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Historians of medieval marriage practices ascribe particular significance to Pope Alexander III's twelfth-century synthesis of existing ecclesiastical and legal opinion concerning marriage. Alexander produced a doctrine that treated marriage as a consensual union rather than as an arrangement made by parents for reasons of economic expediency: under Alexandrine doctrine, a couple could establish marriage by words of mutual consent and without the consent of parents. These contracts were of two kinds. On the one hand, a binding and immediately effective union was created through the exchange of words of present consent (per verba de praesenti). Neither the prior announcement of the intention to wed nor the solemnization conferred by Church ritual added anything to the validity and permanence of such a contract. On the other hand, a promise to marry was expressed by words of future consent (per verba de futuro); such a contract might be terminated by the agreement of the parties or by a subsequent de praesenti contract. Although Alexandrine doctrine accepted the secular legal validity of those contracts that lacked public announcement and ritual solemnization, it nonetheless attempted to discourage such clandestine unions and to regulate marriage procedures. According to the doctrine, a marriage was to be preceded by the publication of the marriage announcements, or banns, on three successive Sundays to allow community members to raise any legal objections to the intended union. Those couples ignoring this requirement were to be excommunicated, and any priest solemnizing an unpublicized union could be suspended for up to three years. However, the essential secular legal validity of the marriage was in no way impaired. The presence or absence of the banns became the acid test to determine whether a contract was considered clandestine. Consequently, the very term "clandestine" came to cover a multitude of sins. It could apply just as much to the publicly solemnized marriage that violated Church law with regard to the time and place of the banns as it could to the informal de praesenti contract. Historian Charles Donahue has stressed the controversial nature of Alexander's view that the consent of the individuals concerned was sufficient to produce a legally binding marriage; so long as they acted in accordance with established bann procedures, a couple could marry without parental consent and still enjoy the blessing of the Church. Furthermore, Donahue suggests that Alexandrine doctrine can be seen as encouraging marriage as a spiritual union rather than a merely pragmatic arrangement: marriages of love were to be promoted at the expense of those of economic convenience, and the Church was made the guardian of individual freedom in this area. This interpretation is indeed a radical one, given traditional perceptions of the medieval Church as the most potent authoritarian force in a rigidly hierarchical society.Q: According to the passage, which one of the following distinguished the de futuro contract from the de praesenti contract? Answer Choices: (A)One was recognized by Alexandrine doctrine, while the other was considered a secular contract. (B)One required the permission of parents, while the other concerned only the couple involved. (C)One required the announcement of marriage banns, while the other could be entered into solely through a verbal contract. (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union. (E)One allowed the solemnization of Church ritual, while the other resulted in excommunication.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union.
It is commonly assumed that even if some forgeries have aesthetic merit, no forgery has as much as an original by the imitated artist would. Yet even the most prominent art specialists can be duped by a talented artist turned forger into mistaking an almost perfect forgery for an original. For instance, artist Han van Meegeren's The Disciples at Emmaus (1937)—painted under the forged signature of the acclaimed Dutch master Jan Vermeer (1632–1675)— attracted lavish praise from experts as one of Vermeer's finest works. The painting hung in a Rotterdam museum until 1945, when, to the great embarrassment of the critics, van Meegeren revealed its origin. Astonishingly, there was at least one highly reputed critic who persisted in believing it to be a Vermeer even after van Meegeren's confession. Given the experts' initial enthusiasm, some philosophers argue that van Meegeren's painting must have possessed aesthetic characteristics that, in a Vermeer original, would have justified the critics' plaudits. Van Meegeren's Emmaus thus raises difficult questions regarding the status of superbly executed forgeries. Is a forgery inherently inferior as art? How are we justified, if indeed we are, in revising downwards our critical assessment of a work unmasked as a forgery? Philosopher of art Alfred Lessing proposes convincing answers to these questions. A forged work is indeed inferior as art, Lessing argues, but not because of a shortfall in aesthetic qualities strictly defined, that is to say, in the qualities perceptible on the picture's surface. For example, in its composition, its technique, and its brilliant use of color, van Meegeren's work is flawless, even beautiful. Lessing argues instead that the deficiency lies in what might be called the painting's intangible qualities. All art, explains Lessing, involves technique, but not all art involves origination of a new vision, and originality of vision is one of the fundamental qualities by which artistic, as opposed to purely aesthetic, accomplishment is measured. Thus Vermeer is acclaimed for having inaugurated, in the seventeenth century, a new way of seeing, and for pioneering techniques for embodying this new way of seeing through distinctive treatment of light, color, and form. Even if we grant that van Meegeren, with his undoubted mastery of Vermeer's innovative techniques, produced an aesthetically superior painting, he did so about three centuries after Vermeer developed the techniques in question. Whereas Vermeer's origination of these techniques in the seventeenth century represents a truly impressive and historic achievement, van Meegeren's production of The Disciples at Emmaus in the twentieth century presents nothing new or creative to the history of art. Van Meegeren's forgery therefore, for all its aesthetic merits, lacks the historical significance that makes Vermeer's work artistically great.Q: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage? Answer Choices: (A)The Disciples at Emmaus, van Meegeren's forgery of a Vermeer, was a failure in both aesthetic and artistic terms. (B)The aesthetic value of a work of art is less dependent on the work's visible characteristics than on certain intangible characteristics. (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision. (D)The most skilled forgers can deceive even highly qualified art experts into accepting their work as original. (E)Art critics tend to be unreliable judges of the aesthetic and artistic quality of works of art.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision.
Increases in the amount of carbon dioxide (CO ) and other trace gases in the Earth's atmosphere can contribute to what has been called greenhouse warming,because those compounds allow the Sun's energy to reach the surface of the Earth, thereby warming it,but prevent much of that energy from being reradiated to outer space.Measuring devices set up at several locations around the world have revealed a 20 percent increase in atmospheric CO over the course of the past century—from 290 parts per million in 1880 to 352 parts per million in 1989. Several studies agree that it is plausible that the CO content of the atmosphere may well double from its 1880 level by around the middle of the twenty-first century. To project how much the global temperature will increase in response to a doubling of atmospheric CO should be simple:since the CO content has increased by about 20 percent over the past century,we should be able to observe the increases in global temperature during the same period and base future projections on that data. The prevailing view is that the climatic record over the past century for the entire globe reveals a net increase in temperature ranging from 0.5 to 1.0 degree Fahrenheit (approximately 0.25 to 0.5 degrees Celsius). But set against this conclusion is the fact that data gathered over the past century in North America, where observations are numerous and accurate, does not confirm such an increase. And even if the temperature rise is real, another puzzle remains: is the rise in global temperatures a natural fluctuation or a result of the increase in greenhouse gases? Because of inconclusive data and the complexity of the problem, some scientists predict an increase as small as two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius) in the average global temperature over the next half century, whereas others predict increases of up to nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius).It makes a great difference whether the actual increase is at the low or high end of this range. Although human beings are probably resilient enough to adapt to the effects of an increase of approximately two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius), an increase of nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius) is believed to be the difference in temperature that separates the end of the last great ice age, 12,000 years ago, from the present. In light of such uncertainty, the wisest policy is not to forestall action. Steps that make sense for economic or environmental reasons besides greenhouse warming, such as replacing fossil-fuel energy with solar energy, could be taken first, whether or not climate warming is taking place. Then, as scientific knowledge grows and uncertainties are reduced, more costly measures could be taken, if warranted, hence closely tying policy decisions to the latest information available. Scientists and others have aptly called this type of action a "no regrets" policy.Q: The author refers to the meteorological data gathered in North America over the past century in order to Answer Choices: (A)show how differing views on the extent of the rise in global temperature can be resolved (B)argue that any warming detected over the past century has most likely been the result of a natural climatic fluctuation (C)argue against the prevailing view that the amount of atmospheric CO has increased by about 20 percent over the past century (D)suggest that there should be more numerous and accurate observation points outside of North America (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
A: Among A through E, the answer is (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
Is it necessary for defense lawyers to believe that the clients they defend are innocent of the charges against them? Some legal scholars hold that lawyers' sole obligation is to provide the best defense they are capable of, claiming that in democratic societies all people accused of crimes are entitled to the best possible legal representation. They argue that lawyers have no right to judge defendants because it is the job of the courts to determine guilt or innocence and the job of the lawyer to represent the defendant before the court. They believe that the lawyer's responsibility is to state those facts that will assist each client's case, construct sound arguments based on these facts, and identify flaws in the arguments of opposing counsel. According to these scholars, the lawyer's role is not to express or act on personal opinions but to act as an advocate, saying only what defendants would say if they possessed the proper training or resources with which to represent themselves. But such a position overlooks the fact that the defense lawyer's obligation is twofold: to the defendant, certainly, but no less so to the court and, by extension, to society. For this reason, lawyers, great as their obligation to defendants is, should not, as officers of the court, present to the court assertions that they know to be false. But by the same principle, lawyers who are convinced that their clients are guilty should not undertake to demonstrate their innocence. Guilty defendants should not be entitled to false or insincere representation. When lawyers know with certainty that a defendant is guilty, it is their duty not to deny this. Rather, they should appraise the case as much as possible in their client's favor, after giving due consideration to the facts on the other side, and then present any extenuating circumstances and argue for whatever degree of leniency in sentencing they sincerely believe is warranted. In cases where it is uncertain whether the client is guilty but the lawyer sincerely believes the client may well be innocent, the lawyer should of course try to prove that the client is innocent. The lawyer's obligation to the court and to society also ultimately benefits the defendant, because the "best defense" can only truly be provided by an advocate who, after a careful analysis of the facts, is convinced of the merits of the case. The fact that every client is entitled to a defense does not mean that defense lawyers should take every case they are offered. Lawyers should not be mere mouthpieces for a defendant but instead advocates for the rights of the defendant given the facts of the case.Q: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main idea of the passage? Answer Choices: (A)Some legal scholars defend a morally questionable view that defense lawyers' sole obligation to their clients is to provide the best defense, while it is the court's job to determine guilt or innocence. (B)Defense lawyers should put aside personal judgments about their clients' guilt when determining how best to proceed when representing a client. (C)In a democracy, all persons accused of crimes have a right to an attorney who will state the facts, construct sound arguments, and identify flaws in the arguments of opposing counsel. (D)Lawyers should be mindful of their duty to society as well as to their clients and base the decision as to whether, and how, to defend a client on the facts of the case. (E)Defense attorneys are obligated to defend clients who request their professional services, especially when the attorney is absolutely convinced of the client's innocence.
A: Among A through E, the answer is | [
"(A)Some legal scholars defend a morally questionable view that defense lawyers' sole obligation to their clients is to provide the best defense, while it is the court's job to determine guilt or innocence.",
"(B)Defense lawyers should put aside personal judgments about their clients' guilt when determining how b... | [
3
] |
Historians of medieval marriage practices ascribe particular significance to Pope Alexander III's twelfth-century synthesis of existing ecclesiastical and legal opinion concerning marriage. Alexander produced a doctrine that treated marriage as a consensual union rather than as an arrangement made by parents for reasons of economic expediency: under Alexandrine doctrine, a couple could establish marriage by words of mutual consent and without the consent of parents. These contracts were of two kinds. On the one hand, a binding and immediately effective union was created through the exchange of words of present consent (per verba de praesenti). Neither the prior announcement of the intention to wed nor the solemnization conferred by Church ritual added anything to the validity and permanence of such a contract. On the other hand, a promise to marry was expressed by words of future consent (per verba de futuro); such a contract might be terminated by the agreement of the parties or by a subsequent de praesenti contract. Although Alexandrine doctrine accepted the secular legal validity of those contracts that lacked public announcement and ritual solemnization, it nonetheless attempted to discourage such clandestine unions and to regulate marriage procedures. According to the doctrine, a marriage was to be preceded by the publication of the marriage announcements, or banns, on three successive Sundays to allow community members to raise any legal objections to the intended union. Those couples ignoring this requirement were to be excommunicated, and any priest solemnizing an unpublicized union could be suspended for up to three years. However, the essential secular legal validity of the marriage was in no way impaired. The presence or absence of the banns became the acid test to determine whether a contract was considered clandestine. Consequently, the very term "clandestine" came to cover a multitude of sins. It could apply just as much to the publicly solemnized marriage that violated Church law with regard to the time and place of the banns as it could to the informal de praesenti contract. Historian Charles Donahue has stressed the controversial nature of Alexander's view that the consent of the individuals concerned was sufficient to produce a legally binding marriage; so long as they acted in accordance with established bann procedures, a couple could marry without parental consent and still enjoy the blessing of the Church. Furthermore, Donahue suggests that Alexandrine doctrine can be seen as encouraging marriage as a spiritual union rather than a merely pragmatic arrangement: marriages of love were to be promoted at the expense of those of economic convenience, and the Church was made the guardian of individual freedom in this area. This interpretation is indeed a radical one, given traditional perceptions of the medieval Church as the most potent authoritarian force in a rigidly hierarchical society.Q: According to the passage, which one of the following distinguished the de futuro contract from the de praesenti contract? Answer Choices: (A)One was recognized by Alexandrine doctrine, while the other was considered a secular contract. (B)One required the permission of parents, while the other concerned only the couple involved. (C)One required the announcement of marriage banns, while the other could be entered into solely through a verbal contract. (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union. (E)One allowed the solemnization of Church ritual, while the other resulted in excommunication.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union.
It is commonly assumed that even if some forgeries have aesthetic merit, no forgery has as much as an original by the imitated artist would. Yet even the most prominent art specialists can be duped by a talented artist turned forger into mistaking an almost perfect forgery for an original. For instance, artist Han van Meegeren's The Disciples at Emmaus (1937)—painted under the forged signature of the acclaimed Dutch master Jan Vermeer (1632–1675)— attracted lavish praise from experts as one of Vermeer's finest works. The painting hung in a Rotterdam museum until 1945, when, to the great embarrassment of the critics, van Meegeren revealed its origin. Astonishingly, there was at least one highly reputed critic who persisted in believing it to be a Vermeer even after van Meegeren's confession. Given the experts' initial enthusiasm, some philosophers argue that van Meegeren's painting must have possessed aesthetic characteristics that, in a Vermeer original, would have justified the critics' plaudits. Van Meegeren's Emmaus thus raises difficult questions regarding the status of superbly executed forgeries. Is a forgery inherently inferior as art? How are we justified, if indeed we are, in revising downwards our critical assessment of a work unmasked as a forgery? Philosopher of art Alfred Lessing proposes convincing answers to these questions. A forged work is indeed inferior as art, Lessing argues, but not because of a shortfall in aesthetic qualities strictly defined, that is to say, in the qualities perceptible on the picture's surface. For example, in its composition, its technique, and its brilliant use of color, van Meegeren's work is flawless, even beautiful. Lessing argues instead that the deficiency lies in what might be called the painting's intangible qualities. All art, explains Lessing, involves technique, but not all art involves origination of a new vision, and originality of vision is one of the fundamental qualities by which artistic, as opposed to purely aesthetic, accomplishment is measured. Thus Vermeer is acclaimed for having inaugurated, in the seventeenth century, a new way of seeing, and for pioneering techniques for embodying this new way of seeing through distinctive treatment of light, color, and form. Even if we grant that van Meegeren, with his undoubted mastery of Vermeer's innovative techniques, produced an aesthetically superior painting, he did so about three centuries after Vermeer developed the techniques in question. Whereas Vermeer's origination of these techniques in the seventeenth century represents a truly impressive and historic achievement, van Meegeren's production of The Disciples at Emmaus in the twentieth century presents nothing new or creative to the history of art. Van Meegeren's forgery therefore, for all its aesthetic merits, lacks the historical significance that makes Vermeer's work artistically great.Q: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage? Answer Choices: (A)The Disciples at Emmaus, van Meegeren's forgery of a Vermeer, was a failure in both aesthetic and artistic terms. (B)The aesthetic value of a work of art is less dependent on the work's visible characteristics than on certain intangible characteristics. (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision. (D)The most skilled forgers can deceive even highly qualified art experts into accepting their work as original. (E)Art critics tend to be unreliable judges of the aesthetic and artistic quality of works of art.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision.
