in the area of communications research and informetrics, the concept of self - organizing systems appears in mid - 1990s research related to scientific communications. scientometrics and bibliometrics are areas of research in which discrete data are available, as are several other areas of social communications research such as sociolinguistics. social complexity is also a concept used in semiotics.


in specifying disk drive capacities, manufacturers have always used conventional decimal si prefixes representing powers of 10. storage in a rotating disk drive is organized in platters and tracks whose sizes and counts are determined by mechanical engineering constraints so that the capacity of a disk drive has hardly ever been a simple multiple of a power of 2. for example, the first commercially sold disk drive, the ibm 350 ( 1956 ), had 50 physical disk platters containing a total of 50000 sectors of 100 characters each, for a total quoted capacity of 5 million characters. moreover, since the 1960s, many disk drives used ibm's disk format, where each track was divided into blocks of user - specified size ; and the block sizes were recorded on the disk, subtracting from the usable capacity. for example, the | ibm 3336 ] ] disk pack was quoted to have a 200 - megabyte capacity, achieved only with a single 13030 - byte block in each of its 808 x 19 tracks.


let the interest r follow a markov process with probability transition function q ( r, d μ r ) { \ displaystyle q ( r, d \ mu _ { r } ) } where d μ r { \ displaystyle d \ mu _ { r } } denotes the probability measure governing the distribution of interest rate next period if current interest rate is r { \ displaystyle r }. in this model the consumer decides their current period consumption after the current period interest rate is announced. rather than simply choosing a single sequence { c t } { \ displaystyle \ { { \ color { olivegreen } c _ { t } } \ } }, the consumer now must choose a sequence { c t } { \ displaystyle \ { { \ color { olivegreen } c _ { t } } \ } } for each possible realization of a { r t } { \ displaystyle \ { r _ { t } \ } } in such a way that their lifetime expected utility is maximized : max { c t } t = 0 ∞ e ( t = 0 ∞ β t u ( c t ) ).


in order to define a { \ displaystyle a }, we define an objective function describing classification accuracy in the transformed space and try to determine a ∗ { \ displaystyle a ^ { * } } such that this objective function is maximized. a ∗ = argmax a f ( a ) { \ displaystyle a ^ { * } = { \ mbox { argmax } } _ { a } f ( a ) }


in other words, if we replace its directed edges with undirected edges, we obtain an undirected graph that is acyclic. a polytree is an example of an oriented graph. the term polytree was coined in 1987 by rebane and pearl.


in medicine, a sequence is a series of ordered consequences due to a single cause. it differs from a syndrome in that seriality is more predictable : if a causes b, and b causes c, and c causes d, then d would not be seen if c is not seen. however, in less formal contexts, the term " syndrome " is sometimes used instead of sequence. examples include : oligohydramnios sequence ( also known as potter sequence ) pierre robin sequence poland sequence = = references = =


this is a general advantage of the axiomatic approach in mathematics. the axiomatic approach to kolmogorov complexity was further developed in the book ( burgin 2005 ) and applied to software metrics ( burgin and debnath, 2003 ; debnath and burgin, 2003 ). in information theory, information fluctuation complexity is the fluctuation of information about information entropy.


it is very similar to the z - score but with the difference that t - statistic is used when the sample size is small or the population standard deviation is unknown. for example, the t - statistic is used in estimating the population mean from a sampling distribution of sample means if the population standard deviation is unknown. it is also used along with p - value when running hypothesis tests where the p - value tells us what the odds are of the results to have happened.


in mathematics, a submodular set function ( also known as a submodular function ) is a set function that, informally, describes the relationship between a set of inputs and an output, where adding more of one input has a decreasing additional benefit ( diminishing returns ). the natural diminishing returns property which makes them suitable for many applications, including approximation algorithms, game theory ( as functions modeling user preferences ) and electrical networks. recently, submodular functions have also found immense utility in several real world problems in machine learning and artificial intelligence, including automatic summarization, multi - document summarization, feature selection, active learning, sensor placement, image collection summarization and many other domains.


in the event of accumulation in the long - term, the capacity at which the bottlenecked machine is running could be so slow that the accumulated resources that are in the queue need to be stored. the cost of storing resources is significant as it takes resources to transport the materials back and forth as well as requiring space, another potential cost.


programming languages may, however, share the syntax with markup languages if a computational semantics is defined. xslt, for example, is a turing complete language entirely using xml syntax. moreover, latex, which is mostly used for structuring documents, also contains a turing complete subset.


in telecommunications, the term system integrity has the following meanings : that condition of a system wherein its mandated operational and technical parameters are within the prescribed limits. the quality of an ais when it performs its intended function in an unimpaired manner, free from deliberate or inadvertent unauthorized manipulation of the system. the state that exists when there is complete assurance that under all conditions an it system is based on the logical correctness and reliability of the operating system, the logical completeness of the hardware and software that implement the protection mechanisms, and data integrity.


corners are detected through the simplest implementation which literally extracts a ring of 16 pixels and compares the intensity values with an appropriate threshold. for candidate p, each location on the circle x ∈ { 1, 2, 3,..., 16 } can be denoted by p→x. the state of each pixel, sp→x must be in one of the following three states : d, ip→x ≤ ip - t ( darker ) s, ip - t ≤ ip→x ≤ ip + t ( similar ) b, ip→x≥ ip + t ( brighter ) then choosing an x ( same for all p ) partitions p ( the set of all pixels of all training images ) into 3 different subsets, pd, ps, pb where : pd = { p ∈ p : sp→x = d } ps = { p ∈ p : sp→x = s } pb = { p ∈ p : sp→x = b } secondly, a decision tree algorithm, the id3 algorithm is applied to the 16 locations in order to achieve the maximum information gain.


in recent years, it has become a popular subject of discourse among test - takers on various social media networks. many of them poke fun at passages or questions in the psat that they find strange or amusing. the level of discussion is so significant that in 2013, the hashtag # psat reached trending status on twitter near its administration date. this is despite the fact that since 2012, test participants have been required to copy and sign a statement agreeing to the test regulations, which include not discussing the test. previously, that statement had to be written in cursive, a requirement that had drawn ire from both students and teachers, as many students found writing the statement in cursive to be difficult. however, in 2015, the requirement to write the statement in cursive was removed.


in the case that x and y are both finite - dimensional ( i. e. linearly isomorphic to rm and rn for some natural numbers m and n ) then writing out equation ( l ) in matrix form shows that λ is the usual lagrange multiplier vector ; in the case n = 1, λ is the usual lagrange multiplier, a real number.


in the below table, columns i, ii, iii, iv, and v show the code ; the let. and fig. columns show the letters and numbers for the continental and uk versions ; and the sort keys present the table in the order : alphabetical, gray and uk baudot developed his first multiplexed telegraph in 1872 and patented it in 1874. in 1876, he changed from a six - bit code to a five - bit code, as suggested by carl friedrich gauss and wilhelm weber in 1834, with equal on and off intervals, which allowed for transmission of the roman alphabet, and included punctuation and control signals.


so, given an integral domain r, it is often very useful to know that r has a euclidean function : in particular, this implies that r is a pid. however, if there is no " obvious " euclidean function, then determining whether r is a pid is generally a much easier problem than determining whether it is a euclidean domain. euclidean domains appear in the following chain of class inclusions : rngs rings commutative rings integral domains integrally closed domains gcd domains unique factorization domains principal ideal domains euclidean domains fields algebraically closed fields


for tossing two coins, the sample space is { h h, h t, t h, t t } { \ displaystyle \ { hh, ht, th, tt \ } }, where the outcome is h h { \ displaystyle hh } if both coins are heads, h t { \ displaystyle ht } if the first coin is heads and the second is tails, t h { \ displaystyle th } if the first coin is tails and the second is heads, and t t { \ displaystyle tt } if both coins are tails. the event that at least one of the coins is heads is given by e = { h h, h t, t h } { \ displaystyle e = \ { hh, ht, th \ } }. for tossing a single six - sided die one time, where the result of interest is the number of pips facing up, the sample space is { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 } { \ displaystyle \ { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 \ } }. a well - defined, non - empty sample space s { \ displaystyle s } is one of three components in a probabilistic model ( a probability space ).


in particular, support vector machines find a hyperplane that separates the feature space into two classes with the maximum margin. if the problem is not originally linearly separable, the kernel trick can be used to turn it into a linearly separable one, by increasing the number of dimensions. thus a general hypersurface in a small dimension space is turned into a hyperplane in a space with much larger dimensions. neural networks try to learn the decision boundary which minimizes the empirical error, while support vector machines try to learn the decision boundary which maximizes the empirical margin between the decision boundary and data points.


