texts: What does Carlyle mean by 'essence' in 'History is the essence of innumerable Biographies'?

texts:
I have read Carlyle's 1830 essay on history with its famous paragraph :

  Before Philosophy can teach by Experience, the Philosophy has to be in readiness, the Experience must be gathered and intelligibly recorded. Now, overlooking the former consideration, and with regard only to the latter, let anyone who has examined the current of human affairs, and how intricate, perplexed, unfathomable, even when seen into with our own eyes, are their thousand-fold blending movements, say whether the true representing of it is easy or impossible. Social Life is the aggregate of all the individual men's Lives who constitute society; History is the essence of innumerable Biographies. But if one Biography, nay, our own Biography, study and recapitulate it as we may, remains in so many points unintelligible to us, how much more must these million, the very facts of which, to say nothing of the purport of them, we know not, and cannot know!

I can readily see how, from a methodological individualist perspective, Carlyle might suppose that institutions, customs, practices, social objects of all kinds, might be reducible to the interactions of (innumerable) individuals. What I cannot see is the point of that word, 'essence'. Why not just say History is the sum of innumerable Biographies or even History is reducible to, is nothing but, innumerable Biographies ?

I may be handicapped by being a philosopher : 'essence' is a problematic notion in the trade but I don't suppose that Carlyle used 'essence' in any philosophically technical sense. I am not raising a casual question without research. I have read much of Caryle - nothing like all - but I have never been able to persuade myself that I understood what 'essence' is doing here.

Historians are much likely than I am to give an informed explanation.


texts: Is it really true that more high-ranking Nazis died in Tatra cars than in combat?

texts:
I find this citationless claim hard to believe:

  "More high-ranking Nazi officers were killed in Tatra-manufactured cars than in active combat" Telegraph


texts: Why did some colonies of the British Empire have their own currencies?

texts:
For example, South Africa used the South African pound; Canada used the Canadian pound/dollar; Singapore, Brunei, and Malaysia used the Malaya and British Borneo dollar.

Why did they not use the pound sterling? Would it not be more convenient to have all colonies use the same currency?


texts: Did USSR ever consider invading West Germany during the Cold War seriously?

texts: I know there were many strategic and theoretical preparations around the Fulda Gap. There were several serious crises between the USA and the USSR in the Cold War, and I have not been able to find out if in any of them (for example, the Cuban crisis) the Soviet divisions made real preparations to cross the border.


texts: In the recent movie, Exodus: Gods and Kings a scene is shown, presumably in Memphis(?) depicting an avenue of the gods, terminated in a pylon. Did such a place actually exist?


texts: Whatever happened to Turing's friend Arnold Murray?

texts: Whatever happened to Arnold Murray, Alan Turing's friend who was convicted for theft. I could not find any later information on Murray or any recorded interview of his reminiscence of Turing. Thanks.


texts: Did quantum theory originate as pure research?

texts:
Recently I've read a debate over the futility of demanding "usefulness" from research endeavors, since the potential outcome is unpredictable. As evidence for this statement, a list of random papers of apparently useless or just of academical interest followed. One of them was the development of quantum theory at the beginning of the 20th century.

I don't want to focus on the topic of the debate itself. Instead, I wondered if that premise, that "quantum theory originated as a purely academical/intellectual work", is actually true. It's a post-industrial revolution world after all and patents dealing with heat/electricity maybe were driving a society's need... or maybe not. I couldn't find any evidence for or against it anywhere. I will turn, then, to people more knowledgeable than I.


texts: What was the standard spoken language (dialect) in the Three Kingdoms period?

texts:
Mandarin is the standard spoken language (dialect) in today's China, meaning distinct regions may have their own dialect, but they can all use Mandarin to communicate with each other.

Since all languages evolve, as a contemporary Cantonese speaker, I would have difficulty understanding Cantonese conversations from just two hundred years ago. How would a conversation between Cao Cao and Liu Bei have sounded like? What standard dialect would they have been using?

Edit: This question is about the history of "standard spoken language" which refers to standardized languages used for official purposes in China. This question is not about the history of many vernacular languages spoke throughout history in China.


texts: Can anyone identify this uniform from SE Asia?

texts:
Can someone identify this uniform? I suspect it is from WW1 and was taken by an Australian photographer.. tho obviously not in Australia. It is part of a bigger historic pic.. a glass plate amongst a collection of plates which were shot around 1910-20

I have added a 2nd image of another person present also in uniform


texts: What was the procedure for prosecuting criminals in England between the World Wars?

texts: I'm doing some research on court procedures during the '20's and '30's in England.  I understand that at that time there was a Director of Public Prosecutions, and some of the resources I have found suggest that the Treasury Solicitor was actually responsible for the prosecution itself. Any information or references would help, but I'm particularly interested in who actually handled the prosecution at trial.  Was there a permanent staff of lawyers (presumably barristers), or were they selected on a case-by-case basis?


texts: Why is it the Irish border such a sticking point in Brexit talks?

texts:
I know little about Irish history, so this question could be very naive.

Ongoing Brexit negotiations appear to be encountering a lot of problems concerning the Northern Ireland-Ireland border. Why? From my point of view things look pretty obvious:

Northern Ireland decides whether it's part of the UK or part of Ireland. The obvious way would be to have a referendum similar to the Scotland independence referendum several years ago.
If it decides it's part of the UK, then its border with Ireland would be like any other border in the world.
If it decides it's part of Ireland then it should leave the union with Scotland/England/Wales and form a union with Ireland instead (and remain in the EU).
Or it could declare independence I suppose, and then negotiate whatever it wants with Ireland.

However, #2 looks like something very hard to do and nobody is willing to accept, including both UK and EU negotiators. Why? It sounds so simple: if Northern Ireland is part of the UK, then it ought to act in solidarity with the rest of its country and have a border. If Northern Ireland is part of Ireland, then it ought to act in solidarity with the rest of its country and remain in the EU. It seems to me the problem is coming because Northern Ireland wants to be part of both countries, but that sounds like wanting to have the cake and eat it to, which surprisingly both EU and UK leaders aren't viewing as childish.

Generally the sources I've seen have mentioned the "Good Friday Agreement" and how having a hard border would lead to violence, and I don't see why that would happen either. Scotland had a leave/remain referendum and it didn't lead to violence; why can't Northern Ireland do the same?

I'm asking this here because although this question is deeply tied to politics, I suspect the answer has more to do with history, in particular what exactly is causing the rest of the UK to treat Northern Ireland separately, and why Northern Ireland doesn't view following the rest of the UK as a given thing.


texts:
Is/were there cases of hazing and violence against younger conscripts in armies of Arabic countries?

It is often advertised in the media that there are no such things in Israeli army, but what about their neighbors?


texts:
For the past several days I am seeing an advertisement from the Israel Institute of Biblical studies which says that the language of the original bible was Hebrew.

As far as I know, the mother tongue of Jesus was Aramaic.

So, my question is, Was the Hebrew Bible modified and rewritten from Aramaic to Hebrew after the death of Jesus?

Edit:

Maybe I was not clear enough. My question was: was Bible originally written in Aramaic during Jesus's lifetime, and then when Jesus died, it was modified and rewritten in Hebrew?

Edit:2

Also, someone questioned the source of one of the links I supplied.

Well, this is an advertisement from the Israel Institute of Biblical Studies hosted on YouTube which is an institute accredited by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. The person seen talking in the video-ad is Aure Ben-Zvi Goldblum who is a graduate student at NYU and an instructor at Hebrew University.


texts: What happened to these buildings near the Seine?

texts: I was looking at these before after images and was concerned what happened to these beautiful buildings near the Seine in Paris. Were they destroyed in a war? Has there been any attempt to reconstruct them?


texts: How can you see what rank a British redcoat is?

texts:
This page displays 'U.S.  ARMY RANK INSIGNIA
The Later Revolutionary War Era - 1780'.
Is there a similar guide for the British as Wikipedia's rank insignia for the Continental Army?

I know of the idiosyncrasies of uniforms back then, but surely people must still have to been able to discern rank by sight?


texts: How did the Abbey of Cluny derive revenue from William of Aquitaine's hunting preserve?

texts:
My understanding is that traditionally most monasteries were extensions of the Roman villa system, owning land and the labor of the attached peasants -- the same economic basis as the aristocracy. Cluny was an exception. According to Wikipedia:

  The gift of a villa, or of a series of them, owned by a powerful patron was at the basis of all the great monasteries and abbeys founded in Western Europe until the time of Charlemagne, when the land-gifts, significantly, tended to be of forest instead.
  ... the Abbey of Cluny ... was founded on a gift of the duke of Aquitaine's chase, or hunting forest.

How did the hunting forest provide revenue? How much hunting are we talking about, and how valuable was it relative to the traditional gift of farmland?


texts: What is the origin of the "Bigot" clearance used by the Allies in World War II?

texts:
During WWII a level of clearance called "Bigot" was adopted by the allies. This was (to my understanding) done in order to create a smaller circle of individuals who were cleared to know information, than the previous highest clearance level (i.e. the planning of operations Neptune and Overlord).

I have two questions (which the mods might decide to break up?):

Where did the name "Bigot" come from? The other clearance levels seem rather appropriately named (i.e. Confidential, Secret, Top secret, etc.). Is their an etymological reason for using "Bigot"? Was the name picked out of a code book?
Are there any other clearance levels that have been created/used outside of the standard*?

*When I say "standard", I am referring to any clearance level that is regularly used or was created for regular use.


texts: What were the logistics of whaling in the 1800s?

texts:
I have read Moby Dick, and watched "In The Heart of The Sea". It's absolutely fascinating but what I can't figure out is the logistics of whaling in the 1800s.

In the movie I mentioned, you see them on the deck of their ship with their slain whale, melting down the blubber. How did they have space to do that there? It didn't look like that big a ship. And then Owen Chase at one point says that on one trip they returned with 1800 barrels of oil. Where the heck did they put that many barrels? The ship's hull had to accommodate all the provisions, the crew's quarter, etc etc etc.