Increases in the amount of carbon dioxide (CO ) and other trace gases in the Earth's atmosphere can contribute to what has been called greenhouse warming,because those compounds allow the Sun's energy to reach the surface of the Earth, thereby warming it,but prevent much of that energy from being reradiated to outer space.Measuring devices set up at several locations around the world have revealed a 20 percent increase in atmospheric CO over the course of the past century—from 290 parts per million in 1880 to 352 parts per million in 1989. Several studies agree that it is plausible that the CO content of the atmosphere may well double from its 1880 level by around the middle of the twenty-first century. To project how much the global temperature will increase in response to a doubling of atmospheric CO should be simple:since the CO content has increased by about 20 percent over the past century,we should be able to observe the increases in global temperature during the same period and base future projections on that data. The prevailing view is that the climatic record over the past century for the entire globe reveals a net increase in temperature ranging from 0.5 to 1.0 degree Fahrenheit (approximately 0.25 to 0.5 degrees Celsius). But set against this conclusion is the fact that data gathered over the past century in North America, where observations are numerous and accurate, does not confirm such an increase. And even if the temperature rise is real, another puzzle remains: is the rise in global temperatures a natural fluctuation or a result of the increase in greenhouse gases? Because of inconclusive data and the complexity of the problem, some scientists predict an increase as small as two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius) in the average global temperature over the next half century, whereas others predict increases of up to nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius).It makes a great difference whether the actual increase is at the low or high end of this range. Although human beings are probably resilient enough to adapt to the effects of an increase of approximately two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius), an increase of nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius) is believed to be the difference in temperature that separates the end of the last great ice age, 12,000 years ago, from the present. In light of such uncertainty, the wisest policy is not to forestall action. Steps that make sense for economic or environmental reasons besides greenhouse warming, such as replacing fossil-fuel energy with solar energy, could be taken first, whether or not climate warming is taking place. Then, as scientific knowledge grows and uncertainties are reduced, more costly measures could be taken, if warranted, hence closely tying policy decisions to the latest information available. Scientists and others have aptly called this type of action a "no regrets" policy.Q: The author refers to the meteorological data gathered in North America over the past century in order to Answer Choices: (A)show how differing views on the extent of the rise in global temperature can be resolved (B)argue that any warming detected over the past century has most likely been the result of a natural climatic fluctuation (C)argue against the prevailing view that the amount of atmospheric CO has increased by about 20 percent over the past century (D)suggest that there should be more numerous and accurate observation points outside of North America (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
A: Among A through E, the answer is (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
Is it necessary for defense lawyers to believe that the clients they defend are innocent of the charges against them? Some legal scholars hold that lawyers' sole obligation is to provide the best defense they are capable of, claiming that in democratic societies all people accused of crimes are entitled to the best possible legal representation. They argue that lawyers have no right to judge defendants because it is the job of the courts to determine guilt or innocence and the job of the lawyer to represent the defendant before the court. They believe that the lawyer's responsibility is to state those facts that will assist each client's case, construct sound arguments based on these facts, and identify flaws in the arguments of opposing counsel. According to these scholars, the lawyer's role is not to express or act on personal opinions but to act as an advocate, saying only what defendants would say if they possessed the proper training or resources with which to represent themselves. But such a position overlooks the fact that the defense lawyer's obligation is twofold: to the defendant, certainly, but no less so to the court and, by extension, to society. For this reason, lawyers, great as their obligation to defendants is, should not, as officers of the court, present to the court assertions that they know to be false. But by the same principle, lawyers who are convinced that their clients are guilty should not undertake to demonstrate their innocence. Guilty defendants should not be entitled to false or insincere representation. When lawyers know with certainty that a defendant is guilty, it is their duty not to deny this. Rather, they should appraise the case as much as possible in their client's favor, after giving due consideration to the facts on the other side, and then present any extenuating circumstances and argue for whatever degree of leniency in sentencing they sincerely believe is warranted. In cases where it is uncertain whether the client is guilty but the lawyer sincerely believes the client may well be innocent, the lawyer should of course try to prove that the client is innocent. The lawyer's obligation to the court and to society also ultimately benefits the defendant, because the "best defense" can only truly be provided by an advocate who, after a careful analysis of the facts, is convinced of the merits of the case. The fact that every client is entitled to a defense does not mean that defense lawyers should take every case they are offered. Lawyers should not be mere mouthpieces for a defendant but instead advocates for the rights of the defendant given the facts of the case.Q: Which one of the following most accurately describes the author's attitude toward the twofold obligation introduced in lines 20–23? Answer Choices: (A)confident that it enables defense lawyers to balance their competing responsibilities to the court and to society (B)certain that it prevents defense lawyers from representing clients whom they know to be guilty (C)satisfied that it helps defense lawyers to uncover the relevant facts of a case (D)pleased that it does not interfere with common defense strategies used by defense lawyers (E)convinced that it does not represent a conflict of interest for defense lawyers
A: Among A through E, the answer is | [
"(A)confident that it enables defense lawyers to balance their competing responsibilities to the court and to society",
"(B)certain that it prevents defense lawyers from representing clients whom they know to be guilty",
"(C)satisfied that it helps defense lawyers to uncover the relevant facts of a case",
"(D... | [
4
] |
Historians of medieval marriage practices ascribe particular significance to Pope Alexander III's twelfth-century synthesis of existing ecclesiastical and legal opinion concerning marriage. Alexander produced a doctrine that treated marriage as a consensual union rather than as an arrangement made by parents for reasons of economic expediency: under Alexandrine doctrine, a couple could establish marriage by words of mutual consent and without the consent of parents. These contracts were of two kinds. On the one hand, a binding and immediately effective union was created through the exchange of words of present consent (per verba de praesenti). Neither the prior announcement of the intention to wed nor the solemnization conferred by Church ritual added anything to the validity and permanence of such a contract. On the other hand, a promise to marry was expressed by words of future consent (per verba de futuro); such a contract might be terminated by the agreement of the parties or by a subsequent de praesenti contract. Although Alexandrine doctrine accepted the secular legal validity of those contracts that lacked public announcement and ritual solemnization, it nonetheless attempted to discourage such clandestine unions and to regulate marriage procedures. According to the doctrine, a marriage was to be preceded by the publication of the marriage announcements, or banns, on three successive Sundays to allow community members to raise any legal objections to the intended union. Those couples ignoring this requirement were to be excommunicated, and any priest solemnizing an unpublicized union could be suspended for up to three years. However, the essential secular legal validity of the marriage was in no way impaired. The presence or absence of the banns became the acid test to determine whether a contract was considered clandestine. Consequently, the very term "clandestine" came to cover a multitude of sins. It could apply just as much to the publicly solemnized marriage that violated Church law with regard to the time and place of the banns as it could to the informal de praesenti contract. Historian Charles Donahue has stressed the controversial nature of Alexander's view that the consent of the individuals concerned was sufficient to produce a legally binding marriage; so long as they acted in accordance with established bann procedures, a couple could marry without parental consent and still enjoy the blessing of the Church. Furthermore, Donahue suggests that Alexandrine doctrine can be seen as encouraging marriage as a spiritual union rather than a merely pragmatic arrangement: marriages of love were to be promoted at the expense of those of economic convenience, and the Church was made the guardian of individual freedom in this area. This interpretation is indeed a radical one, given traditional perceptions of the medieval Church as the most potent authoritarian force in a rigidly hierarchical society.Q: According to the passage, which one of the following distinguished the de futuro contract from the de praesenti contract? Answer Choices: (A)One was recognized by Alexandrine doctrine, while the other was considered a secular contract. (B)One required the permission of parents, while the other concerned only the couple involved. (C)One required the announcement of marriage banns, while the other could be entered into solely through a verbal contract. (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union. (E)One allowed the solemnization of Church ritual, while the other resulted in excommunication.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union.
It is commonly assumed that even if some forgeries have aesthetic merit, no forgery has as much as an original by the imitated artist would. Yet even the most prominent art specialists can be duped by a talented artist turned forger into mistaking an almost perfect forgery for an original. For instance, artist Han van Meegeren's The Disciples at Emmaus (1937)—painted under the forged signature of the acclaimed Dutch master Jan Vermeer (1632–1675)— attracted lavish praise from experts as one of Vermeer's finest works. The painting hung in a Rotterdam museum until 1945, when, to the great embarrassment of the critics, van Meegeren revealed its origin. Astonishingly, there was at least one highly reputed critic who persisted in believing it to be a Vermeer even after van Meegeren's confession. Given the experts' initial enthusiasm, some philosophers argue that van Meegeren's painting must have possessed aesthetic characteristics that, in a Vermeer original, would have justified the critics' plaudits. Van Meegeren's Emmaus thus raises difficult questions regarding the status of superbly executed forgeries. Is a forgery inherently inferior as art? How are we justified, if indeed we are, in revising downwards our critical assessment of a work unmasked as a forgery? Philosopher of art Alfred Lessing proposes convincing answers to these questions. A forged work is indeed inferior as art, Lessing argues, but not because of a shortfall in aesthetic qualities strictly defined, that is to say, in the qualities perceptible on the picture's surface. For example, in its composition, its technique, and its brilliant use of color, van Meegeren's work is flawless, even beautiful. Lessing argues instead that the deficiency lies in what might be called the painting's intangible qualities. All art, explains Lessing, involves technique, but not all art involves origination of a new vision, and originality of vision is one of the fundamental qualities by which artistic, as opposed to purely aesthetic, accomplishment is measured. Thus Vermeer is acclaimed for having inaugurated, in the seventeenth century, a new way of seeing, and for pioneering techniques for embodying this new way of seeing through distinctive treatment of light, color, and form. Even if we grant that van Meegeren, with his undoubted mastery of Vermeer's innovative techniques, produced an aesthetically superior painting, he did so about three centuries after Vermeer developed the techniques in question. Whereas Vermeer's origination of these techniques in the seventeenth century represents a truly impressive and historic achievement, van Meegeren's production of The Disciples at Emmaus in the twentieth century presents nothing new or creative to the history of art. Van Meegeren's forgery therefore, for all its aesthetic merits, lacks the historical significance that makes Vermeer's work artistically great.Q: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage? Answer Choices: (A)The Disciples at Emmaus, van Meegeren's forgery of a Vermeer, was a failure in both aesthetic and artistic terms. (B)The aesthetic value of a work of art is less dependent on the work's visible characteristics than on certain intangible characteristics. (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision. (D)The most skilled forgers can deceive even highly qualified art experts into accepting their work as original. (E)Art critics tend to be unreliable judges of the aesthetic and artistic quality of works of art.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision.
Increases in the amount of carbon dioxide (CO ) and other trace gases in the Earth's atmosphere can contribute to what has been called greenhouse warming,because those compounds allow the Sun's energy to reach the surface of the Earth, thereby warming it,but prevent much of that energy from being reradiated to outer space.Measuring devices set up at several locations around the world have revealed a 20 percent increase in atmospheric CO over the course of the past century—from 290 parts per million in 1880 to 352 parts per million in 1989. Several studies agree that it is plausible that the CO content of the atmosphere may well double from its 1880 level by around the middle of the twenty-first century. To project how much the global temperature will increase in response to a doubling of atmospheric CO should be simple:since the CO content has increased by about 20 percent over the past century,we should be able to observe the increases in global temperature during the same period and base future projections on that data. The prevailing view is that the climatic record over the past century for the entire globe reveals a net increase in temperature ranging from 0.5 to 1.0 degree Fahrenheit (approximately 0.25 to 0.5 degrees Celsius). But set against this conclusion is the fact that data gathered over the past century in North America, where observations are numerous and accurate, does not confirm such an increase. And even if the temperature rise is real, another puzzle remains: is the rise in global temperatures a natural fluctuation or a result of the increase in greenhouse gases? Because of inconclusive data and the complexity of the problem, some scientists predict an increase as small as two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius) in the average global temperature over the next half century, whereas others predict increases of up to nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius).It makes a great difference whether the actual increase is at the low or high end of this range. Although human beings are probably resilient enough to adapt to the effects of an increase of approximately two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius), an increase of nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius) is believed to be the difference in temperature that separates the end of the last great ice age, 12,000 years ago, from the present. In light of such uncertainty, the wisest policy is not to forestall action. Steps that make sense for economic or environmental reasons besides greenhouse warming, such as replacing fossil-fuel energy with solar energy, could be taken first, whether or not climate warming is taking place. Then, as scientific knowledge grows and uncertainties are reduced, more costly measures could be taken, if warranted, hence closely tying policy decisions to the latest information available. Scientists and others have aptly called this type of action a "no regrets" policy.Q: The author refers to the meteorological data gathered in North America over the past century in order to Answer Choices: (A)show how differing views on the extent of the rise in global temperature can be resolved (B)argue that any warming detected over the past century has most likely been the result of a natural climatic fluctuation (C)argue against the prevailing view that the amount of atmospheric CO has increased by about 20 percent over the past century (D)suggest that there should be more numerous and accurate observation points outside of North America (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
A: Among A through E, the answer is (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
Is it necessary for defense lawyers to believe that the clients they defend are innocent of the charges against them? Some legal scholars hold that lawyers' sole obligation is to provide the best defense they are capable of, claiming that in democratic societies all people accused of crimes are entitled to the best possible legal representation. They argue that lawyers have no right to judge defendants because it is the job of the courts to determine guilt or innocence and the job of the lawyer to represent the defendant before the court. They believe that the lawyer's responsibility is to state those facts that will assist each client's case, construct sound arguments based on these facts, and identify flaws in the arguments of opposing counsel. According to these scholars, the lawyer's role is not to express or act on personal opinions but to act as an advocate, saying only what defendants would say if they possessed the proper training or resources with which to represent themselves. But such a position overlooks the fact that the defense lawyer's obligation is twofold: to the defendant, certainly, but no less so to the court and, by extension, to society. For this reason, lawyers, great as their obligation to defendants is, should not, as officers of the court, present to the court assertions that they know to be false. But by the same principle, lawyers who are convinced that their clients are guilty should not undertake to demonstrate their innocence. Guilty defendants should not be entitled to false or insincere representation. When lawyers know with certainty that a defendant is guilty, it is their duty not to deny this. Rather, they should appraise the case as much as possible in their client's favor, after giving due consideration to the facts on the other side, and then present any extenuating circumstances and argue for whatever degree of leniency in sentencing they sincerely believe is warranted. In cases where it is uncertain whether the client is guilty but the lawyer sincerely believes the client may well be innocent, the lawyer should of course try to prove that the client is innocent. The lawyer's obligation to the court and to society also ultimately benefits the defendant, because the "best defense" can only truly be provided by an advocate who, after a careful analysis of the facts, is convinced of the merits of the case. The fact that every client is entitled to a defense does not mean that defense lawyers should take every case they are offered. Lawyers should not be mere mouthpieces for a defendant but instead advocates for the rights of the defendant given the facts of the case.Q: Which one of the following sentences would most logically begin a paragraph immediately following the end of the passage? Answer Choices: (A)In keeping with this role, defense lawyers should base their cases upon the foundations of honesty, substantive accuracy and selectivity. (B)Therefore, the practice of law remains morally dubious, in that misrepresentation may achieve acquittal for an attorney's client. (C)Consequently, the defendant's right to legal representation varies from case to case, depending on the severity of the alleged crime and the defense lawyer's personal interpretation of the case. (D)Thus, the lawyers' obligations are threefold— to be faithful to the dictates of the court, society, and themselves by proving their professional worth in securing acquittal for the clients whom they represent. (E)Therefore, judges or other officials of the court should interrogate defense attorneys regarding any prior knowledge they may have of their clients' innocence or guilt.