{ \ displaystyle k / p. } the ring k / ( p ) { \ displaystyle k / ( p ) } is a field if and only if p is an irreducible polynomial. in fact, if p is irreducible, every nonzero polynomial q of lower degree is coprime with p, and bezout's identity allows computing r and s such that sp + qr = 1 ; so, r is the multiplicative inverse of q modulo p. conversely, if p is reducible, then there exist polynomials a, b of degrees lower than deg ( p ) such that ab = p ; so a, b are nonzero zero divisors modulo p, and cannot be invertible.


this is due, in part, because two isps may be connected through multiple connections. in choosing the single router - level path, it is common practice for each isp to employ hot - potato routing : sending traffic along the path that minimizes the distance through the isp's own network — even if that path lengthens the total distance to the destination. for example, consider two isps, a and b. each has a presence in new york, connected by a fast link with latency 5 ms — and each has a presence in london connected by a 5 ms link.


in mathematics, particularly in set theory, the aleph numbers are a sequence of numbers used to represent the cardinality ( or size ) of infinite sets that can be well - ordered. they were introduced by the mathematician georg cantor and are named after the symbol he used to denote them, the hebrew letter aleph ( { \ displaystyle \, \ aleph \, } ). the cardinality of the natural numbers is 0 { \ displaystyle \, \ aleph _ { 0 } \, } ( read aleph - nought or aleph - zero ; the term aleph - null is also sometimes used ), the next larger cardinality of a well - ordered set is aleph - one 1, { \ displaystyle \, \ aleph _ { 1 } \ ;, } then 2 { \ displaystyle \, \ aleph _ { 2 } \, } and so on. continuing in this manner, it is possible to define a cardinal number α { \ displaystyle \, \ aleph _ { \ alpha } \, } for every ordinal number α, { \ displaystyle \, \ alpha \ ;, } as described below. the concept and notation are due to georg cantor, who defined the notion of cardinality and realized that infinite sets can have different cardinalities. the aleph numbers differ from the infinity ( ∞ { \ displaystyle \, \ infty \, } ) commonly found in algebra and calculus, in that the alephs measure the sizes of sets, while infinity is commonly defined either as an extreme limit of the real number line ( applied to a function or sequence that " diverges to infinity " or " increases without bound " ), or as an extreme point of the extended real number line.


in practice, the most common form of pre - emption right is the right of existing shareholders to acquire new shares issued by a company in a rights issue, usually a public offering. in this context, the pre - emptive right is also called subscription right or subscription privilege. it is the right but not the obligation of existing shareholders to buy the new shares before they are offered to the public. in that way, existing shareholders can maintain their proportional ownership of the company and thus prevent stock dilution.


however, only two of these symbols were used for letters, making it largely binary. the third symbol only appeared in control characters.


in the java programming language, the constant interface pattern describes the use of an interface solely to define constants, and having classes implement that interface in order to achieve convenient syntactic access to those constants. however, since constants are very often merely an implementation detail, and the interfaces implemented by a class are part of its exported api, this practice amounts to putting implementations details into the api, which was considered inappropriate by, e. g., java designer joshua bloch. in general, collecting system constants into classes independent of behaviour might create a poor object - oriented design because it is often a sign of low cohesion.


similar lists exist for several other types of products. they vary and often deviate significantly from any geometric series in order to accommodate traditional sizes when feasible. adjacent package sizes in these lists differ typically by factors 2⁄3 or 3⁄4, in some cases even 1⁄2, 4⁄5, or some other ratio of two small integers.


in the japanese kantenji braille, the standard 8 - dot braille patterns 257, 1257, 2457, and 12457 are the patterns related to braille pattern dots - 134, since the two additional dots of kantenji patterns 0134, 1347, and 01347 are placed above the base 6 - dot cell, instead of below, as in standard 8 - dot braille.


myanmar north korea – the us bureau of diplomatic security advises visitors that they have " no right to privacy in north korea and should assume your communications are monitored " which excludes the possibility of satellite phone technology. russia – in 2012, new regulations governing the use of satellite phones inside russia or its territories were developed with the stated aim of fighting terrorism by enabling the russian government to intercept calls. these regulations allow non - russian visitors to register their sim cards for use within russian territory for up to six months.


however, this is not the case in a strong algorithm. in the past few years a number of research articles have addressed the development of strong multi - time - step algorithms.


for instance, the use of object - oriented programming often results in a greater number of " smaller " calls, which can be accommodated by increasing the windows from eight to sixteen for instance. this was the approach used in the sparc, which has included more register windows with newer generations of the architecture. the end result is fewer slow register window spill and fill operations because the register windows overflow less often.


there are times when rumors are created with malicious intent, but shared by unknowing users. with the large audiences that can be reached and the experts on various subjects on social media, some believe social media could also be the key to correcting misinformation. agent - based models and other computational models have been used by researchers to explain how false beliefs spread through networks. epistemic network analysis is one example of a computational method for evaluating connections in data shared in a social media network or similar network. in the misinformation age : how false beliefs spread, a trade book by philosopher cailin o'connor and physicist james owen weatherall, the authors used a combination of case studies and agent - based models to show how false beliefs spread on social media and scientific networks. this book analyses the social nature of scientific research ; the nature of information flow between scientists, propagandists, and politicians ; and the spread of false beliefs among the general population.


some examples : all greeks are human and all humans are mortal ; therefore, all greeks are mortal. : valid argument ; if the premises are true the conclusion must be true. some greeks are logicians and some logicians are tiresome ; therefore, some greeks are tiresome.


if the observations are correlated, the expression s = k j r k w k j r j { \ textstyle s = \ sum _ { k } \ sum _ { j } r _ { k } w _ { kj } r _ { j } \, } applies. in this case the weight matrix should ideally be equal to the inverse of the variance - covariance matrix of the observations ). the normal equations are then : this method is used in iteratively reweighted least squares.


the rules above are to be obeyed for large - scale maps. if the map being drawn is a small - scale map ( less than 1 : 500 000 according to imhof ), rules may be relaxed in order to obtain a more suggestive representation.


in mathematics, specifically statistics and information geometry, a bregman divergence or bregman distance is a measure of difference between two points, defined in terms of a strictly convex function ; they form an important class of divergences. when the points are interpreted as probability distributions – notably as either values of the parameter of a parametric model or as a data set of observed values – the resulting distance is a statistical distance. the most basic bregman divergence is the squared euclidean distance. bregman divergences are similar to metrics, but satisfy neither the triangle inequality ( ever ) nor symmetry ( in general ).


in statistical mechanics, the mean squared displacement ( msd, also mean square displacement, average squared displacement, or mean square fluctuation ) is a measure of the deviation of the position of a particle with respect to a reference position over time. it is the most common measure of the spatial extent of random motion, and can be thought of as measuring the portion of the system " explored " by the random walker. in the realm of biophysics and environmental engineering, the mean squared displacement is measured over time to determine if a particle is spreading slowly due to diffusion, or if an advective force is also contributing.


the modulo operation is the operation that produces such a remainder when given a dividend and divisor. alternatively, a remainder is also what is left after subtracting one number from another, although this is more precisely called the difference. this usage can be found in some elementary textbooks ; colloquially it is replaced by the expression " the rest " as in " give me two dollars back and keep the rest. " however, the term " remainder " is still used in this sense when a function is approximated by a series expansion, where the error expression ( " the rest " ) is referred to as the remainder term.


in matrix form, oja's rule can be written d w ( t ) d t = w ( t ) q − d i a g w ( t ) { \ displaystyle \, { \ frac { { \ text { d } } w ( t ) } { { \ text { d } } t } } ~ = ~ w ( t ) q - \ mathrm { diag } w ( t ) }, and the gram - schmidt algorithm is δ w ( t ) = − l o w e r w ( t ) { \ displaystyle \, \ delta w ( t ) ~ = ~ - \ mathrm { lower } w ( t ) }, where w ( t ) is any matrix, in this case representing synaptic weights, q = η x xt is the autocorrelation matrix, simply the outer product of inputs, diag is the function that diagonalizes a matrix, and lower is the function that sets all matrix elements on or above the diagonal equal to 0. we can combine these equations to get our original rule in matrix form, δ w ( t ) = η ( t ) ( y ( t ) x ( t ) t − l t w ( t ) ) { \ displaystyle \, \ delta w ( t ) ~ = ~ \ eta ( t ) \ left ( \ mathbf { y } ( t ) \ mathbf { x } ( t ) ^ { \ mathrm { t } } - \ mathrm { lt } w ( t ) \ right ) }, where the function lt sets all matrix elements above the diagonal equal to 0, and note that our output y ( t ) = w ( t ) x ( t ) is a linear neuron.


the let expression is a conjunction within an existential quantifier. ( x e ∧ f ) let x : e in f { \ displaystyle ( \ exists xe \ land f ) \ iff \ operatorname { let } x : e \ operatorname { in } f } where e and f are of type boolean. the let expression allows the substitution to be applied to another expression.


in mathematics, a permutation group g acting on a non - empty finite set x is called primitive if g acts transitively on x and the only partitions the g - action preserves are the trivial partitions into either a single set or into | x | singleton sets. otherwise, if g is transitive and g does preserve a nontrivial partition, g is called imprimitive. while primitive permutation groups are transitive, not all transitive permutation groups are primitive.


hence cost is the metric used in the standard modeling paradigm applied to economic processes. costs ( pl. ) are often further described based on their timing or their applicability.


in salt bath nitriding the nitrogen donating medium is a nitrogen - containing salt such as cyanide salt. the salts used also donate carbon to the workpiece surface making salt bath a nitrocarburizing process. the temperature used is typical of all nitrocarburizing processes : 550 to 570 °c. the advantages of salt nitriding is that it achieves higher diffusion in the same period of time compared to any other method.


this is also true for several other infinite sets, such as any n - dimensional euclidean space r n { \ displaystyle \ mathbb { r } ^ { n } } ( see space filling curve ). that is, the smallest infinite cardinal number is 0 { \ displaystyle \ aleph _ { 0 } } ( aleph - null ). the second smallest is 1 { \ displaystyle \ aleph _ { 1 } } ( aleph - one ). the continuum hypothesis, which asserts that there are no sets whose cardinality is strictly between 0 { \ displaystyle \ aleph _ { 0 } } and c { \ displaystyle { \ mathfrak { c } } }, means that c = 1 { \ displaystyle { \ mathfrak { c } } = \ aleph _ { 1 } }. the truth or falsity of this hypothesis is undecidable and cannot be proven within the widely used zermelo – fraenkel set theory with axiom of choice ( zfc ).


in the japanese kantenji braille, the standard 8 - dot braille patterns 28, 128, 248, and 1248 are the patterns related to braille pattern dots - 16, since the two additional dots of kantenji patterns 016, 167, and 0167 are placed above the base 6 - dot cell, instead of below, as in standard 8 - dot braille.


in order to understand the performance paradox, it is helpful to first have a basic understanding of performance appraisals. performance appraisals, also known as performance evaluations, are assessments that many organizations use to measure individuals'productivity, ability and talent in their respective job positions. the goal of these appraisals is not only to measure each person's performance, but also to align all of the employee's values, goals and motivations and become a better performing organization as a whole. while the implementation of performance evaluations has been characterized as beneficial and even essential for organizational success, many of these performance evaluations have also become more ineffective over time due to both the excessive number of evaluation measures and employee reactivity to these evaluations.