There is a paucity of information on how these ships were laid out. Same thing for any ship of that era for that matter. The HMS Bounty etc.

Question: has this information been lost to history? All my google searches return nothing but small images with little detail and there does not appear to exist any book on the subject. What would be great is a book of the sort that exists for Star Wars ships - cross sections, technical specifications, etc - but for real ships!

Edit: Owen Chase actually says they returned from his last journey with 1800 barrels, not 8000. He also says that he hopes to return from the fateful journey with 2000. Therefore we can infer that the maximum payload was 2000 barrels.


texts: How is the accuracy of the Maya Calendar measured?

texts:
It is taken as a fact in many books and specialized publications that the Maya calendrical system - the Haab' and the Tzolk'in - was more accurate and closer to the real solar year than the Gregorian calendar (even though reputable sources claim it is 365 days compared to 365.2425 days). But how is this really so? In all the studies I've read there is just a description of the calendars but not how that accuracy is obtained. How's that?

Update (05/04/2018): I've found multiple resources that support the premise on which this question is asked. However, I do recognize the issue of finding a relevant primary source (such as a Maya stela or a given codex). There was a discussion on Wikipedia regarding Maya expert Coe disproving this premise, however, since this question was asked, the author of this other question has edited it saying that Mr. Coe includes no references that support his statement in a section the user found. The question remains open since I'd like to compile more sources from other users.


texts: Did Edward Gibbon provide a cause for why the Roman Empire decayed?

texts:
While reading John H. Arnold's History: A Very Short Introduction I came across the very interesting claim that "the big problem with the Decline and Fall [of the Roman Empire] is that Gibbon never properly tells us why Rome decayed..."

Is this true?


texts: Were there any attempts to assassinate Joseph Stalin?

texts: Were there any attempts to assassinate Stalin?  I haven't learned of any attempt to kill him, was he so brutal that no one tried to kill him?


texts: What kind of music was played at European, High Middle Age (c. 1100-1400 A.D.)'s medieval universities' ceremonies?

texts: What music was played at European medieval universities in the High Middle Ages (circa 1100-1400)—for example, at their commencement or convocation ceremonies, at ceremonies inducting professors into the university, etc.? Who were famous composers of such music?


texts: How long did it take US fleet submarines during World War 2 to charge their batteries?

texts:
How long did it take a US fleet submarine running on the surface to recharge its battery fully for maximum duration submergence?

I realize that the answer depends on how many engines were being used for recharging, versus propulsion — I imagine that in a really tight situation that anticipated an imminent need for long submergence, all four diesels would be thrown into recharging, as fast as possible.

In Edward L. Beach's novel Run Silent, Run Deep, at one point the protagonist/narrator Lt. Cmdr. Richardson indicates that with two of his four engines recharging the battery, every 10 minutes gives them another hour of submergence, if that becomes necessary. But 10 minutes for an hour submerged running time, even at only 2 knots, seems very optimistic. Or am I wrong?


texts: How was paint supplied while painting the Sistine Chapel?

texts:
Paint today is expensive (for quality supplies, anyway), and I expect that the paint used in the Sistine Chapel was quite good quality, due to its endurance.  There was also a lot of paint used there.  When Michelangelo ran out of paint, who supplied and paid for it (or the supplies required to make it), and how was it supplied?  What did he do when he needed more?

EDIT: clarified that I'm interested in the economics and supply chain.


texts: Is Caesar's birth year more certain now than it was when disputed by Mommsen?

texts:
In Mommsen's History of Rome from the 1850s he argues that although the year of Caesar's birth is usually given as 100 B.C. because Suetonius, Plutarch, and Appian all state that he was in his fifty-sixth year at his death, there are reasons to doubt that:

  But this account would make him enter upon the three offices of
  aedile, praetor, and consul, which he held in 65, 62, and 59 B.C.
  respectively, in his thirty-fifth, fortieth, and forty-third years,
  that is, in each case, two years before the legal time. The fact that
  this irregularity is nowhere noticed, suggests that the statements of
  Suetonius, Plutarch, and Appian are errors derived from a common
  source, especially as such errors must have been common before the
  commencement of the acta diurna. The date 102 B.C. would agree
  better than 100 B.C. with the statement of Velleius, that Caesar was
  appointed Flamen Dialis when paene puer; since the latter date would
  make him thirteen years six months old, i.e., not almost, but
  actually a boy. Further, the number LII on the coins struck by Caesar
  about the outbreak of the civil war would agree with the years of his
  life if he was born in 102 B.C.

Today his birth year is still given as 100 B.C. in reference works, although
Wikipedia has a note which makes it sound like the argument isn't quite over yet: "There is some dispute over the year of Caesar's birth. Some scholars have made a case for 101 or 102 BC as the year of his birth, based on the dates that he held certain magistracies, but scholarly consensus favors 100 BC."

I wonder if the reasons for the current consensus are essentially the same as they were for the same consensus in Mommsen's time (and his arguments just haven't been seen as very convincing). Or is there an even stronger case now with new knowledge or new arguments that invalidate some of Mommsen's reasoning?


texts: How old was the youngest white person sentenced to death in the U.S.A?

texts:
Death penalty has for a long time been exposing interesting trends of social discrepancies based on life determining attributes like wealth, education race.

How does the answer compare to the youngest black, or other non-white person sentenced to death in the U.S.A.?


texts:
This is something I've always wondered but couldn't imagine what the answer could be and haven't found much material elsewhere. Nazi Germany, paired with Italy and Japan, was waging war on the world during WWII. Germany, for its part was focusing on Europe, North Africa, and later on Russia.

But what was Nazi Germany's end goal? Let's say the US had never got involved when and how it did and let's say things had gone better for the Germans in Russia. Would they have continued expanding? Were they trying to establish a new world order and dominance?

That plan seems foolhardy to me in the extreme. There's no possible way a small country like Germany could possible keep the entire world under check. As it expands, it decreases its influence and ability to control any one area.

It seems their defeat was inevitable no matter the course of events. At the very least, they would have found attacking and destroying the Americas (especially the United States), even with the help of Japan, a nearly insurmountable goal given its sheer size, population, and technical/military abilities. So, just how was Nazi Germany hoping WWII would end?


texts: Book recommendation on the Nazis for a (very) advanced reader

texts:
I want to get my history teacher - who has taught me for three years and given a lot of extra help and support - a book. He has been studying the Nazis for several decades and is very knowledgeable, which makes it difficult for me to know what is a suitable level and would be interesting. If anyone has a recommendation that would be fantastic!

Thank you!


texts: How do historians agree on what common evidence should be used in the writing of history?

texts: I am not really sure about this as the historical method only provides information on what evidence should not be used (source criticism).


texts: On the Ezana Stone, who are the black and red people that the Ethiopian king was referring to?

texts:
On the Ezana stone, the Axumite (modern day Ethiopia) king wrote in Ge'ez, Sabaean and Greek to describe his victory over the Kasu (Kushites) and Nuba (Nubians).

He mentions the black and red peoples, he also mentioned the Black and Red Noba

Here are some excerpts:

The Nuba and Kasu

  By the might of the Lord of Heaven who in the sky and on earth holds
  power over all beings, Ezana, son of Ella Amida, Bisi Halen, king of
  Aksum, Himyar, Raydan, Saba, Salhin, Tsiyamo, Beja and of Kasu, king
  of kings, son of Ella Amida, never defeated by the enemy.

  May the might of the Lord of Heaven, who has made me king, who reigns
  for all eternity, invincible, cause that no enemy can resist me, that
  no enemy may follow me!

  By the might of the Lord of All I campaigned against the Noba when
  the Noba peoples revolted and boasted. `They will not dare to
  cross the Takaze' said the Noba people. When they had oppressed
  the Mangurto,

  Hasa and Barya peoples, and when the blacks fought
  the red people and they broke their word for the second and third times

  and put their neighbours to death without mercy, and pillaged
  our messengers and the envoys whom I sent to them to admonish them...

  I arrived
  at the Kasu, fought them and took them prisoner at the confluence
  of the rivers Seda and Takaze (white and blue Nile)

  The towns of the Kasu with walls of stone which
  the Noba had taken were Tabito(?), Fertoti; and the troops
  penetrated to the territory of the Red Noba and my peoples
  returned safe after taking prisoners and booty, and killing by the
  might of the Lord of Heaven. And I erected a throne at the confluence.

Who are the Red Noba, Who are the blacks who are fighting with the Red people?

I ask this question because most hieroglyphs show native Egyptians in reddish-brown skin more often than in black skin.

I want to know if this is a likely answer to the long standing controversy around the original phenotype of those who founded the Nile valley civilization.

What have modern historians said about the Red and Black Noba ethnic groups as described by His Majesty Emperor Ezana?


texts: Why is there hostility between Russia and the Baltic states?

texts: What is the cause of the hostility between Russia and the Baltic states?


texts:
I caught a snippet from the president’s remarks. He was talking about the wheel and how it is older than the wall.

Is there historical fact to back such a statement? Or the other way around?


texts: What were common crew ranks on US Navy flying boats and bombers?

texts:
historians! I asked this question over on the Aviation SE, but was also suggested to ask here. Below is a copy of my question from over there.
I have been trying to figure this out for some time, but have not had much luck elsewhere. I have found info on USAAF bombers, and what ranks the crewmembers often had, but nothing for larger navy aircraft.
I know Pan-Am's Boeing 314 Clipper flying boat was operated by the US Navy for some time during WWII, but I don't know if the USN operated any heavy bombers or other large aircraft. If they did, what would the ranks of the crew (pilot/plane commander, co-pilot, flight engineer, bombardier, radioman, navigator, gunners, etc.) be?
Thanks in advance for any help.


texts: When was natural gas first used for cooking food?

texts:
Natural gas seeping from the ground was exploited or regarded in different ways by ancient civilizations, but it is generally accepted that it was the Chinese who first exploited gas for heating:

  Finding places where gas was seeping to the surface, the Chinese
  formed crude pipelines out of bamboo shoots to transport the gas,
  where it was used to boil sea water, separating the salt and making it
  palatable.