A: Among A through E, the answer is | [
"(A)In keeping with this role, defense lawyers should base their cases upon the foundations of honesty, substantive accuracy and selectivity.",
"(B)Therefore, the practice of law remains morally dubious, in that misrepresentation may achieve acquittal for an attorney's client.",
"(C)Consequently, the defendant'... | [
0
] |
Historians of medieval marriage practices ascribe particular significance to Pope Alexander III's twelfth-century synthesis of existing ecclesiastical and legal opinion concerning marriage. Alexander produced a doctrine that treated marriage as a consensual union rather than as an arrangement made by parents for reasons of economic expediency: under Alexandrine doctrine, a couple could establish marriage by words of mutual consent and without the consent of parents. These contracts were of two kinds. On the one hand, a binding and immediately effective union was created through the exchange of words of present consent (per verba de praesenti). Neither the prior announcement of the intention to wed nor the solemnization conferred by Church ritual added anything to the validity and permanence of such a contract. On the other hand, a promise to marry was expressed by words of future consent (per verba de futuro); such a contract might be terminated by the agreement of the parties or by a subsequent de praesenti contract. Although Alexandrine doctrine accepted the secular legal validity of those contracts that lacked public announcement and ritual solemnization, it nonetheless attempted to discourage such clandestine unions and to regulate marriage procedures. According to the doctrine, a marriage was to be preceded by the publication of the marriage announcements, or banns, on three successive Sundays to allow community members to raise any legal objections to the intended union. Those couples ignoring this requirement were to be excommunicated, and any priest solemnizing an unpublicized union could be suspended for up to three years. However, the essential secular legal validity of the marriage was in no way impaired. The presence or absence of the banns became the acid test to determine whether a contract was considered clandestine. Consequently, the very term "clandestine" came to cover a multitude of sins. It could apply just as much to the publicly solemnized marriage that violated Church law with regard to the time and place of the banns as it could to the informal de praesenti contract. Historian Charles Donahue has stressed the controversial nature of Alexander's view that the consent of the individuals concerned was sufficient to produce a legally binding marriage; so long as they acted in accordance with established bann procedures, a couple could marry without parental consent and still enjoy the blessing of the Church. Furthermore, Donahue suggests that Alexandrine doctrine can be seen as encouraging marriage as a spiritual union rather than a merely pragmatic arrangement: marriages of love were to be promoted at the expense of those of economic convenience, and the Church was made the guardian of individual freedom in this area. This interpretation is indeed a radical one, given traditional perceptions of the medieval Church as the most potent authoritarian force in a rigidly hierarchical society.Q: According to the passage, which one of the following distinguished the de futuro contract from the de praesenti contract? Answer Choices: (A)One was recognized by Alexandrine doctrine, while the other was considered a secular contract. (B)One required the permission of parents, while the other concerned only the couple involved. (C)One required the announcement of marriage banns, while the other could be entered into solely through a verbal contract. (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union. (E)One allowed the solemnization of Church ritual, while the other resulted in excommunication.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union.
It is commonly assumed that even if some forgeries have aesthetic merit, no forgery has as much as an original by the imitated artist would. Yet even the most prominent art specialists can be duped by a talented artist turned forger into mistaking an almost perfect forgery for an original. For instance, artist Han van Meegeren's The Disciples at Emmaus (1937)—painted under the forged signature of the acclaimed Dutch master Jan Vermeer (1632–1675)— attracted lavish praise from experts as one of Vermeer's finest works. The painting hung in a Rotterdam museum until 1945, when, to the great embarrassment of the critics, van Meegeren revealed its origin. Astonishingly, there was at least one highly reputed critic who persisted in believing it to be a Vermeer even after van Meegeren's confession. Given the experts' initial enthusiasm, some philosophers argue that van Meegeren's painting must have possessed aesthetic characteristics that, in a Vermeer original, would have justified the critics' plaudits. Van Meegeren's Emmaus thus raises difficult questions regarding the status of superbly executed forgeries. Is a forgery inherently inferior as art? How are we justified, if indeed we are, in revising downwards our critical assessment of a work unmasked as a forgery? Philosopher of art Alfred Lessing proposes convincing answers to these questions. A forged work is indeed inferior as art, Lessing argues, but not because of a shortfall in aesthetic qualities strictly defined, that is to say, in the qualities perceptible on the picture's surface. For example, in its composition, its technique, and its brilliant use of color, van Meegeren's work is flawless, even beautiful. Lessing argues instead that the deficiency lies in what might be called the painting's intangible qualities. All art, explains Lessing, involves technique, but not all art involves origination of a new vision, and originality of vision is one of the fundamental qualities by which artistic, as opposed to purely aesthetic, accomplishment is measured. Thus Vermeer is acclaimed for having inaugurated, in the seventeenth century, a new way of seeing, and for pioneering techniques for embodying this new way of seeing through distinctive treatment of light, color, and form. Even if we grant that van Meegeren, with his undoubted mastery of Vermeer's innovative techniques, produced an aesthetically superior painting, he did so about three centuries after Vermeer developed the techniques in question. Whereas Vermeer's origination of these techniques in the seventeenth century represents a truly impressive and historic achievement, van Meegeren's production of The Disciples at Emmaus in the twentieth century presents nothing new or creative to the history of art. Van Meegeren's forgery therefore, for all its aesthetic merits, lacks the historical significance that makes Vermeer's work artistically great.Q: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage? Answer Choices: (A)The Disciples at Emmaus, van Meegeren's forgery of a Vermeer, was a failure in both aesthetic and artistic terms. (B)The aesthetic value of a work of art is less dependent on the work's visible characteristics than on certain intangible characteristics. (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision. (D)The most skilled forgers can deceive even highly qualified art experts into accepting their work as original. (E)Art critics tend to be unreliable judges of the aesthetic and artistic quality of works of art.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision.
Increases in the amount of carbon dioxide (CO ) and other trace gases in the Earth's atmosphere can contribute to what has been called greenhouse warming,because those compounds allow the Sun's energy to reach the surface of the Earth, thereby warming it,but prevent much of that energy from being reradiated to outer space.Measuring devices set up at several locations around the world have revealed a 20 percent increase in atmospheric CO over the course of the past century—from 290 parts per million in 1880 to 352 parts per million in 1989. Several studies agree that it is plausible that the CO content of the atmosphere may well double from its 1880 level by around the middle of the twenty-first century. To project how much the global temperature will increase in response to a doubling of atmospheric CO should be simple:since the CO content has increased by about 20 percent over the past century,we should be able to observe the increases in global temperature during the same period and base future projections on that data. The prevailing view is that the climatic record over the past century for the entire globe reveals a net increase in temperature ranging from 0.5 to 1.0 degree Fahrenheit (approximately 0.25 to 0.5 degrees Celsius). But set against this conclusion is the fact that data gathered over the past century in North America, where observations are numerous and accurate, does not confirm such an increase. And even if the temperature rise is real, another puzzle remains: is the rise in global temperatures a natural fluctuation or a result of the increase in greenhouse gases? Because of inconclusive data and the complexity of the problem, some scientists predict an increase as small as two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius) in the average global temperature over the next half century, whereas others predict increases of up to nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius).It makes a great difference whether the actual increase is at the low or high end of this range. Although human beings are probably resilient enough to adapt to the effects of an increase of approximately two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius), an increase of nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius) is believed to be the difference in temperature that separates the end of the last great ice age, 12,000 years ago, from the present. In light of such uncertainty, the wisest policy is not to forestall action. Steps that make sense for economic or environmental reasons besides greenhouse warming, such as replacing fossil-fuel energy with solar energy, could be taken first, whether or not climate warming is taking place. Then, as scientific knowledge grows and uncertainties are reduced, more costly measures could be taken, if warranted, hence closely tying policy decisions to the latest information available. Scientists and others have aptly called this type of action a "no regrets" policy.Q: The author refers to the meteorological data gathered in North America over the past century in order to Answer Choices: (A)show how differing views on the extent of the rise in global temperature can be resolved (B)argue that any warming detected over the past century has most likely been the result of a natural climatic fluctuation (C)argue against the prevailing view that the amount of atmospheric CO has increased by about 20 percent over the past century (D)suggest that there should be more numerous and accurate observation points outside of North America (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
A: Among A through E, the answer is (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
Is it necessary for defense lawyers to believe that the clients they defend are innocent of the charges against them? Some legal scholars hold that lawyers' sole obligation is to provide the best defense they are capable of, claiming that in democratic societies all people accused of crimes are entitled to the best possible legal representation. They argue that lawyers have no right to judge defendants because it is the job of the courts to determine guilt or innocence and the job of the lawyer to represent the defendant before the court. They believe that the lawyer's responsibility is to state those facts that will assist each client's case, construct sound arguments based on these facts, and identify flaws in the arguments of opposing counsel. According to these scholars, the lawyer's role is not to express or act on personal opinions but to act as an advocate, saying only what defendants would say if they possessed the proper training or resources with which to represent themselves. But such a position overlooks the fact that the defense lawyer's obligation is twofold: to the defendant, certainly, but no less so to the court and, by extension, to society. For this reason, lawyers, great as their obligation to defendants is, should not, as officers of the court, present to the court assertions that they know to be false. But by the same principle, lawyers who are convinced that their clients are guilty should not undertake to demonstrate their innocence. Guilty defendants should not be entitled to false or insincere representation. When lawyers know with certainty that a defendant is guilty, it is their duty not to deny this. Rather, they should appraise the case as much as possible in their client's favor, after giving due consideration to the facts on the other side, and then present any extenuating circumstances and argue for whatever degree of leniency in sentencing they sincerely believe is warranted. In cases where it is uncertain whether the client is guilty but the lawyer sincerely believes the client may well be innocent, the lawyer should of course try to prove that the client is innocent. The lawyer's obligation to the court and to society also ultimately benefits the defendant, because the "best defense" can only truly be provided by an advocate who, after a careful analysis of the facts, is convinced of the merits of the case. The fact that every client is entitled to a defense does not mean that defense lawyers should take every case they are offered. Lawyers should not be mere mouthpieces for a defendant but instead advocates for the rights of the defendant given the facts of the case.Q: According to the passage, the legal scholars mentioned in lines 15–19 believe that it is a defense lawyer's role to be Answer Choices: (A)a source of legal information that can help a jury to reach decisions that are fair and equitable (B)a thorough investigator of all relevant evidence (C)a diligent representative of the client's position (D)a facilitator and expediter of the cause of justice (E)an energetic advocate of the client's right to legal representation
A: Among A through E, the answer is | [
"(A)a source of legal information that can help a jury to reach decisions that are fair and equitable",
"(B)a thorough investigator of all relevant evidence",
"(C)a diligent representative of the client's position",
"(D)a facilitator and expediter of the cause of justice",
"(E)an energetic advocate of the c... | [
2
] |
Historians of medieval marriage practices ascribe particular significance to Pope Alexander III's twelfth-century synthesis of existing ecclesiastical and legal opinion concerning marriage. Alexander produced a doctrine that treated marriage as a consensual union rather than as an arrangement made by parents for reasons of economic expediency: under Alexandrine doctrine, a couple could establish marriage by words of mutual consent and without the consent of parents. These contracts were of two kinds. On the one hand, a binding and immediately effective union was created through the exchange of words of present consent (per verba de praesenti). Neither the prior announcement of the intention to wed nor the solemnization conferred by Church ritual added anything to the validity and permanence of such a contract. On the other hand, a promise to marry was expressed by words of future consent (per verba de futuro); such a contract might be terminated by the agreement of the parties or by a subsequent de praesenti contract. Although Alexandrine doctrine accepted the secular legal validity of those contracts that lacked public announcement and ritual solemnization, it nonetheless attempted to discourage such clandestine unions and to regulate marriage procedures. According to the doctrine, a marriage was to be preceded by the publication of the marriage announcements, or banns, on three successive Sundays to allow community members to raise any legal objections to the intended union. Those couples ignoring this requirement were to be excommunicated, and any priest solemnizing an unpublicized union could be suspended for up to three years. However, the essential secular legal validity of the marriage was in no way impaired. The presence or absence of the banns became the acid test to determine whether a contract was considered clandestine. Consequently, the very term "clandestine" came to cover a multitude of sins. It could apply just as much to the publicly solemnized marriage that violated Church law with regard to the time and place of the banns as it could to the informal de praesenti contract. Historian Charles Donahue has stressed the controversial nature of Alexander's view that the consent of the individuals concerned was sufficient to produce a legally binding marriage; so long as they acted in accordance with established bann procedures, a couple could marry without parental consent and still enjoy the blessing of the Church. Furthermore, Donahue suggests that Alexandrine doctrine can be seen as encouraging marriage as a spiritual union rather than a merely pragmatic arrangement: marriages of love were to be promoted at the expense of those of economic convenience, and the Church was made the guardian of individual freedom in this area. This interpretation is indeed a radical one, given traditional perceptions of the medieval Church as the most potent authoritarian force in a rigidly hierarchical society.Q: According to the passage, which one of the following distinguished the de futuro contract from the de praesenti contract? Answer Choices: (A)One was recognized by Alexandrine doctrine, while the other was considered a secular contract. (B)One required the permission of parents, while the other concerned only the couple involved. (C)One required the announcement of marriage banns, while the other could be entered into solely through a verbal contract. (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union. (E)One allowed the solemnization of Church ritual, while the other resulted in excommunication.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union.
It is commonly assumed that even if some forgeries have aesthetic merit, no forgery has as much as an original by the imitated artist would. Yet even the most prominent art specialists can be duped by a talented artist turned forger into mistaking an almost perfect forgery for an original. For instance, artist Han van Meegeren's The Disciples at Emmaus (1937)—painted under the forged signature of the acclaimed Dutch master Jan Vermeer (1632–1675)— attracted lavish praise from experts as one of Vermeer's finest works. The painting hung in a Rotterdam museum until 1945, when, to the great embarrassment of the critics, van Meegeren revealed its origin. Astonishingly, there was at least one highly reputed critic who persisted in believing it to be a Vermeer even after van Meegeren's confession. Given the experts' initial enthusiasm, some philosophers argue that van Meegeren's painting must have possessed aesthetic characteristics that, in a Vermeer original, would have justified the critics' plaudits. Van Meegeren's Emmaus thus raises difficult questions regarding the status of superbly executed forgeries. Is a forgery inherently inferior as art? How are we justified, if indeed we are, in revising downwards our critical assessment of a work unmasked as a forgery? Philosopher of art Alfred Lessing proposes convincing answers to these questions. A forged work is indeed inferior as art, Lessing argues, but not because of a shortfall in aesthetic qualities strictly defined, that is to say, in the qualities perceptible on the picture's surface. For example, in its composition, its technique, and its brilliant use of color, van Meegeren's work is flawless, even beautiful. Lessing argues instead that the deficiency lies in what might be called the painting's intangible qualities. All art, explains Lessing, involves technique, but not all art involves origination of a new vision, and originality of vision is one of the fundamental qualities by which artistic, as opposed to purely aesthetic, accomplishment is measured. Thus Vermeer is acclaimed for having inaugurated, in the seventeenth century, a new way of seeing, and for pioneering techniques for embodying this new way of seeing through distinctive treatment of light, color, and form. Even if we grant that van Meegeren, with his undoubted mastery of Vermeer's innovative techniques, produced an aesthetically superior painting, he did so about three centuries after Vermeer developed the techniques in question. Whereas Vermeer's origination of these techniques in the seventeenth century represents a truly impressive and historic achievement, van Meegeren's production of The Disciples at Emmaus in the twentieth century presents nothing new or creative to the history of art. Van Meegeren's forgery therefore, for all its aesthetic merits, lacks the historical significance that makes Vermeer's work artistically great.Q: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage? Answer Choices: (A)The Disciples at Emmaus, van Meegeren's forgery of a Vermeer, was a failure in both aesthetic and artistic terms. (B)The aesthetic value of a work of art is less dependent on the work's visible characteristics than on certain intangible characteristics. (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision. (D)The most skilled forgers can deceive even highly qualified art experts into accepting their work as original. (E)Art critics tend to be unreliable judges of the aesthetic and artistic quality of works of art.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision.