in mathematics, a singular trace is a trace on a space of linear operators of a separable hilbert space that vanishes on operators of finite rank. singular traces are a feature of infinite - dimensional hilbert spaces such as the space of square - summable sequences and spaces of square - integrable functions. linear operators on a finite - dimensional hilbert space have only the zero functional as a singular trace since all operators have finite rank. for example, matrix algebras have no non - trivial singular traces and the matrix trace is the unique trace up to scaling.


in quantum computing, the brassard - høyer - tapp algorithm or bht algorithm is a quantum algorithm that solves the collision problem. in this problem, one is given n and an r - to - 1 function f : { 1, …, n } → { 1, …, n } { \ displaystyle f : \, \ { 1, \ ldots, n \ } \ rightarrow \ { 1, \ ldots, n \ } } and needs to find two inputs that f maps to the same output. the bht algorithm only makes o ( n 1 / 3 ) { \ displaystyle o ( n ^ { 1 / 3 } ) } queries to f, which matches the lower bound of ω ( n 1 / 3 ) { \ displaystyle \ omega ( n ^ { 1 / 3 } ) } in the black box model. the algorithm was discovered by gilles brassard, peter høyer, and alain tapp in 1997. it uses grover's algorithm, which was discovered the year before.


in this case, the space requirements are no longer guaranteed to be constant since it requires storing all previous data points, but the solution may take less time to compute with the addition of a new data point, as compared to batch learning techniques. a common strategy to overcome the above issues is to learn using mini - batches, which process a small batch of b ≥ 1 { \ displaystyle b \ geq 1 } data points at a time, this can be considered as pseudo - online learning for b { \ displaystyle b } much smaller than the total number of training points. mini - batch techniques are used with repeated passing over the training data to obtain optimized out - of - core versions of machine learning algorithms, for example, stochastic gradient descent. when combined with backpropagation, this is currently the de facto training method for training artificial neural networks.


a typically diverse area is in the representation of sounds not present in most varieties of romani. for example, the centralised vowel phonemes of several varieties of vlax and xaladitka, when they are indicated separately from the non - centralised vowels, can be represented using ə, ъ or a. another particularly variant area is the representation of palatalised consonants, which are absent from a number of dialects. some variant graphemes for / tʲ / include tj, ty, c, cj and. finally, the representation of the second rhotic, which in several dialects has been merged with / r /, tends to vary between r, rr, and rh, and sometimes even gh, with the first two being the most frequently found variants.


in nondeterministic communication complexity, alice and bob have access to an oracle. after receiving the oracle's word, the parties communicate to deduce f ( x, y ) { \ displaystyle f ( x, y ) }. the nondeterministic communication complexity is then the maximum over all pairs ( x, y ) { \ displaystyle ( x, y ) } over the sum of number of bits exchanged and the coding length of the oracle word. viewed differently, this amounts to covering all 1 - entries of the 0 / 1 - matrix by combinatorial 1 - rectangles ( i. e., non - contiguous, non - convex submatrices, whose entries are all one ( see kushilevitz and nisan or dietzfelbinger et al. ) ). the nondeterministic communication complexity is the binary logarithm of the rectangle covering number of the matrix : the minimum number of combinatorial 1 - rectangles required to cover all 1 - entries of the matrix, without covering any 0 - entries. nondeterministic communication complexity occurs as a means to obtaining lower bounds for deterministic communication complexity ( see dietzfelbinger et al. ), but also in the theory of nonnegative matrices, where it gives a lower bound on the nonnegative rank of a nonnegative matrix.


in addition, by usually regressing on only a subset of all the principal components, pcr can result in dimension reduction through substantially lowering the effective number of parameters characterizing the underlying model. this can be particularly useful in settings with high - dimensional covariates. also, through appropriate selection of the principal components to be used for regression, pcr can lead to efficient prediction of the outcome based on the assumed model.


in mathematics, spijker's lemma is a result in the theory of rational mappings of the riemann sphere. it states that the image of a circle under a complex rational map with numerator and denominator having degree at most n has length at most 2nπ.


in systems that support privileged mode, only privileged applications ( usually the os kernel ) may modify the interrupt flag. in an x86 system this only applies to protected mode code ( real mode code may always modify the interrupt flag ). cli and sti are privileged instructions, which cause a general protection fault if an unprivileged application attempts to execute them. the popf instruction will not modify the interrupt flag if the application is unprivileged.


in mathematics, a topological vector space ( also called a linear topological space and commonly abbreviated tvs or t. v. s. ) is one of the basic structures investigated in functional analysis. a topological vector space is a vector space that is also a topological space with the property that the vector space operations ( vector addition and scalar multiplication ) are also continuous functions. such a topology is called a vector topology and every topological vector space has a uniform topological structure, allowing a notion of uniform convergence and completeness.


in the u. s. the bureau of labor statistics makes available extensive statistics on workplace accidents and injuries. for example :


in phonology and linguistics, a phoneme ( ) is a unit of phone that can distinguish one word from another in a particular language. for example, in most dialects of english, with the notable exception of the west midlands and the north - west of england, the sound patterns ( sin ) and ( sing ) are two separate words that are distinguished by the substitution of one phoneme, / n /, for another phoneme, / ŋ /. two words like this that differ in meaning through the contrast of a single phoneme form a minimal pair. if, in another language, any two sequences differing only by pronunciation of the final sounds or are perceived as being the same in meaning, then these two sounds are interpreted as phonetic variants of a single phoneme in that language.


in the uncoordinated checkpointing, each process checkpoints its own state independently. it must be stressed that simply forcing processes to checkpoint their state at fixed time intervals is not sufficient to ensure global consistency. the need for establishing a consistent state ( i. e., no missing messages or duplicated messages ) may force other processes to roll back to their checkpoints, which in turn may cause other processes to roll back to even earlier checkpoints, which in the most extreme case may mean that the only consistent state found is the initial state ( the so - called domino effect ).


in structured programming, the ordered sequencing of successive commands is considered one of the basic control structures, which is used as a building block for programs alongside iteration, recursion and choice.


in mathematics, the hypergraph regularity method is a powerful tool in extremal graph theory that refers to the combined application of the hypergraph regularity lemma and the associated counting lemma. it is a generalization of the graph regularity method, which refers to the use of szemeredi's regularity and counting lemmas. very informally, the hypergraph regularity lemma decomposes any given k { \ displaystyle k } - uniform hypergraph into a random - like object with bounded parts ( with an appropriate boundedness and randomness notions ) that is usually easier to work with. on the other hand, the hypergraph counting lemma estimates the number of hypergraphs of a given isomorphism class in some collections of the random - like parts.


more generally, optimization includes finding the best available element of some function given a defined domain and may use a variety of different computational optimization techniques. economics is closely enough linked to optimization by agents in an economy that an influential definition relatedly describes economics qua science as the " study of human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means " with alternative uses. optimization problems run through modern economics, many with explicit economic or technical constraints. in microeconomics, the utility maximization problem and its dual problem, the expenditure minimization problem for a given level of utility, are economic optimization problems.


if defined as blue - dominated colors between blue and red, violet colors in munsell's system would be classified as having the 7. 5pb and 10. 0pb hue, which is confirmed in visual experiments the truly purple color, defined as being within the range of the red - dominated colors between red and blue, is sometimes confusingly labeled as red - violet color, or more correctly artist's purple. it is the pigment color that would be on a pigment color color wheel between pigment violet and pigment ( process ) magenta. in the munsell color system, this color at its maximum chroma of 12 is called red - purple, or more specifically munsell 5rp. artists'pigments and colored pencils labeled as purple are typically colored the red - violet color. on an ryb color wheel, the so - called red - violet color is the color between red and violet.


in synchronous systems, the participants simultaneously receive and send information in " real time ", and a message is usually followed by a response in a short time span. this type of communication is used for communication that requires an immediate response when the other participant is promptly available or for more informal communication in a direct setting. it can be used in an enterprise to answer questions quickly, discuss ideas, convey important developments that need attention or any other important message.


such a position leads to a form of skepticism about knowledge since the great majority of regular beliefs do not live up to these requirements. it would imply that people know very little and that most who claim to know a certain fact are mistaken. however, a more common view among epistemologists is that knowledge does not require infallibility and that many knowledge claims in everyday life are true.


in the jis x 0201 specification ( 1969 ), katakana are encoded in a0 – df ( hexadecimal ) block – how they are displayed is not specified, and there is no separate encoding of full - width and half - width kana. in jis x 0208, katakana, hiragana, and kanji are all encoded ( and displayed as full - width characters ; there are no half - width characters ), though the ordering of the kana is different – see jis x 0208 # hiragana and katakana. in shift jis, which combines jis x 0201 and jis x 0208, these encodings ( both of which can encode latin characters and katakana ) are stored separately, with jis x 0201 all being displayed as half - width ( thus the jis x 0201 katakana are displayed as half - width kana ), while jis x 0208 are all displayed as full - width ( thus the jis x 0208 latin characters are all displayed as full - width latin characters ). thus in shift jis, latin characters and katakana have two encodings with two separate display forms, both half - width and full - width. in unicode, katakana and hiragana are primarily used as normal, full - width characters ( the katakana and hiragana blocks are displayed as full - width characters ) ; a separate block, the halfwidth and fullwidth forms block is used to store variant characters, including half - width kana and full - width latin characters. thus, the katakana in jis x 0201 and the corresponding part of derived encodings ( the jis x 0201 part of shift jis ) are displayed as half - width, while in unicode half - width forms are specified separately.


in mathematics, error analysis is the study of kind and quantity of error, or uncertainty, that may be present in the solution to a problem. this issue is particularly prominent in applied areas such as numerical analysis and statistics.