Then there is this in the Wikipedia gas lighting article:

  Chinese records dating back 1,700 years note the use of natural gas in
  the home for light and heat via bamboo pipes to the dwellings.

However, there is no explicit mention of the use gas for cooking food even though it seems to be a distinct possibility. Meanwhile, this UGI EnergyLink article says that,

  Natural gas was first used for cooking in Persia starting in the first
  century AD. Since pipes didn’t exist yet, the king of Persia built his
  royal kitchen next to a natural gas fissure to use as his own personal
  stove.

However, this Smithsonian article cites a much later date:

  According to the Gas Museum, in Leicester, England, the first recorded
  use of gas for cooking was by a Moravian named Zachaus Winzler in
  1802.

When, and by whom, was gas (natural or coal) first used for cooking? What evidence is there for the various 'claims' above?

Other source:

A Brief History of Natural Gas

First Oil Wells


texts: What was the first broadcast television programme?

texts:
Was it The Queen's Messenger or The Man with the Flower in his Mouth?

IMDB claims that The Queen's Messenger was the first, but I've always understood it was The Man with the Flower in his Mouth. So which was it?

I was asked to define 'broadcast' and 'programme'...

programme - a fiction or non-fiction television show, intended to convey content of some kind, not an experimental broadcast purely for seeing if the system worked.

broadcast - sent via radio waves, available to members of the public who owned ordinary (at the time) television sets.


texts: Why has SACEUR exclusively been an American officer?

texts:
After reading this BBC article about the new SACEUR, General Philip Breedlove, United States Air Force, it occurred to me that SACEUR has always been an American officer.

  Supreme Allied Commander Europe (In order of appointment)

  Dwight D. Eisenhower, U.S. Army
  General Matthew Ridgway, U.S. Army
  General Alfred Gruenther, US. Army
  General Lauris Norstad, U.S. Air Force
  General Lyman Lemnitzer, U.S. Army
  General Andrew Goodpaster, U.S. Army
  General Alexander M. Haig, Jr., U.S. Army
  General Bernard W. Rogers, U.S. Army
  General John Galvin, U.S. Army
  General John Shalikashvili, U.S. Army
  General George Joulwan, U.S. Army
  General Wesley Clark, U.S. Army
  General Joseph Ralston, U.S. Air Force
  General James L. Jones, U.S. Marine Corps
  General Bantz J. Craddock, U.S. Army
  Admiral James G. Stavridis, U.S. Navy
  General Philip M.Breedlove, U.S. Air Force

Further research showed that 19 of the Deputy SACEUR have been British with the remainder being German.

Having looked on the website of SHAPE (Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe) the reason for SACEUR always being American is explained as:

  The United States remains the strongest military power within the Alliance.
  Having an American officer in charge of the Alliance's military operations symbolises the continuing commitment of the United States
  to the defence of Europe and reassures those European nations
  concerned about potential threats to their security.
  Nuclear weapons remain the ultimate weapon of deterrence for the Alliance, and because the bulk of these weapons come from the United
  States, it is important to have an American officer in command.

  Side Note: To balance the leading role played by Americans in the
  command structure, other key NATO positions have been reserved for
  non-Americans.

  Source: SHAPE

This explains the reasons relatively clearly, but it seems a bit like "We have the most and biggest guns so we're in charge" kinda thing. What I'd like to know is:

When NATO was originally formed was there any resistance to the setting of the precedent that the President of the United States nominated SACEUR, and that SACEUR would always be American?

Where there any political reasons for SACEUR being American beyond the Americans wanting to retain control of a force that heavily comprised of their troops and wanting to retain tactical control of their nuclear weaponry?

Why is it that only British and German officers have served as his Deputy? and who chooses the Deputy SACEUR?


texts: Do we have any authentic Native American flute music from the 18th century or earlier?

texts:
Just wondering if any actual music from Native Americans was recorded (written record, transcribed to some kind of sheet music) by Europeans, in the 18th century or earlier. I'm especially interested in flute music.

They did have bone flutes for a long, long time, some going back 60,000 years. Source

If you try to google for this, it seems all the results are just modern recordings, impossible to tell if it was really an original song, or if it was contemporary in the "style" of Native Americans that Hollywood has embued. This is why I asked for 18th century recordings or earlier, because I figure that 19th and 20th century, by then a lot of European style music could very well have influenced things.


texts: In WW2, how long could a submarine stay submerged if it wasn't moving?

texts:
For a submarine in the WW2-era, how long could it stay submerged if it was not running its engine? This is a question of crew size, oxygen, food/water, and CO2 scrubbers, and maybe other stuff I'm not aware of.

I guess it's a question of battery life too, but not for powering the propeller, only for the lights and maybe air pumps.

The reason I ask is because I want to know stealth capability for travels. I imagine a sub travelling on the surface at night, but at day it submerges and stays down and doesn't move (except drifting with the current). It may have to stay down longer than 12 hours if some ship happen to be nearby.

I'm interested in subs of Japan, Germany, Russia, Britain, and America.

Edit: I should have specified this, but I want to know how long the sub can stay down near max depth, not snorkeling. Snorkeling is done very near the surface where it can be spotted by aircraft or even other ships, and some naval surface radar could detect periscopes or snorkels around a distance of 5 miles.


texts: How did U-boats enter and exit the submarine pens at Brest?

texts:
I was reading about the Brest submarine pen/bunker complex and looking at pictures of it.  I was even able to locate a set of blueprints of the base here.  But because of the poor quality of the image though I am unable to discern details on which way the submarines are facing in the dock, but it looks like they are backed in.

What I am unable to locate an answer to is how did the U-boats enter and exit the submarine pen.  Did they use tug boats or harbor pilots, or  did they back in so they could quickly get out if they were attacked or did they go in facing forwards?

I have checked all of the usual sources such as wikipedia on uboats, Brest, and submarine pens, in addition to finding the above linked source and several other ww2 historical sites, but none with this answer.


texts: Why did Churchill order the destruction of the bombes?

texts:
I've read several claims that Churchill ordered the destruction of the Bombe code-breaking machines, but I don't really understand the motivation for it. Can you explain it to me, or give a reference?

If you, as a nation, have the capability to decode communications, then why give that up? This is independent of whether or not the Enigma machines were destroyed -- that ability should, if nothing else, discourage others from even trying, or at least give a head start in case someone did try to use encrypted communications.

It seems to me this signals a desire to be less threatening, but I don't feel this "fits" into the ... vibe(?) of the times -- and in any case is based solely on my own exceedingly amateur speculation.


texts: How big was the Puritan cohort in the Anglican church?

texts:
I'm mainly interested in the late Elizabethan and Jacobean periods. I've read church publications such as Church Society and AnglicansOnline,as well as all kinds of history websites and blogs, but I cant' find much information regarding my question. I mean they kept track of the number of recusants so why wouldn't they count the number of non-conformist ministers, at least on a diocesan level?

Here is my working definition of "Puritan":

Anyone found guilty of not wearing the required vestments (surplice and tippet, or in a cathedral a cope) or of not using all the prayers, rites, and ceremonies in the Book of Common Prayer.


texts: Why did Russia inherit the USSR status as a permanent member of the UN Security Council with veto power?

texts:
Russian Federation was certainly the biggest component after the collapse of USSR. However, I don't quite understand why the very valuable geopolitical position as a permanent member of UN Security Council with veto power was inherited by Russia alone, rather than, for example, shared in some proportion by the countries that used to be the components of USSR, or completely vacated.

More generally, how exactly international agreements and memberships involving USSR have been decided after the collapse of USSR?


texts: Was literacy ever used as a tool to oppress the population by higher social classes?

texts:
In this question, one of the answers stated that

  Actually, states can interact well enough with their subjects in the villages without widespread literacy. It helps to have someone literate who can read decrees to the peasants, demand their produce or labor etc. But that role can be filled by some intermediate class, effectively a tiny percentage of the population. Having too many literate people actually makes the system more difficult to manage.

Was there ever a literate ruling class which used the illiteracy of lower classed people as a means of control?


texts: What does this symbol in the title page illustration of the "Margarita Philosophica" mean?

texts:
The Margarita Philosophica appeared around the year 1500 CE, written by Gregor Reisch of Freiburg.

The title page of the manuscript contains the fascinating image below, in which the seven primary subjects of the book are allegorized as maidens, under the guidance of a three-headed windged figure who is perhaps representative of wisdom.

I'm curious about the symbol that appears on the dress of the winged figure at the center of the image. What symbol is it, and what might it mean in this context?

Here is an image of some handwritten Greek that appears to have the same symbol. See, for example, the character furthest to the right on the penultimate line, and the first symbol on the last line:


texts: When did countries begin making up a pretext before starting a war?

texts:
In the past few centuries an unwritten rule has been followed where countries make up some sort of plausible-sounding excuse before starting a war. As an example, Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia in 1939 because he "wanted to protect the Sudeten Germans". Likewise World War I officially began because of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

But when did this practice first begin? When did it become necessary to somehow rationalize the use of force?


texts: What was the Mantineian form of government and what praise did it receive?

texts:
In his comparison of the Roman form of government with those of other states, Polybius mentions Mantineia as having one which had been praised by almost all historians. However, he does not go into any detail about it.

What was the form of government in Mantineia? Which aspects of it were praised and why?


texts: How does Göbekli Tepe fit into the current picture of society development?

texts:
Göbekli Tepe is a huge archaeological site in Eastern Turkey, currently under excavation (make sure you click on "Pictures"). It is one of the oldest architectural complexes in the world, possibly the oldest, and appears to be a religious complex. Even more surprisingly, the civilization that built it appears to have been one of hunters gatherers rather than city dwellers.

Given that current historical opinion holds the view that agriculture, food surplus and storage naturally developed more "specialised" workers (including priests), how does Göbekli Tepe change this opinion, if at all?

Edit: following the second link, you'll find a "Movie" button as well as the "Picture" button. Just thought you might be interested.


texts: What was the death rate of Germans outside Germany's post war border after World War 2?

texts:
In 1945, how many Germans were living in areas of eastern and central Europe outside Germany's post 1945 border?