Increases in the amount of carbon dioxide (CO ) and other trace gases in the Earth's atmosphere can contribute to what has been called greenhouse warming,because those compounds allow the Sun's energy to reach the surface of the Earth, thereby warming it,but prevent much of that energy from being reradiated to outer space.Measuring devices set up at several locations around the world have revealed a 20 percent increase in atmospheric CO over the course of the past century—from 290 parts per million in 1880 to 352 parts per million in 1989. Several studies agree that it is plausible that the CO content of the atmosphere may well double from its 1880 level by around the middle of the twenty-first century. To project how much the global temperature will increase in response to a doubling of atmospheric CO should be simple:since the CO content has increased by about 20 percent over the past century,we should be able to observe the increases in global temperature during the same period and base future projections on that data. The prevailing view is that the climatic record over the past century for the entire globe reveals a net increase in temperature ranging from 0.5 to 1.0 degree Fahrenheit (approximately 0.25 to 0.5 degrees Celsius). But set against this conclusion is the fact that data gathered over the past century in North America, where observations are numerous and accurate, does not confirm such an increase. And even if the temperature rise is real, another puzzle remains: is the rise in global temperatures a natural fluctuation or a result of the increase in greenhouse gases? Because of inconclusive data and the complexity of the problem, some scientists predict an increase as small as two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius) in the average global temperature over the next half century, whereas others predict increases of up to nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius).It makes a great difference whether the actual increase is at the low or high end of this range. Although human beings are probably resilient enough to adapt to the effects of an increase of approximately two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius), an increase of nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius) is believed to be the difference in temperature that separates the end of the last great ice age, 12,000 years ago, from the present. In light of such uncertainty, the wisest policy is not to forestall action. Steps that make sense for economic or environmental reasons besides greenhouse warming, such as replacing fossil-fuel energy with solar energy, could be taken first, whether or not climate warming is taking place. Then, as scientific knowledge grows and uncertainties are reduced, more costly measures could be taken, if warranted, hence closely tying policy decisions to the latest information available. Scientists and others have aptly called this type of action a "no regrets" policy.Q: The author refers to the meteorological data gathered in North America over the past century in order to Answer Choices: (A)show how differing views on the extent of the rise in global temperature can be resolved (B)argue that any warming detected over the past century has most likely been the result of a natural climatic fluctuation (C)argue against the prevailing view that the amount of atmospheric CO has increased by about 20 percent over the past century (D)suggest that there should be more numerous and accurate observation points outside of North America (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
A: Among A through E, the answer is (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
Is it necessary for defense lawyers to believe that the clients they defend are innocent of the charges against them? Some legal scholars hold that lawyers' sole obligation is to provide the best defense they are capable of, claiming that in democratic societies all people accused of crimes are entitled to the best possible legal representation. They argue that lawyers have no right to judge defendants because it is the job of the courts to determine guilt or innocence and the job of the lawyer to represent the defendant before the court. They believe that the lawyer's responsibility is to state those facts that will assist each client's case, construct sound arguments based on these facts, and identify flaws in the arguments of opposing counsel. According to these scholars, the lawyer's role is not to express or act on personal opinions but to act as an advocate, saying only what defendants would say if they possessed the proper training or resources with which to represent themselves. But such a position overlooks the fact that the defense lawyer's obligation is twofold: to the defendant, certainly, but no less so to the court and, by extension, to society. For this reason, lawyers, great as their obligation to defendants is, should not, as officers of the court, present to the court assertions that they know to be false. But by the same principle, lawyers who are convinced that their clients are guilty should not undertake to demonstrate their innocence. Guilty defendants should not be entitled to false or insincere representation. When lawyers know with certainty that a defendant is guilty, it is their duty not to deny this. Rather, they should appraise the case as much as possible in their client's favor, after giving due consideration to the facts on the other side, and then present any extenuating circumstances and argue for whatever degree of leniency in sentencing they sincerely believe is warranted. In cases where it is uncertain whether the client is guilty but the lawyer sincerely believes the client may well be innocent, the lawyer should of course try to prove that the client is innocent. The lawyer's obligation to the court and to society also ultimately benefits the defendant, because the "best defense" can only truly be provided by an advocate who, after a careful analysis of the facts, is convinced of the merits of the case. The fact that every client is entitled to a defense does not mean that defense lawyers should take every case they are offered. Lawyers should not be mere mouthpieces for a defendant but instead advocates for the rights of the defendant given the facts of the case.Q: The relationship of the information contained in the two sentences at lines 28–31 to that in the sentence at lines 7–11 can most accurately be described as Answer Choices: (A)no significant relationship because they represent two unrelated factual statements (B)the author's opinion opposing another opinion reported by the author in the earlier lines (C)a hypothetical situation supporting a statement reported by the author in the earlier lines (D)agreement in general with the earlier position but disagreement over the particulars (E)essentially equivalent assertions arising from different perspectives
A: Among A through E, the answer is | [
"(A)no significant relationship because they represent two unrelated factual statements",
"(B)the author's opinion opposing another opinion reported by the author in the earlier lines",
"(C)a hypothetical situation supporting a statement reported by the author in the earlier lines",
"(D)agreement in general w... | [
1
] |
Historians of medieval marriage practices ascribe particular significance to Pope Alexander III's twelfth-century synthesis of existing ecclesiastical and legal opinion concerning marriage. Alexander produced a doctrine that treated marriage as a consensual union rather than as an arrangement made by parents for reasons of economic expediency: under Alexandrine doctrine, a couple could establish marriage by words of mutual consent and without the consent of parents. These contracts were of two kinds. On the one hand, a binding and immediately effective union was created through the exchange of words of present consent (per verba de praesenti). Neither the prior announcement of the intention to wed nor the solemnization conferred by Church ritual added anything to the validity and permanence of such a contract. On the other hand, a promise to marry was expressed by words of future consent (per verba de futuro); such a contract might be terminated by the agreement of the parties or by a subsequent de praesenti contract. Although Alexandrine doctrine accepted the secular legal validity of those contracts that lacked public announcement and ritual solemnization, it nonetheless attempted to discourage such clandestine unions and to regulate marriage procedures. According to the doctrine, a marriage was to be preceded by the publication of the marriage announcements, or banns, on three successive Sundays to allow community members to raise any legal objections to the intended union. Those couples ignoring this requirement were to be excommunicated, and any priest solemnizing an unpublicized union could be suspended for up to three years. However, the essential secular legal validity of the marriage was in no way impaired. The presence or absence of the banns became the acid test to determine whether a contract was considered clandestine. Consequently, the very term "clandestine" came to cover a multitude of sins. It could apply just as much to the publicly solemnized marriage that violated Church law with regard to the time and place of the banns as it could to the informal de praesenti contract. Historian Charles Donahue has stressed the controversial nature of Alexander's view that the consent of the individuals concerned was sufficient to produce a legally binding marriage; so long as they acted in accordance with established bann procedures, a couple could marry without parental consent and still enjoy the blessing of the Church. Furthermore, Donahue suggests that Alexandrine doctrine can be seen as encouraging marriage as a spiritual union rather than a merely pragmatic arrangement: marriages of love were to be promoted at the expense of those of economic convenience, and the Church was made the guardian of individual freedom in this area. This interpretation is indeed a radical one, given traditional perceptions of the medieval Church as the most potent authoritarian force in a rigidly hierarchical society.Q: According to the passage, which one of the following distinguished the de futuro contract from the de praesenti contract? Answer Choices: (A)One was recognized by Alexandrine doctrine, while the other was considered a secular contract. (B)One required the permission of parents, while the other concerned only the couple involved. (C)One required the announcement of marriage banns, while the other could be entered into solely through a verbal contract. (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union. (E)One allowed the solemnization of Church ritual, while the other resulted in excommunication.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union.
It is commonly assumed that even if some forgeries have aesthetic merit, no forgery has as much as an original by the imitated artist would. Yet even the most prominent art specialists can be duped by a talented artist turned forger into mistaking an almost perfect forgery for an original. For instance, artist Han van Meegeren's The Disciples at Emmaus (1937)—painted under the forged signature of the acclaimed Dutch master Jan Vermeer (1632–1675)— attracted lavish praise from experts as one of Vermeer's finest works. The painting hung in a Rotterdam museum until 1945, when, to the great embarrassment of the critics, van Meegeren revealed its origin. Astonishingly, there was at least one highly reputed critic who persisted in believing it to be a Vermeer even after van Meegeren's confession. Given the experts' initial enthusiasm, some philosophers argue that van Meegeren's painting must have possessed aesthetic characteristics that, in a Vermeer original, would have justified the critics' plaudits. Van Meegeren's Emmaus thus raises difficult questions regarding the status of superbly executed forgeries. Is a forgery inherently inferior as art? How are we justified, if indeed we are, in revising downwards our critical assessment of a work unmasked as a forgery? Philosopher of art Alfred Lessing proposes convincing answers to these questions. A forged work is indeed inferior as art, Lessing argues, but not because of a shortfall in aesthetic qualities strictly defined, that is to say, in the qualities perceptible on the picture's surface. For example, in its composition, its technique, and its brilliant use of color, van Meegeren's work is flawless, even beautiful. Lessing argues instead that the deficiency lies in what might be called the painting's intangible qualities. All art, explains Lessing, involves technique, but not all art involves origination of a new vision, and originality of vision is one of the fundamental qualities by which artistic, as opposed to purely aesthetic, accomplishment is measured. Thus Vermeer is acclaimed for having inaugurated, in the seventeenth century, a new way of seeing, and for pioneering techniques for embodying this new way of seeing through distinctive treatment of light, color, and form. Even if we grant that van Meegeren, with his undoubted mastery of Vermeer's innovative techniques, produced an aesthetically superior painting, he did so about three centuries after Vermeer developed the techniques in question. Whereas Vermeer's origination of these techniques in the seventeenth century represents a truly impressive and historic achievement, van Meegeren's production of The Disciples at Emmaus in the twentieth century presents nothing new or creative to the history of art. Van Meegeren's forgery therefore, for all its aesthetic merits, lacks the historical significance that makes Vermeer's work artistically great.Q: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage? Answer Choices: (A)The Disciples at Emmaus, van Meegeren's forgery of a Vermeer, was a failure in both aesthetic and artistic terms. (B)The aesthetic value of a work of art is less dependent on the work's visible characteristics than on certain intangible characteristics. (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision. (D)The most skilled forgers can deceive even highly qualified art experts into accepting their work as original. (E)Art critics tend to be unreliable judges of the aesthetic and artistic quality of works of art.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision.
Increases in the amount of carbon dioxide (CO ) and other trace gases in the Earth's atmosphere can contribute to what has been called greenhouse warming,because those compounds allow the Sun's energy to reach the surface of the Earth, thereby warming it,but prevent much of that energy from being reradiated to outer space.Measuring devices set up at several locations around the world have revealed a 20 percent increase in atmospheric CO over the course of the past century—from 290 parts per million in 1880 to 352 parts per million in 1989. Several studies agree that it is plausible that the CO content of the atmosphere may well double from its 1880 level by around the middle of the twenty-first century. To project how much the global temperature will increase in response to a doubling of atmospheric CO should be simple:since the CO content has increased by about 20 percent over the past century,we should be able to observe the increases in global temperature during the same period and base future projections on that data. The prevailing view is that the climatic record over the past century for the entire globe reveals a net increase in temperature ranging from 0.5 to 1.0 degree Fahrenheit (approximately 0.25 to 0.5 degrees Celsius). But set against this conclusion is the fact that data gathered over the past century in North America, where observations are numerous and accurate, does not confirm such an increase. And even if the temperature rise is real, another puzzle remains: is the rise in global temperatures a natural fluctuation or a result of the increase in greenhouse gases? Because of inconclusive data and the complexity of the problem, some scientists predict an increase as small as two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius) in the average global temperature over the next half century, whereas others predict increases of up to nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius).It makes a great difference whether the actual increase is at the low or high end of this range. Although human beings are probably resilient enough to adapt to the effects of an increase of approximately two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius), an increase of nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius) is believed to be the difference in temperature that separates the end of the last great ice age, 12,000 years ago, from the present. In light of such uncertainty, the wisest policy is not to forestall action. Steps that make sense for economic or environmental reasons besides greenhouse warming, such as replacing fossil-fuel energy with solar energy, could be taken first, whether or not climate warming is taking place. Then, as scientific knowledge grows and uncertainties are reduced, more costly measures could be taken, if warranted, hence closely tying policy decisions to the latest information available. Scientists and others have aptly called this type of action a "no regrets" policy.Q: The author refers to the meteorological data gathered in North America over the past century in order to Answer Choices: (A)show how differing views on the extent of the rise in global temperature can be resolved (B)argue that any warming detected over the past century has most likely been the result of a natural climatic fluctuation (C)argue against the prevailing view that the amount of atmospheric CO has increased by about 20 percent over the past century (D)suggest that there should be more numerous and accurate observation points outside of North America (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
A: Among A through E, the answer is (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
Is it necessary for defense lawyers to believe that the clients they defend are innocent of the charges against them? Some legal scholars hold that lawyers' sole obligation is to provide the best defense they are capable of, claiming that in democratic societies all people accused of crimes are entitled to the best possible legal representation. They argue that lawyers have no right to judge defendants because it is the job of the courts to determine guilt or innocence and the job of the lawyer to represent the defendant before the court. They believe that the lawyer's responsibility is to state those facts that will assist each client's case, construct sound arguments based on these facts, and identify flaws in the arguments of opposing counsel. According to these scholars, the lawyer's role is not to express or act on personal opinions but to act as an advocate, saying only what defendants would say if they possessed the proper training or resources with which to represent themselves. But such a position overlooks the fact that the defense lawyer's obligation is twofold: to the defendant, certainly, but no less so to the court and, by extension, to society. For this reason, lawyers, great as their obligation to defendants is, should not, as officers of the court, present to the court assertions that they know to be false. But by the same principle, lawyers who are convinced that their clients are guilty should not undertake to demonstrate their innocence. Guilty defendants should not be entitled to false or insincere representation. When lawyers know with certainty that a defendant is guilty, it is their duty not to deny this. Rather, they should appraise the case as much as possible in their client's favor, after giving due consideration to the facts on the other side, and then present any extenuating circumstances and argue for whatever degree of leniency in sentencing they sincerely believe is warranted. In cases where it is uncertain whether the client is guilty but the lawyer sincerely believes the client may well be innocent, the lawyer should of course try to prove that the client is innocent. The lawyer's obligation to the court and to society also ultimately benefits the defendant, because the "best defense" can only truly be provided by an advocate who, after a careful analysis of the facts, is convinced of the merits of the case. The fact that every client is entitled to a defense does not mean that defense lawyers should take every case they are offered. Lawyers should not be mere mouthpieces for a defendant but instead advocates for the rights of the defendant given the facts of the case.Q: It can be inferred from the passage that the author holds that a defense attorney who argues in court that a client is innocent Answer Choices: (A)should sincerely believe that the client may be innocent (B)would be right to do so even if the attorney knows that the client is actually guilty (C)is assuming that role of mouthpiece for the client (D)has favored the obligation to the client over that to society (E)has typically not researched the facts of the case thoroughly
A: Among A through E, the answer is | [
"(A)should sincerely believe that the client may be innocent",
"(B)would be right to do so even if the attorney knows that the client is actually guilty",
"(C)is assuming that role of mouthpiece for the client",
"(D)has favored the obligation to the client over that to society",
"(E)has typically not resear... | [
0
] |
Historians of medieval marriage practices ascribe particular significance to Pope Alexander III's twelfth-century synthesis of existing ecclesiastical and legal opinion concerning marriage. Alexander produced a doctrine that treated marriage as a consensual union rather than as an arrangement made by parents for reasons of economic expediency: under Alexandrine doctrine, a couple could establish marriage by words of mutual consent and without the consent of parents. These contracts were of two kinds. On the one hand, a binding and immediately effective union was created through the exchange of words of present consent (per verba de praesenti). Neither the prior announcement of the intention to wed nor the solemnization conferred by Church ritual added anything to the validity and permanence of such a contract. On the other hand, a promise to marry was expressed by words of future consent (per verba de futuro); such a contract might be terminated by the agreement of the parties or by a subsequent de praesenti contract. Although Alexandrine doctrine accepted the secular legal validity of those contracts that lacked public announcement and ritual solemnization, it nonetheless attempted to discourage such clandestine unions and to regulate marriage procedures. According to the doctrine, a marriage was to be preceded by the publication of the marriage announcements, or banns, on three successive Sundays to allow community members to raise any legal objections to the intended union. Those couples ignoring this requirement were to be excommunicated, and any priest solemnizing an unpublicized union could be suspended for up to three years. However, the essential secular legal validity of the marriage was in no way impaired. The presence or absence of the banns became the acid test to determine whether a contract was considered clandestine. Consequently, the very term "clandestine" came to cover a multitude of sins. It could apply just as much to the publicly solemnized marriage that violated Church law with regard to the time and place of the banns as it could to the informal de praesenti contract. Historian Charles Donahue has stressed the controversial nature of Alexander's view that the consent of the individuals concerned was sufficient to produce a legally binding marriage; so long as they acted in accordance with established bann procedures, a couple could marry without parental consent and still enjoy the blessing of the Church. Furthermore, Donahue suggests that Alexandrine doctrine can be seen as encouraging marriage as a spiritual union rather than a merely pragmatic arrangement: marriages of love were to be promoted at the expense of those of economic convenience, and the Church was made the guardian of individual freedom in this area. This interpretation is indeed a radical one, given traditional perceptions of the medieval Church as the most potent authoritarian force in a rigidly hierarchical society.Q: According to the passage, which one of the following distinguished the de futuro contract from the de praesenti contract? Answer Choices: (A)One was recognized by Alexandrine doctrine, while the other was considered a secular contract. (B)One required the permission of parents, while the other concerned only the couple involved. (C)One required the announcement of marriage banns, while the other could be entered into solely through a verbal contract. (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union. (E)One allowed the solemnization of Church ritual, while the other resulted in excommunication.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union.