in the artificial lateral line, neuromast's function is carried out by using transducers. these tiny structures employ various systems such as hot - wire anemometry, optoelectronics or piezoelectric cantilevers to detect mechanical changes in water. neuromasts are primarily classified into two types based on their location. the superficial neuromast located on the skin is used for velocity sensing to locate certain moving targets, whereas canal neuromasts located below the epidermis enclosed in the canal utilize pressure gradient between the inlet and outlet for object detection and avoidance.


various calculi that attempt to capture the theoretical properties of object - oriented programming may be derived from system f < :. the concept of subtyping is related to the linguistic notions of hyponymy and holonymy. it is also related to the concept of bounded quantification in mathematical logic ( see order - sorted logic ). subtyping should not be confused with the notion of ( class or object ) inheritance from object - oriented languages ; subtyping is a relation between types ( interfaces in object - oriented parlance ) whereas inheritance is a relation between implementations stemming from a language feature that allows new objects to be created from existing ones. in a number of object - oriented languages, subtyping is called interface inheritance, with inheritance referred to as implementation inheritance.


in social systems theory ( cf. niklas luhmann ), markets are also conceptualized as inner environments of the economy. as horizon of all potential investment decisions the market represents the environment of the actually realized investment decisions. however, such inner environments can also be observed in further function systems of society like in political, scientific, religious or mass media systems.


this might improve the performance but increases the total latency ( maximum number of registers from input to output path ) of the circuit. many times logic circuit changes are handled by user's eda tools based on timing constraint directives prepared by a designer.


in mathematics, a p - constrained group is a finite group resembling the centralizer of an element of prime order p in a group of lie type over a finite field of characteristic p. they were introduced by gorenstein and walter ( 1964, p. 169 ) in order to extend some of thompson's results about odd groups to groups with dihedral sylow 2 - subgroups.


in mathematics, a dicut is a partition of the vertices of a directed graph into two subsets, so that each edge that has an endpoint in both subsets is directed from the first subset to the second. each strongly connected component of the graph must be entirely contained in one of the two subsets, so a strongly connected graph has no nontrivial dicuts. the second of the two subsets in a dicut, a subset of vertices with no edges that exit the subset, is called a closure. the closure problem is the algorithmic problem of finding a dicut, in an edge - weighted directed graph, whose total weight is as large as possible. it can be solved in polynomial time. in planar graphs, dicuts and cycles are dual concepts.


while bell's theorem established nonlocality to be a feature of any hidden variable theory that recovers the predictions of quantum mechanics, the ks theorem established contextuality to be an inevitable feature of such theories. the theorem proves that there is a contradiction between two basic assumptions of the hidden - variable theories intended to reproduce the results of quantum mechanics : that all hidden variables corresponding to quantum - mechanical observables have definite values at any given time, and that the values of those variables are intrinsic and independent of the device used to measure them. the contradiction is caused by the fact that quantum - mechanical observables need not be commutative.


in statistics, the bhattacharyya distance measures the similarity of two probability distributions. it is closely related to the bhattacharyya coefficient, which is a measure of the amount of overlap between two statistical samples or populations. it is not a metric, despite named a " distance ", since it does not obey the triangle inequality.


in mathematics, a monoidal category ( or tensor category ) is a category c { \ displaystyle \ mathbf { c } } equipped with a bifunctor ⊗ : c × c → c { \ displaystyle \ otimes : \ mathbf { c } \ times \ mathbf { c } \ to \ mathbf { c } } that is associative up to a natural isomorphism, and an object i that is both a left and right identity for ⊗, again up to a natural isomorphism. the associated natural isomorphisms are subject to certain coherence conditions, which ensure that all the relevant diagrams commute. the ordinary tensor product makes vector spaces, abelian groups, r - modules, or r - algebras into monoidal categories.


one example of a linear regression using this method is the least squares method — which evaluates appropriateness of linear regression model to model bivariate dataset, but whose limitation is related to known distribution of the data. the term mean squared error is sometimes used to refer to the unbiased estimate of error variance : the residual sum of squares divided by the number of degrees of freedom. this definition for a known, computed quantity differs from the above definition for the computed mse of a predictor, in that a different denominator is used.


in network security, evasion is bypassing an information security defense in order to deliver an exploit, attack, or other form of malware to a target network or system, without detection. evasions are typically used to counter network - based intrusion detection and prevention systems ( ips, ids ) but can also be used to by - pass firewalls and defeat malware analysis. a further target of evasions can be to crash a network security defense, rendering it in - effective to subsequent targeted attacks.


further control over data and code came in 2002 when object - oriented programming, user - defined functions and user - defined data types were included. nevertheless, much important legacy cobol software uses unstructured code, which has become practically unmaintainable. it can be too risky and costly to modify even a simple section of code, since it may be used from unknown places in unknown ways.


neural networks with stochastic depth were made possible given the residual network architectures. this training procedure randomly drops a subset of layers and lets the signal propagate through the identity skip connection. also known as " droppath ", this is an effective regularization method for training large and deep models, such as the vision transformer ( vit ).


in mathematics, a positive polynomial ( respectively non - negative polynomial ) on a particular set is a polynomial whose values are positive ( respectively non - negative ) on that set. precisely, let p be a polynomial in n variables with real coefficients and let s be a subset of the n - dimensional euclidean space ℝn. we say that : p is positive on s if p ( x ) > 0 for every x in s. p is non - negative on s if p ( x ) ≥ 0 for every x in s.


in the budgeted maximum coverage version, not only does every element e j { \ displaystyle e _ { j } } have a weight w ( e j ) { \ displaystyle w ( e _ { j } ) }, but also every set s i { \ displaystyle s _ { i } } has a cost c ( s i ) { \ displaystyle c ( s _ { i } ) }. instead of k { \ displaystyle k } that limits the number of sets in the cover a budget b { \ displaystyle b } is given. this budget b { \ displaystyle b } limits the total cost of the cover that can be chosen. maximize e ∈ e w ( e j ) ⋅ y j { \ displaystyle \ sum _ { e \ in e } w ( e _ { j } ) \ cdot y _ { j } }.


columns might represent things like company name, company street address, whether the company is publicly held, its vat number, etc. in a table that represents the association of employees with departments, each row would associate one employee with one department. the implicit structure of a row, and the meaning of the data values in a row, requires that the row be understood as providing a succession of data values, one in each column of the table.


in telecommunications, an acoustic coupler is an interface device for coupling electrical signals by acoustical means — usually into and out of a telephone. the link is achieved through converting electric signals from the phone line to sound and reconvert sound to electric signals needed for the end terminal, such as a teletypewriter, and back, rather than through direct electrical connection.


in the proto - indo - european language ( pie ), the nasal infix * ⟨ n ( e ) ⟩ is one of several means to form the athematic present tense. it is inserted immediately before the last consonant of the zero - grade root. the infix appeared as * ⟨ ne ⟩ in the forms where a full - grade stem would be expected, and as * ⟨ n ⟩ in forms where zero - grade would be expected. for example, the pie root * weik - " to win " would yield a nasal - infixed present stem * wi ⟨ ne ⟩ k - ~ * wi ⟨ n ⟩ k -. these presents are called nasal infix presents or simply nasal presents and are typically active transitive verbs, often with durative aspect.


for instance, q ( 2, 9 ) has the elements and relations a > b > c < d > e > f < g > h > i. { \ displaystyle a > b > c e > f h > i. } in this notation, a fence is a partially ordered set of the form q ( 1, n ).


in the uk and the us, the refractive index is generally specified concerning the yellow he - d fraunhofer line, commonly abbreviated as nd. lens materials are classified by their refractive index, as follows : normal index : 1. 48 ≤ nd < 1. 54 mid - index : 1. 54 ≤ nd < 1. 60 high - index : 1. 60 ≤ nd < 1. 74 very high index : 1. 76 ≤ ndthis is a general classification. indexes of nd values that are ≥ 1. 60 can be, often for marketing purposes, referred to as high - index. likewise, trivex and other borderline normal / mid - index materials may be referred to as mid - index.


in mathematical finite group theory, a quadratic pair for the odd prime p, introduced by thompson ( 1971 ), is a finite group g together with a quadratic module, a faithful representation m on a vector space over the finite field with p elements such that g is generated by elements with minimal polynomial ( x − 1 ) 2. thompson classified the quadratic pairs for p ≥ 5. chermak ( 2004 ) classified the quadratic pairs for p = 3. with a few exceptions, especially for p = 3, groups with a quadratic pair for the prime p tend to be more or less groups of lie type in characteristic p.


let i { \ displaystyle i } be an ideal of r { \ displaystyle r }. the tight closure of i { \ displaystyle i }, denoted by i ∗ { \ displaystyle i ^ { * } }, is another ideal of r { \ displaystyle r } containing i { \ displaystyle i }. the ideal i ∗ { \ displaystyle i ^ { * } } is defined as follows.


overall the studies identify 26 articles, only 12 of them could be reproduced and 11 of them could be outperformed by much older and simpler properly tuned baselines. the articles also highlights a number of potential problems in today's research scholarship and call for improved scientific practices in that area. similar issues have been spotted also in sequence - aware recommender systems.


in psycholinguistics, parsing involves not just the assignment of words to categories ( formation of ontological insights ), but the evaluation of the meaning of a sentence according to the rules of syntax drawn by inferences made from each word in the sentence ( known as connotation ). this normally occurs as words are being heard or read. consequently, psycholinguistic models of parsing are of necessity incremental, meaning that they build up an interpretation as the sentence is being processed, which is normally expressed in terms of a partial syntactic structure. creation of initially wrong structures occurs when interpreting garden - path sentences.


however, the set of positive integers is not in fact larger than the set of perfect squares : both sets are infinite and countable and can therefore be put in one - to - one correspondence. nevertheless if one goes through the natural numbers, the squares become increasingly scarce. the notion of natural density makes this intuition precise for many, but not all, subsets of the naturals ( see schnirelmann density, which is similar to natural density but defined for all subsets of n { \ displaystyle \ mathbb { n } } ). if an integer is randomly selected from the interval, then the probability that it belongs to a is the ratio of the number of elements of a in to the total number of elements in. if this probability tends to some limit as n tends to infinity, then this limit is referred to as the asymptotic density of a. this notion can be understood as a kind of probability of choosing a number from the set a. indeed, the asymptotic density ( as well as some other types of densities ) is studied in probabilistic number theory.