How many of them died an 'unnatural' death (i.e. by murder, starvation, disease, execution, overwork in labour camps, etc)?

How did this death rate compare to:

the post war death rate of the area they lived in or were expelled from?
the death rate of Germans who came from within Germany's new border?
the death rate in Britain, France, America, etc?

Edit: I'm trying to establish whether there's any justice to the claim that these Germans were the victims of genocide. This is a common claim by holocaust deniers, although of course even if it were true, that doesn't mean there was no Holocaust.

If there was a campaign of genocide, we should expect that these ethnic Germans were more likely to get killed than other racial groups in contemporary Europe.


texts: What was the age of majority in England in the 1870s?

texts: What was the age of majority in the 1870s England? I couldn't find a concrete answer in google so this is site is my last hope. It's for a story set in the Victorian era.


texts: Did the Romans ever encounter the Vikings?

texts: Did the Romans ever scout Scandinavia for possible conquest? Or was trade ever done between them?


texts: How were the borders of the Holy Roman Empire established?

texts:
We all know that the Holy Roman Empire was a collection of minor Germanic states in the Medieval and Renaissance Europe. Wikipedia stated that:

  The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe during the medieval and early modern periods until its dissolution in 1806.

A question which I have been bothered, and I am sure most of you do, is how exactly were their borders defined? In two maps below the borders seems to sometimes cross another border. Furthermore, the borders seem to be changing with time.

This first map is one of Europe in the 16th century. The Holy Roman Empire is outlined in purple.

This second map is one of Europe in 1700:

References:

First Map : http://www.euratlas.net/history/europe/1500/1500.jpg
Second Map : http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Europe,1700-_1714.png


texts: How was Virginia transformed from a society with slaves, to a slave society?

texts:
Not sure what the main answer to this question.

I know Bacon's rebellion changed the lives of many poor whites with no land.
Also, there were the slave laws which I need to do more research on.


texts: What Factors Contributed to the Success of Certain "Long March" Strategies?

texts:
In the middle of the 100 years' War, France's Bertrand du Guesclin reportedly used "countermarch" tactics successfully against the English. Another example was General National Greene's "March to the Dan" through the Carolinas to Virginia (and ultimately back to Guilford Courthouse) against Cornwallis during the American Revolution, over somewhat larger distances. And the classic example, of course, was the Long March of the Communists in China away from the Nationalists to the northwest of China in the mid-1930s. In each case, a weaker force used the factors of time and distance to turn the tables against a stronger attacker. What caused them to succeed?

On the other hand, Vercingetorix apparently failed to use such tactics versus Caesar in Gaul. This is true even though he was covering almost the same general area (and distances) as France's Bertrand du Guesclin (although at a different time period). Could a plausible case have been made that such a strategy might have worked?


texts: Did Song troops spread black beans on the ground as a means to defeat the superior Jin cavalry? If so, in which battle?

texts:
According to this page on the website Changing Minds,

  When the superior Jin cavalry were attacking, the inferior Song troops
  scattered black beans on the ground which the cavalry horses stopped
  to eat, making the mounted force a sitting duck.

I assume this refers to a battle during the Jin-Song wars (1125 to 1234) but I have been unable to find another reference. On the one hand, it seems improbable that (presumably) well-trained cavalry horses (presumably) during a charge would be distracted so easily (compare beans to some brutally effective means such as the Caltrop mentioned in this SE: History post), so perhaps the beans were used in conjunction with something else.

The same Changing Minds page also refers to Pang Tong advising Cao Cao to chain ships together to combat seasickness, and this I have been able to find a another source for, although it appears in a romanticized version of historical events. The page also has a reference to Russian tactics used against Napoleon and Hitler so at least some of the contents of this page haven't just been made up.

Were black beans used to distract the Jin cavalry horses or is this another example of romanticized history? If this did actually happen, which battle is being referred to?


texts: Was there someone popularly labeled by public as "Lord Mum"?

texts:
My teacher said in a motivational speech that there was a person (some king or duke etc) who had to make a speech/sermon after assuming his hereditary office. But when he appeared before the public he couldn't say a word because he was afraid of public speaking. So the people jokingly named him Lord Mum, for his speech was nothing but silence ("mum" sound). Then he worked on his fears and delivered great speeches later.

I tried searching it on Google but found nothing. So can anyone tell if this story is true? My teacher told me this a few years ago so I cannot go back asking for references.


texts: Does anyone know anything on the history or any other information on this dagger?

texts:
(click to enlarge)
Looking for information on this dagger: its history, value or anything anyone can provide.


texts:
Wondering how a tablet is transcribed, or how it could be transcribed in the modern digital world. For example, the tablets in the first two images below. I am particularly interested in:

How long it takes (roughly). Say for a single tablet like those below, or whatever calculation unit is easiest (maybe how long to get each letter or a line or something). So maybe it takes 1 day to transcribe a tablet (given we have standard references on the culture's alphabet or symbols). Or maybe 1 month. I don't know, even a year perhaps.
If it's common to run into symbols which don't fit the "standard" reference alphabet/syllabary/symbol set. For example, say we have an Akkadian tablet. We know the Akkadian glyphs, but I'm wondering if it's common that you'll encounter a glyph that's not in the standard reference for the culture/language.
What's typically done when you encounter a symbol you don't know.
If you typically sit down with a magnifying glass with good lighting in a museum with the artifact, or you can work off of a photograph on your laptop sort of thing. Maybe that's the reason for such large / high res scans I've seen here and there on museum websites, it would allow you to analyze it away from the actual artifact directly.

Oh! The key thing I forgot to mention. I don't want to actually translate any tablets. I simply want to know the process for taking say an Akkadian tablet and writing it out in Unicode, or on paper.

Also, just thinking. Maybe they use techniques from computer vision or similar, like creating grayscale images to help in seeing what's going on, like in the last image.


texts: How did Romans know if their money was debased?

texts:
In many moments of Roman imperial history coin was debased, with its silver contents being reduced over time, and in general this was linked with increasing imperial expenditures. In Harper's The Fate of Rome (2017) it is stated that Caracalla needed to create a new kind of coin, the antoninianus, to be able to pay soldiers after he raised their pay. This new coin was said by the state to be worth two denarii, even though its silver contents only reached the mark of 80% of the silver contained in two denarii. It seems that this worked for a while.

But in the 250s and 260s the denarii and sesterces were progressively melted down, eventually disappearing, and the antoninianus, the sole remaining silver coin, was debased until it was a billon coin, almost pure vile metal. Harper says that people must have started holding on to good metal, taking coins out of circulation and accelerating the currency crisis. In the author's words, "no other era of Roman history is so productive of coin hoards." (p. 148)

My question is: How could Romans, in this period and in other periods as well, tell if their coins were being debased? How could those people that took coins out of circulation know that their silver content was getting lower? Did they keep measuring the density of new coins, or did the state advertise that new coins had less silver? (This would seem counterproductive if the objective of these measures was to pay for the state's debts.)

(My research so far didn't give any results, as the articles I found were only about debasement as a problem for the Roman Empire, and didn't tell me what I wanted to know)


texts: An answer on this site claims that the first flags were heraldic flags used in battles. But when was this, and for which nations?


texts: Did the idea of motion illusion exist in medieval or islamic art?

texts:
Motion illusion by colors is like in the given picture

My inquiry is about the implementation of the heavy use of colors to form patterns and designs on the walls in medieval Christian and Islamic art. Did they use such art patterns anywhere? I would like to see the earliest examples of optical illusions with colors. It is also okay if examples are from other cultures such as Indian, Chinese history, etc.


texts: Is my comparison on the significance of black and red pottery plausible?

texts:
I am writing a paper on 8th-3rd century Greece.  I am trying the distinguish the differences between black and red figure pottery.

Black figure pottery very commonly illustrated the mingling of Greek gods with mortals, and also illustrated many of the events in Greek mythology.  Here is an example of black-figure pottery illustrating the Greek hero Heracles with Cerberus.

Here is another example, of Heracles fighting Ares.

Red-figure pottery less often illustrated the mingling of the Greek gods, and more often featured sex, the nude male figure, and every-day life.

Here is an example of the nude male figure, and sex.

Here is a pot featuring Cassandra and Hector.  Notice Hector entirely in the nude (not in an erotic manner) while Cassandra remains robed:

Here is one more example illustrating the Athenian athletics competition.

I believe that the shift from black to red figure pottery placed more emphasis on the importance of mortal men, and began focusing less so on the Greek mythological events and gods and turned more toward the everyday life of mortals.

Am I justified in believing this?  Is there anywhere else where a more detailed comparison has been drawn?


texts: How popular was Mozart in France before WWII and after it?

texts:
Another intriguing statement by Robert Paxton:

  I was surprised myself to learn that Mozart had been little played in
  France before 1940, and that his prominence since 1945 in the French
  operatic and symphonic repertoire is one of the legacies of the
  occupation.

Alas, he cites no authority for this so I wonder where one can find information on this topic.


texts: Was there a priest on the Titanic who stayed on the ship giving confession to as many as he could?

texts:
In the fiction book Emily's Hope, by Ellen Gable, there is a passage set in 1912 that describes a news article about a priest on board the RMS Titanic:

  She glanced down at the newspaper again and re-read the story of the young survivor, Lillie. She was drawn to another survivor’s story, this one a man, who was plucked from the icy waters, nearly frozen to death.  He talked of watching a priest go from frightened passenger to frightened passenger hearing confession and giving absolution in the last moments before the ship sank.

Given that the book is Catholic religious fiction, I presume that the priest was Catholic as well to provide a foil for the character's faith journey, but the passage itself doesn't specify.