It is commonly assumed that even if some forgeries have aesthetic merit, no forgery has as much as an original by the imitated artist would. Yet even the most prominent art specialists can be duped by a talented artist turned forger into mistaking an almost perfect forgery for an original. For instance, artist Han van Meegeren's The Disciples at Emmaus (1937)—painted under the forged signature of the acclaimed Dutch master Jan Vermeer (1632–1675)— attracted lavish praise from experts as one of Vermeer's finest works. The painting hung in a Rotterdam museum until 1945, when, to the great embarrassment of the critics, van Meegeren revealed its origin. Astonishingly, there was at least one highly reputed critic who persisted in believing it to be a Vermeer even after van Meegeren's confession. Given the experts' initial enthusiasm, some philosophers argue that van Meegeren's painting must have possessed aesthetic characteristics that, in a Vermeer original, would have justified the critics' plaudits. Van Meegeren's Emmaus thus raises difficult questions regarding the status of superbly executed forgeries. Is a forgery inherently inferior as art? How are we justified, if indeed we are, in revising downwards our critical assessment of a work unmasked as a forgery? Philosopher of art Alfred Lessing proposes convincing answers to these questions. A forged work is indeed inferior as art, Lessing argues, but not because of a shortfall in aesthetic qualities strictly defined, that is to say, in the qualities perceptible on the picture's surface. For example, in its composition, its technique, and its brilliant use of color, van Meegeren's work is flawless, even beautiful. Lessing argues instead that the deficiency lies in what might be called the painting's intangible qualities. All art, explains Lessing, involves technique, but not all art involves origination of a new vision, and originality of vision is one of the fundamental qualities by which artistic, as opposed to purely aesthetic, accomplishment is measured. Thus Vermeer is acclaimed for having inaugurated, in the seventeenth century, a new way of seeing, and for pioneering techniques for embodying this new way of seeing through distinctive treatment of light, color, and form. Even if we grant that van Meegeren, with his undoubted mastery of Vermeer's innovative techniques, produced an aesthetically superior painting, he did so about three centuries after Vermeer developed the techniques in question. Whereas Vermeer's origination of these techniques in the seventeenth century represents a truly impressive and historic achievement, van Meegeren's production of The Disciples at Emmaus in the twentieth century presents nothing new or creative to the history of art. Van Meegeren's forgery therefore, for all its aesthetic merits, lacks the historical significance that makes Vermeer's work artistically great.Q: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage? Answer Choices: (A)The Disciples at Emmaus, van Meegeren's forgery of a Vermeer, was a failure in both aesthetic and artistic terms. (B)The aesthetic value of a work of art is less dependent on the work's visible characteristics than on certain intangible characteristics. (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision. (D)The most skilled forgers can deceive even highly qualified art experts into accepting their work as original. (E)Art critics tend to be unreliable judges of the aesthetic and artistic quality of works of art.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision.
Increases in the amount of carbon dioxide (CO ) and other trace gases in the Earth's atmosphere can contribute to what has been called greenhouse warming,because those compounds allow the Sun's energy to reach the surface of the Earth, thereby warming it,but prevent much of that energy from being reradiated to outer space.Measuring devices set up at several locations around the world have revealed a 20 percent increase in atmospheric CO over the course of the past century—from 290 parts per million in 1880 to 352 parts per million in 1989. Several studies agree that it is plausible that the CO content of the atmosphere may well double from its 1880 level by around the middle of the twenty-first century. To project how much the global temperature will increase in response to a doubling of atmospheric CO should be simple:since the CO content has increased by about 20 percent over the past century,we should be able to observe the increases in global temperature during the same period and base future projections on that data. The prevailing view is that the climatic record over the past century for the entire globe reveals a net increase in temperature ranging from 0.5 to 1.0 degree Fahrenheit (approximately 0.25 to 0.5 degrees Celsius). But set against this conclusion is the fact that data gathered over the past century in North America, where observations are numerous and accurate, does not confirm such an increase. And even if the temperature rise is real, another puzzle remains: is the rise in global temperatures a natural fluctuation or a result of the increase in greenhouse gases? Because of inconclusive data and the complexity of the problem, some scientists predict an increase as small as two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius) in the average global temperature over the next half century, whereas others predict increases of up to nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius).It makes a great difference whether the actual increase is at the low or high end of this range. Although human beings are probably resilient enough to adapt to the effects of an increase of approximately two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius), an increase of nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius) is believed to be the difference in temperature that separates the end of the last great ice age, 12,000 years ago, from the present. In light of such uncertainty, the wisest policy is not to forestall action. Steps that make sense for economic or environmental reasons besides greenhouse warming, such as replacing fossil-fuel energy with solar energy, could be taken first, whether or not climate warming is taking place. Then, as scientific knowledge grows and uncertainties are reduced, more costly measures could be taken, if warranted, hence closely tying policy decisions to the latest information available. Scientists and others have aptly called this type of action a "no regrets" policy.Q: The author refers to the meteorological data gathered in North America over the past century in order to Answer Choices: (A)show how differing views on the extent of the rise in global temperature can be resolved (B)argue that any warming detected over the past century has most likely been the result of a natural climatic fluctuation (C)argue against the prevailing view that the amount of atmospheric CO has increased by about 20 percent over the past century (D)suggest that there should be more numerous and accurate observation points outside of North America (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
A: Among A through E, the answer is (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
Is it necessary for defense lawyers to believe that the clients they defend are innocent of the charges against them? Some legal scholars hold that lawyers' sole obligation is to provide the best defense they are capable of, claiming that in democratic societies all people accused of crimes are entitled to the best possible legal representation. They argue that lawyers have no right to judge defendants because it is the job of the courts to determine guilt or innocence and the job of the lawyer to represent the defendant before the court. They believe that the lawyer's responsibility is to state those facts that will assist each client's case, construct sound arguments based on these facts, and identify flaws in the arguments of opposing counsel. According to these scholars, the lawyer's role is not to express or act on personal opinions but to act as an advocate, saying only what defendants would say if they possessed the proper training or resources with which to represent themselves. But such a position overlooks the fact that the defense lawyer's obligation is twofold: to the defendant, certainly, but no less so to the court and, by extension, to society. For this reason, lawyers, great as their obligation to defendants is, should not, as officers of the court, present to the court assertions that they know to be false. But by the same principle, lawyers who are convinced that their clients are guilty should not undertake to demonstrate their innocence. Guilty defendants should not be entitled to false or insincere representation. When lawyers know with certainty that a defendant is guilty, it is their duty not to deny this. Rather, they should appraise the case as much as possible in their client's favor, after giving due consideration to the facts on the other side, and then present any extenuating circumstances and argue for whatever degree of leniency in sentencing they sincerely believe is warranted. In cases where it is uncertain whether the client is guilty but the lawyer sincerely believes the client may well be innocent, the lawyer should of course try to prove that the client is innocent. The lawyer's obligation to the court and to society also ultimately benefits the defendant, because the "best defense" can only truly be provided by an advocate who, after a careful analysis of the facts, is convinced of the merits of the case. The fact that every client is entitled to a defense does not mean that defense lawyers should take every case they are offered. Lawyers should not be mere mouthpieces for a defendant but instead advocates for the rights of the defendant given the facts of the case.Q: The primary purpose of the passage is to Answer Choices: (A)show that ethical dilemmas in the legal profession can complicate the defense lawyer's role (B)argue that the defense lawyer's duty to the court and society complements effective legal representation for the client (C)explain why the actual guilt or innocence of a defendant is not an important issue to many defense attorneys (D)discuss some of the issues that a defense lawyer must resolve prior to accepting a case (E)reveal how the practice of law strengthens the values and principles of democratic societies
A: Among A through E, the answer is | [
"(A)show that ethical dilemmas in the legal profession can complicate the defense lawyer's role",
"(B)argue that the defense lawyer's duty to the court and society complements effective legal representation for the client",
"(C)explain why the actual guilt or innocence of a defendant is not an important issue t... | [
1
] |
Historians of medieval marriage practices ascribe particular significance to Pope Alexander III's twelfth-century synthesis of existing ecclesiastical and legal opinion concerning marriage. Alexander produced a doctrine that treated marriage as a consensual union rather than as an arrangement made by parents for reasons of economic expediency: under Alexandrine doctrine, a couple could establish marriage by words of mutual consent and without the consent of parents. These contracts were of two kinds. On the one hand, a binding and immediately effective union was created through the exchange of words of present consent (per verba de praesenti). Neither the prior announcement of the intention to wed nor the solemnization conferred by Church ritual added anything to the validity and permanence of such a contract. On the other hand, a promise to marry was expressed by words of future consent (per verba de futuro); such a contract might be terminated by the agreement of the parties or by a subsequent de praesenti contract. Although Alexandrine doctrine accepted the secular legal validity of those contracts that lacked public announcement and ritual solemnization, it nonetheless attempted to discourage such clandestine unions and to regulate marriage procedures. According to the doctrine, a marriage was to be preceded by the publication of the marriage announcements, or banns, on three successive Sundays to allow community members to raise any legal objections to the intended union. Those couples ignoring this requirement were to be excommunicated, and any priest solemnizing an unpublicized union could be suspended for up to three years. However, the essential secular legal validity of the marriage was in no way impaired. The presence or absence of the banns became the acid test to determine whether a contract was considered clandestine. Consequently, the very term "clandestine" came to cover a multitude of sins. It could apply just as much to the publicly solemnized marriage that violated Church law with regard to the time and place of the banns as it could to the informal de praesenti contract. Historian Charles Donahue has stressed the controversial nature of Alexander's view that the consent of the individuals concerned was sufficient to produce a legally binding marriage; so long as they acted in accordance with established bann procedures, a couple could marry without parental consent and still enjoy the blessing of the Church. Furthermore, Donahue suggests that Alexandrine doctrine can be seen as encouraging marriage as a spiritual union rather than a merely pragmatic arrangement: marriages of love were to be promoted at the expense of those of economic convenience, and the Church was made the guardian of individual freedom in this area. This interpretation is indeed a radical one, given traditional perceptions of the medieval Church as the most potent authoritarian force in a rigidly hierarchical society.Q: According to the passage, which one of the following distinguished the de futuro contract from the de praesenti contract? Answer Choices: (A)One was recognized by Alexandrine doctrine, while the other was considered a secular contract. (B)One required the permission of parents, while the other concerned only the couple involved. (C)One required the announcement of marriage banns, while the other could be entered into solely through a verbal contract. (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union. (E)One allowed the solemnization of Church ritual, while the other resulted in excommunication.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union.
It is commonly assumed that even if some forgeries have aesthetic merit, no forgery has as much as an original by the imitated artist would. Yet even the most prominent art specialists can be duped by a talented artist turned forger into mistaking an almost perfect forgery for an original. For instance, artist Han van Meegeren's The Disciples at Emmaus (1937)—painted under the forged signature of the acclaimed Dutch master Jan Vermeer (1632–1675)— attracted lavish praise from experts as one of Vermeer's finest works. The painting hung in a Rotterdam museum until 1945, when, to the great embarrassment of the critics, van Meegeren revealed its origin. Astonishingly, there was at least one highly reputed critic who persisted in believing it to be a Vermeer even after van Meegeren's confession. Given the experts' initial enthusiasm, some philosophers argue that van Meegeren's painting must have possessed aesthetic characteristics that, in a Vermeer original, would have justified the critics' plaudits. Van Meegeren's Emmaus thus raises difficult questions regarding the status of superbly executed forgeries. Is a forgery inherently inferior as art? How are we justified, if indeed we are, in revising downwards our critical assessment of a work unmasked as a forgery? Philosopher of art Alfred Lessing proposes convincing answers to these questions. A forged work is indeed inferior as art, Lessing argues, but not because of a shortfall in aesthetic qualities strictly defined, that is to say, in the qualities perceptible on the picture's surface. For example, in its composition, its technique, and its brilliant use of color, van Meegeren's work is flawless, even beautiful. Lessing argues instead that the deficiency lies in what might be called the painting's intangible qualities. All art, explains Lessing, involves technique, but not all art involves origination of a new vision, and originality of vision is one of the fundamental qualities by which artistic, as opposed to purely aesthetic, accomplishment is measured. Thus Vermeer is acclaimed for having inaugurated, in the seventeenth century, a new way of seeing, and for pioneering techniques for embodying this new way of seeing through distinctive treatment of light, color, and form. Even if we grant that van Meegeren, with his undoubted mastery of Vermeer's innovative techniques, produced an aesthetically superior painting, he did so about three centuries after Vermeer developed the techniques in question. Whereas Vermeer's origination of these techniques in the seventeenth century represents a truly impressive and historic achievement, van Meegeren's production of The Disciples at Emmaus in the twentieth century presents nothing new or creative to the history of art. Van Meegeren's forgery therefore, for all its aesthetic merits, lacks the historical significance that makes Vermeer's work artistically great.Q: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage? Answer Choices: (A)The Disciples at Emmaus, van Meegeren's forgery of a Vermeer, was a failure in both aesthetic and artistic terms. (B)The aesthetic value of a work of art is less dependent on the work's visible characteristics than on certain intangible characteristics. (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision. (D)The most skilled forgers can deceive even highly qualified art experts into accepting their work as original. (E)Art critics tend to be unreliable judges of the aesthetic and artistic quality of works of art.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision.
