudalism is as understood in Europe. I'm not looking for an answer to cover all European empires or dynasties during this period -- which would be too broad (too much work?).

Answers can focus on a selected empire, such as, but not limited to - Angevin Empire, Holy Roman Empire, or even the Caliphate of Córdoba. This question is not about religion, it is focused on high medieval military command and power structure of European empires.

Is the distribution of strong armies controlled by geography, relative strength of king vs court, or by some effectively random factor such as the personality of the ruler, or accidents of time? Or, an entirely consistent plan of medieval leadership, i.e.Kings, Emperor, Caliph?

Feudalism consisted of a set of relationships among the members of the warrior aristocracy. In a feudal relationship, one individual became the vassal of another, more powerful, member of the warrior aristocracy, called the lord. Both the vassal and the lord had specific obligations to one another, and the lord granted a fief (usually land) to the vassal in return for the vassal’s military service.


texts: The Code of Corsairs of Mediterranean of the Middle Ages

texts:
How was the code and operating rules of the corsairs of the Mediterranean used, such as by Barbary Corsairs or Knights of the Order, during Middle Ages?

There are references to agreements in the Mediterranean for privateering, and also agreements in between the corsairs to agree on the distribution of income from loots and slavery.

One example is in the book "The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II" by Fernand Braudel, in which the following is stated:
"... in the Mediterranean, the words piracy and pirates were hardly in it's current usage before 17th century... Privateering is legitimate war, authorized either by formal declaration of war or by letters of marque, passports, commissions or instructions. Privateering had it's own laws, rules, living customs and traditions." (page 866)

Also, in the Wikipedia Article on Pirate Codes states, the following is stated:
"privateering articles can be traced back to Europe in the Middle Ages when there was a system of 'joint hands' agreements between merchants, owners and seamen to share profits."

There are many references to some sort of operating regulations by the corsairs in the Mediterranean, however I couldn't reach any details on what these were, how detailed and formal (or informal) they were, and if these were the similarly used in between opposite groups such as the Knights of the Order and the Barbary Corsairs?


texts: Did the US try to buy California before the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo?

texts:
With regard to Mexican California in the 1840s, Hague and Langum's Thomas O. Larkin says, on page 10:

  The United States had long been interested in California and had more than once attempted to purchase it.

I did some searching and found nothing more on the topic. Who offered what to whom?


texts: Did anyone interweave blue and red threads in order to give the illusion of purple cloth before purple dye became cheap?

texts:
The wikipedia article on purple contains nothing on this.

Also, why did the ancients not simply mix red and blue dye together to make purple?


texts: What kind of object is pictured in these two Roman fresco wall paintings?

texts:
Both are paintings in the same house near Naples. They were excavated from the ashes of the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius.

Apparently, they picture the same kind of object. But what is it?


texts: What impact did the migration of Germanic tribes have on languages in the rest of Europe?

texts:
I am currently looking for information about the migration of the Germanic tribes, and especially it's effects on European languages, or other languages.

Google Search provided me information about the migration itself, but not about the effects of Germanic migration on language.

Answers will be helpful, but sources would enable me to extend my research.


texts: Why and how did George V give titles to his generals over lands that he did not possess?

texts:
Edward Allenby was given the title Viscount Allenby, of Megiddo and of Felixstowe in the County of Suffolk. Megiddo lies in Israel, it was outside British possessions, although it was controlled by the British
Julian Byng was given the title 1st Viscount Byng of Vimy. Vimy is in North-Eastern France.
John French was given the title 1st Earl of Ypres. Ypres lies in Belgium.

(Before you accuse me why I haven't performed any research myself, please read the following post on the Meta.)


texts: Why did the USSR switch from 1524 mm gauge to 1520 mm gauge in the late 1960's?

texts:
This article mentions that Russia started with a 1,524 mm rail gauge, and in the sixties and seventies, switched to a 1,520 mm rail gauge with tighter tolerances.

Why do this? If you want tighter tolerances for faster train speeds, why not stay with 1,524 mm and just tighten the tolerances? The article and related ones also mention that the tolerances are still greater than 4 mm, such that 1524 and 1520 are virtually synonymous and you don't even have to switch cars or bogeys like a real break-of-gauge.

So...why did Brezhnev make this change? It seems a lot less work to just stay with 1,524 mm and tighten tolerances if you want.


texts: How did pre-modern historians explain Qin's unification of China?

texts:
The Qin state unified China at the end of the Warring states period. After centuries of incessant warfare, in just under a decade Qin managed to conquer its opponents in quick succession. Modern historians explained this surprising achievement in several ways.

But what factors did historical Chinese writers attribute Qin's rapid success to? Did they believe it was the mandate of heaven? Or did they blame the conquered states's immorality?


texts: Are the any primary sources from during the Conciergerie's time as a prison?

texts: Are there any letters detailing Conciergerie prisoners' experiences during French Revolution? If so where can I find them? Thank you in advance for your help!


texts:
I came to understand that the Black Death was transmitted through rats. But I can't find how it ended.

Was it the lack of people and a reduction of the trading system between countries that made it less and less present?
Did the animal transmitting it become resistent to it?
Did we find a cure?

How did it happen?


texts: Is there any truth to this story about Coolidge?

texts:
I read years ago the following story: A couple were driving through Vermont and saw, on a day that threatened rain, a farmer moving hay into a barn. It was apparently normal in those days to help strangers and they stopped and helped him. The man asked them where they were headed and they said they were taking a vacation to Washington DC. The farmer suggested that they go to his son's house for dinner and they ended up at the White House.