" falling ", similarly, would be stored as " fall " and suffixed with the " ing " inflection. though proponents of the decompositional model recognize that a morpheme - by - morpheme analysis may require significantly more computation, they argue that the unpacking of morphological information is necessary for other processes ( such as syntactic structure ) which may occur parallel to lexical searches. as a whole, research into systems of human lexical recognition is limited due to little experimental evidence that fully discriminates between the three main models. in any case, lexical recognition likely contributes significantly to speech segmentation through the contextual clues it provides, given that it is a heavily probabilistic system — based on the statistical likelihood of certain words or constituents occurring together. for example, one can imagine a situation where a person might say " i bought my dog at a _ _ _ _ shop " and the missing word's vowel is pronounced as in " net ", " sweat ", or " pet ".


in the 1960s memory was relatively expensive, and cpu designers produced instruction sets that densely encoded instructions and data in order to better utilize this resource. for instance, the add a to b to produce c instruction would be provided in many different forms that would gather a and b from different places ; main memory, indexes, or registers. providing these different instructions allowed the programmer to select the instruction that took up the least possible room in memory, reducing the program's needs and leaving more room for data. actually making these instructions work required circuitry in the cpu, which was a significant limitation in early designs and required designers to select just those instructions that were really needed.


in quantum information theory, strong subadditivity of quantum entropy ( ssa ) is the relation among the von neumann entropies of various quantum subsystems of a larger quantum system consisting of three subsystems ( or of one quantum system with three degrees of freedom ). it is a basic theorem in modern quantum information theory. it was conjectured by d. w. robinson and d. ruelle in 1966 and o. e. lanford iii and d. w. robinson in 1968 and proved in 1973 by e. h.


in the 1980s, kodak developed dx encoding ( from digital index ), or dx coding, a feature that was eventually adapted by all camera and film manufacturers. dx encoding provides information on both the film cassette and on the film regarding the type of film, number of exposures, speed ( iso / asa rating ) of the film. it consists of three types of identification. first is a barcode near the film opening of the cassette, identifying the manufacturer, film type and processing method ( see image below left ).


in mathematics, a hierarchy is a set - theoretical object, consisting of a preorder defined on a set. this is often referred to as an ordered set, though that is an ambiguous term that many authors reserve for partially ordered sets or totally ordered sets. the term pre - ordered set is unambiguous, and is always synonymous with a mathematical hierarchy. the term hierarchy is used to stress a hierarchical relation among the elements.


as a result, implementing an electromechanical keyboard that produced an ascii encoding but had conventional typewriter key mappings would require significant complexity due to key - specific shift mechanisms for digits and symbol keys. this could be avoided by changing the key mappings to correspond to the ascii table, which was notably done in the teletype model 33 ( 1963 ). later keyboards continued to use this mapping, which was formalized in the american standards association x4. 14 - 1971 standard and the european computer manufacturers'association ecma - 23 standard, where it is referred to as logical bit pairing, and contrasted with typewriter pairing. in everyday usage these were referred to as bit - paired and typewriter - paired keyboards.


in statistics the assumed mean is a method for calculating the arithmetic mean and standard deviation of a data set. it simplifies calculating accurate values by hand. its interest today is chiefly historical but it can be used to quickly estimate these statistics. there are other rapid calculation methods which are more suited for computers which also ensure more accurate results than the obvious methods.


remove randomly a fraction 1 − p ′ { \ displaystyle 1 - p'} of nodes and leave only a fraction p ′ { \ displaystyle p'} from the network. there exists a critical percolation threshold p c ′ = 1 ⟨ k ⟩ { \ displaystyle p'_ { c } = { \ tfrac { 1 } { \ langle k \ rangle } } } below which the network becomes fragmented while above p c ′ { \ displaystyle p'_ { c } } a giant connected component of order n exists. the relative size of the giant component, p∞, is given by p ∞ = p ′. { \ displaystyle p _ { \ infty } = p '. \, }


the receiver is designed so that either codeword of the pair decodes to the same data bits. most line codes use either a paired disparity code or a constant - weight code.


some aspects can be traced as far back as f. l. hitchcock in 1928, but it was l. r. tucker who developed for third - order tensors the general tucker decomposition in the 1960s, further advocated by l. de lathauwer et al. in their multilinear svd work that employs the power method, or advocated by vasilescu and terzopoulos that developed m - mode svd a parallel algorithm that employs the matrix svd. the term higher order singular value decomposition ( hosvd ) was coined be delathauwer, but the algorithm referred to commonly in the literature as the hosvd and attributed to either tucker or delathauwer was developed by vasilescu and terzopoulos. robust and l1 - norm - based variants of hosvd have also been proposed.


in mathematics, a heteroclinic network is an invariant set in the phase space of a dynamical system. it can be thought of loosely as the union of more than one heteroclinic cycle. heteroclinic networks arise naturally in a number of different types of applications, including fluid dynamics and populations dynamics. the dynamics of trajectories near to heteroclinic networks is intermittent : trajectories spend a long time performing one type of behaviour ( often, close to equilibrium ), before switching rapidly to another type of behaviour. this type of intermittent switching behaviour has led to several different groups of researchers using them as a way to model and understand various type of neural dynamics.


in probability theory – specifically in the theory of stochastic processes, a stationary sequence is a random sequence whose joint probability distribution is invariant over time. if a random sequence x j is stationary then the following holds : f x n, x n + 1, …, x n + n − 1 ( x n, x n + 1, …, x n + n − 1 ) = f x n + k, x n + k + 1, …, x n + k + n − 1 ( x n, x n + 1, …, x n + n − 1 ), { \ displaystyle { \ begin { aligned } & { } \ quad f _ { x _ { n }, x _ { n + 1 }, \ dots, x _ { n + n - 1 } } ( x _ { n }, x _ { n + 1 }, \ dots, x _ { n + n - 1 } ) \ \ & = f _ { x _ { n + k }, x _ { n + k + 1 }, \ dots, x _ { n + k + n - 1 } } ( x _ { n }, x _ { n + 1 }, \ dots, x _ { n + n - 1 } ), \ end { aligned } } } where f is the joint cumulative distribution function of the random variables in the subscript. if a sequence is stationary then it is wide - sense stationary. if a sequence is stationary then it has a constant mean ( which may not be finite ) : e ( x ) = μ for all n. { \ displaystyle e ( x ) = \ mu \ quad { \ text { for all } } n. }


the simplest paired disparity code is alternate mark inversion signal. other paired disparity codes include 8b / 10b, 8b12b, the modified ami codes, coded mark inversion, and 4b3t. the digits may be represented by disparate physical quantities, such as two different frequencies, phases, voltage levels, magnetic polarities, or electrical polarities, each one of the pair representing a 0 or a 1.


in statistics and econometrics, extremum estimators are a wide class of estimators for parametric models that are calculated through maximization ( or minimization ) of a certain objective function, which depends on the data. the general theory of extremum estimators was developed by amemiya ( 1985 ).


in statistics, in the theory relating to sampling from finite populations, the sampling probability ( also known as inclusion probability ) of an element or member of the population, is its probability of becoming part of the sample during the drawing of a single sample. for example, in simple random sampling the probability of a particular unit i { \ displaystyle i } to be selected into the sample is p i = ( n − 1 n − 1 ) ( n n ) = n n { \ displaystyle p _ { i } = { \ frac { \ binom { n - 1 } { n - 1 } } { \ binom { n } { n } } } = { \ frac { n } { n } } } where n { \ displaystyle n } is the sample size and n { \ displaystyle n } is the population size. each element of the population may have a different probability of being included in the sample. the inclusion probability is also termed the " first - order inclusion probability " to distinguish it from the " second - order inclusion probability ", i. e. the probability of including a pair of elements. generally, the first - order inclusion probability of the ith element of the population is denoted by the symbol πi and the second - order inclusion probability that a pair consisting of the ith and jth element of the population that is sampled is included in a sample during the drawing of a single sample is denoted by πij.


in the early 1990s, ibm engineer frank canova realised that chip - and - wireless technology was becoming small enough to use in handheld devices. the first commercially available device that could be properly referred to as a " smartphone " began as a prototype called " angler " developed by canova in 1992 while at ibm and demonstrated in november of that year at the comdex computer industry trade show. a refined version was marketed to consumers in 1994 by bellsouth under the name simon personal communicator.


in the latter case, he becomes privately informed after the contract has been signed. in most adverse selection models, it is assumed that the agent's private information is " soft " ( i. e., the information cannot be certified ). yet, there are also some adverse selection models with " hard " information ( i. e., the agent may have evidence to prove that claims he makes about his type are true ). adverse selection models can be further categorized into models with private values and models with interdependent or common values.


the c programming language reifies the low - level detail of memory addresses. many programming language designs encapsulate the details of memory allocation in the compiler and the run - time system. in the design of the c programming language, the memory address is reified and is available for direct manipulation by other language constructs. for example, the following code may be used when implementing a memory - mapped device driver.


thus, a hypothetical current 50 km wide, 500 m ( 0. 5 km ) deep, and moving at 2 m / s would be transporting 50 sv of water. the sverdrup is distinct from the si sievert unit or the non - si svedberg unit. all three use the same symbol. they are not related.


it soon became clear that some better tools than the backus notation might be advantageous. i developed a scheme which enables the design of a language to carry much more information in the syntax than is normally carried. quite peculiar to w - grammars was their strict treatment of attributes as strings, defined by a context - free grammar, on which concatenation is the only possible operation ; complex data structures and operations can be defined by pattern matching.