Increases in the amount of carbon dioxide (CO ) and other trace gases in the Earth's atmosphere can contribute to what has been called greenhouse warming,because those compounds allow the Sun's energy to reach the surface of the Earth, thereby warming it,but prevent much of that energy from being reradiated to outer space.Measuring devices set up at several locations around the world have revealed a 20 percent increase in atmospheric CO over the course of the past century—from 290 parts per million in 1880 to 352 parts per million in 1989. Several studies agree that it is plausible that the CO content of the atmosphere may well double from its 1880 level by around the middle of the twenty-first century. To project how much the global temperature will increase in response to a doubling of atmospheric CO should be simple:since the CO content has increased by about 20 percent over the past century,we should be able to observe the increases in global temperature during the same period and base future projections on that data. The prevailing view is that the climatic record over the past century for the entire globe reveals a net increase in temperature ranging from 0.5 to 1.0 degree Fahrenheit (approximately 0.25 to 0.5 degrees Celsius). But set against this conclusion is the fact that data gathered over the past century in North America, where observations are numerous and accurate, does not confirm such an increase. And even if the temperature rise is real, another puzzle remains: is the rise in global temperatures a natural fluctuation or a result of the increase in greenhouse gases? Because of inconclusive data and the complexity of the problem, some scientists predict an increase as small as two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius) in the average global temperature over the next half century, whereas others predict increases of up to nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius).It makes a great difference whether the actual increase is at the low or high end of this range. Although human beings are probably resilient enough to adapt to the effects of an increase of approximately two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius), an increase of nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius) is believed to be the difference in temperature that separates the end of the last great ice age, 12,000 years ago, from the present. In light of such uncertainty, the wisest policy is not to forestall action. Steps that make sense for economic or environmental reasons besides greenhouse warming, such as replacing fossil-fuel energy with solar energy, could be taken first, whether or not climate warming is taking place. Then, as scientific knowledge grows and uncertainties are reduced, more costly measures could be taken, if warranted, hence closely tying policy decisions to the latest information available. Scientists and others have aptly called this type of action a "no regrets" policy.Q: The author refers to the meteorological data gathered in North America over the past century in order to Answer Choices: (A)show how differing views on the extent of the rise in global temperature can be resolved (B)argue that any warming detected over the past century has most likely been the result of a natural climatic fluctuation (C)argue against the prevailing view that the amount of atmospheric CO has increased by about 20 percent over the past century (D)suggest that there should be more numerous and accurate observation points outside of North America (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
A: Among A through E, the answer is (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
Many educators in Canada and the United States advocate multicultural education as a means of achieving multicultural understanding. There are, however, a variety of proposals as to what multicultural education should consist of. The most modest of these proposals holds that schools and colleges should promote multicultural understanding by teaching about other cultures, teaching which proceeds from within the context of the majority culture. Students should learn about other cultures, proponents claim, but examination of these cultures should operate with the methods, perspectives, and values of the majority culture. These values are typically those of liberalism: democracy, tolerance, and equality of persons. Critics of this first proposal have argued that genuine understanding of other cultures is impossible if the study of other cultures is refracted through the distorting lens of the majority culture's perspective. Not all cultures share liberal values. Their value systems have arisen in often radically different social and historical circumstances, and thus, these critics argue, cannot be understood and adequately appreciated if one insists on approaching them solely from within the majority culture's perspective. In response to this objection, a second version of multicultural education has developed that differs from the first in holding that multicultural education ought to adopt a neutral stance with respect to the value differences among cultures. The values of one culture should not be standards by which others are judged; each culture should be taken on its own terms. However, the methods of examination, study, and explanation of cultures in this second version of multicultural education are still identifiably Western. They are the methods of anthropology, social psychology, political science, and sociology. They are, that is, methods which derive from the Western scientific perspective and heritage. Critics of this second form of multicultural education argue as follows: The Western scientific heritage is founded upon an epistemological system that prizes the objective over the subjective, the logical over the intuitive, and the empirically verifiable over the mystical. The methods of social-scientific examination of cultures are thus already value laden; the choice to examine and understand other cultures by these methods involves a commitment to certain values such as objectivity. Thus, the second version of multicultural education is not essentially different from the first. Scientific discourse has a privileged place in Western cultures, but the discourses of myth, tradition, religion, and mystical insight are often the dominant forms of thought and language of non-Western cultures. To insist on trying to understand nonscientific cultures by the methods of Western science is not only distorting, but is also an expression of an attempt to maintain a Eurocentric cultural chauvinism: the chauvinism of science. According to this objection, it is only by adopting the (often nonscientific) perspectives and methods of the cultures studied that real understanding can be achieved.Q: Which one of the following most accurately states the main point of the passage? Answer Choices: (A)Proponents of two proposals for promoting multicultural understanding disagree about both the goal of multicultural education and the means for achieving this goal. (B)Proponents of two proposals for promoting multicultural understanding claim that education should be founded upon an epistemological system that recognizes the importance of the subjective, the intuitive, and the mystical. (C)Proponents of two proposals for promoting multicultural understanding claim that it is not enough to refrain from judging non-Western cultures if the methods used to study these cultures are themselves Western. (D)Critics of two proposals for promoting multicultural understanding disagree about the extent to which a culture's values are a product of its social and historical circumstances. (E)Critics of two proposals for promoting multicultural understanding claim these proposals are not value neutral and are therefore unable to yield a genuine understanding of cultures with a different value system.
A: Among A through E, the answer is | [
"(A)Proponents of two proposals for promoting multicultural understanding disagree about both the goal of multicultural education and the means for achieving this goal.",
"(B)Proponents of two proposals for promoting multicultural understanding claim that education should be founded upon an epistemological system... | [
4
] |
Historians of medieval marriage practices ascribe particular significance to Pope Alexander III's twelfth-century synthesis of existing ecclesiastical and legal opinion concerning marriage. Alexander produced a doctrine that treated marriage as a consensual union rather than as an arrangement made by parents for reasons of economic expediency: under Alexandrine doctrine, a couple could establish marriage by words of mutual consent and without the consent of parents. These contracts were of two kinds. On the one hand, a binding and immediately effective union was created through the exchange of words of present consent (per verba de praesenti). Neither the prior announcement of the intention to wed nor the solemnization conferred by Church ritual added anything to the validity and permanence of such a contract. On the other hand, a promise to marry was expressed by words of future consent (per verba de futuro); such a contract might be terminated by the agreement of the parties or by a subsequent de praesenti contract. Although Alexandrine doctrine accepted the secular legal validity of those contracts that lacked public announcement and ritual solemnization, it nonetheless attempted to discourage such clandestine unions and to regulate marriage procedures. According to the doctrine, a marriage was to be preceded by the publication of the marriage announcements, or banns, on three successive Sundays to allow community members to raise any legal objections to the intended union. Those couples ignoring this requirement were to be excommunicated, and any priest solemnizing an unpublicized union could be suspended for up to three years. However, the essential secular legal validity of the marriage was in no way impaired. The presence or absence of the banns became the acid test to determine whether a contract was considered clandestine. Consequently, the very term "clandestine" came to cover a multitude of sins. It could apply just as much to the publicly solemnized marriage that violated Church law with regard to the time and place of the banns as it could to the informal de praesenti contract. Historian Charles Donahue has stressed the controversial nature of Alexander's view that the consent of the individuals concerned was sufficient to produce a legally binding marriage; so long as they acted in accordance with established bann procedures, a couple could marry without parental consent and still enjoy the blessing of the Church. Furthermore, Donahue suggests that Alexandrine doctrine can be seen as encouraging marriage as a spiritual union rather than a merely pragmatic arrangement: marriages of love were to be promoted at the expense of those of economic convenience, and the Church was made the guardian of individual freedom in this area. This interpretation is indeed a radical one, given traditional perceptions of the medieval Church as the most potent authoritarian force in a rigidly hierarchical society.Q: According to the passage, which one of the following distinguished the de futuro contract from the de praesenti contract? Answer Choices: (A)One was recognized by Alexandrine doctrine, while the other was considered a secular contract. (B)One required the permission of parents, while the other concerned only the couple involved. (C)One required the announcement of marriage banns, while the other could be entered into solely through a verbal contract. (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union. (E)One allowed the solemnization of Church ritual, while the other resulted in excommunication.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union.
It is commonly assumed that even if some forgeries have aesthetic merit, no forgery has as much as an original by the imitated artist would. Yet even the most prominent art specialists can be duped by a talented artist turned forger into mistaking an almost perfect forgery for an original. For instance, artist Han van Meegeren's The Disciples at Emmaus (1937)—painted under the forged signature of the acclaimed Dutch master Jan Vermeer (1632–1675)— attracted lavish praise from experts as one of Vermeer's finest works. The painting hung in a Rotterdam museum until 1945, when, to the great embarrassment of the critics, van Meegeren revealed its origin. Astonishingly, there was at least one highly reputed critic who persisted in believing it to be a Vermeer even after van Meegeren's confession. Given the experts' initial enthusiasm, some philosophers argue that van Meegeren's painting must have possessed aesthetic characteristics that, in a Vermeer original, would have justified the critics' plaudits. Van Meegeren's Emmaus thus raises difficult questions regarding the status of superbly executed forgeries. Is a forgery inherently inferior as art? How are we justified, if indeed we are, in revising downwards our critical assessment of a work unmasked as a forgery? Philosopher of art Alfred Lessing proposes convincing answers to these questions. A forged work is indeed inferior as art, Lessing argues, but not because of a shortfall in aesthetic qualities strictly defined, that is to say, in the qualities perceptible on the picture's surface. For example, in its composition, its technique, and its brilliant use of color, van Meegeren's work is flawless, even beautiful. Lessing argues instead that the deficiency lies in what might be called the painting's intangible qualities. All art, explains Lessing, involves technique, but not all art involves origination of a new vision, and originality of vision is one of the fundamental qualities by which artistic, as opposed to purely aesthetic, accomplishment is measured. Thus Vermeer is acclaimed for having inaugurated, in the seventeenth century, a new way of seeing, and for pioneering techniques for embodying this new way of seeing through distinctive treatment of light, color, and form. Even if we grant that van Meegeren, with his undoubted mastery of Vermeer's innovative techniques, produced an aesthetically superior painting, he did so about three centuries after Vermeer developed the techniques in question. Whereas Vermeer's origination of these techniques in the seventeenth century represents a truly impressive and historic achievement, van Meegeren's production of The Disciples at Emmaus in the twentieth century presents nothing new or creative to the history of art. Van Meegeren's forgery therefore, for all its aesthetic merits, lacks the historical significance that makes Vermeer's work artistically great.Q: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage? Answer Choices: (A)The Disciples at Emmaus, van Meegeren's forgery of a Vermeer, was a failure in both aesthetic and artistic terms. (B)The aesthetic value of a work of art is less dependent on the work's visible characteristics than on certain intangible characteristics. (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision. (D)The most skilled forgers can deceive even highly qualified art experts into accepting their work as original. (E)Art critics tend to be unreliable judges of the aesthetic and artistic quality of works of art.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision.
Increases in the amount of carbon dioxide (CO ) and other trace gases in the Earth's atmosphere can contribute to what has been called greenhouse warming,because those compounds allow the Sun's energy to reach the surface of the Earth, thereby warming it,but prevent much of that energy from being reradiated to outer space.Measuring devices set up at several locations around the world have revealed a 20 percent increase in atmospheric CO over the course of the past century—from 290 parts per million in 1880 to 352 parts per million in 1989. Several studies agree that it is plausible that the CO content of the atmosphere may well double from its 1880 level by around the middle of the twenty-first century. To project how much the global temperature will increase in response to a doubling of atmospheric CO should be simple:since the CO content has increased by about 20 percent over the past century,we should be able to observe the increases in global temperature during the same period and base future projections on that data. The prevailing view is that the climatic record over the past century for the entire globe reveals a net increase in temperature ranging from 0.5 to 1.0 degree Fahrenheit (approximately 0.25 to 0.5 degrees Celsius). But set against this conclusion is the fact that data gathered over the past century in North America, where observations are numerous and accurate, does not confirm such an increase. And even if the temperature rise is real, another puzzle remains: is the rise in global temperatures a natural fluctuation or a result of the increase in greenhouse gases? Because of inconclusive data and the complexity of the problem, some scientists predict an increase as small as two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius) in the average global temperature over the next half century, whereas others predict increases of up to nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius).It makes a great difference whether the actual increase is at the low or high end of this range. Although human beings are probably resilient enough to adapt to the effects of an increase of approximately two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius), an increase of nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius) is believed to be the difference in temperature that separates the end of the last great ice age, 12,000 years ago, from the present. In light of such uncertainty, the wisest policy is not to forestall action. Steps that make sense for economic or environmental reasons besides greenhouse warming, such as replacing fossil-fuel energy with solar energy, could be taken first, whether or not climate warming is taking place. Then, as scientific knowledge grows and uncertainties are reduced, more costly measures could be taken, if warranted, hence closely tying policy decisions to the latest information available. Scientists and others have aptly called this type of action a "no regrets" policy.Q: The author refers to the meteorological data gathered in North America over the past century in order to Answer Choices: (A)show how differing views on the extent of the rise in global temperature can be resolved (B)argue that any warming detected over the past century has most likely been the result of a natural climatic fluctuation (C)argue against the prevailing view that the amount of atmospheric CO has increased by about 20 percent over the past century (D)suggest that there should be more numerous and accurate observation points outside of North America (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
A: Among A through E, the answer is (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
Many educators in Canada and the United States advocate multicultural education as a means of achieving multicultural understanding. There are, however, a variety of proposals as to what multicultural education should consist of. The most modest of these proposals holds that schools and colleges should promote multicultural understanding by teaching about other cultures, teaching which proceeds from within the context of the majority culture. Students should learn about other cultures, proponents claim, but examination of these cultures should operate with the methods, perspectives, and values of the majority culture. These values are typically those of liberalism: democracy, tolerance, and equality of persons. Critics of this first proposal have argued that genuine understanding of other cultures is impossible if the study of other cultures is refracted through the distorting lens of the majority culture's perspective. Not all cultures share liberal values. Their value systems have arisen in often radically different social and historical circumstances, and thus, these critics argue, cannot be understood and adequately appreciated if one insists on approaching them solely from within the majority culture's perspective. In response to this objection, a second version of multicultural education has developed that differs from the first in holding that multicultural education ought to adopt a neutral stance with respect to the value differences among cultures. The values of one culture should not be standards by which others are judged; each culture should be taken on its own terms. However, the methods of examination, study, and explanation of cultures in this second version of multicultural education are still identifiably Western. They are the methods of anthropology, social psychology, political science, and sociology. They are, that is, methods which derive from the Western scientific perspective and heritage. Critics of this second form of multicultural education argue as follows: The Western scientific heritage is founded upon an epistemological system that prizes the objective over the subjective, the logical over the intuitive, and the empirically verifiable over the mystical. The methods of social-scientific examination of cultures are thus already value laden; the choice to examine and understand other cultures by these methods involves a commitment to certain values such as objectivity. Thus, the second version of multicultural education is not essentially different from the first. Scientific discourse has a privileged place in Western cultures, but the discourses of myth, tradition, religion, and mystical insight are often the dominant forms of thought and language of non-Western cultures. To insist on trying to understand nonscientific cultures by the methods of Western science is not only distorting, but is also an expression of an attempt to maintain a Eurocentric cultural chauvinism: the chauvinism of science. According to this objection, it is only by adopting the (often nonscientific) perspectives and methods of the cultures studied that real understanding can be achieved.Q: Critics who raise the objection discussed in the second paragraph would be most likely to agree with which one of the following? Answer Choices: (A)The social and historical circumstances that give rise to a culture's values cannot be understood by members of a culture with different values. (B)The historical and social circumstances of a culture can play an important role in the development of that culture's values. (C)It is impossible for one culture to successfully study another culture unless it does so from more than one cultural perspective. (D)Genuine understanding of another culture is impossible unless that culture shares the same cultural values. (E)The values of liberalism cannot be adequately understood if we approach them solely through the methods of Western science.