Googling is not yielding this story -- I wonder if anyone knows if this is a true story and where it can be found.


texts: Where Are The Jane Fonda's Of Yesteryear?

texts:
Not long ago, New Orleans removed a well-known statue of Robert E. Lee that stood high on a pedestal in the middle of Lee Circle. That’s one of many recent examples of communities removing monuments to prewar Southern figures or institutions. Flags and seals and street names have been changed too, to deny such honors to Confederate officers.

I have a friend who’s angry about this sort of thing. I think that he feels some emotional connection with ancestors who fought for the South, and his pride in them is being tainted. He tends to suggest that this changing social attitude to the pre-war South is somehow kooky and out-of-proportion. I thought it would be relevant to show him widespread European public opinion during the slavery period. I had assumed that polite educated society in non-slave-holding Europe would be frank in the view that American slavery was horrifying and barbaric.

But it seems I’m wrong about that. I have not found the moral attitude I expected from any well-known figures of the day (except for Charles Darwin and Charles Dickens). I find occasion disapproval of slavery per se, but not what I expected at all towards the South of US.

Was my expectation just anachronistic? Were those sorts of outpourings of opinion just a phenomenon of the days of Watergate or the Viet Nam war – and since then? Prominent public figures taking sides against each other thereby give us indirect evidence about feelings of ordinary people. What slavery-related issues were most controversial in terms of popular support in Europe in 1800-1860s? I'm asking about mainstream, not fringe.

(I realize the arguable irrelevance of all the personal content in this question, but I recently asked directly for the evidence I’m wondering about, and as happens so often in Stack Exchange, I found that lots of people couldn’t understand what I was trying to ask, and clarifications were repeatedly suggested, etc.)


texts: Connection between "lingua franca" and Frankish people

texts:
What is the connection between the word "lingua franca" and the Frankish people?

My dictionary says that "lingua franca" is an Italian word literally meaning "Frankish language." It goes on to define "lingua franca" as "a common language consisting of Italian mixed with French, Spanish, Greek, and Arabic that was formerly spoken in Mediterranean ports."

My dictionary also defines Frank as "a member of a West Germanic people that entered Roman provinces in A.D. 253."

So, my question is: What is the historical connection between the Frankish people and the word "lingua franca?"


texts: How many soldiers were present at the charge down Little Round Top?

texts:
The events of July 2, 1863 have been discussed endlessly, from Michael Shaara's The Killer Angels to the film Gettysburg. Since reading the book and seeing the film many times, I can't help but wonder how large each of the opposing forces participating in the defense of Little Round Top truly were.

Wiki provides the number for Union forces on the left flank of the hill (358) from the 20th Maine and 83rd Pennsylvania-- to which we may assume there were heavy losses. But how many soldiers remained from General Law's 4th, 15th and 47th Alabama Regiments and Robertson's 4th and 5th Texas Regiments at the time of the charge down Little Round Top?

Naturally, exact figures will be difficult. Best estimates based on logical or factual evidence appreciated.


texts: What role did Jews play in the Punic Wars?

texts: There were Jewish communities throughout the Mediterranean at the time of the Punic Wars? What role if any, did jews play in these wars?


texts: Did teenagers in the USA in the 1960s and 1950s really engage in dangerous, reckless driving to this extent?

texts:
My general perception of the 1960s in the USA, and possibly also the late 1950s, other than "drugs and hippies", is that the youth constantly was driving around in their cars, racing, daring and egging each other on to do all kinds of dangerous stunts, often resulting in deaths.

I've got this perception from movies, songs and TV series. And probably many other sources as well.

Was this actually a thing? Did teenagers and early 20s people really have this as a whole "youth culture" thing? Or was it purely made up for fiction, and they just liked that "image" and went to see such movies?

It seems like there could be at least some truth to this, but I'm curious to why this exactly would happen in the 1960s and late 1950s but not before or after that. What was so special about that era?


texts: What factors accounted for the pattern of caranvanserai across Eurasia?

texts:
This is a question we had in an AP World History test last week:

I was able to answer (c) correctly (improvements in sea navigation and technology caused more and more people to transition from land-trading to sea-trading), but I had no idea how to answer questions (a) and (b).
I haven't been able to find this question online, and I just don't know what accounts for the pattern of the caravanserai (it seems that Persia and the Middle East has a much higher density of caravanserai, essentially the "pattern", but I don't know what to use to explain that). In the test, the answers I put were that the increase in trade and the use of caravans resulted in the increase in the number of caravanserai (doesn't really describe the "pattern" of them though).
Can somebody please point me in the right direction?


texts: What civilisation used wolf pelts for their archers armour?

texts: Looking for more information on the negatives and positives of wolf pelt armor and many other general aspects. Thank you :)


texts: In the governments of the Reconstruction South, were Blacks in government always under the control of Whites?

texts:
I believe that in most cases they were figureheads but were there any examples of an African-American leader who actually was at least partially effective in state government?

EDIT: It is clear that in at least one example, the person in office was quite active and perhaps this is generally the case?

EDIT: State or Federal government, did not mean to be specific to state.


texts:
Does anyone of a good and historically accurate large scale WW2 simulation?  This could be either a computer or board game.

Note: I am not sure if this should be on topic, of instead of downvoting if you think this is off topic, vote to close.  If you donw vote, please state how I could improve this question so that it is better on topic/better.  See meta as well.