Is there any evidence of such a priest on board the Titanic giving the Sacrament of Confession (also known as the Sacrament of Penance) to as many people as he could as the ship was sinking? Or is this an invention fo the author?


texts: Was Crassus's fire brigade composed of slaves?

texts: Crassus created the first Roman fire brigade, and many years later, Augustus took the idea and formed the Vigiles, a group of slaves serving as firefighters. However, I can't find any source confirming that Crassus's fire brigade was also composed of slaves. This seems like a reasonable assumption, since Plutarch mentions that Crassus owned hundreds of slaves, but I was wondering if there was a source explicitly stating that the fire brigade was also slaves.


texts: Does anyone recognize the identity and location of this octagonal structure?

texts: The attached picture is from the video Unique color footage of The Graf Zeppelin and Hindenburg - YouTube at about 2:52.  It is of an octagonal structure, possibly in Nazi Germany.  Not sure if the design at the center of the structure is a swastika.  I would appreciate any information about its identity & location.


texts: What did 'regular' medieval people think about royalty?

texts:
During the Medieval times what was the general consensus of the common-people in regards to the King and his close associates?

From a number of documentaries i have watched recently it looks like the common people were charged high tax rates, and were generally treated badly by the land-owners/aristocrats/King.


texts:
Writing about the Qin's ascent to power, John Keay in his popular history book China: A History mentions:

  He [Shi Hunagdi] himself wore black, while his troops in black armour
  issued from black-flagged fortifications beneath black-emblazoned
  standards. … The number six posed no problem. The interlocking
  tally-sticks that signified an imperial commission were ordered to be
  six 'inches' wide; and the length of a 'pace' was calculated as exactly
  six 'feet' (it was a double pace, or two strides). Six 'feet' was also the prescribed width of official carriages.
  [emphasis author's, not mine]

--China: A History, John Keay, pg. 91 (third paragraph), 2008-2009 print edition.

Now, it seems that he has defined the "feet" in the literal sense of the word. But
counting in double strides, it would then become "three strides" not "six feet". And he hasn't clarified what he means by "inches".

Around that time, according to wikipedia, the Chinese measurements were 尺, 步, and 里 --none of whose six counts come close to acceptable widths of tally-sticks or carriages.

The Question

Because the author specifies no sources for this speculation I reach out to Chinese history experts on this SE to get their opinion on the correctness of his claim and perhaps even clarifications on what he may have meant by "inches" and "feet".

P.S.:- To those who may wonder why "six" is important to this question --the colour black, the season winter, and the number six are associated with the Chinese element "Water". The Qin's associated element was "Water" as they had displaced the Eastern Zhou (周朝) whose element was fire.

Clarification: The author's writing style is such that he encloses modern equivalents of ancient Chinese terms in single quotes and omits the mention of the ancient Chinese term (presumably to maintain an easy reading and avoid unnecessary deviations from the main analysis). Thus --'counties', 'courts',  and 'feet'.


texts: What are exceptions to the hypothesis that "climate determined "regional" loyalties in the U.S. Civil War"?

texts:
Besides the fact that "North" implies "cold," and "South implies "hot," I was struck by the fact that Lincoln won absolute majorities (in a four way race) in 16 states wholly or partially above the 41st parallel (the coldest states), while winning only one "hot" state (California), south of that line.

Although they were "slave" states south of the Mason-Dixon line, the border states of Maryland, Delaware, Kentucky, and Missouri are "cold" states (to be defined shortly). And they all went for the Union.

Also "cold" were one state, West Virginia, that broke away from the Confederacy, and one wannabe "East Tennessee." Although they are in Southern latitudes, their location in the Appalachians makes them "cold."

For the purposes of the question, "cold" means "colder than Richmond Virginia" (basically the coldest part of the Confederacy) in January (as a litmus test). That would be an average of about 40 degrees Fahrenheit.

A "region" is at least one third or so of any one of the 33 states of the United States on November 6, 1860 (Lincoln's election). A state may be divided East, Middle, and West on an east-west axis or north, middle and south on a north-south axis. E.g. East Tennesseee, West Virginia, North Alabama.

California, a "hot region" (whole state, actually) was exceptional in being pro Union, rather than pro Confederacy.

Apart from California were there any "hot regions" that were pro Union and had little or no interest in slavery? Conversely, were there any "cold regions" that were strongly pro Confederacy/slavery? Is there something I have overlooked in constructing this hypothesis?


texts: Incentive to ban women having more than one husband?

texts:
I'm currently reading "The Cartoon History of the universe" by Larry Gonick. When talking about Sumer, the author says that "around 2400 B.C., the reformer Urukagina banned the practice [women marrying more than one husband] in no uncertain terms: "If a woman takes a second husband, her teeth should be bashed with bricks" ".
Is this historically accurate? If so, what was the incentive to ban this type of behaviour?


texts: In medieval England was heresy dealt with in the king's courts or church courts?

texts:
In medieval England was heresy dealt with in the kings courts or church courts?

Clearly heresy was a crime against the church but the punishment was death so presumably it must have been dealt with in the royal courts as, to the best of my knowledge, church courts did not sentence people to death. Is this correct?


texts: How was the U.S. divided regarding the French Revolution around 1789?

texts: How was America divided regarding the French Revolution during the early going (1789-1791, when the French hero of the American War of Independence, Lafayette, was one of its leaders)? What side of the French Revolution would have the U.S. fought for had that decision been based upon a national vote?


texts: Was Marc Antony with Julius Caesar when he crossed the Rubicon?

texts:
Question

I had always been told that he was, and Plutarch's Life of Antony certainly seems to imply as much. But I just read a passage in Adrian Goldsworthy's book, Caesar's Civil War 49-44 BC, claiming that while Caesar learned that Antony had fled Rome before his fateful crossing, the man himself only joined Caesar the next day in Ariminum.

I realize the distinction of a day is a pretty minor, but I'd still really like to know which version is the accepted one. Thanks for your time.

Relevant Excerpts:

  "Curio’s term as tribune expired later in the month, but another of Caesar’s supporters, Mark Antony, had been elected to
  the office and continued his work. [...] On 7 January 49 [...] Caesar’s supporters among the tribunes felt threatened with physical assault
  if they remained in the city. [...] The news reached Caesar at Ravenna on 10 January. [...] Caesar crossed
  the Rubicon, uttering the famous line ‘the die is cast’ [...] Caesar and his men occupied Ariminum without a fight and were soon joined by the tribunes."

- Goldsworthy, Caesar's Civil War 49-44 BC.

  "[...] Antony himself was commanded to leave the senate by the consul Lentulus. So, leaving them with execrations, and disguising himself in a servant's dress, hiring a carriage with Quintus Cassius, he went straight away to Caesar, declaring at once, when they reached the camp, that affairs at Rome were conducted without any order or justice, that the privilege of speaking in the senate was denied the tribunes, and that he who spoke for common fair dealing was driven out and in danger of his life. Upon this, Caesar set his army in motion, and marched into Italy [...]"

- Plutarch, Life of Antony.


texts: How much Ancient Egyptian survived into modern Coptic & Egyptian Arabic?

texts:
The Egyptian spoken language has evolved dramatically due to influences from the many foreign powers who ruled Egypt over the ages. Coptic is an Egyptian language with strong influences from Greek, while modern Egyptian Arabic is the local Arabic dialect with Coptic influences.

If we consider Ancient Egyptian to be the "original" indigenous Egyptian language, with its roots in the indigenous peoples of Ancient Egypt, then how much of it survived into Coptic and Egyptian Arabic, two Egyptian languages that are still routinely used today?

This question can also be interpreted as "How much of Coptic & Egyptian Arabic did not originate from influences foreign to Egypt?"


texts: How did historical peoples deal with choking?

texts:
These days, the use of the Heimlich Maneuver to deal with choking is so well-known that one might be surprised to learn that it was not invented until the 1970s, so this seemingly simple treatment is as much a product of the modern age as the home computer!

How did people deal with choking without the aid of modern knowledge of medicine and anatomy?  For example, if I were in the Middle Ages, dining with my friend, and I started to choke on my food, what would he try in order to save my life?


texts: Is there evidence Muslim soldiers fought in the Continental Army?

texts:
It is said that Muslims fought for the American Revolution, by serving in the Continental Army. Wikipedia cites a few names:

  Records from the American Revolutionary War indicate that at least a few Muslims fought on the American side. Among the recorded names of American soldiers are "Peter Salem","Yusuf ben Ali" and "Bampett Muhamed"

   - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_the_United_States#Earliest_records

However, Wikipedia appears to say this solely based on their recorded names.As far as I can tell, they seemed to be ex slaves who changed their names to the above after being freed. It is of course quite possible that they were descenedents of Muslim slaves who kept their faith, and therefore chose to retain their real names upon freedom; but Wikipedia doesn't seem to offer any corroborating evidence.

Peter Salem, a freed slave who reputedly shot Major JohnPitcairn during the war, has his own article but it made no mention of his faith. One Google result suggests he was Muslim on account of his chosen surname, which may have been taken from Arabic. I couldn't really find anything of substance on the other two, although their names indicate they did likely have Islamic heritages.

I guess my question is, how reliable an indicator of Muslim faith is having an Arabic or Islamic name in Colonial America?

Or more generally, are there any real evidence of Revolutionary War soldiers practising Islam?


texts: Were the islands/countries discovered by Hispanic explorers named after Mozarabic feast days?

texts: The Spanish and Portuguese often named newly discovered countries and islands after the feast days they were discovered, especially during the late 15th and early 16th centuries. It is always assumed they were named according to the Roman Church’s liturgical calendar and this thereby allows the actual date to be determined. However, especially during and immediately after the period of Muslim occupation, a proportion of the Hispanic population practised Mozarabic rather than Roman Catholic rites. Mozarabic rites seem to be based on the liturgy and rites of the Eastern Church which celebrates many feast days on different dates from the Roman Church. My question is this: How does anyone know whether the countries and islands discovered by Hispanic explorers were found on Mozarabic rather than Roman Church feast days? In other words, might the dates marked today for the discovery of these places be wrong?


texts:
Southern Rhodesia established responsible government in 1923. The next step, in general, was for a colony to be granted Dominion status (e.g., Newfoundland). What prevented Southern Rhodesia from acquiring Dominion status? The corollary to that question is 'how close was Southern Rhodesia to gaining Dominion status?' though I appreciate that is more opinionated (and hence not the primary wording).