in programming language type theory, row polymorphism is a kind of polymorphism that allows one to write programs that are polymorphic on row types such as record types and polymorphic variants. a row - polymorphic type system and proof of type inference was introduced by mitchell wand.


in the expected utility theory of von neumann and morgenstern, four axioms together imply that individuals act in situations of risk as if they maximize the expected value of a utility function. one of the axioms is an independence axiom analogous to the iia axiom : if l m { \ displaystyle \, l \ prec m }, then for any n { \ displaystyle \, n } and p ∈ ( 0, 1 ] { \ displaystyle \, p \ in ( 0, 1 ] }, p l + ( 1 − p ) n p m + ( 1 − p ) n, { \ displaystyle \, pl + ( 1 - p ) n \ prec pm + ( 1 - p ) n, } where p is a probability, pl + ( 1 - p ) n means a gamble with probability p of yielding l and probability ( 1 - p ) of yielding n, and l m { \ displaystyle \, l \ prec m } means that m is preferred over l. this axiom says that if one outcome ( or lottery ticket ) l is considered to be not as good as another ( m ), then having a chance with probability p of receiving l rather than n is considered to be not as good as having a chance with probability p of receiving m rather than n.


the latter two symbols were introduced by the bourbaki group ( specifically andre weil ) in 1939, inspired by the letter ø in the danish and norwegian alphabets ( and not related in any way to the greek letter φ ). empty sets are used in set operations. for example : a = { 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 } { \ displaystyle a = \ { 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 \ } } b = { 4, 6, 8, 9 } { \ displaystyle b = \ { 4, 6, 8, 9 \ } } a ∩ b =? { \ displaystyle a \ cap b =? } there are no common elements in the solution ; so it should be denoted as : a ∩ b = ∅ { \ displaystyle a \ cap b = \ varnothing } or a ∩ b = { } { \ displaystyle a \ cap b = \ { \ } }


in mathematical set theory, a cohen algebra, named after paul cohen, is a type of boolean algebra used in the theory of forcing. a cohen algebra is a boolean algebra whose completion is isomorphic to the completion of a free boolean algebra ( koppelberg 1993 ).


the case ( x, y, z ) = ( 3, 3, n ) and all its permutations have been proven for 3 ≤ n ≤ 109 and various modulo congruences when n is prime. the case ( x, y, z ) = ( 3, 4, 5 ) and all its permutations were proven by siksek and stoll in 2011. the case ( x, y, z ) = ( 3, 5, 5 ) and all its permutations were proven by bjorn poonen in 1998.


these include, lexical definitions, or the common dictionary definitions of words already in a language ; demonstrative definitions, which define something by pointing to an example of it ( " this, ", " is an asian elephant. " ) ; and precising definitions, which reduce the vagueness of a word, typically in some special sense ( "'large ', among female asian elephants, is any individual weighing over 5, 500 pounds. " ).


in the sarg04 scheme, alice wishes to send a private key to bob. she begins with two strings of bits, a { \ displaystyle a } and b { \ displaystyle b }, each n { \ displaystyle n } bits long. she then encodes these two strings as a string of n { \ displaystyle n } qubits, | ψ ⟩ = i = 1 n | ψ a i b i ⟩. { \ displaystyle | \ psi \ rangle = \ bigotimes _ { i = 1 } ^ { n } | \ psi _ { a _ { i } b _ { i } } \ rangle. }


the young – fibonacci graph is the graph of this lattice, and has a vertex for each digit sequence. as the graph of a modular lattice, it is a modular graph. the young – fibonacci graph and the young – fibonacci lattice were both initially studied in two papers by fomin ( 1988 ) and stanley ( 1988 ). they are named after the closely related young's lattice and after the fibonacci number of their elements at any given rank.


the cutoff frequency can be calculated from that value. pre - emphasis is commonly used in telecommunications, digital audio recording, record cutting, in fm broadcasting transmissions, and in displaying the spectrograms of speech signals. one example of this is the riaa equalization curve on 33 rpm and 45 rpm vinyl records.


this means that the concept of general diophantine set, apparently belonging to number theory, can be taken rather in logical or recursion - theoretic terms. this is far from obvious, however, and represented the culmination of some decades of work. matiyasevich's completion of the mrdp theorem settled hilbert's tenth problem. hilbert's tenth problem was to find a general algorithm which can decide whether a given diophantine equation has a solution among the integers. while hilbert's tenth problem is not a formal mathematical statement as such, the nearly universal acceptance of the ( philosophical ) identification of a decision algorithm with a total computable predicate allows us to use the mrdp theorem to conclude that the tenth problem is unsolvable.


the best and most informative systems use activity based costing ( abc ) that track costs by each marketing activity, rather than traditional cost accounting by salaries, facilities, equipment, and materials. abc methods have the best fidelity as they show contribution efficiency ( brand experience / $ spent ) of each activity, and they may be summed in desired combinations ( or campaigns ). understanding competitors costs and brand experience can lead to benchmarking, a comparison to what is considered the best in class. = = references = =


at this point, organizations tend to recognize the need to extend their test automation efforts. even after more automation is added to the existing test process, managers still lack adequate insight into the level of risk associated with an application at any given point in time. understanding these risks is critical for making the rapid go / no go decisions involved in continuous delivery processes.


the " text " vs. " binary " distinction can sometimes refer to the semantic content of a file ( e. g. a written document vs. a digital image ). however, it often refers specifically to whether the individual bytes of a file are interpretable as text ( see character encoding ) or cannot so be interpreted. when this last meaning is intended, the more specific terms binary format and text ( ual ) format are sometimes used.


in some real - time applications one needs to find eigenvectors for matrices with a speed of millions of matrices per second. in such applications, typically the statistics of matrices is known in advance and one can take as an approximate eigenvalue the average eigenvalue for some large matrix sample. better, one may calculate the mean ratio of the eigenvalues to the trace or the norm of the matrix and estimate the average eigenvalue as the trace or norm multiplied by the average value of that ratio. clearly such a method can be used only with discretion and only when high precision is not critical. this approach of estimating an average eigenvalue can be combined with other methods to avoid excessively large error.


each bundle is a class whose members are collections, i. e. classes ; thus each is a class of classes " ( russell 1919 : 14 ). step 3 : define the null class : notice that a certain class of classes is special because its classes contain no elements, i. e. no elements satisfy the predicates whose assertion defined this particular class / collection. the resulting entity may be called " the null class " or " the empty class ".


this means the relabel operation could potentially be performed 2 | v | − 1 times for all nodes v \ { s, t } ( i. e. | v | − 2 ). this results in a bound of o ( v 2 ) for the relabel operation. each saturating push on an admissible arc ( u, v ) removes the arc from gf.


in programming, a cipher suite is referred to in both plural and non - plural forms. each one has different definitions : ciphersuite cipher _ suites a list of the cryptographic options supported by the client. an example of how cipher _ suites is usually used during the handshake process : ciphersuite cipher _ suite the cipher suite selected by the server from the client's cipher _ suites. an example of how cipher _ suite is usually used during the handshake process :


in psychological testing, sawilowsky is a co - author of two self - determination assessment batteries ; an instrument designed to assess locus of control, self - esteem, and self - concept among at - risk adolescents ; an instrument " which measures future orientation, knowledge of the realities of child rearing, personal intentions, and sexual self - efficacy ; " and a college well - being instrument. sawilowsky was the initial proponent in favor of psychometric theory ( reliability refers to the test ) over datametric theory ( reliability refers to the data ), a controversy with implications for test theory, role of tests in expert testimony, test validity, etc. the debate was discussed in educational and psychological measurement and elsewhere. although the issue has not been resolved, the current non - aligned opinion " lean toward the sawilowsky position. " in classical test theory, he developed the sawilowsky i test, a statistical test used to help demonstrate evidence of construct validity in the multitrait - multimethod matrix.


in practice, overseeing key performance indicators can prove expensive or difficult for organizations. some indicators such as staff morale may be impossible to quantify. as such, dubious kpis can be adopted that can be used as a rough guide rather than a precise benchmark. key performance indicators can also lead to perverse incentives and unintended consequences as a result of employees working to the specific measurements at the expense of the actual quality or value of their work. sometimes, collecting statistics can become a substitute for a better understanding of the problems, so the use of dubious kpis can result in progress in aims and measured effectiveness becoming different. for example, during the vietnam war, us soldiers were shown to be effective in kill ratios and high body counts, but this was misleading when used to measure aims as it did not show the lack of progress towards the us goal of increasing south vietnamese government control of its territory.


in the context of first - order logic, the symbols in a signature are also known as the non - logical symbols, because together with the logical symbols they form the underlying alphabet over which two formal languages are inductively defined : the set of terms over the signature and the set of ( well - formed ) formulas over the signature. in a structure, an interpretation ties the function and relation symbols to mathematical objects that justify their names : the interpretation of an n { \ displaystyle n } - ary function symbol f { \ displaystyle f } in a structure a { \ displaystyle \ mathbf { a } } with domain a { \ displaystyle a } is a function f a : a n → a, { \ displaystyle f ^ { \ mathbf { a } } : a ^ { n } \ to a, } and the interpretation of an n { \ displaystyle n } - ary relation symbol is a relation r a ⊆ a n. { \ displaystyle r ^ { \ mathbf { a } } \ subseteq a ^ { n }. } here a n = a × a × × a { \ displaystyle a ^ { n } = a \ times a \ times \ cdots \ times a } denotes the n { \ displaystyle n } - fold cartesian product of the domain a { \ displaystyle a } with itself, and so f { \ displaystyle f } is in fact an n { \ displaystyle n } - ary function, and r { \ displaystyle r } an n { \ displaystyle n } - ary relation.