A: Among A through E, the answer is | [
"(A)The social and historical circumstances that give rise to a culture's values cannot be understood by members of a culture with different values.",
"(B)The historical and social circumstances of a culture can play an important role in the development of that culture's values.",
"(C)It is impossible for one c... | [
1
] |
Historians of medieval marriage practices ascribe particular significance to Pope Alexander III's twelfth-century synthesis of existing ecclesiastical and legal opinion concerning marriage. Alexander produced a doctrine that treated marriage as a consensual union rather than as an arrangement made by parents for reasons of economic expediency: under Alexandrine doctrine, a couple could establish marriage by words of mutual consent and without the consent of parents. These contracts were of two kinds. On the one hand, a binding and immediately effective union was created through the exchange of words of present consent (per verba de praesenti). Neither the prior announcement of the intention to wed nor the solemnization conferred by Church ritual added anything to the validity and permanence of such a contract. On the other hand, a promise to marry was expressed by words of future consent (per verba de futuro); such a contract might be terminated by the agreement of the parties or by a subsequent de praesenti contract. Although Alexandrine doctrine accepted the secular legal validity of those contracts that lacked public announcement and ritual solemnization, it nonetheless attempted to discourage such clandestine unions and to regulate marriage procedures. According to the doctrine, a marriage was to be preceded by the publication of the marriage announcements, or banns, on three successive Sundays to allow community members to raise any legal objections to the intended union. Those couples ignoring this requirement were to be excommunicated, and any priest solemnizing an unpublicized union could be suspended for up to three years. However, the essential secular legal validity of the marriage was in no way impaired. The presence or absence of the banns became the acid test to determine whether a contract was considered clandestine. Consequently, the very term "clandestine" came to cover a multitude of sins. It could apply just as much to the publicly solemnized marriage that violated Church law with regard to the time and place of the banns as it could to the informal de praesenti contract. Historian Charles Donahue has stressed the controversial nature of Alexander's view that the consent of the individuals concerned was sufficient to produce a legally binding marriage; so long as they acted in accordance with established bann procedures, a couple could marry without parental consent and still enjoy the blessing of the Church. Furthermore, Donahue suggests that Alexandrine doctrine can be seen as encouraging marriage as a spiritual union rather than a merely pragmatic arrangement: marriages of love were to be promoted at the expense of those of economic convenience, and the Church was made the guardian of individual freedom in this area. This interpretation is indeed a radical one, given traditional perceptions of the medieval Church as the most potent authoritarian force in a rigidly hierarchical society.Q: According to the passage, which one of the following distinguished the de futuro contract from the de praesenti contract? Answer Choices: (A)One was recognized by Alexandrine doctrine, while the other was considered a secular contract. (B)One required the permission of parents, while the other concerned only the couple involved. (C)One required the announcement of marriage banns, while the other could be entered into solely through a verbal contract. (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union. (E)One allowed the solemnization of Church ritual, while the other resulted in excommunication.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union.
It is commonly assumed that even if some forgeries have aesthetic merit, no forgery has as much as an original by the imitated artist would. Yet even the most prominent art specialists can be duped by a talented artist turned forger into mistaking an almost perfect forgery for an original. For instance, artist Han van Meegeren's The Disciples at Emmaus (1937)—painted under the forged signature of the acclaimed Dutch master Jan Vermeer (1632–1675)— attracted lavish praise from experts as one of Vermeer's finest works. The painting hung in a Rotterdam museum until 1945, when, to the great embarrassment of the critics, van Meegeren revealed its origin. Astonishingly, there was at least one highly reputed critic who persisted in believing it to be a Vermeer even after van Meegeren's confession. Given the experts' initial enthusiasm, some philosophers argue that van Meegeren's painting must have possessed aesthetic characteristics that, in a Vermeer original, would have justified the critics' plaudits. Van Meegeren's Emmaus thus raises difficult questions regarding the status of superbly executed forgeries. Is a forgery inherently inferior as art? How are we justified, if indeed we are, in revising downwards our critical assessment of a work unmasked as a forgery? Philosopher of art Alfred Lessing proposes convincing answers to these questions. A forged work is indeed inferior as art, Lessing argues, but not because of a shortfall in aesthetic qualities strictly defined, that is to say, in the qualities perceptible on the picture's surface. For example, in its composition, its technique, and its brilliant use of color, van Meegeren's work is flawless, even beautiful. Lessing argues instead that the deficiency lies in what might be called the painting's intangible qualities. All art, explains Lessing, involves technique, but not all art involves origination of a new vision, and originality of vision is one of the fundamental qualities by which artistic, as opposed to purely aesthetic, accomplishment is measured. Thus Vermeer is acclaimed for having inaugurated, in the seventeenth century, a new way of seeing, and for pioneering techniques for embodying this new way of seeing through distinctive treatment of light, color, and form. Even if we grant that van Meegeren, with his undoubted mastery of Vermeer's innovative techniques, produced an aesthetically superior painting, he did so about three centuries after Vermeer developed the techniques in question. Whereas Vermeer's origination of these techniques in the seventeenth century represents a truly impressive and historic achievement, van Meegeren's production of The Disciples at Emmaus in the twentieth century presents nothing new or creative to the history of art. Van Meegeren's forgery therefore, for all its aesthetic merits, lacks the historical significance that makes Vermeer's work artistically great.Q: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage? Answer Choices: (A)The Disciples at Emmaus, van Meegeren's forgery of a Vermeer, was a failure in both aesthetic and artistic terms. (B)The aesthetic value of a work of art is less dependent on the work's visible characteristics than on certain intangible characteristics. (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision. (D)The most skilled forgers can deceive even highly qualified art experts into accepting their work as original. (E)Art critics tend to be unreliable judges of the aesthetic and artistic quality of works of art.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision.
Increases in the amount of carbon dioxide (CO ) and other trace gases in the Earth's atmosphere can contribute to what has been called greenhouse warming,because those compounds allow the Sun's energy to reach the surface of the Earth, thereby warming it,but prevent much of that energy from being reradiated to outer space.Measuring devices set up at several locations around the world have revealed a 20 percent increase in atmospheric CO over the course of the past century—from 290 parts per million in 1880 to 352 parts per million in 1989. Several studies agree that it is plausible that the CO content of the atmosphere may well double from its 1880 level by around the middle of the twenty-first century. To project how much the global temperature will increase in response to a doubling of atmospheric CO should be simple:since the CO content has increased by about 20 percent over the past century,we should be able to observe the increases in global temperature during the same period and base future projections on that data. The prevailing view is that the climatic record over the past century for the entire globe reveals a net increase in temperature ranging from 0.5 to 1.0 degree Fahrenheit (approximately 0.25 to 0.5 degrees Celsius). But set against this conclusion is the fact that data gathered over the past century in North America, where observations are numerous and accurate, does not confirm such an increase. And even if the temperature rise is real, another puzzle remains: is the rise in global temperatures a natural fluctuation or a result of the increase in greenhouse gases? Because of inconclusive data and the complexity of the problem, some scientists predict an increase as small as two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius) in the average global temperature over the next half century, whereas others predict increases of up to nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius).It makes a great difference whether the actual increase is at the low or high end of this range. Although human beings are probably resilient enough to adapt to the effects of an increase of approximately two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius), an increase of nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius) is believed to be the difference in temperature that separates the end of the last great ice age, 12,000 years ago, from the present. In light of such uncertainty, the wisest policy is not to forestall action. Steps that make sense for economic or environmental reasons besides greenhouse warming, such as replacing fossil-fuel energy with solar energy, could be taken first, whether or not climate warming is taking place. Then, as scientific knowledge grows and uncertainties are reduced, more costly measures could be taken, if warranted, hence closely tying policy decisions to the latest information available. Scientists and others have aptly called this type of action a "no regrets" policy.Q: The author refers to the meteorological data gathered in North America over the past century in order to Answer Choices: (A)show how differing views on the extent of the rise in global temperature can be resolved (B)argue that any warming detected over the past century has most likely been the result of a natural climatic fluctuation (C)argue against the prevailing view that the amount of atmospheric CO has increased by about 20 percent over the past century (D)suggest that there should be more numerous and accurate observation points outside of North America (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
A: Among A through E, the answer is (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
Many educators in Canada and the United States advocate multicultural education as a means of achieving multicultural understanding. There are, however, a variety of proposals as to what multicultural education should consist of. The most modest of these proposals holds that schools and colleges should promote multicultural understanding by teaching about other cultures, teaching which proceeds from within the context of the majority culture. Students should learn about other cultures, proponents claim, but examination of these cultures should operate with the methods, perspectives, and values of the majority culture. These values are typically those of liberalism: democracy, tolerance, and equality of persons. Critics of this first proposal have argued that genuine understanding of other cultures is impossible if the study of other cultures is refracted through the distorting lens of the majority culture's perspective. Not all cultures share liberal values. Their value systems have arisen in often radically different social and historical circumstances, and thus, these critics argue, cannot be understood and adequately appreciated if one insists on approaching them solely from within the majority culture's perspective. In response to this objection, a second version of multicultural education has developed that differs from the first in holding that multicultural education ought to adopt a neutral stance with respect to the value differences among cultures. The values of one culture should not be standards by which others are judged; each culture should be taken on its own terms. However, the methods of examination, study, and explanation of cultures in this second version of multicultural education are still identifiably Western. They are the methods of anthropology, social psychology, political science, and sociology. They are, that is, methods which derive from the Western scientific perspective and heritage. Critics of this second form of multicultural education argue as follows: The Western scientific heritage is founded upon an epistemological system that prizes the objective over the subjective, the logical over the intuitive, and the empirically verifiable over the mystical. The methods of social-scientific examination of cultures are thus already value laden; the choice to examine and understand other cultures by these methods involves a commitment to certain values such as objectivity. Thus, the second version of multicultural education is not essentially different from the first. Scientific discourse has a privileged place in Western cultures, but the discourses of myth, tradition, religion, and mystical insight are often the dominant forms of thought and language of non-Western cultures. To insist on trying to understand nonscientific cultures by the methods of Western science is not only distorting, but is also an expression of an attempt to maintain a Eurocentric cultural chauvinism: the chauvinism of science. According to this objection, it is only by adopting the (often nonscientific) perspectives and methods of the cultures studied that real understanding can be achieved.Q: Which one of the following most accurately describes the organization of the passage as a whole? Answer Choices: (A)Difficulties in achieving a goal are contrasted with the benefits of obtaining that goal. (B)A goal is argued to be unrealizable by raising objections to the means proposed to achieve it. (C)Two means for achieving a goal are presented along with an objection to each. (D)Difficulties in achieving a goal are used to defend several radical revisions to that goal. (E)The desirability of a goal is used to defend against a number of objections to its feasibility.
A: Among A through E, the answer is | [
"(A)Difficulties in achieving a goal are contrasted with the benefits of obtaining that goal.",
"(B)A goal is argued to be unrealizable by raising objections to the means proposed to achieve it.",
"(C)Two means for achieving a goal are presented along with an objection to each.",
"(D)Difficulties in achieving... | [
2
] |
Historians of medieval marriage practices ascribe particular significance to Pope Alexander III's twelfth-century synthesis of existing ecclesiastical and legal opinion concerning marriage. Alexander produced a doctrine that treated marriage as a consensual union rather than as an arrangement made by parents for reasons of economic expediency: under Alexandrine doctrine, a couple could establish marriage by words of mutual consent and without the consent of parents. These contracts were of two kinds. On the one hand, a binding and immediately effective union was created through the exchange of words of present consent (per verba de praesenti). Neither the prior announcement of the intention to wed nor the solemnization conferred by Church ritual added anything to the validity and permanence of such a contract. On the other hand, a promise to marry was expressed by words of future consent (per verba de futuro); such a contract might be terminated by the agreement of the parties or by a subsequent de praesenti contract. Although Alexandrine doctrine accepted the secular legal validity of those contracts that lacked public announcement and ritual solemnization, it nonetheless attempted to discourage such clandestine unions and to regulate marriage procedures. According to the doctrine, a marriage was to be preceded by the publication of the marriage announcements, or banns, on three successive Sundays to allow community members to raise any legal objections to the intended union. Those couples ignoring this requirement were to be excommunicated, and any priest solemnizing an unpublicized union could be suspended for up to three years. However, the essential secular legal validity of the marriage was in no way impaired. The presence or absence of the banns became the acid test to determine whether a contract was considered clandestine. Consequently, the very term "clandestine" came to cover a multitude of sins. It could apply just as much to the publicly solemnized marriage that violated Church law with regard to the time and place of the banns as it could to the informal de praesenti contract. Historian Charles Donahue has stressed the controversial nature of Alexander's view that the consent of the individuals concerned was sufficient to produce a legally binding marriage; so long as they acted in accordance with established bann procedures, a couple could marry without parental consent and still enjoy the blessing of the Church. Furthermore, Donahue suggests that Alexandrine doctrine can be seen as encouraging marriage as a spiritual union rather than a merely pragmatic arrangement: marriages of love were to be promoted at the expense of those of economic convenience, and the Church was made the guardian of individual freedom in this area. This interpretation is indeed a radical one, given traditional perceptions of the medieval Church as the most potent authoritarian force in a rigidly hierarchical society.Q: According to the passage, which one of the following distinguished the de futuro contract from the de praesenti contract? Answer Choices: (A)One was recognized by Alexandrine doctrine, while the other was considered a secular contract. (B)One required the permission of parents, while the other concerned only the couple involved. (C)One required the announcement of marriage banns, while the other could be entered into solely through a verbal contract. (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union. (E)One allowed the solemnization of Church ritual, while the other resulted in excommunication.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union.
It is commonly assumed that even if some forgeries have aesthetic merit, no forgery has as much as an original by the imitated artist would. Yet even the most prominent art specialists can be duped by a talented artist turned forger into mistaking an almost perfect forgery for an original. For instance, artist Han van Meegeren's The Disciples at Emmaus (1937)—painted under the forged signature of the acclaimed Dutch master Jan Vermeer (1632–1675)— attracted lavish praise from experts as one of Vermeer's finest works. The painting hung in a Rotterdam museum until 1945, when, to the great embarrassment of the critics, van Meegeren revealed its origin. Astonishingly, there was at least one highly reputed critic who persisted in believing it to be a Vermeer even after van Meegeren's confession. Given the experts' initial enthusiasm, some philosophers argue that van Meegeren's painting must have possessed aesthetic characteristics that, in a Vermeer original, would have justified the critics' plaudits. Van Meegeren's Emmaus thus raises difficult questions regarding the status of superbly executed forgeries. Is a forgery inherently inferior as art? How are we justified, if indeed we are, in revising downwards our critical assessment of a work unmasked as a forgery? Philosopher of art Alfred Lessing proposes convincing answers to these questions. A forged work is indeed inferior as art, Lessing argues, but not because of a shortfall in aesthetic qualities strictly defined, that is to say, in the qualities perceptible on the picture's surface. For example, in its composition, its technique, and its brilliant use of color, van Meegeren's work is flawless, even beautiful. Lessing argues instead that the deficiency lies in what might be called the painting's intangible qualities. All art, explains Lessing, involves technique, but not all art involves origination of a new vision, and originality of vision is one of the fundamental qualities by which artistic, as opposed to purely aesthetic, accomplishment is measured. Thus Vermeer is acclaimed for having inaugurated, in the seventeenth century, a new way of seeing, and for pioneering techniques for embodying this new way of seeing through distinctive treatment of light, color, and form. Even if we grant that van Meegeren, with his undoubted mastery of Vermeer's innovative techniques, produced an aesthetically superior painting, he did so about three centuries after Vermeer developed the techniques in question. Whereas Vermeer's origination of these techniques in the seventeenth century represents a truly impressive and historic achievement, van Meegeren's production of The Disciples at Emmaus in the twentieth century presents nothing new or creative to the history of art. Van Meegeren's forgery therefore, for all its aesthetic merits, lacks the historical significance that makes Vermeer's work artistically great.Q: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage? Answer Choices: (A)The Disciples at Emmaus, van Meegeren's forgery of a Vermeer, was a failure in both aesthetic and artistic terms. (B)The aesthetic value of a work of art is less dependent on the work's visible characteristics than on certain intangible characteristics. (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision. (D)The most skilled forgers can deceive even highly qualified art experts into accepting their work as original. (E)Art critics tend to be unreliable judges of the aesthetic and artistic quality of works of art.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision.