It seems that by the late 1950's and early 1960's, differences in Southern Rhodesian and British governmental attitudes were sufficient to block its ascent to a Dominion, but it is not clear why this status wasn't granted beforehand. Wikipedia notes:

Southern Rhodesia (renamed Zimbabwe in 1980) was a special case in the British Empire. Although it was never a Dominion, it was treated as a Dominion in many respects. ... Southern Rhodesia was not one of the territories that were mentioned in the 1931 Statute of Westminster although relations with Southern Rhodesia were administered in London through the Dominion Office, not the Colonial Office. When the Dominions were first treated as foreign countries by London for the purposes of diplomatic immunity in 1952, Southern Rhodesia was included in the list of territories concerned.

The articles on the Balfour Declaration and the Statute of Westminster do not mention Southern Rhodesia at all. However, it is my understanding only Dominion representatives were invited to London for the 1931 talks. Nevertheless, Southern Rhodesia had had responsible government for nine years by this time, so it would have seemed reasonable to consider it as a potential invitee.
The articles on the British heads of government through the 1920's and early 1930's don't offer much, as neither Lloyd George's, Bonar Law's, Baldwin's, or MacDonald's mentions Rhodesia at all. This is perhaps not surprising as the elevation of Newfoundland to Dominion is not mentioned in Campbell-Bannerman's article (as a straightforward comparison).
What prevented Southern Rhodesia from becoming a Dominion?


texts: Was it customary for an executioner in Elizabethan England to ask for forgiveness from the executed?

texts:
The question is basically in the title already. I recently saw what is supposedly a historically correct account of Elizabeth I reign in the form of a documentary. The executioner there asked Maria I Stuart for forgiveness for what he was going to do to her.

Is that historically correct? Did executioners usually ask for forgiveness or only in case of high profile people being executed?


texts: Before Idriss Deby, who was the last head of state to be killed in combat?

texts:
Reuters reports this morning that Idriss Deby, president of Chad, was killed while visiting troops engaged in armed combat. I can’t remember the last time I heard of a head of state being killed in combat; my hunch is that this has become exceedingly rare.
Prior to this event, what was the last time a head of state was killed in combat?

As the OP hasn't responded to comments, I've taken up C Monsour's suggestion and edited (plus cast the 5th reopen vote). OP, if you don't like the edit, it's your right to rollback. Other users, comments are welcome - I'm not trying to impose anything here, just trying to get an interesting question reopened.
Edit for focus / clarity (and to elicit an answer which is somewhat similar to  Idriss Deby's death):

The person must have been head of state at the time of death.
Excludes coups as these are relatively common and comparatively unremarkable, unlike the circumstances in which Idriss Deby was killed (in past 100 years or so, I think).
The person was killed as a result of enemy combat action in a war zone, either while commanding, fighting or observing his/her troops in action (i.e. the head of state was with his/her troops at the time). Thus, car / plane bombs and other assassinations outside of a war zone are not included. However, if the enemy learnt of the head of state's presence in the war zone and targeted him / her with snipers, artillery, aerial bombardment etc., that would count.


texts: What was the first major historical event to be photographed?

texts: The first photograph is supposed to have been taken in the late 1820s.  But what was the first major historical event to be photographed?


texts: Are there visualisations of the Kerma state along with other Nile Valley civilizations?

texts:
Wikipedia describes the Kerma state as existing contemporaneously with Middle Kingdom Egypt, from approx 2500 BC to 1500 BC. Yet, the article on the Kerma doesn't illustrate the Kermanese (?) sphere of influence or major cities (archaeological sites) within its own context or within the Nile Valley overall.
The Wikipedia article (and other sources, including a podcast on Sudanese history) mention that the Kermanese influence probably spread from the Third to the Sixth Cataracts. At the same time, most of the article also mentions how recent our understanding of the culture is—possibly a reason why not many maps have been drawn with the Kerma settlements.
Wikipedia on Old Kingdom Egypt highlights a settlement at Kerma but doesn't present any information on how far their influence spread (or where the boundary with the Old Kingdom would have been). Wikipedia on Middle Kingdom Egypt doesn't show a neighbouring state to the south.
Many maps seem to show Kush, a later reincarnation of Kerma (slightly overemphasised), but it's not clear that the centers of population or, indeed, influence would have been in the same locations.
When searching for this on Google Image search, I found this map but it doesn't note the specific time or year (and it doesn't highlight Egyptian spheres of power at the same time):

I found this article which included a map of Kerma sites though there are so many of them I'm not sure all are settlements or what relevance they may have had (plus there's no reference to neighbouring kingdoms):

Lastly, I also found this incredibly informative post with two good maps, but the focus is on Egypt though with a helpful amount of information on Nubia. Yet, even these don't really denote a sphere of influence for Kerma or where its other neighbours were:

In other words, there are plenty of maps which focus on Egypt but not as much on the other Nile Valley civilizations, including Kerma. Does anyone know of a visualization which would illustrate Kerma along with the Egyptian realm, their main settlements, and other relevant civilizations?


texts: When were the "War Relief Toy Works" set up and by whom?

texts:
There are a number of toys in existence - particularly Noah's Arks - which originate from the 'War Relief Toy Works', which was based in Stoke Newington, a suburb of London, UK.

A representative picture of one of these can be seen here.

There are references to the Works in 1922, 1929 (here and here), 1934, and 1944.

Anyone know who set up the Works, how were they organised and whether anyone who worked there wrote memoirs?

Any information you could point me to would be gratefully received.


texts: What was the purpose of rounded sills in Medieval castles?

texts:
At the Saranta Kolones Castle, or Forty Columns Castle, in Paphos, Cyprus, there are several door (gate?) sills which are rounded in the direction of travel, i.e. the edges of the sill that are perpendicular to the direction of travel gradually curve from the top of the sill-stone to the level ground. While Saranta Kolones—though this is debated—partially dates to the 7th century, these stones seem to be related to the 13th century construction (based on their location and prominence).
I did see a reference that previous columns from a Greek/Roman agora may have been re-used in the construction of the castle, but even in that case it doesn't make sense to use those stones for sills. Construction stopped throughout the castle at the same time after an earthquake, so it is unlikely to have been a different part of the castle, repurposed, either.
I have attached two pictures of how it looked below.
I tried to investigate why the doors would be designed in this way, but I couldn't find anything based on searches involving 'door sill', 'gate sill', and 'Medieval rounded door sill'. Osprey's 'Crusader Castles in Cyprus, Greece and the Aegean' doesn't add anything useful on this castle either.
These looks odd to me because assuming that people or horses would have been travelling through these doors, a round surface can be slippery. Similarly, it would mean that any above-ground door would have to be exactly in the center of the upmost part of the sill-stone (while if it was level, it could be off-center). Yet, these stones look as if they've been purposefully positioned into these locations.
These stones didn't look worn/eroded, but rather as if they had been installed in this shape—I primarily say this because it would be highly unlikely for both sides (that is, the inward and outward facing ones) to erode in an equal amount leaving a perfect semi-circle. The only noticeable wear pattern on them was some (recent) graffiti.
Was this related to a specific school of architecture? Was there a functional reason why a rounded sill-stone would be better than a rectangular one? Is this the case anywhere else?

The dark blue stone (much of the stone used at Saranta Kolones is of similar colour though this stands out with respect to its surroundings)

The central white stone (with some graffiti)

The one from the first image is on the left here while the one from the second image is in the centre-right.


texts: Were early accounts of ancient child prostitution accurate?

texts:
Well I'm doing a research about the history and background of Child Sexual Abuse and due to the few sources related to the topic, I've been stucked ,but recently a I found this book "The Encyclopedia of Child Abuse" with a few lines about the topic:

"Prepubescent boys were commonly prostituted in brothels in ancient Greece and Rome" With no references

The problem that it seems to contradict certain aspects of the Greco-roman cultures

first of all male prostitution in Greece was in essence restricted to adolescents (Affairs of the Heart (25–26)).

Second as far as I know in roman society children have "inviolable" status.

Third it doesn't mention anything about girls.

Fourth, please don't start with the "pederasty" aspect. I refer specifically to children non minors (from 12 and higher) which was the age of consent at the time.

So how reliable is this information ? if anyone knows a better source of information please let me know.


texts:
How did IKEA develop the characteristic style?  I know there is a catalog each year, but I'm looking more for a summary and overview of the design evolution.
I understand it's not as significant as, for example, Braun's design for which a design history article exists. Nonetheless IKEA is a term many are familiar with and the furniture is found in many urban homes (at least in Europe).


texts: Westernmost and easternmost locations that Charles V visited in his empire?

texts:
Charles V (1500 – 1558) famously was ruler over an "empire on which the sun never set". It included large parts of Europe and also colonies in the new world. Charles V was born in the Low Countries and later ruled from Spain, which suggests a mainly North-to-South trajectory for his life in territories that stretched also across continents and from the distant West to the remote East.

What were the westernmost and easternmost locations within the Empire that Charles V visited during his lifetime? (I take it that a visit to the colonies by such a ruler was never contemplated at that time.)


texts: Are the Nazi Party, Communist Party, and Bolsheviks far-right or far-left?

texts: I am really confused why some or all of these parties are considered to be far-right and not far-left. They are mostly socialist parties which took the ideology too far. What are the academic criteria to determine where a party/dictatorship is on the right-left spectrum?


texts: Who was the Scottish philosopher that came up with the idea of a Scottish militia?

texts: I read a book on the Scottish Enlightenment a couple of weeks ago and am trying to remember the name of the Scottish Philosopher that feared the ideas of a polite society would weaken the British people and a militia was required to bring some of their less civilized nature back as a balance was necessary for a modern society between the uncivilized and the civilized. I remember thinking the idea was interesting as it is something I can see occurring in the world today, and a little ironic because this idea came right at the end of an era of British history were they had all but removed one of the last remaining warrior societies in Europe, the Highlanders and imposed the first of the disarming acts upon the region. I would like to look into the philosophy further but can't remember the name of this particular thinker as he was merely little more than an aside in the book I read.


texts: Was there Western tactical air support during the Battle for Berlin?

texts:
I'm slowly moving my way through Christer Bergstrom's Bagration to Berlin - the Final Air Battles in the East 1944-1945 (slow because it is choc full of detailed data and resources, it's not a light read).