in statistics, particularly in hypothesis testing, the hotelling's t - squared distribution ( t2 ), proposed by harold hotelling, is a multivariate probability distribution that is tightly related to the f - distribution and is most notable for arising as the distribution of a set of sample statistics that are natural generalizations of the statistics underlying the student's t - distribution. the hotelling's t - squared statistic ( t2 ) is a generalization of student's t - statistic that is used in multivariate hypothesis testing.


in rhetoric, emotive or emotional conjugation ( also known as russell's conjugation ) is a rhetorical technique used to create an intrinsic bias towards or against a piece of information. bias is created by using the emotional connotation of a word to prime a response from the audience by creating a loaded statement. used seriously, such loaded language can lend false support to an argument through emotional connotation and implication, rather than through fact. while emotional conjugation is considered effective by researchers, it ultimately employs a logical fallacy.


because of this analogy, the metric is known in computer science as the earth mover's distance. the name " wasserstein distance " was coined by r. l. dobrushin in 1970, after learning of it in the work of leonid vaserstein on markov processes describing large systems of automata ( russian, 1969 ). however the metric was first defined by leonid kantorovich in the mathematical method of production planning and organization ( russian original 1939 ) in the context of optimal transport planning of goods and materials. some scholars thus encourage use of the terms " kantorovich metric " and " kantorovich distance ". most english - language publications use the german spelling " wasserstein " ( attributed to the name " vaserstein " ( russian : васерштеин ) being of german origin ).


in physical simulations, sweep and prune is a broad phase algorithm used during collision detection to limit the number of pairs of solids that need to be checked for collision, i. e. intersection. this is achieved by sorting the starts ( lower bound ) and ends ( upper bound ) of the bounding volume of each solid along a number of arbitrary axes. as the solids move, their starts and ends may overlap. when the bounding volumes of two solids overlap in all axes they are flagged to be tested by more precise and time - consuming algorithms.


in the c standard library, the character reading functions such as getchar return a value equal to the symbolic value ( macro ) eof to indicate that an end - of - file condition has occurred. the actual value of eof is implementation - dependent and must be negative ( but is commonly −1, such as in glibc ). block - reading functions return the number of bytes read, and if this is fewer than asked for, then the end of file was reached or an error occurred ( checking of errno or dedicated function, such as ferror is required to determine which ).


in the design of experiments, hypotheses are applied to experimental units in a treatment group. in comparative experiments, members of a control group receive a standard treatment, a placebo, or no treatment at all. there may be more than one treatment group, more than one control group, or both.


in mid - september 2013, a media report revealed that nokia tested the android operating system on both its lumia and asha hardware. on 11 december 2013, a report showed that development of the asha - like device, codenamed " normandy ", was continuing, despite the finalisation of nokia's acquisition by microsoft. in february 2014, in barcelona, spain, the nokia x family was unveiled at mobile world congress. these devices, which were aimed towards emerging markets, run a modified version of android known as nokia x software platform, which was aligned towards microsoft services and did not use google play store. in a company memo released in july 2014, it was announced that, as part of cutbacks, microsoft would end the asha, series 40, and x range entirely, in favor of solely producing and encouraging the use of windows phone products.


in mathematical modeling, a guess value is more commonly called a starting value or initial value. these are necessary for most optimization problems which use search algorithms, because those algorithms are mainly deterministic and iterative, and they need to start somewhere. one common type of application is nonlinear regression.


if the result of the test corresponds with reality, then a correct decision has been made. however, if the result of the test does not correspond with reality, then an error has occurred. there are two situations in which the decision is wrong.


in the c and c + + programming languages, an inline function is one qualified with the keyword inline ; this serves two purposes : it serves as a compiler directive that suggests ( but does not require ) that the compiler substitute the body of the function inline by performing inline expansion, i. e. by inserting the function code at the address of each function call, thereby saving the overhead of a function call. in this respect it is analogous to the register storage class specifier, which similarly provides an optimization hint. the second purpose of inline is to change linkage behavior ; the details of this are complicated. this is necessary due to the c / c + + separate compilation + linkage model, specifically because the definition ( body ) of the function must be duplicated in all translation units where it is used, to allow inlining during compiling, which, if the function has external linkage, causes a collision during linking ( it violates uniqueness of external symbols ). c and c + + ( and dialects such as gnu c and visual c + + ) resolve this in different ways.


in practice, it is useful to have an ultimate age associated with a mortality table. once the ultimate age is reached, the mortality rate is assumed to be 1. 000. this age may be the point at which life insurance benefits are paid to a survivor or annuity payments cease. four methods can be used to end mortality tables : the forced method : select an ultimate age and set the mortality rate at that age equal to 1. 000 without any changes to other mortality rates.


when a person creates a key - pair, they keep one key private and the other, known as the public - key, is uploaded to a server where it can be accessed by anyone to send the user a private, encrypted, message. secure sockets layer ( ssl ) uses diffie – hellman key exchange if the client does not have a public - private key pair and a published certificate in the public key infrastructure, and public key cryptography if the user does have both the keys and the credential. key distribution is an important issue in wireless sensor network ( wsn ) design.


another exercise is completing the square in a quadratic polynomial. an artificially produced word problem is a genre of exercise intended to keep mathematics relevant. stephen leacock described this type : the student of arithmetic who has mastered the first four rules of his art and successfully striven with sums and fractions finds himself confronted by an unbroken expanse of questions known as problems.


it is important that the radix is finite, from which follows that the number of digits is quite low. otherwise, the length of a numeral would not necessarily be logarithmic in its size. ( in certain non - standard positional numeral systems, including bijective numeration, the definition of the base or the allowed digits deviates from the above. )


further, if a subtype can be defined for the reals, to separate positive and negative reals, two functions can be written for the reals, one to return a real when the parameter is positive, and another to return a complex value when the parameter is negative. in object - oriented programming, when a series of functions with the same name can accept different parameter profiles or parameters of different types, each of the functions is said to be overloaded. here is an example of function overloading in c + +, demonstrating the implementation of two functions with the same name ( area ) but different parameters : as another example, a function might construct an object that will accept directions, and trace its path to these points on screen.


in strong sampling, we assume observation is randomly sampled from the true hypothesis : p ( x | h ) = { 1 | h |, if x ∈ h 0, otherwise { \ displaystyle p ( x | h ) = { \ begin { cases } { \ frac { 1 } { | h | } } & { \ text {, if } } x \ in h \ \ 0 & { \ text {, otherwise } } \ end { cases } } } in weak sampling, we assume observations randomly sampled and then classified : p ( x | h ) = { 1, if x ∈ h 0, otherwise { \ displaystyle p ( x | h ) = { \ begin { cases } 1 & { \ text {, if } } x \ in h \ \ 0 & { \ text {, otherwise } } \ end { cases } } }


in the us, there is a move to require both traditional operators and over - the - top messaging providers to support texting to 911. in asia, sms is used for tsunami warnings and in europe, sms is used to inform individuals of imminent disasters. since the location of a handset is known, systems can alert everyone in an area that the events have made impossible to pass through e. g. an avalanche.


j ( x ) k { \ displaystyle \ lambda x \ in c. j ( x ) \ vdash k }. an implementation of the lf logical framework is provided by the twelf system at carnegie mellon university. twelf includes a logic programming engine meta - theoretic reasoning about logic programs ( termination, coverage, etc. ) an inductive meta - logical theorem prover


iterative gradient descent that is typically used in adaptive filters has also gained popularity in offline batch - mode support vector based machine learning because of its computational efficiency for large data set processing. both time series and batch data processing performance is reported to be able to easily handle over 100, 000 training examples using as little as 10kb ram. data sizes this large are challenging to the original formulations of support vector machines and other kernel methods, which for example relied on constrained optimisation using linear or quadratic programming techniques. = = references = =


in quantum information theory, the classical capacity of a quantum channel is the maximum rate at which classical data can be sent over it error - free in the limit of many uses of the channel. holevo, schumacher, and westmoreland proved the following least upper bound on the classical capacity of any quantum channel n { \ displaystyle { \ mathcal { n } } } : χ ( n ) = max ρ x a i ( x ; b ) n ( ρ ) { \ displaystyle \ chi ( { \ mathcal { n } } ) = \ max _ { \ rho ^ { xa } } i ( x ; b ) _ { { \ mathcal { n } } ( \ rho ) } } where ρ x a { \ displaystyle \ rho ^ { xa } } is a classical - quantum state of the following form : ρ x a = x p x ( x ) | x ⟩ ⟨ x | x ⊗ ρ x a, { \ displaystyle \ rho ^ { xa } = \ sum _ { x } p _ { x } ( x ) \ vert x \ rangle \ langle x \ vert ^ { x } \ otimes \ rho _ { x } ^ { a }, } p x ( x ) { \ displaystyle p _ { x } ( x ) } is a probability distribution, and each ρ x a { \ displaystyle \ rho _ { x } ^ { a } } is a density operator that can be input to the channel n { \ displaystyle { \ mathcal { n } } }.


in mathematics, a polynomial decomposition expresses a polynomial f as the functional composition g ∘ h { \ displaystyle g \ circ h } of polynomials g and h, where g and h have degree greater than 1 ; it is an algebraic functional decomposition. algorithms are known for decomposing univariate polynomials in polynomial time. polynomials which are decomposable in this way are composite polynomials ; those which are not are indecomposable polynomials or sometimes prime polynomials ( not to be confused with irreducible polynomials, which cannot be factored into products of polynomials ). the degree of a composite polynomial is always a composite number, the product of the degrees of the composed polynomials. the rest of this article discusses only univariate polynomials ; algorithms also exist for multivariate polynomials of arbitrary degree.


if the public exponent is small and the plaintext m { \ displaystyle m } is very short, then the rsa function may be easy to invert, which makes certain attacks possible. padding schemes ensure that messages have full lengths, but additionally choosing the public exponent e = 2 16 + 1 { \ displaystyle e = 2 ^ { 16 } + 1 } is recommended. when this value is used, signature verification requires 17 multiplications, as opposed to about 25 when a random e { \ displaystyle e } of similar size is used. unlike low private exponent ( see wiener's attack ), attacks that apply when a small e { \ displaystyle e } is used are far from a total break, which would recover the secret key d. the most powerful attacks on low public exponent rsa are based on the following theorem, which is due to don coppersmith.