Increases in the amount of carbon dioxide (CO ) and other trace gases in the Earth's atmosphere can contribute to what has been called greenhouse warming,because those compounds allow the Sun's energy to reach the surface of the Earth, thereby warming it,but prevent much of that energy from being reradiated to outer space.Measuring devices set up at several locations around the world have revealed a 20 percent increase in atmospheric CO over the course of the past century—from 290 parts per million in 1880 to 352 parts per million in 1989. Several studies agree that it is plausible that the CO content of the atmosphere may well double from its 1880 level by around the middle of the twenty-first century. To project how much the global temperature will increase in response to a doubling of atmospheric CO should be simple:since the CO content has increased by about 20 percent over the past century,we should be able to observe the increases in global temperature during the same period and base future projections on that data. The prevailing view is that the climatic record over the past century for the entire globe reveals a net increase in temperature ranging from 0.5 to 1.0 degree Fahrenheit (approximately 0.25 to 0.5 degrees Celsius). But set against this conclusion is the fact that data gathered over the past century in North America, where observations are numerous and accurate, does not confirm such an increase. And even if the temperature rise is real, another puzzle remains: is the rise in global temperatures a natural fluctuation or a result of the increase in greenhouse gases? Because of inconclusive data and the complexity of the problem, some scientists predict an increase as small as two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius) in the average global temperature over the next half century, whereas others predict increases of up to nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius).It makes a great difference whether the actual increase is at the low or high end of this range. Although human beings are probably resilient enough to adapt to the effects of an increase of approximately two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius), an increase of nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius) is believed to be the difference in temperature that separates the end of the last great ice age, 12,000 years ago, from the present. In light of such uncertainty, the wisest policy is not to forestall action. Steps that make sense for economic or environmental reasons besides greenhouse warming, such as replacing fossil-fuel energy with solar energy, could be taken first, whether or not climate warming is taking place. Then, as scientific knowledge grows and uncertainties are reduced, more costly measures could be taken, if warranted, hence closely tying policy decisions to the latest information available. Scientists and others have aptly called this type of action a "no regrets" policy.Q: The author refers to the meteorological data gathered in North America over the past century in order to Answer Choices: (A)show how differing views on the extent of the rise in global temperature can be resolved (B)argue that any warming detected over the past century has most likely been the result of a natural climatic fluctuation (C)argue against the prevailing view that the amount of atmospheric CO has increased by about 20 percent over the past century (D)suggest that there should be more numerous and accurate observation points outside of North America (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
A: Among A through E, the answer is (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
Many educators in Canada and the United States advocate multicultural education as a means of achieving multicultural understanding. There are, however, a variety of proposals as to what multicultural education should consist of. The most modest of these proposals holds that schools and colleges should promote multicultural understanding by teaching about other cultures, teaching which proceeds from within the context of the majority culture. Students should learn about other cultures, proponents claim, but examination of these cultures should operate with the methods, perspectives, and values of the majority culture. These values are typically those of liberalism: democracy, tolerance, and equality of persons. Critics of this first proposal have argued that genuine understanding of other cultures is impossible if the study of other cultures is refracted through the distorting lens of the majority culture's perspective. Not all cultures share liberal values. Their value systems have arisen in often radically different social and historical circumstances, and thus, these critics argue, cannot be understood and adequately appreciated if one insists on approaching them solely from within the majority culture's perspective. In response to this objection, a second version of multicultural education has developed that differs from the first in holding that multicultural education ought to adopt a neutral stance with respect to the value differences among cultures. The values of one culture should not be standards by which others are judged; each culture should be taken on its own terms. However, the methods of examination, study, and explanation of cultures in this second version of multicultural education are still identifiably Western. They are the methods of anthropology, social psychology, political science, and sociology. They are, that is, methods which derive from the Western scientific perspective and heritage. Critics of this second form of multicultural education argue as follows: The Western scientific heritage is founded upon an epistemological system that prizes the objective over the subjective, the logical over the intuitive, and the empirically verifiable over the mystical. The methods of social-scientific examination of cultures are thus already value laden; the choice to examine and understand other cultures by these methods involves a commitment to certain values such as objectivity. Thus, the second version of multicultural education is not essentially different from the first. Scientific discourse has a privileged place in Western cultures, but the discourses of myth, tradition, religion, and mystical insight are often the dominant forms of thought and language of non-Western cultures. To insist on trying to understand nonscientific cultures by the methods of Western science is not only distorting, but is also an expression of an attempt to maintain a Eurocentric cultural chauvinism: the chauvinism of science. According to this objection, it is only by adopting the (often nonscientific) perspectives and methods of the cultures studied that real understanding can be achieved.Q: The version of multicultural education discussed in the first paragraph is described as "modest" (line 5) most likely because it Answer Choices: (A)relies on the least amount of speculation about non-Western cultures (B)calls for the least amount of change in the educational system (C)involves the least amount of Eurocentric cultural chauvinism (D)is the least distorting since it employs several cultural perspectives (E)deviates least from a neutral stance with respect to differences in values
A: Among A through E, the answer is | [
"(A)relies on the least amount of speculation about non-Western cultures",
"(B)calls for the least amount of change in the educational system",
"(C)involves the least amount of Eurocentric cultural chauvinism",
"(D)is the least distorting since it employs several cultural perspectives",
"(E)deviates least f... | [
1
] |
Historians of medieval marriage practices ascribe particular significance to Pope Alexander III's twelfth-century synthesis of existing ecclesiastical and legal opinion concerning marriage. Alexander produced a doctrine that treated marriage as a consensual union rather than as an arrangement made by parents for reasons of economic expediency: under Alexandrine doctrine, a couple could establish marriage by words of mutual consent and without the consent of parents. These contracts were of two kinds. On the one hand, a binding and immediately effective union was created through the exchange of words of present consent (per verba de praesenti). Neither the prior announcement of the intention to wed nor the solemnization conferred by Church ritual added anything to the validity and permanence of such a contract. On the other hand, a promise to marry was expressed by words of future consent (per verba de futuro); such a contract might be terminated by the agreement of the parties or by a subsequent de praesenti contract. Although Alexandrine doctrine accepted the secular legal validity of those contracts that lacked public announcement and ritual solemnization, it nonetheless attempted to discourage such clandestine unions and to regulate marriage procedures. According to the doctrine, a marriage was to be preceded by the publication of the marriage announcements, or banns, on three successive Sundays to allow community members to raise any legal objections to the intended union. Those couples ignoring this requirement were to be excommunicated, and any priest solemnizing an unpublicized union could be suspended for up to three years. However, the essential secular legal validity of the marriage was in no way impaired. The presence or absence of the banns became the acid test to determine whether a contract was considered clandestine. Consequently, the very term "clandestine" came to cover a multitude of sins. It could apply just as much to the publicly solemnized marriage that violated Church law with regard to the time and place of the banns as it could to the informal de praesenti contract. Historian Charles Donahue has stressed the controversial nature of Alexander's view that the consent of the individuals concerned was sufficient to produce a legally binding marriage; so long as they acted in accordance with established bann procedures, a couple could marry without parental consent and still enjoy the blessing of the Church. Furthermore, Donahue suggests that Alexandrine doctrine can be seen as encouraging marriage as a spiritual union rather than a merely pragmatic arrangement: marriages of love were to be promoted at the expense of those of economic convenience, and the Church was made the guardian of individual freedom in this area. This interpretation is indeed a radical one, given traditional perceptions of the medieval Church as the most potent authoritarian force in a rigidly hierarchical society.Q: According to the passage, which one of the following distinguished the de futuro contract from the de praesenti contract? Answer Choices: (A)One was recognized by Alexandrine doctrine, while the other was considered a secular contract. (B)One required the permission of parents, while the other concerned only the couple involved. (C)One required the announcement of marriage banns, while the other could be entered into solely through a verbal contract. (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union. (E)One allowed the solemnization of Church ritual, while the other resulted in excommunication.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (D)One expressed future intent, while the other established an immediate, binding union.
It is commonly assumed that even if some forgeries have aesthetic merit, no forgery has as much as an original by the imitated artist would. Yet even the most prominent art specialists can be duped by a talented artist turned forger into mistaking an almost perfect forgery for an original. For instance, artist Han van Meegeren's The Disciples at Emmaus (1937)—painted under the forged signature of the acclaimed Dutch master Jan Vermeer (1632–1675)— attracted lavish praise from experts as one of Vermeer's finest works. The painting hung in a Rotterdam museum until 1945, when, to the great embarrassment of the critics, van Meegeren revealed its origin. Astonishingly, there was at least one highly reputed critic who persisted in believing it to be a Vermeer even after van Meegeren's confession. Given the experts' initial enthusiasm, some philosophers argue that van Meegeren's painting must have possessed aesthetic characteristics that, in a Vermeer original, would have justified the critics' plaudits. Van Meegeren's Emmaus thus raises difficult questions regarding the status of superbly executed forgeries. Is a forgery inherently inferior as art? How are we justified, if indeed we are, in revising downwards our critical assessment of a work unmasked as a forgery? Philosopher of art Alfred Lessing proposes convincing answers to these questions. A forged work is indeed inferior as art, Lessing argues, but not because of a shortfall in aesthetic qualities strictly defined, that is to say, in the qualities perceptible on the picture's surface. For example, in its composition, its technique, and its brilliant use of color, van Meegeren's work is flawless, even beautiful. Lessing argues instead that the deficiency lies in what might be called the painting's intangible qualities. All art, explains Lessing, involves technique, but not all art involves origination of a new vision, and originality of vision is one of the fundamental qualities by which artistic, as opposed to purely aesthetic, accomplishment is measured. Thus Vermeer is acclaimed for having inaugurated, in the seventeenth century, a new way of seeing, and for pioneering techniques for embodying this new way of seeing through distinctive treatment of light, color, and form. Even if we grant that van Meegeren, with his undoubted mastery of Vermeer's innovative techniques, produced an aesthetically superior painting, he did so about three centuries after Vermeer developed the techniques in question. Whereas Vermeer's origination of these techniques in the seventeenth century represents a truly impressive and historic achievement, van Meegeren's production of The Disciples at Emmaus in the twentieth century presents nothing new or creative to the history of art. Van Meegeren's forgery therefore, for all its aesthetic merits, lacks the historical significance that makes Vermeer's work artistically great.Q: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage? Answer Choices: (A)The Disciples at Emmaus, van Meegeren's forgery of a Vermeer, was a failure in both aesthetic and artistic terms. (B)The aesthetic value of a work of art is less dependent on the work's visible characteristics than on certain intangible characteristics. (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision. (D)The most skilled forgers can deceive even highly qualified art experts into accepting their work as original. (E)Art critics tend to be unreliable judges of the aesthetic and artistic quality of works of art.
A: Among A through E, the answer is (C)Forged artworks are artistically inferior to originals because artistic value depends in large part on originality of vision.
Increases in the amount of carbon dioxide (CO ) and other trace gases in the Earth's atmosphere can contribute to what has been called greenhouse warming,because those compounds allow the Sun's energy to reach the surface of the Earth, thereby warming it,but prevent much of that energy from being reradiated to outer space.Measuring devices set up at several locations around the world have revealed a 20 percent increase in atmospheric CO over the course of the past century—from 290 parts per million in 1880 to 352 parts per million in 1989. Several studies agree that it is plausible that the CO content of the atmosphere may well double from its 1880 level by around the middle of the twenty-first century. To project how much the global temperature will increase in response to a doubling of atmospheric CO should be simple:since the CO content has increased by about 20 percent over the past century,we should be able to observe the increases in global temperature during the same period and base future projections on that data. The prevailing view is that the climatic record over the past century for the entire globe reveals a net increase in temperature ranging from 0.5 to 1.0 degree Fahrenheit (approximately 0.25 to 0.5 degrees Celsius). But set against this conclusion is the fact that data gathered over the past century in North America, where observations are numerous and accurate, does not confirm such an increase. And even if the temperature rise is real, another puzzle remains: is the rise in global temperatures a natural fluctuation or a result of the increase in greenhouse gases? Because of inconclusive data and the complexity of the problem, some scientists predict an increase as small as two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius) in the average global temperature over the next half century, whereas others predict increases of up to nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius).It makes a great difference whether the actual increase is at the low or high end of this range. Although human beings are probably resilient enough to adapt to the effects of an increase of approximately two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius), an increase of nine degrees Fahrenheit (five degrees Celsius) is believed to be the difference in temperature that separates the end of the last great ice age, 12,000 years ago, from the present. In light of such uncertainty, the wisest policy is not to forestall action. Steps that make sense for economic or environmental reasons besides greenhouse warming, such as replacing fossil-fuel energy with solar energy, could be taken first, whether or not climate warming is taking place. Then, as scientific knowledge grows and uncertainties are reduced, more costly measures could be taken, if warranted, hence closely tying policy decisions to the latest information available. Scientists and others have aptly called this type of action a "no regrets" policy.Q: The author refers to the meteorological data gathered in North America over the past century in order to Answer Choices: (A)show how differing views on the extent of the rise in global temperature can be resolved (B)argue that any warming detected over the past century has most likely been the result of a natural climatic fluctuation (C)argue against the prevailing view that the amount of atmospheric CO has increased by about 20 percent over the past century (D)suggest that there should be more numerous and accurate observation points outside of North America (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
A: Among A through E, the answer is (E)present evidence that casts doubt on the view that global temperature has increased over the past century
Many educators in Canada and the United States advocate multicultural education as a means of achieving multicultural understanding. There are, however, a variety of proposals as to what multicultural education should consist of. The most modest of these proposals holds that schools and colleges should promote multicultural understanding by teaching about other cultures, teaching which proceeds from within the context of the majority culture. Students should learn about other cultures, proponents claim, but examination of these cultures should operate with the methods, perspectives, and values of the majority culture. These values are typically those of liberalism: democracy, tolerance, and equality of persons. Critics of this first proposal have argued that genuine understanding of other cultures is impossible if the study of other cultures is refracted through the distorting lens of the majority culture's perspective. Not all cultures share liberal values. Their value systems have arisen in often radically different social and historical circumstances, and thus, these critics argue, cannot be understood and adequately appreciated if one insists on approaching them solely from within the majority culture's perspective. In response to this objection, a second version of multicultural education has developed that differs from the first in holding that multicultural education ought to adopt a neutral stance with respect to the value differences among cultures. The values of one culture should not be standards by which others are judged; each culture should be taken on its own terms. However, the methods of examination, study, and explanation of cultures in this second version of multicultural education are still identifiably Western. They are the methods of anthropology, social psychology, political science, and sociology. They are, that is, methods which derive from the Western scientific perspective and heritage. Critics of this second form of multicultural education argue as follows: The Western scientific heritage is founded upon an epistemological system that prizes the objective over the subjective, the logical over the intuitive, and the empirically verifiable over the mystical. The methods of social-scientific examination of cultures are thus already value laden; the choice to examine and understand other cultures by these methods involves a commitment to certain values such as objectivity. Thus, the second version of multicultural education is not essentially different from the first. Scientific discourse has a privileged place in Western cultures, but the discourses of myth, tradition, religion, and mystical insight are often the dominant forms of thought and language of non-Western cultures. To insist on trying to understand nonscientific cultures by the methods of Western science is not only distorting, but is also an expression of an attempt to maintain a Eurocentric cultural chauvinism: the chauvinism of science. According to this objection, it is only by adopting the (often nonscientific) perspectives and methods of the cultures studied that real understanding can be achieved.Q: Given the information in the passage, which one of the following would most likely be considered objectionable by proponents of the version of multicultural education discussed in the third paragraph? Answer Choices: (A)a study of the differences between the moral codes of several Western and non-Western societies (B)a study of a given culture's literature to determine the kinds of personal characteristics the culture admires (C)a study that employs the methods of Western science to investigate a nonscientific culture (D)a study that uses the literary theories of one society to criticize the literature of a society that has different values (E)a study that uses the methods of anthropology and sociology to criticize the values of Western culture
A: Among A through E, the answer is | [
"(A)a study of the differences between the moral codes of several Western and non-Western societies",
"(B)a study of a given culture's literature to determine the kinds of personal characteristics the culture admires",
"(C)a study that employs the methods of Western science to investigate a nonscientific cultur... | [
3
] |
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