I was idly wondering whether there was any Western tactical air support during the peak of the Battle of Berlin, including the battles around the city, e.g. Seelower Heights, Halbe, etc?

Western bombing of the city, according to Wikipedia (*)

  The major Western Allied contribution to the battle was the bombing of
  Berlin during 1945. During 1945 the United States Army Air Forces
  launched a number of very large daytime raids on Berlin and for 36
  nights in succession, scores of RAF Mosquitos bombed the German
  capital, ending on the night of 20/21 April 1945 just before the
  Soviets entered the city.

Did the Soviets handle all tactical air support or did the Western allies contribute, at least closer to the Elbe? Or was the fear of friendly fire and complications too great?

Did Eisenhower's disinterest in risking/spending lives for areas that would be in the Soviet zone of influence anyway extend to the air forces?

(*) Which has footnotes pointing at

Milward, Alan S. (1980), War, Economy and Society, 1939–1945, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03942-1

McInnis, Edgar (1946), The war 6, Oxford University Press


texts:
The obvious encyclopedic site surprisingly has nothing on this in its article about Denmark in WWII. It alludes to a British occupation force after the war, but is not clear who actually liberated them during the war.

So who was it? British or Soviets? And where can I read more about that particular liberation?


texts:
The Wikipedia article on Žaltys says (in its entirety):

  A žaltys is a household spirit in the Lithuanian mythology. As sacred animal of the sun goddess Saulė, it is a guardian of the home and a symbol of fertility. People used to keep it as a pet by the stove or other special area of the house, believing that it would bring good harvest and wealth. Killing žaltys was said to bring great misfortunes upon the household. If žaltys was found in the field, people gave it milk attempting to befriend the creature and make it a sacred household pet.

The Britianica article says:

  žaltys, in ancient Baltic traditions, a harmless green snake highly respected as a symbol of fertility and wealth. To ensure the prosperity of family and field, a žaltys was kept in a special corner of the house, and the entire household gathered at specified times to recite prayers to it.

  On special occasions the snake was asked to the table to share the family meal from their plates; should he refuse, misfortune was imminent. To encounter a snake accidentally was also considered auspicious and portended a marriage or a birth. Paralysis or great misfortune awaited anyone who dared kill a žaltys, the “sentinel of the gods” and a favourite of Saule, the goddess of the sun.

This suggests that it was an actual snake that people would find and keep as a pet and feed milk to. Is there any record of pet snakes being kept in homes for this purpose, or was it likely to have been a snake effigy, carving, etc?

Snakes generally don't drink milk and I assume most snakes wouldn't sit quietly in a corner or share a meal at a table.

If it was an actual snake, was it a particular type/color of snake, or would any grass snake do?


texts: Did B-17 crews run into difficulty releasing their bombs and does data exist on this?

texts:
The B-17 was used for a significant portion of the Allied campaign during WWII. My understanding is the earliest bombs in aviation consisted of just throwing stuff out of the open cockpit of planes. Later this progressed to some doors in the fuselage through which bombs simply fell out when opened.

The B-17 appears to have a more complex bomb bay system, with doors and with the bombs mechanically retained somehow. Did Allied crews ever experience difficulty getting the bombs to release? How did they deal with this (landing with bombs seems dangerous)? Does any data exist for what percentage of missions encountered problems with the bomb release mechanisms?


texts: Gazan attitudes to Egyptian rule 1948-1967

texts:
Was Egyptian rule viewed favourably by the population? Were there uprisings?

Another related question: were there travel restrictions of some form (i.e. could Gazans travel freely in Egypt)?

UPDT: Nothing? No information anywhere?...:(
Here's a specific subquestion: were there any kind of opinion polls held then in Gaza? (probably not, but perhaps on the off-chance)


texts: What is known about the Ubaid lizard-people figurines?

texts:
I find the Ubaid lizard-people figurines visually captivating. But for obvious reasons it's difficult to search for information about them online without wading chest deep through pages of ancient aliens garbage, for little reward. So far I've managed to find pictures of several different figurines, that they were excavated at Ur, and that they date from the Ubaid period, and that they may present evidence for several varieties of body modification - though I don't know how solid that last one is.
What else do we actually know about these odd and arresting figures? Are there theories as to their origins, and significance within Mesopotamian art or religious belief? Are the majority female, as seems to be from the pictures, and what are they wearing and holding?


texts: Why are the democracies of France, Israel and India rated "Flawed Democracies"?

texts:
What does the term "Flawed Democracy" actually mean?

Why are some of the world's successful democracies like France, Israel and India rated "Flawed Democracies" by the Economist Intelligence Unit?


texts: What was it like for German Jews after WWII?

texts:
A movie I saw recently referred to the experience of German Jews who survived concentration camps and came back to live in German cities. It never occurred to me before how uncomfortable, or even horrible, it would be to live as a Jew at that time, knowing what the other Germans had just done to you and your kin. The movie implied that non-Jewish Germans were also uncomfortable with the concentration camp survivors--many felt guilty, obviously, but it's human nature to avoid guilt by projecting it on the victim--hence they were not kind. I am interested in real-life details that give a sense of what it was like for both Jews and non-Jews in Germany post-WW II.

Do we know what they said to each other on the street, in posted signs, in publications? Were there any non-Jews who could reach out in a healing way (and not just suffocate in guilt or a hard heart)? Any German organizations with a stated goal of healing the wounds and ending antisemitism? What fraction of Jews committed to staying, and what fraction left the country (for Israel or elsewhere)?


texts:
Why didn't the abdication of the  Nicholas Tsar II duing the Russian Revolution solve Russia's political and social problems?

Can you give examples using primary or secondary sources?

Thanks :)


texts: Identify the era or any other clues from this soldier's picture?

texts:
I am going through my parents' photo box and found this. I don't think it's a relative. Right breast says "Ritchie" and it looks like left says "USARMY". The marking on the back says "Myself at Iujin-ni," or something like that in cursive handwriting, then it says "Grid 064953".

Is this a photograph of an American soldier in Japan? Can anyone tell me the era? Or any other clues that might help me get this photo to the person or family?


texts: How much food value is a horse to a cavalryman?

texts:
Suppose you have a group of say, 1,000 cavalry, that were besieged on a fortress awaiting relief. As such, they are dismounted and fight like infantry.

Suppose they are short on food, but they can kill their 1,000 horses for such. How many days could a cavalryman survive eating his horse?

Suppose further, that the horses have "fodder" for ten days. At least half of that (five days' worth) is in the form of grain edible by humans. The remaining half would be in the form of grass that may or may not be accessible in the area between the fortress and the besiegers. How many days' worth of grain for himself would the soldier save by killing his horse?

This question would be for the ancient times, in the pre-stirrup era


texts: Did the 'founding fathers' of the United States see Oliver Cromwell as a role model?

texts: Did they like Oliver Cromwell, who founded a republic after a dispute about taxes led to the overthrow of a king, or did they see him as a usurping Caesar who destroyed a republic and became a tyrant?


texts: Has anyone seen a bracelet like this one? (WW2 Cairo)

texts: My mother-in-law has this bracelet. It was her father's who died in Egypt in WW2. We'd love to know more about it. Has anyone ever seen one of these?


texts: Was there a state or kingdom in the Maghreb of North Africa that predates the founding of Carthage?

texts: Was there a state or kingdom in North Africa before the arrival of the Phoenicians and the foundation of Carthage in 814 BC, except the primitive Capcian civilization?


texts: Why did the Fourth Crusade sack Constantinople?

texts: If the Crusade was going to help the Byzantines to drive away their enemies, as well as attack the Holy land, why did it turn on the Byzantine Empire?


texts: Why did Napoleon change his mind and continue the attack into Russia?

texts:
On July 28, 1812 some of his officers convinced Napoleon to end the Russian campaign due to huge losses due to typhus. A couple of days later, Napoleon changed his mind and the rest is, as they say, history.

On July 28, three of Napoleon’s officers raised concerns with him that the fight with the Russians was becoming dangerous. The loss of troops from disease and desertion had reduced his effective fighting strength to about half. Adding to this difficulty, the problem of finding provisions in hostile territory was becoming daunting. Napoleon listened to their arguments and agreed to end the campaign, but only two days later, he changed his mind and told his generals: “The very danger pushes us on to Moscow. The die is cast. Victory will justify and save us.”
Napoleon Wasn’t Defeated by the Russians, J. Knight, Slate.com

Is there any record of him having justified the change of heart?


texts: How was sugar consumed by industrial revolution workers?

texts:
I seen several times the claim than sugar was an essential nutrient for industrial revolution workers (for example this blog) and even that sugar availability made possible the industrial revolution, at least in Britain.

My (maybe wrong) understanding of these claims is that sugar became a sort of staple food for British workers. However, I can't imagine people having a bowl of sugar for lunch but I suppose a diet made mostly of bread, potatoes, vegetables and occasionally a little meat, with sweet food being mostly deserts or snacks, and even then those sweet foods are mostly composed of ingredients other than sugar, like flour. Therefore, I can't see where a large quantity of sugar fits in an industrial revolution worker diet.

Is it true that industrial revolution British working class families consumed large quantities of sugar? How did they consume it?

Edit:

According to the book linked in Brian Z's answer (Syndney Mintz's classic book Sweetness and Power, chapter "Consumption", p. 149) before 1850 sugar have been mostly a sweetener for tea which added very few calories to worker's diet, but after 1850 "it appeared not only in tea and cereal but in many other foods as well and in ever-larger quantities" and it was contributing to one-sixth or per-capita caloric intake.

1/6 of daily caloric intake is 1/6 of 2000 to 2500 kcal, that is about 400 kcal, and that's a bit more than the calories in 100g sugar, which is an amount better measured with a teacup than in teaspoons.