in mathematics, in the area of algebra known as group theory, a more than fifty - year effort was made to answer a conjecture of ( burnside 1911 ) : are all groups of odd order solvable? progress was made by showing that ca - groups, groups in which the centralizer of a non - identity element is abelian, of odd order are solvable ( suzuki 1957 ). further progress was made showing that cn - groups, groups in which the centralizer of a non - identity element is nilpotent, of odd order are solvable ( feit, thompson & hall 1960 ). the complete solution was given in ( feit & thompson 1963 ), but further work on cn - groups was done in ( suzuki 1961 ), giving more detailed information about the structure of these groups. for instance, a non - solvable cn - group g is such that its largest solvable normal subgroup o∞ ( g ) is a 2 - group, and the quotient is a group of even order.


in some cases, such as the air conditioner example, the distribution of survival times may be approximated well by a function such as the exponential distribution. several distributions are commonly used in survival analysis, including the exponential, weibull, gamma, normal, log - normal, and log - logistic. these distributions are defined by parameters. the normal ( gaussian ) distribution, for example, is defined by the two parameters mean and standard deviation. survival functions that are defined by parameters are said to be parametric. in the four survival function graphs shown above, the shape of the survival function is defined by a particular probability distribution : survival function 1 is defined by an exponential distribution, 2 is defined by a weibull distribution, 3 is defined by a log - logistic distribution, and 4 is defined by another weibull distribution.


in mathematics, more precisely in algebra, an etale group scheme is a certain kind of group scheme.


in the absence of any external or internal stimuli, cells may move randomly without any directional preference. in this case, the reorientation operator may be defined through a transition probability where z = s o δ n ( s ), n ( s o ) { \ displaystyle z = \ sum _ { \ mathbf { s } ^ { \ mathcal { o } } } \ delta _ { n \ left ( \ mathbf { s } \ right ), n \ left ( \ mathbf { s } ^ { \ mathcal { o } } \ right ) } }. such transition probability allows any post - reorientation configuration s o { \ displaystyle \ mathbf { s } ^ { \ mathcal { o } } } with the same number of particles as the pre - reorientation configuration s { \ displaystyle \ mathbf { s } }, to be picked uniformly.


in statistics, a varimax rotation is used to simplify the expression of a particular sub - space in terms of just a few major items each. the actual coordinate system is unchanged, it is the orthogonal basis that is being rotated to align with those coordinates. the sub - space found with principal component analysis or factor analysis is expressed as a dense basis with many non - zero weights which makes it hard to interpret. varimax is so called because it maximizes the sum of the variances of the squared loadings ( squared correlations between variables and factors ).


in probability theory and statistics, bayes'theorem ( alternatively bayes'law or bayes'rule ), named after thomas bayes, describes the probability of an event, based on prior knowledge of conditions that might be related to the event. for example, if the risk of developing health problems is known to increase with age, bayes'theorem allows the risk to an individual of a known age to be assessed more accurately by conditioning it relative to their age, rather than simply assuming that the individual is typical of the population as a whole. one of the many applications of bayes'theorem is bayesian inference, a particular approach to statistical inference. when applied, the probabilities involved in the theorem may have different probability interpretations. with bayesian probability interpretation, the theorem expresses how a degree of belief, expressed as a probability, should rationally change to account for the availability of related evidence. bayesian inference is fundamental to bayesian statistics, being considered by one authority as ; " to the theory of probability what pythagoras's theorem is to geometry. "


in statistics, maximum likelihood estimation ( mle ) is a method of estimating the parameters of an assumed probability distribution, given some observed data. this is achieved by maximizing a likelihood function so that, under the assumed statistical model, the observed data is most probable. the point in the parameter space that maximizes the likelihood function is called the maximum likelihood estimate. the logic of maximum likelihood is both intuitive and flexible, and as such the method has become a dominant means of statistical inference. if the likelihood function is differentiable, the derivative test for finding maxima can be applied. in some cases, the first - order conditions of the likelihood function can be solved analytically ; for instance, the ordinary least squares estimator for a linear regression model maximizes the likelihood when the random errors are assumed to have normal distributions with the same variance. from the perspective of bayesian inference, mle is generally equivalent to maximum a posteriori ( map ) estimation with uniform prior distributions ( or a normal prior distribution with a standard deviation of infinity ). in frequentist inference, mle is a special case of an extremum estimator, with the objective function being the likelihood.


an application of this principle is the notion of sub - distributivity as explained in the article on interval arithmetic. in category theory, if ( s, μ, ν ) { \ displaystyle ( s, \ mu, \ nu ) } and ( s ′, μ ′, ν ′ ) { \ displaystyle \ left ( s ^ { \ prime }, \ mu ^ { \ prime }, \ nu ^ { \ prime } \ right ) } are monads on a category c, { \ displaystyle c, } a distributive law s.


it was formulated for the purpose of illustrating the logical groups and scopes of functions needed in the design of the suite of internetworking protocols of tcp / ip, as needed for the operation of the internet. in general, direct or strict comparisons of the osi and tcp / ip models should be avoided, because the layering in tcp / ip is not a principal design criterion and in general, considered to be " harmful " ( rfc 3439 ). in particular, tcp / ip does not dictate a strict hierarchical sequence of encapsulation requirements, as is attributed to osi protocols.


a fuze is a device that detonates a munition's explosive material under specified conditions. in addition, a fuze will have safety and arming mechanisms that protect users from premature or accidental detonation. for example, an artillery fuze's battery is activated by the high acceleration of cannon launch, and the fuze must be spinning rapidly before it will function. " complete bore safety " can be achieved with mechanical shutters that isolate the detonator from the main charge until the shell is fired. a fuze may contain only the electronic or mechanical elements necessary to signal or actuate the detonator, but some fuzes contain a small amount of primary explosive to initiate the detonation. fuzes for large explosive charges may include an explosive booster.


in public key cryptography, padding is the process of preparing a message for encryption or signing using a specification or scheme such as pkcs # 1 v2. 2, oaep, pss, pssr, ieee p1363 emsa2 and emsa5. a modern form of padding for asymmetric primitives is oaep applied to the rsa algorithm, when it is used to encrypt a limited number of bytes. the operation is referred to as " padding " because originally, random material was simply appended to the message to make it long enough for the primitive. this form of padding is not secure and is therefore no longer applied. a modern padding scheme aims to ensure that the attacker cannot manipulate the plaintext to exploit the mathematical structure of the primitive and will usually be accompanied by a proof, often in the random oracle model, that breaking the padding scheme is as hard as solving the hard problem underlying the primitive.


in multi - threaded programs some threads can be executing inside infinite loops without causing the entire program to be stuck in an infinite loop. if the main thread exits all threads of the process are forcefully stopped thus all execution ends and the process / program terminates. the threads inside the infinite loops can perform " housekeeping " tasks or they can be in a blocked state waiting for input ( from socket / queue ) and resume execution every time input is received.


in the field of mobile communications, a " generation " generally refers to a change in the fundamental nature of the service, non - backwards - compatible transmission technology, higher peak bit rates, new frequency bands, wider channel frequency bandwidth in hertz, and higher capacity for many simultaneous data transfers ( higher system spectral efficiency in bit / second / hertz / site ). new mobile generations have appeared about every ten years since the first move from 1981 analog ( 1g ) to digital ( 2g ) transmission in 1992. this was followed, in 2001, by 3g multi - media support, spread spectrum transmission and a minimum peak bit rate of 200 kbit / s, in 2011 / 2012 to be followed by " real " 4g, which refers to all - ip packet - switched networks giving mobile ultra - broadband ( gigabit speed ) access.


history ( two of which resulted in the recall of the governor ) and 38 recall elections for state legislators ( 55 % of which succeeded ). nineteen states and the district of columbia have a recall function for state officials. additional states have recall functions for local jurisdictions.


in metaphysics, object - oriented ontology ( ooo ) is a 21st - century heidegger - influenced school of thought that rejects the privileging of human existence over the existence of nonhuman objects. this is in contrast to what it calls the " anthropocentrism " of kant's philosophy by proposing a metaphorical copernican revolution, which would displace the human from the center of the universe like copernicus displaced the earth from being the center of the universe. object - oriented ontology maintains that objects exist independently ( as kantian noumena ) of human perception and are not ontologically exhausted by their relations with humans or other objects. for object - oriented ontologists, all relations, including those between nonhumans, distort their related objects in the same basic manner as human consciousness and exist on an equal footing with one another. object - oriented ontology is often viewed as a subset of speculative realism, a contemporary school of thought that criticizes the post - kantian reduction of philosophical enquiry to a correlation between thought and being ( correlationism ), such that the reality of anything outside of this correlation is unknowable.


the structure of graphs exchanged by gxl streams is given by a schema represented as a unified modeling language ( uml ) class diagram. since gxl is a general graph exchange format, it can also be used to interchange any graph - based data, including models between computer - aided software engineering ( case ) tools, data between graph transformation systems, or graph visualization tools. gxl includes support for hypergraphs and hierarchical graphs, and can be extended to support other types of graphs. gxl originated in the merger of graph exchange format ( grax : university of koblenz, de ) for exchanging typed, attributed, ordered, directed graphs ( tgraphs ), tuple attribute language ( ta : university of waterloo, ca ), and the graph format of the progres graph rewriting system ( university bw munchen, de ). furthermore, gxl includes ideas from exchange formats from reverse engineering, including relation partition algebra ( rpa : philips research eindhoven, nl ) and rigi standard format ( rsf : university of victoria, ca ). the development of gxl was also influenced by various formats used in graph drawing ( e. g. davinci, graph modelling language ( gml ), graphlet, graphxml ) and current discussions on exchange formats for graph transformation systems.