Then the question is what the "many other foods" containing sugar that labouring families ate daily were.


texts: Language of early French (West-Frankish) kings

texts: When did Old French displace Frankish as the language spoken in the West-Frankish court, and who was the first natively "French" king?


texts: What were shoe soles made from in previous ages?

texts:
Today, nearly all commercial footwear has a sole made of either rubber or plastic with rubber-like qualities.  It's a great material for the job, but it comes from a tree that's native to the Americas, and thus was unavailable to the Old World before Columbus.

What did they make shoe and boot soles out of in earlier ages?  Ideally, it would have to be something relatively tough, firm and resistant to wear, in contrast to the rest of the shoe which should ideally be relatively soft and flexible.


texts: What had caused Northumbrian to become similar to Old Danish before the Viking invasions?

texts: As mentioned here, the difference between the version of Old English spoken in Northumbria around the year 800 and Old Norse as spoken by the Vikings (basically Old Danish) was much less than the difference between classical Old English and classical Old Norse. So, Northumbrian must have evolved to become similar to Old Danish well before the Viking invasion. This could perhaps be explained if there had been a large migration from Scandinavia to Northumbria, but that doesn't seem to be the case.


texts: Was any other religion as exact in terms of genealogy as Judaism?

texts: Old Testament has extensive genealogies dating from Adam (untraceable) to Jesus, (somewhat traceable). My question is, was any other religion (Greek Paganism, Sumerian Religion, Babylonian Religion, Assyrian Religion, Egyptian Paganism etc) as exact as Judaism?


texts: What historical evidence do we have regarding the Lost Colony of Roanoke?

texts:
In grade school, Americans are told a very basic story of Roanoke colony. A group of colonists arrive in the New World and establish the colony. The first American of English descent is born there: Virginia Dare. Due to England's war with Spain, supply ships fail to make it to the colony for some time, and when the colony's founder John White finally returns, all the people have vanished. There is no note, except for the word "Croatoan" carved in a post. White, Dare's grandfather, has lost his colony.

My question is, what primary sources do we have about the colony other than the physical post with the engraved word?


texts: What was the early understanding of static electricity shocks?

texts:
What was the common understanding of electric shocks caused by static electricity in the ancient world and middle ages? I'm talking about the shock when you touch something on a dry day for example.

Note that I'm not asking about the scientific understanding (which is detailed in the Wikipedia page). This is why I'm asking this here, and not in the history of science SE site.

I'm more interested in what would the average person think when they got the shock by touching something. Would they think God was angry (as was common with negative physical experiences before science)? Are there any references to this phenomenon by religious (monotheistic or pagan) texts?

Would they understand this is similar to a tiny lightning (on a dark night you can see the air arcing when this happens)?

The Wikipedia page mentions the ancient Egyptians were aware of electric eel and fish, and thus were given "supernatural" powers. Did people understand that a static electricity shock was a similar thing, even if it's not coming from an animal?


texts:
I vaguely remember reading something about this but I'd like to dig up some sources. Google isn't much help on that one.

This could have applied to some tribes, Gaul or the Celtic world at large, but again I don't remember for sure.


texts: How were heavily armored Cataphracts killed?

texts:
I've always wondered how an infantry soldier, without a pike (which cavalry wouldn't charge into normally), deliver a fatal blow to a Cataphract?

What I know is that Cataphracts were used as heavy shock troops that were used to break enemy lines. After they smash into any unit, some sort of hand to hand fighting would take place.

What I want to know is how during that fight, a cataphract knight could be killed. In other words, how would an infantry soldier overcome difference in height, weapon reach and maximal armor with little holes and deliver a fatal blow?

There are many forms of armor for Cataphracts across history, but they all were very heavily armored. Persian/Sassanian Cataphracts riders' heads were even entirely armored. I can't imagine a swordsman or a spear-man being able to deliver a fatal blow when faced with such a fearsome opponent.

Any idea or historical evidence of how very heavy cavalry were defeated?

EDIT:

During the course of history, many battles took place where armies composed/contained Cataphracts were defeated, such as:

In the Battle of Tigranocerta, a small inferior Roman force
defeated an Armenian force with some Cataphracts, by flanking them
and attacking their rear.
In the Battle of Yarmouk, the brilliant Khalid managed to beat
the Byzantine cavalry with his much lighter cavalry, again by
superior tactics. He managed to beat Persian armies that had
heavy cavalry too at many other occasions.
Alexander crushed the Persians (Granicus, Issus and Gaugamela) with
their superior heavy cavalry, by using a clever combination his
Macedonian pikemen and his personal Companion cavalry.

All the battles and sources I can find states that the heavy cavalry were defeated by superior tactics and flanking. However, I cannot find any reliable source stating the defeat of a Cataphract in a hand to hand fight.

EDIT 2:

Following the excellent answer by @Mynott95, I was recently reading about the Battle of Strasbourg also known as Battle of Argentoratum between the Western Romans and the Alamanni confederations. It describes how the Germans dealt with the heavy Roman cataphracts head on:

  The Roman heavy cavalry now charged the German horsemen. In the
  ensuing mêlée, Chnodomar's stratagem paid dividends. The interspersed
  foot warriors wreaked havoc, bringing down the horses of the
  cataphracts and then killing their riders on the ground.


texts: The first households were supplied with electricity in the 1880s (from wikipedia). I think by around 1950 most urban households in the US had electricity. Rural households got there a few years later? The situation in Western Europe was similar? How electrified was Germany before and after world war II? Essentially I'm looking for charts showing the proportion of households with electric power over time for various regions in the world and my googling didn't provide anything useful beyond the wikipedia article.


texts: Having had his policy judged unlawful, which Home Secretary asked to meet Lord Bingham to discuss?

texts:
I quote p 27, in the Winter 2018 Issue 13 of the Hong Kong Student Law Gazette.

  The tension between executive and judiciary exists in many jurisdictions practising separation of powers, and the UK is no exception. Serving as the Lord Chief Justice at the time, Lord Phillips did not recall a particular low relationship between judges and politicians, but he acknowledged the presence of such underlying tension: ‘I think some politicians have always had some difficulties in understanding the rule of law and the role of the judge. And so I re-member that there was a Home Secretary who had one of his policies declared unlawful by the House of Lords, and asked Lord Bingham if he could meet with the Lords to discuss what he wanted to do’. In response, Lord Bingham rejected the request and said it would be too inappropriate, Lord Phillips recalled.


texts: What are some symbols representing peasants/oppressed persons fighting back?

texts:
I am curious if any groups prior to the 20th century (meaning that the peace sign is excluded) had a symbol to represent their revolt against an oppressor.

One could imagine branded slaves turning a fish (typical slave symbol in coastal cities) into a symbol which represents their control over their own bodies. Such is just an example.

The symbol must have been in use, probably as a seal, on clothing, or used as tattoos/branding. Symbols may also have been used by secret groups attempting to undermine despotic/dictatorial/monarchical civilizations.


texts: How confusing was British currency compared to decimal currency circa 1850?

texts:
This question quotes Terry Pratchett's claim:

The British resisted decimalized currency for a long time because they thought it was too complicated.

Is this a fair comparison with its inference that British currency was significantly more complex than decimal currency?
Or is it a simple matter of lack of familiarity leading to misunderstanding?
For purposes of comparison, even though it is a century earlier, the era of interest I believe is best taken from 1800 to 1850, early to mid 19th century. Both the U.K. and U.S. are then on a metallic currency standard, and the smaller coins in both currencies still retain real buying power. I believe this provides a better comparison than latter time periods, say after the Second World War, would.

Update
Although I have posted an answer below, I have no intent to accept it. The material there is posted as a resource for any and all who would care to attempt a definitive answer.
GO FOR IT!


texts: When and how did classical mythology subjects start to appear in art in medieval/Renaissance Europe?

texts:
All early medieval Europe art objects I am aware of are either about the Christian subjects or about the history (chronicles etc.). Classical mythology was obviously known in Europe before, see e.g. What did people in 13th century England know about Greek mythology? , but it was not seen in the art (as far as I am aware) until the 15th century.

Then, sometime in the 15th century, we see the emergence of art objects (drawings, tapestries, etc.) showing antique mythology subjects, e.g. this drawing made by Jacopo Bellini in cr. 1420-1470.

When and, if known, why has antique mythology re-emerged in art? Was it because new knowledge has emerged or some restrictions have been abolished?

One of the possibilities is emerging archaeology (Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli, 1391 – 1453/55, has pioneered it in Europe), but there might be other reasons.


texts: How large was the typical settlement in Europe during the Bronze Age?  Did most people live in isolated farmsteads or something more like small villages?


texts: What is the edition/version of this book (Pensées De Pascal)?

texts:
Full Title:

Pensées De Pascal

précédées de sa vie

Par Mme Perier, Sa Soeur

Suivies D'Un Choix

Des Pensées De Nicole

Et De Son Traité De La Paix Avec Les Hommes

(This is all one of the first pages)

At the bottom of the same page, it says:

Paris, Librairie De Firmin Didot Frères,
Imprimeurs De L'institut,
Rue Jacob, 56

1847

(Excuse spelling errors above please)

With that out of the way, I've researched every bit of this information. The date at the bottom did come up with some editions, but not the one I have. Researching the Librairie De Firmin Didot...etc. also came up with some information, but I also didn't have any luck finding the exact version I have.

Physical Information:
On the binding, it says Pascal with a small line underneath. It appears to be leather bound. The pattern on the binding is a brown background with black and gold stripes at different intervals. The pattern on the cover is tan and black swirls as well as the back.

There is some cursive writing on one of the pages before the actual book starts. As far as I can decipher, it is written like this:

Elizabeth L. Burling -
     Well Logan Square

M L. Price

New Year's 1852 (the date is kind of hard to read)

I do not know if that is relevant. A quick search of the names did not return any satisfying results.

I can give any other relevant information. As aforementioned, I have found editions that look vaguely similar in appearance, but none with the described colors or other notable figures.

I am somewhat aware of the history of the book, so in this case I'm mostly interested in knowing the actual history of the edition I have and if it's worth anything.